Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila

Intramuros, Manila

THE SELF
FROM VARIOUS
PERSPECTIVES

Presented by Group 1
BSME 1-1
UTS 0003
Submitted to: Professor Jocson

Malubay, James (Leader)

Alim, Theresa (Assistant leader)

Members:
Baldemoro, Christian
Briones, Maowell
Campillos, John
Castillo, Pierre
Ducay, Nehemiah
Malit, Brian
Manahan, Drake
Morelos, Denzel
Paglinawan, Prince
Puno, Lois Joy
Taer, Jancarl
Topang, Aubrey
Viacrucis, Elmer
A. PHILOSOPHY
SOCRATES (469-399 BCE)
- Father of western philosophy
- Plato was his most famous
student.
- Studied music, gymnastics, and
grammar in his youth.
- was convicted and sentenced to
death for impiety.
- best known for his relation with
the Socratic method of question
and answer.
‘SELF’
● “An unexamined life is not worth
living” (Apology, 38b)
● Socrates believed that the self
is similar to the soul. He also
believes every human has an
immortal souls that withstands
the physical body.
● There are two realms that
Socrates’ suggested; physical
and ideal realms.
1. Physical realm is
changeable, temporary,
and imperfect.
2. Ideal realm is
unchanging, eternal, and
immortal.
● The body belongs to the
physical realm while the soul
belongs to the ideal realm.
● Socrates explains that the
purpose of the self or the soul is
the immortal entity. The soul
aims for wisdom and perfection
to achieve the exalted state.
However, the soul’s purpose is
constrained because it is tied to
the body.
● He believes that a person must
become virtuous and knows the
value of himself in order to have
a meaningful and happy life.
PLATO (427-347 BCE)
- a student of Socrates.
- earliest works are the most
reliable of the ancient sources
on Socrates.
- Heraclitus of Ephesus,
Parmenides and Zeno of Elea,
Pythagoreans, and Socrates
were the ones that influenced
Plato’s works.
‘SELF’
● Plato expands the concept of
the soul in the basis of
Socrates’ philosophy.
● His philosophy is focused on
process of self-knowledge and
purification of the soul. He
created the idea of a three-part
soul/self which are the reason,
physical appetite, and spirit or
passion.
● Reason enables us to think
critically and attain a true
understanding of eternal truths.
● Physical appetite is basically
our biological needs.
● Spirit or Passion is our basic
emotions.
● These three elements are
interconnected to one another.
Plato believes that when there
is conflict, the Reason is
responsible to sort things out.
Plato also believes that in order
to be genuine happy, the
Reason must be in control of
the Spirits and Appetites.
ST. AUGUSTINE (354-430 CE)
- His groundbreaking philosophy
infused Christian doctrine with
Neoplatonism.
- known for being a unique
Catholic theologian and for his
contributions to western
philosophy.
‘SELF’
● He merges the ideas of plato
and teachings of Christianity.
● He believes that the physical
body is different from and
inferior to its immortal soul.
 ● He views the body as the
“spouse” of the soul.
● He believes that the reason for
the unity of the body and the
soul is to make a man entire
and complete. The soul is what
governs and defines a man.
● As a religious philosopher, he
believes that the self is known
only through knowing God.
RENE DESCARTES (1596-1650)
- Father of Modern Philosophy
- created an entirely new
perspective to philosophy and
the self.
- The latin phrase Cogito ergo
sum- “I think therefore Iam” is
the basis of Descartes’ concept
of self.
‘SELF’
● Descartes believes that a
thinking entity that doubts,
understands, analyzes,
questions and reasons is the
purpose of the human self.
● He introduces the idea of
thinking self or soul as non-
material, immortal, conscious
being, and independent of the
physical laws of the universe
while the physical body is
material, mortal, non-thinking
entity, full governed by the
physical laws of nature.
● The thinking self can exist
independently of the physical
body.
JOHN LOCKE
‘SELF’
● Locke claims that humans are
born with a blank slate and only
though the accumulation of
experiences does the person.
● Conscious self and physical self
are different from each other.
● “Self” is the continuation of
consciousness which makes the
person today
● The person or self is a moral and
forensic entity
DAVID HUME
‘SELF’
● Hume asks us to consider what
impression gives us our concept of
self. We tend to think of ourselves
as selves—stable entities that exist
over time. But no matter how
closely we examine our own
experiences, we never observe
anything beyond a series of
transient feelings, sensations, and
impressions. We cannot observe
ourselves, or what we are, in a
unified way. There is no
impression of the “self” that ties
our particular impressions
together. In other words, we can
never be directly aware of
ourselves, only of what we are
experiencing at any given moment.
Although the relations between our
ideas, feelings, and so on, may be
traced through time by memory,
there is no real evidence of any
core that connects them. This
argument also applies to the
concept of the soul. Hume
suggests that the self is just a
bundle of perceptions, like links in
a chain. To look for a unifying self
beyond those perceptions is like
looking for a chain apart from the
links that constitute it. Hume
argues that our concept of the self
is a result of our natural habit of
attributing unified existence to any
collection of associated parts. This
belief is natural, but there is no
logical support for it.
IMMANUEL KANT
● Immanuel Kant was born on April
22, 1724, in Konigsberg, Prussia,
or what is now Kaliningrad, Russia.
While tutoring, he published
science papers, including "General
Natural History and Theory of the
Heavens" in 1755. He spent the
next 15 years as a metaphysics
lecturer. In 1781, he published the
first part of Critique of Pure
Reason. He published more
 critiques in the years preceding his
death on February 12, 1804, in the
city of his birth. For German
philosopher Immanuel Kant, it is
the self that makes experiencing
an intelligible world possible
because it is the self that is
actively organizing and
synthesizing all of our thoughts
and perceptions.
SIGMUND FREUD
● Freud was an Austrian neurologist
and the founder of psychoanalysis,
who created an entirely new
approach to the understanding of
the human personality. He is
regarded as one of the most
influential - and controversial -
minds of the 20th century. His
views on the nature of the self
have a far-reaching impact on
philosophical thinking. Freud holds
that the self consists of three
layers: conscious, unconscious,
and preconscious. The conscious
self is governed by the “reality
principle”. The conscious part of
the self is organized in ways that
are rational, practical, and
appropriate to the environment.
This part usually takes to account
the realistic demands of the
situation, the consequences of
various actions, and overriding the
need to persevere the balance of
the entire psychodynamic of the
self. In contrast, the unconscious
part of the self contains the basic
instinctual drives including
sexuality aggressiveness, and self-
destruction; traumatic memories;
unfulfilled wishes and childhood
fantasies; and thoughts and
feelings that would be considered
socially taboo.
GILBERT RYLE
● Gilbert Ryle (1900 - 1976) - British
philosopher - Leading figure in the
“Oxford philosophy” - Gained first-
class honours at Queen’s College -
Ryle’s first book, The Concept of
Mind (1949), is considered a
modern classic. In it he challenges
the traditional distinction between
body and mind as delineated by
René Descartes. - Gilbert Ryle
was best known for his criticism of
what he called the "Official
Doctrine" of "Cartesian Dualism"
as a theory of mind. SELF -
Believes that self is best
understood as pattern of behavior,
the tendency or disposition of a
person to behave in a certain way
in certain circumstances. - "I act
therefore I am."
PAUL CHURCHLAND
● Paul Churchland - Born on
October 21, 1942 - A philosopher
noted for his studies in
neurophilosophy and the
philosophy of mind - He is
Professor Emeritus at the
University of California, San Diego
- He earned his Ph.D. from the
University of Pittsburgh in 1969
SELF - Advocates of eliminative
materialism - All a person has is
the brain, and so if the brain, there
is no self.
MAURICE MERLEU-PONTY
● Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908—
1961) - Philosopher and man of
letters - the leading exponent of
Phenomenology in France -
Merleau-Ponty studied at the École
Normale Supérieure in Paris and
took his agrégation in philosophy
in 1931 - He taught in a number of
lycées before World War II, during
which he served as an army officer
- In 1952 he received a chair of
philosophy at the Collège de
France SELF - All knowledge
about the self is based on the
"phenomena" of experience. -
Convinced that consciousness the
world and the human body are
intricately intertwined in perceiving
the world
B. SOCIOLOGY
Introduction

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE
SELF
Self concept
● the way an individual visualise
them self.
● Can be influential in the way we
see our self.
● Made up of factors such as self-
image, ideal self and self-esteem.
Self-image
● Internalized mental picture you
have of yourself.
● How you think and feel about
yourself based on appearance,
performance, and relationships
that impacts your outlook on life.
Ideal Self
● Idealized version of yourself
created out of what you have
learned from your life experiences,
the demands of society.
● What you admire in your role
models.
Self-esteem
● Individual's subjective evaluation of
their own worth.
● Encompasses beliefs about
oneself as well as emotional
states, such as triumph, despair,
pride, and shame.
Education:
● Supportive teaching staff that
encourage students.
● Lack of employment due to having
poor education.
○ Can affect a person's self
esteem.
○ Negative self-image.
Media:
● Provision of educational sources
○ Academic courses.
○ Information of current
happenings in our society.
● Models and other social media
influencers.
Appearance:
● Can be both constructive and
harmful
○ Ex. (Constructive)
Advertisements that
encourages a healthy
lifestyle.
○ Ex. (Harmful) Harmful diet
methods.
● Good and Proper appearance can
boost a person's self-esteem.
Otherwise, it can also lower's one
confidence to the self.
Culture:
● Belief that you have or self values.
● Cultural Diversity
○ Positive - we accept
differences of others.
○ Negative - we discriminate
against others.
● Can also be the way you were
brought up by your
parents/guardians.
Abuse:
● Can be physical, emotional,
neglect and sexual.
● Can affect a person if neglected.
● Neglection may lead to mental
health conditions due to being
socially excluded.
Relationships:
● Family and Peers.
● Harmful relationships can lead to
negative self concept with
socialisation.
● High expectations.
○ Comparison with other
peers/siblings can have a
negative influence.
● Receiving critical comments from
peers and family members can
cause low self-esteem.
Gender:
● Man and Woman.
○ Categorisation can
influence self-concept of
stereotyping job roles for
both genders.
Income:
● Poverty can lead to despair of not
having a normal life.
 ● Affects lifestyle factors.
Age:
● Self-concept can fluctuate through
different life stages.
○ Mainly childhood and
adolescent development.
SOCIOLOGY
Sociology is derived from the Latin
word socious meaning companion or
associate, and the word logos, a
Greek word for study. It is the study of
association, group, society, and social
interaction. Furthermore, it focuses on
society, social organizations, social
institutions, and social problems.
Importance:
1. It enables us to learn
the application of scientific methods
and techniques to our daily life
problems.
2. It enables us to see the
connection between our own personal
experiences and the social forces in
the bigger social world daily which
influence life.
3. It provides insights
into the interrelationship of human
beings within the group so that we may
live in harmony with others.
4.
Sociology provides us with the ideas of
cultural relativism, cultural diversity,
human interdependence, mutuality and
reciprocity, social consciousness and
social responsibility.
5. It broadens our experience as we
learn to discard our prejudices and
biases as we become more
understanding and tolerant of the
customs of other people.
The self as a product of modern
society among other constructions
MEAD AND THE SOCIAL SELF
Quick Background
- The Theory of the Social Self
was formulated by George
Herbert Mead, a sociologist
from the late 1800s.
Overview
- The theory of the social self
revolves around the concept of
‘self’, ‘me’, and ‘I’.
- Mead’s work focuses on the
way in which the ‘self’ is
developed.
Theory of the Social Self
- Self emerges from the
interactions.
- observation and interaction
with others
- responding to others’ opinions
- internalizing external opinions
and internalizing internal
feelings about oneself
- The self is not there from birth,
but it is developed over time
from social experiences and
activities.
Three activities that develop the self:
1. Language - pertains to which
individuals communicate
themselves through symbols,
gestures, words, and sounds.
2. Play - individuals take on
different roles.
- Develops one’s
consciousness through
role-playing.
3. Games - allow individuals to
understand the rules of the
activity.
Two sides of ‘Self’:
1. Me - socialized aspect of the
individual; learned behaviors,
attitudes, expectations of others
and of society.
2. I - present and future phase of
the self; individual’s identity
based on response to the ‘me’.
Agents of Socialization
1. Family - introduce children to
the expectation of the society.
2. Media - average young person
(age 8-19) spends almost 7
hours per day immersed in
different media forms, often
using multiple media forms
simultaneously.
3. Peers - through interactions,
children learn concepts of self,
gain social skills, and form
values and attitudes.
4. Religion - tend to be the same
belief as their parents.
5. Sports - idea of self in a
competitive manner.
6. Schools - teachers and other
students encourage the children
to act in particular ways .
Mead’s Theory of Social Behaviorism
● People develop self-images
through interactions with other
people.
● Self (self-awareness and self-
image) is a product of social
experience.
● Four ideas about how the self
develops:
1. The Self Develops Solely
Through Social Experience
- Mead rejected
Freud’s notion that
personality is
determined partly by
biological drives.
2. Social Experience
Consists Of The Exchange
Of Symbols
- the particularly
human use of
language and other
symbols to convey
meaning.
3. Knowing Others’
Intentions Requires
Imagining The Situation
From Their Perspectives
- social experience
depends on our
seeing ourselves as
others do.
- “taking the role of the
other”
4. Understanding The Role
Of The Other Results In
Self-Awareness
- there is an active “I”
self and an objective
“me” self.
- “I” - active and
initiates action.
- “Me” - continues,
interrupts, or
changes action
depending on how
others respond.
● According to Mead, the key to self-
development is understanding the
role of the other.
C. ANTHROPOLOGY
Anthropology originated from the words
anthropos which means “humans” and
logos which means “study”. It is a
systematic study of humanity with the
goal of understanding its evolutionary
origins, distinctiveness as a species,
and the great diversity in its forms of
social existence across the world and
through time. Anthropology has
different subfields that are
interconnected to one another-
archaeology, biological anthropology,
linguistics, and cultural anthropology.
Different fields of Anthropology:
Archaeology
This field focuses on the past to
seek how it may have contributed to the
present.
● Anthropology holds a holistic view of
human nature.
● Concerned with how cultural and
biological processes interact to shape
the self.
● Considers human experience as an
interplay of “nature” referring to genetic
inheritance which sets the individuals
potentials.
Two ways in which the concept of self
is viewed in different societies:
● Egocentric – suggests that each
person is defined as a replica of
all humanity but capable of
acting independently from
others.
○ the self is with as
autonomous and distinct
individual with inherent
characteristics
● Sociocentric – the self is viewed
as the dependent on the
situation or social setting.
○ the membership of a
person in a particular
social group defines the
boundaries of self.
From the similarities and
differences in
characteristics among
indiciduals, people
construct their social
identities.
○ The identity toolbox
refers to the “features of
a person’s identity that
he or she chooses to
emphasize in
constructing a social
self.”
○ Self- identification may
be attained by: kinship,
family membership,
gender, age, language,
religion, ethnicity,
personal appearance, Changes in one’s status and
and socioeconomic
status.
○ Some characteristics
such as kinship, gender, 1. Separation phase – people
and age are almost
universally used to
differentiate people. 2. Liminality phase – a person
○ Other characteristics
such as ethnicity,
personal appearance, 3. Incorporation phase – the
and socioeconomic
stature are not always
used in every society.
○ Family membership
could be the most
significant feature to
determine the person’s
social identity.
○ Another important
identity determinant that
is often viewed as
essential for the
maintenance of a group
is language.
○ In other societies,
religious affiliation is an
important marker of
group identity.
○ Personal naming, a
universal practice with
numerous cross-cultural
variations establishes a
child’s birthright and
social identity. A name is
an important device to
individualize a person
and to have an identity.
○ One’s identity is not
inborn. It is something
people continuously
develop in life.
○ Changes on one’s
identity usually involve
rites of passage that
prepares individuals for
new roles from one stage
of life to another.
identity are marked by a
three-phased rite of
passage.
detach from their former identity
to another.
transitions from one identity to
another.
change in one’s statues is
officially incorporated.
According to Warder, Culture refers to
the behavior and belief characterisics
of a particular society, community or
ethnic group. Culture matters to the
extent that it is normal for different
experiences to be felt by the
individuals in a given society. It is
worth noting here that the perspectives
in cultural matters usually provide a
new insight into the psychological
processes. The experience we go
through in life are facilitated by the
culture we live in, because culture
provides or is the environment which
allows all these experiences to take
place (Warder, 1996)
Self concept refers to all
understanding and knowledge of
oneself. The components of self
concepts include: psychological,
physical and social attitudes, ideas
and beliefs that pne has. The most
influence in terms of self concept is
family;s history, basically referring to
the culture one has been brought up
in, and the experience he or she has
undergone.
Our notions of who-we-are are
constant and are quite properly
referred to as individual theories that
we revise and test according to our
own experiences. The implicit theories
of oneself may differ from each other
systematically between the cultures
and times period, which also differ in
the roles, socially, and in the
experiences provided for an individual.
It follows that there may be differences
in consumer cross-cultural and cross
temporal behavior that occur as a
result of differential concepts of
oneself (Wendt 1994).
Various studies have been carried out
concerning the impact culture may
have towards self concept. One such
study was carried out by Erdman
(2006) using American and Chinese
students, requesting them to recall
memories and events of their early
years of childhood. In his study,
Erdman found out that early childhood
memories were a big part of self
concept. The findings demonstrated
that different cultural memories are
brought about by early childhood years
and persists into adulthood. The
differences are formed both in the
extended cultural contexts which
defines the meaning of the self and the
immediate family environment.
In conclusion, culture has such a
greater influence on an individual’s life
contributing majorly to the self concept
of an individual. The influence might
either be negative or positive
depending on the type of culture that
one has been brought up in. It is
important that individuals study and
appreciate their culture and its
contribution in shaping their individual
personalities.
Identity is influenced by many factors,
with some more obvious then others.
Gender and ethnicity are the most
obvious traits to recognize, which
leads other contributing factors to be
overlooked, for example, culture.
Culture plays a large role in each
person’s identity but because it cannot
be seen when just looking at an
individual it goes unnoticed. There are
two essays that demonstrate the
influence and role culture has on
identity; “Dude Looks like a Lady” by
Kathy Wilson, and “F-Word” by Firoozh
Dumas. The cultural influence a
person is surrounded by plays a large
role in the development of their
identity.
Culture is the combination of values,
beliefs, and practices of a particular
group. The culture each person lives in
shows them how to dress, talk, act,
acceptable behavior, and gives a
guideline of what is considered
acceptable and normal. As a child
grows up in a particular culture they
absorb the beliefs, and practices, then
begin to use them in everyday
activities. This process is known as
acculturation. Remix, by Catherine G.
Latterell, touches on the idea of
acculturation. According to Latterell
acculturation is “the process by which
we absorb the practices, attitudes, and
beliefs of particular social groups” (10).
The culture a person is surrounded by
will then play a role in the development
of their identity. Identity is essentially a
set of characteristics and traits that are
attributed to one specific person.
Identities are specific and unique for
each person. Because identity is
different from one person to the next,
there is the chance that the society a
person exists in will not be fully
accepting. Latterell states “the social
and cultural forces that help shape our
sense of identity are not neutral.
Instead, they operate like a powerful
lens through which we make
judgments about ourselves and others”
(10). The culture may pass judgment,
which in turn will cause the individual
to question their identity, their sense of
self. The individual will either use the
judgment to shape their identity in
another direction, or re enforces their
established and strong sense of self.
Either way, identity is influenced by the
culture.
Culture influences identity. Weather
negative or positive, the culture a
person exists in impacts their identity.
Both Wilson and Dumas’ identities
were affected by the culture around
them. Dumas tried to change her
identity to fit in and be accepted, only
to realize that she no longer felt like
herself. Wilson had her strong sense
of identity confirmed because of
society imposing their views. Culture
plays an important role in shaping
identities.
D. PSYCHOLOGY
· The Self as a Cognitive
Construction:
-William James and the Me Self;
I Self
● American philosopher and
psychologist
● born on January 11, 1942 in
New York.
● the leader of Pragmatism, a
philosophical movement;
● He is also the founder of
functionalism, a psychological
movement.
● He died on August 26, 1910
● He distinguished two
understandings of the self, the
self as “Me” and the self as “I”.
● The self-as-object or the Me -
self
○ object of knowledge and
experience
○ subset of conscious
experiences.
○ consists of all qualities that
make the self unique:
■ physical or material,
■ psychological,
■ mental and
■ social qualities. The Me self
can be illustrated with sensory
experiences
● The self-as-subject or the I-self
○ separate from the surrounding
world
○ remains the same over time
○ the self that controls own
thoughts and actions
○ a subject of knowledge and
experience.
○ The I-self is a private inner life
of a being.
Global vs. Differentiated
models of the self
● Global self-esteem
○ refers to the general value that
a person places on him- or
herself and should be
distinguished from appraisals of
specific traits or abilities
○ a factor that influences
motivation, career aspirations,
educational success, job
satisfaction, and mental and
physical health
○ one of the most extensively
studied individual differences.
● Differentiation of self
○ refers to your ability to
separate your own intellectual
and emotional functioning (for
example, your reactions) from
that of others.
○ Individuals with “low
differentiation” are more likely to
become fused with predominant
family emotions and
expectations, and subsequently,
have difficulty separating their
thoughts and feelings from
others.
○ Those with “low differentiation”
excessively depend on others for
approval and
acceptance, as well as fear
rejection or disagreement with
others.
○ Persons of low differentiation
are thus more vulnerable to
stress as they struggle more in
their relationships and to adjust
to life’s changes.
IDEAL SELF vs REAL SELF
● The real self can be referred to
as the bodily self.
● The bodily self is not perfect,
resulting in an unsatisfactory
evaluation by ourselves.
● Imperfection results to people
rejecting their body or self
● The development of an “ideal
self-image” often starts at a very
young age
● Children who are forced to live
in the shadow of their parents
lose their true self
● The ideal self-image is affected
by our changing environment
● Social pathologies (such as
social rejection of peers)
creates the illusion of a more
perfect ideal self-image, to fit in
to social standards.
● The real self knows its limits, it
knows that one is powerless
and imperfect
● The ideal self is a product of our
inferiority, we tend to crave for a
world that favors our capabilities
● The real self believes in
equality. People have different
talents, but they have different
strengths.
● Low self-esteem results to
rejection of our real self, for a
more perfect ideal self
● Metaphysics defines real as a
more permanent identity. Real
are objects that are
indestructible. It states what is
true and existent while ideal
relates to convenience
● Metaphysics defines ideal as an
environment that is more
suitable for a person's condition
● A person with an ideal self is a
dreamer who would dream
about life and be happy. On the
other hand, a person with a real
self does not dream but sees
life in its all reality.
● The real self is not binded by
generations of dysfunctions and
 beliefs that are toxic, it is when
we are accepted and at peace
with ourselves
● Our real selves can produce
variety of emotions without fear.
● People enter counseling in a
state of incongruence, or a point
at which a discrepancy exists
between the individual's self-
perception and their
experiences in reality (Rogers,
1984).
WHO AM I REALLY?
The True and the False Self
True Self is represented by our real
feelings and desires, while the false
self is a side of us that has changed its
behaviour, repressed feelings and
pushed needs aside in order to
survive. (G.T.C., 2018)
The figure above shows the idea of
onion in which the true self is
surrounded by layers of false self.
According to psychologists John
Nowlby and D. W. Winnicott, as per
cited in a blog by Growth Thru
Change, Children are much attuned to
their parent’s feelings and needs. They
unconsciously recognize that they
need their parents’ approval in order to
survive.
The True self is the desires, needs,
feelings or thoughts that are pushed
inside the onion because the adapted
False Self dominates in order to
survive.
Other psychologists only consider True
Self and False Self as black and white
but there are actually two types of
False Self
The Healthy False Self and the
Unhealthy False Self
-The Healthy False Self is one
that enables someone to be functional
in society. In enable politeness and
social courtesy even if we don’t like it.
According to Grow Thru Change, A
major component of the healthy false
self is an awareness of personal
boundaries.
The Unhealthy False Self
-D. W. Winnicott defines the
Unhealthy False Self as one that fits
into society through forced compliance
rather than a desire to adapt.
In our society, giving more to others
rather than to ourselves or simply
being selfless is a virtue. But this act is
False Self Beliefs because our feelings
and desires matter.
“The only obligation we have to
anyone is to ourselves” (G.T.C., 2018)
AN AGENTIC THEORY OF THE
SELF
Agentic Self is defined as the aspect of
human personality that is determined
by future assessments of one’s
goals,objectives and actions.
(McNamara, 2013)
Human agency is the human capability
to exert influence over one’s
functioning and the course of events
by one’s actions. (Bandura,2009).
The four core properties of human
agency
1. Intentionality
2. Forethought
3. Self-Reactiveness
4. Self-Reflection
Human agency can be exercised
through three different modes.
(Weibell, C. J., 2011)
1. Personal – is exercised individually
and is a process by which an individual
affects what he or she can control
directly.
2. Proxy- when people do not have a
direct control over conditions that
affect their lives, they exercise proxy
agency.
3. Collective- when agency is
exercised in groups. (Bateman, T. S. &
Crant, J. M., 1993)
Proactive Self
Proaction involves creating change,
not merely anticipating it. To be
proactive is to take the initiative in
improving business.
Proactive behaviour is defined as a
relatively stable tendency to affect
environmental change. (Bateman, T.
S. & Crant, J. M., 1993)
E. THE SELF IN WESTERN
AND ORIENTAL/ EASTERN
THOUGHT
Apart from the difference of
geographic location, the two portions
of the globe have variations in their
way of living and approach to life in
general. These ways of living did not
just happen by nature and physical
circumstances, but also the school of
thought that control the public in the
Western and Eastern/Oriental part of
the world.It differs and comes with the
realities, problems, and situations of
certain people in the West and the
East.
Western philosophy is referred to as
the school of thought from Greek
philosophy that influenced the greater
part of Western civilization. On the
other side, the Eastern philosophy is
based mainly in Asia, specifically the
Chinese philosophy. Furthermore,
Western philosophy originates from
Rome and Christianity,
specifically Judeo-Christianity. Eastern
philosophy, on the contrary, is from
Confucianism, Mahayana Buddhism,
and Taoism. Thus is it safe to say that
Eastern philosophy is classical
Chinese, while Western philosophy is
more Latin in its roots.
The major difference between
the school of thought of the West and
East are the West’s Individualism
and the East’s Collectivism. The
Eastern philosophy focuses much
more into groups or society or people’s
actions and thoughts as one in order to
find meaning in life as they try to get
rid of the false “self” concept and find
meaning in discovering the true “self”
in relation to everything around them,
or as part of a bigger scheme. In
contrast, the Western civilization is
more individualistic, trying to find the
meaning of life here and now with self
at the center as it is already given and
part of the divine.
The main principle of the
Eastern philosophy is unity. This
cosmological unity is the main point in
the journey of life as it goes towards
the eternal realities. Life is round, and
the recurrence with everything around
it is important. Ethics is based on
behavior, and dependence is from the
inside to the outside. In order to be
liberated, the inner self must be freed
first in accordance to the world around
it.
Western philosophy, on the other
hand, is based on self-dedication to be
of service to others. Life is service to
God, money, community, and so
on. Due to its Christian influence,
there has to be a beginning and end to
find meaning. Linear as it seems,
Western philosophy is logical,
scientific, and rational compared to the
East’s concept of eternal and
recurring.
Eastern philosophy also thrives on
virtues. This would be explained with
the selfless approach to
life. Satisfaction with what one has is
the key. Meanwhile, Western
philosophy focuses on ethics. As
individuals, one must do what is
supposed to be done without causing
ill to others. Success is based on how
much one walks his path without
hurting others. Eastern philosophy is
also more about the spiritual while
Western philosophy is more of a
hands-on style. The difference is the
“I” of the West, and the “We” of the
East, as one focuses on finding truth
and meaning.
● Individualistic vs. Collective
Self

⮚ Individualistic culture births a
person with an individualistic
self or a sense of
individualism, and a
collectivistic culture births a
person with a collective self
or a sense of collectivism
⮚ Individualism is an outlook
that emphasizes on
independence and self-
reliance, and opposes
external interference (e.g.
society, tradition, religion,
etc.) with an individual’s
choices
⮚ Individualism prioritizes the
needs of oneself and his/her
immediate family
⮚ Individualism is self-
oriented, collectivism is
group-oriented
⮚ Collectivism is an outlook
that a person belongs to a
“bigger picture”, such as a
state, nation, race, social
class, religion, etc.
⮚ Collectivism prioritizes the
needs of the group an
individual belongs in
⮚ Collective self focuses more
on influencing “other selves”
in achieving goals as a
community
● The Social Construction of Self
in Western Thought

⮚ Individualistic towards
working on discovering
oneself through reasoning or
rationalization
⮚ Focus more on individual
rights
⮚ The concept of social
construction doesn’t apply in
western
⮚ A being has an
individualistic nature
⮚ An independent constituent
of a society
⮚
● The Self as Embedded in
Relationships and through
Spiritual Development in
Confucian thought
⮚ Selfhood refers to the state
of individuality
⮚ States that the self is in the
constant process of learning
to be “more human”. Hence,
education is referred to as a
means of self-cultivation
⮚ Self-cultivation means the
process of educating oneself
though studying, living
ethically, and also being
guided by a teacher
⮚ Selfhood refers to a person’s
individuality
⮚ Social groups outside of the
self (e.g. family, community,
country, etc.) are also
realms of selfhood that is
also a point for self-
cultivation
⮚ Self-cultivation is referred to
as the precondition for
harmonizing human
relations
⮚ “Wishing to establish
oneself, one establishes
others; wishing to
enlargeoneself, one
enlarges others.” Confucian
thought enjoins others to
help one another.
⮚ A person is born with 4
beginnings: compassion,
righteousness, propriety,
and wisdom. Each person
has the potential to perfect
these virtues.
⮚ The goal of the self is to
seek the virtue of humanity,
and become a sage. A sage
is wise, sensitive, intelligent,
etc.
⮚ Selfishness/self-
centeredness is considered
a threat to maturation of the
self
⮚ The self or being is more
subdued