7.

Simple stresses
When an external force is applied on a body, internal resistance is developed within the body to
balance the effect of externally applied forces. The resistive force per unit area is called as stress. The
stress is represented by the symbol .

The unit of the stress N/m2 (Pa)

1MPa = 106Pa

1GPa = 109Pa

Types of Stress: There are two types of stress

1. Normal stress
2. Shear stress

Normal Stress: The normal stresses can be either tensile or compressive stress

(i) Tensile stress: When the bar is stretched by the tensile force P, The stress so produced is called
tensile stress.

(ii) Compressive Stress: When the bar is compressed by the compressive force P, The stress so
produced is called tensile stress.

Shear Stress: When a body is subjected to load P consisting of two equal and opposite parallel forces not
in same line, it tends to shear off across the resisting section. The stress induced in the body is called
shear stress. The shear stress is represented by the symbol (Tau)

The most common occurrences of pure shear are in riveted and cotter joints.
7.2 Strain
When a body is subjected to some external force, there is some change of dimension of the body. The
ratio of change of dimension of the body to the original dimension is known as strain. The stress are
represented by the symbol e. Strain is dimensionless quantity.
7.2.1 Types of Strain:
1. Tensile Strain: It is the change in length per unit length when tensile force are applied.

2. Compressive Strain: It is the change in length per unit length when Compressive force are
applied

3. Shear strain: When the force act tangentially it produce shear strain. It is also measured by the
angle through which the body distorted.

Fig. shown a rectangular block LMNP

fixed at one face and subjected to force F
After application of force, it distorts through an
angle 0 and occupies new position LM'N'P. The
shear strain is given by

Volumetric Strain: It is defined as the ratio of change in volume and original volume of the body..

Longitudinal Strain: The longitudinal strain is defined as the deformation of the body per unit length in
the direction of the applied load

Longitudinal strain=

Lateral strain: The strain at right angles to the direction of applied load is known as lateral strain. Let a
rectangular bar of length L, breadth b and depth d is subjected to an axial tensile load P as shown in Fig
 The length of the bar will increase while the breadth and depth will decrease.

Increase in Length

Decrease in breadth

Decrease in depth

Longitudinal strain =

Lateral strain =

7.3 Poisson's ratio. The ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is a constant for a given material,
when the material is stressed within the elastic limit. This ratio is called Poisson's ratio and it is
generally denoted by µ. Hence mathematically

Poisson's ratio (µ) = Its value vary from 3 to 5.

7.4 Elasticity: When an external force acts on a body, the body tends to undergo some deformation. If
the external force is removed and the body comes back to its original shape and size (which means the
deformation disappears completely), the body is known as elastic body.
This property by virtue of which certain materials return back to their original position
after the removal of the external force, is called elasticity.

7.5 Hooke's Law: The stress is directly proportional to the strain within elastic limit.

Stress α strain

Constant

This constant is called modulus of elasticity.

Types of Modulus of Elasticity:

1. Young’s Modulus: It is the ratio between tensile stress and tensile strain or compressive stress
and compressive strain. It is denoted by E.

E=
 2. Modulus of rigidity or Shear Modulus: It is defined as the ratio of shear stress to shear strain. It
is denoted by

G, C or N=

3. Bulk or volume modulus of elasticity: It may be defined as the ratio of normal stress (on each
face of a solid cube) to volumetric strain and is denoted by the letter K

K=

7.6 Stress Strain diagram:

When tensile load is applied on a universal testing machine and load is applied to a certain
limit the body regains into shape i.e. called elastic stage and stress is proportional to strain so we get a
straight line graph. But if further load is increased the material is still elastic but does not follow Hooke's
law. After this load the body becomes plastic and does not regain its original shape when load is applied
. If further we increase the load large strain is produced, further if the load is increased the body is
fractured as shown in diagram below

Stress Strain Curve

OP= Limit of proportionality

Q= Elastic limit
R= Plastic stage starts
S= Waist formed
T= fracture point

7.7 Mechanical property of the material

(i) Fatigue strength: It is the ability of material to resist various kinds of rapidly changing stresses and
is expressed by the magnitude of alternating stress for a specified number of cycles.

(ii) Impact strength: it is the ability of a metal to resist suddenly applied loads and is measured in foot-
pounds of force.

(iii) Hardness: it is the property of a material to resist indentation and scratching. Because there are
several methods of measuring hardness, the hardness of a material is always specified in terms of the
particular test that was used to measure this property. Rockwell, Vickers, or Brinell are some of the
methods of testing.
(iv) Toughness: It is the property that enables a material to withstand shock and to be deformed without
rupturing. Toughness may be considered as a combination of strength and plasticity.
(v) Brittleness: It is the opposite of the property of plasticity. A brittle metal is one that breaks or
shatters before it deforms. White cast iron and glass are good examples of brittle material.
(vi) Ductility: It is the property that enables a material to stretch, bend, or twist without cracking or
breaking. This property makes it possible for a material to be drawn out into a thin wire.
(vii) Stiffness: It is the property of the material to resist changes in shape is called Stiffness. It is
proportional to the modulus of elasticity.
(viii) Malleability: It is the property that enables a material to deform by compressive forces without
developing defects. A malleable material is one that can be stamped, hammered, forged, pressed, or
rolled into thin sheets.

7.8 Strain Energy: The energy which is absorbed in a body, when strained within elastic limit is known
is Strain energy. It is absorbed that strain energy is equal to the work done.

Resilience: It is the ability of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically, and release that
energy upon unloading.

Proof resilience is defined as the maximum energy that can be absorbed within the elastic limit, without
creating a permanent distortion.

The modulus of resilience is defined as the maximum energy that can be absorbed per unit volume
without creating a permanent distortion.

Short Answer questions

What is True Stress?

True Stress: True stress is based on the actual cross-sectional area of the test specimen which changes
with change in load and is defined as

True Stress=

What is True Strain?

It is defined as instantaneous elongation per unit length of the test specimen .
Mathematically it is expressed

= original length

Instantaneous length at any

moment
Write the relation between True stress and Engineering Stress and True Strain and Engineering
Strain.

Relation between True stress and engineering stress

e= strain

Relation between True strain and engineering strain

What is the significance of modulus of elasticity?

It is the indicative of stiffness of the material. Its higher value get higher stiffness.

What is the superficial strain?

It is defined as change in the cross sectional area per unit original area.

What is the complementary shear stress?

Wherever a shear stress is applied on parallel surface of body then to keep the
body in equilibrium a shear stress is induced on remaining surface of the body.
These stresses form a couple. The couple form due to shear stress produce clockwise
moment. For equilibrium this couple is balanced by couple developed by . This
resisting shear stress is known as complementary shear stress.

What is the factor of safety?

It is the ratio of actual strength to the required strength

Factor of safety must be greater than one to avoid failure.

What is the working stress?

It is the ratio of yield strength to Factor of safety
What is the relation between Young Modulus and shear modulus?
E= young Modulus

G= Shear Modulus or modulus of rigidity

Poisson ratio

What is the relation between Young Modulus and Bulk Modulus?

What is the relation between Young Modulus, Bulk Modulus and shear Modulus?

Bending Stress
8.1 What is the pure Bending?
When a beam is loaded in such a manner that it is subjected to constant bending moment only and
there is no shear stress. This condition is called pure bending. Therefore pure bending occur only in the
region of beam where shear stress is zero.

A beam simply supported at A and B and overhanging by same length at each support
is shown in Fig. A point load W is applied at each end of the overhanging portion. The S.F. and B.M.
for the beam are drawn as shown in Fig. From these diagrams, it is clear that there is no shear force
between A and B but the B.M. between A and B is constant. This means that between A and B, the
beam is subjected to a constant bending moment only. This condition of the beam between A and B is
known as pure bending or simple bending.
8.2 What are the assumptions taken in theory of pure bending?
1. The material of the beam is homogeneous
2. The value of Young's modulus of elasticity is the same in tension and compression
3. The transverse sections which were plane before bending, remain plane after bending also.
4. The beam is initially straight and all longitudinal filaments bend into circular arcs with a
common centre of curvature.
5. The radius of curvature is large compared with the dimensions of the cross-section.
6. Each layer of the beam is free to expand or contract, independently of the layer, above or below it

8.3 Define and explain the following Term

(i) Section Modulus (ii)Neutral Axis (iii) Neutral surface (iv) flexural rigidity

Section Modulus: is defined as the ratio of moment of inertia of a section about the neutral axis to the
distance of the outermost layer from the neutral axis. It is denoted by the symbol Z. Hence
mathematically section modulus is given by

I = M.O.I. about neutral axis

= Distance of the outermost layer from the neutral axis

Neutral Axis: is an axis in the cross section of a beam which there are no longitudinal stresses or
strains.

Neutral Surface: It is a conceptual plane in the beam. When we apply the load on beam it bends so that
the inner surface is in compression and the outer surface is in tension. The neutral plane is the surface
within the beam between these zones, where the material of the beam is not under stress.

Flexural Rigidity: The Product of modulus of Elasticity ( E) and Moment of inertia (I) is called flexural
rigidity of beam

Flexural Rigidity = Modulus of Elasticity × Moment of inertia (I)

Torsion Of Shaft
9.1 What is the pure Torsion?
When the shaft are subjected to pure torque only and it is not associated with bending stress and
axial thrust. It is called pure torsion.

9.2 What are the assumptions in the theory of Pure Torsion?

1. The material of the shaft is uniform throughout.
2. The twist along the shaft is uniform.
3. The shaft is of uniform circular section throughout.
4. Cross-sections of the shaft, which are plane before twist remain plain after twist.
5. All radii which are straight before twist remain straight after twist.
9.3 What is the Polar Modulus?
Polar modulus is defined as the ratio of the polar moment of inertia to the radius of the shaft. It is also
called torsional section modulus. It is denoted by ZP, Mathematically,

For Solid Shaft

( ⁄ )
⁄

For Hollow Shaft

( ⁄ )
⁄

9.4 How polar modulus related to strength of the shaft?

We know

For the given material of the shaft shear stress is fixed

The greatest twisting moment of the shaft is proportional to the polar modulus of the shaft so it is
measured of strength of the shaft in torsion.

9.5 Define the Following Term

Torsional Rigidity or Stiffness: is defined as the product of modulus of rigidity (G) and polar moment
of inertia of the shaft (Ip). Hence mathematically, the torsional rigidity is given as,

Torsional rigidity = G x IP

We know

⁄
So Torsional rigidity is also defined as the torque required to produce a twist of one radian per unit
length of the shaft.

Torsional Stiffness: is defined as torque required to produce a twist of unit radian per unit length of the
shaft. It depends on the material and size of the shaft.

Torsional Flexibility: It is the reciprocal of torsional stiffness. It is defined as the angle of rotation
produced by unit torque. Hence for circular shaft

9.6 What type of stresses are induced in shafts ?

1. Shear stress 2. Bending stress

9.7 A hollow shaft has greater strength and stiffness than solid shaft of equal weight. Explain
Shear stress and angular deformation produced in the hollow shaft is less than the solid shaft
when subjected to same torque. So the hollow shaft is more stronger than the solid of equal weight.

Note: As the material used in the hollow shaft is less than the solid shaft of same weight so stress
produced is less than solid shaft (stress is induced in material).

9.8 Under what circumstances are hollow shafts preferred over solid shafts ? Give any two
examples where hollow shafts are used.
hollow shaft is good for transmitting torque than a solid shaft how ever its shear stress is low
because of the less material content...so if a power transmission in a machine is dominated by torque
than the shear stress then hollow shaft is used where as for the ones in which the stresses are critical the
solid shafts are used.
Uses of Solid and Hollow shaft
Hollow Shaft………..Universal Joint of automobile and where high Power transmission required
Solid Shaft……. Pump and Turbines
Differentiate between Kinematics and Kinetic

Kinetics
It is the branch of Dynamics, which deals with the bodies in motion due to the application of forces.

Kinematics
It is that branch of Dynamics, which deals with the bodies in motion, without any reference to the forces
which are responsible for the motion.

What do you mean by rectilinear motion and Curvilinear Motion

Rectilinear Motion: Particle moving along a straight line is said to be in rectilinear motion.

Curvilinear Motion: Particle moving along a curve other than a straight line is in curvilinear motion.

Differentiate between Displacement and distance

1. Distance is the measure of area which is between two points which is the point of origin or the
starting point and ending point of a location. Displacement is actually the distance a person is away
from its actual point or the starting point.
2. Distance is a scalar quantity and Displacement is a vector quantity.
3. Distance is just the magnitude of the interval and Displacement is shortest interval connecting the
initial and final points.
5. Distance formula: speed*time and Displacement formula: s=vt
6. Distance is proportional to speed and time and displacement is associated with velocity of object

Differentiate between Average Velocity and Instantaneous velocity

Average velocity: A calculation of velocity based on measureing the change of position over a fixed
amount of time.

 position s2  s1 s
Ave. Velocity   
 time t2  t1 t

Instantaneous velocity: A decription a body’s velocity given at a specific instance of time.

 s(t  t )  s(t ) 
Instantaneous Velocity  lim  
t 0
 t 
What is the difference between uniform motion and uniformly accelerated motion?
In uniform motion, object travel at fixed and constant speed and uniformly accelerated motion the
speed of the object increases uniformly.
Define the Following Terms with circular motion

1. Angular velocity. It is the rate of change of angular displacement of a body, and is expressed in
r.p.m. (revolutions per minute) or in radian per second. It is, usually, denoted by ω (omega).

2. Angular acceleration. It is the rate of change of angular velocity and is expressed in radian per
second square (rad/s2) and is usually, denoted by α. It may be constant or variable.

3. Angular displacement. It is the total angle, through which a body has rotated, and is usually denoted
by θ. Mathematically, if a body is rotating with a uniform angular velocity(ω) then in t seconds, the
angular displacement

θ = ωt

What is the relation between angular velocity and rpm of the body?

N= r.p.m

What is the relation between angular velocity and Linear velocity?

v= linear velocity, w= angular velocity

Explain the term instantaneous center

While analyzing the plane motion of a body, appoint can be located in the plane which has zero
velocity. The plane motion of all the particles constituting the body may then be considered as pure
rotation about that point. Such a point is called instantaneous center. It changes every moment and its
locus is called centroids. The surface generated by the instantaneous axis is called axode.