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Global fish Kills: Causes and Consequences

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 Dr Golam Kibria: Global fish kills-causes and consequences. ResearchGate. 26 November 2014

Global Fish Kills: Causes & Consequences

Golam Kibria; November 2014

Abstract: Fish kills event is an indicator that ecosystems health and water quality have been deteriorated. It may indicate that water may
have been contaminated with biotoxins (algal blooms) or chemicals (pesticides/herbicides) or microbial pathogens. As a consequence
environmental water may be unsafe for beneficial water usage for a period of time. Global fish kills is most frequently linked to natural
causes such as hypoxia, or anoxia, harmful algal blooms, diseases, changes of temperature, black water events etc. Climate change is
projected to increase water temperatures in a number of world rivers, therefore, aquatic organisms such as fish could be stressed in rivers
with high water temperature.

Fish kills or mass mortalities of fish (Figure 1) can be defined as a

sudden and significant death of fish. This is characterized by a
large number of fish dying over a short period of time within the
defined area. The number of fish killed in specific instances can
range from a few thousands to more than one million (Table 1).
For example, on 6 January 2011, 2 million fish died as a result of
cold stress (Maryland, USA), and red tide was responsible for the
death of 22 million fish alone in the Gulf of Mexico, USA in 1986.
Red tide is a toxic algal bloom caused by certain marine algae
(dinoflagellate, Gymnodinium breve) that turns the sea water red.

Globally fish kills is most frequently linked to natural causes such

as ecological hypoxia (low dissolved oxygen) or anoxia (no or zero
dissolved oxygen) (Figure 2), harmful algal blooms (toxic and
non-toxic freshwater cyanobacteria, marine dinoflagellates),
diseases, extreme or abrupt changes of temperature (e.g. winter
fish kills, summer fish kills), salinity or turbidity; floods, black
Figure 1: Natural cause such as cold water stress caused two million fish
death in Chesapeake Bay, Maryland, USA on 6 January 2011. Photo source:
http://www.boncherry.com/blog/2011/01/06/two-million-fish-died-from-
dropping-temperature-in-maryland/

water events (flood events that give the water column a dark tea
colour), overturns of lakes and upwelling of the oceans (Table 1, Figure 2). Minor and occasional natural causes of fish kills
are volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and meteorite. Human activities are also responsible for a number of fish kills, for
examples, accidental spills (e.g. oil), runoff and drainage discharge of pesticides and herbicides from agriculture farm lands
into water bodies. In addition, mass killing in the name of recreational fishing (Figure 3) may also be responsible for
significant fish kills in some countries

Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and

Fish Kills

DO (mg/L)
7 -

6 - Desirable (temperate fish)

5 - Desirable (tropical fish)

4 -

3 -
Hypoxia (<2.8)
2 -
Fish kill
1 -

0 - Anoxia (zero)

Figure 2: Dissolved oxygen
level, ecological hypoxia and
anoxia and fish kill. Figure
source: Golam Kibria 2011; GM
Water, Australia
Figure 3: Recreational fishing or mass killing of fish in hoars (shallow wetlands) of Bangladesh?
Hundreds of fishers participate in an annual event to catch wild fish which refuges in haors. Haors are
situated in Sunamganj, Kishorgang, Netrokona, Habiganj, Moulvi Bazar districts of Bangladesh. Photo
source: ICLARM Philippines (1992)

Global reviews (Table 1) reveals that most fish kills are related to oxygen depletion or low level of oxygen in water (Figure
2). Water with low oxygen level could cause suffocation of fish resulting death. Oxygen depletion in water bodies can occur
due to algae die-offs, weather related ‘turnovers’ of lakes water, surface run-off of organic materials into water bodies,
disturbance of sediments containing large quantities of aquatic vegetation or with excess nutrient loads, low water levels, and
high temperatures etc. Possible signs of fish kills due to oxygen depletion are fish gasping at the surface, sluggish

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 Dr Golam Kibria: Global fish kills-causes and consequences. ResearchGate. 26 November 2014

Table 4.7: Reported fish kills in lakes, ponds, creek, flood plains, billabong, rivers and coastal areas [data and information compiled
by the author based on various sources; NA=not available]

Country Leading causes Remarks Date

Africa Waste discharge, high concentration of Nile River NA

ammonia
Australia Oxygen depletion Buffalo creek, Darwin NA
Australia Blackwater event and low dissolved oxygen Murray River, Victoria; fish killed: > 100 fish; species 2010 (Dec)
(DO) killed: Murray cod, silver perch, carp
Australia Low dissolved oxygen and sulphide toxicity Goulburn River, Victoria; species killed: Murray cod, 2004 (Jan)
minnows (Galarias spp), trout cod, carp, red fin, gold
fish, yabbies, and small shrimp
Australia Black water event; low dissolved oxygen Donkey camp pool, Katherine River system, Northern 1987 (Nov)
concentrations (1.2 mg/L); organic toxins (bark Territory (NT); fish killed: 5000 fish, 200 prawn; species
and leaf compounds) killed- Fish: Arius graeffei, Lates calcarifer, Nematalosa
erebi and Prawn- Macrobrachium rosenbergii
Australia Natural acid water (pH 2-3) and biotoxic Billabong, Magela creek, NT; fish killed: 3465 fish; 1980 (Jan)
aluminium (500 pg/L) species killed: Salmontail catfish, barramundi, ord river
mullet, black catfish.
Bangladesh Oxygen deficiency, cyanobacterial/algal toxins Fish ponds, Mymensigh; species killed: Silver carp, 2002 (Apr)
released from Aphanizomenon flos-aquae tilapia, catla and common carp.
(major) and Microcystis aeruginosa (minor)
Bangladesh Effluents- Wastes (livestock manures, Ponds NA
agricultural wastes) entering during
monsoon
Brazil Flooding and depletion of oxygen (due to Pantanal floodplain NA
decomposition of the flooded terrestrial
vegetation)
Brazil Cold front conditions; low dissolved oxygen Amazonian flood plain lake 1970 (Jun)
(8-9% saturation); hydrogen sulphide (H2S)
toxicity
Canada Bioaccumulation of intermediate oil from North Sydney harbour, Nova Scotia; fish killed: 1969 (Apr)
coke ovens containing aromatic hydrocarbons thousands; species killed: Herring (Clupea harengus)

China NA Jiaxing Jiuzhou District; fish killed: 250,000 fish; 2011 (Jan)
species killed: Bream, carp, murrel, silver & grass carp
China NA Ting River, Fuijian; fish killed: 2010 (Jul)
>1 000,000 fish
Cocos Islands Low dissolved oxygen (1.4-1.8 mg/L), and Indian Oceans, part of Australian Territory; fish killed: 2007-09 (Dec-
high water temperature (33-350 C) 592 fish (11 species); species killed: Black-tip reef shark, Feb)
blacktail snapper, silverbiddy, mullet, bonefish,
pufferfish, others (octopus, crabs)
Congo and Methane emissions from lakes Lake Kivu NA
Rwanda
Denmark Upwelling and silicoflagellates bloom (by Farmed salmon ( Salmo salar) and trout NA
Dictyocha speculum) (Salmo gairdneri) mortality
Denmark Winter fish kills due to oxygen depletion and Lake; species killed: Roach 1995-96 (Jan-
long period of ice covers; temperature < 1oC Mar)
Finland Late winter anoxia under the ice cover, AMD Lakes Fennoscandia

Finland Anoxia Fennoscandia NA

Finland Algal toxins and bloom of ichthyotoxic Brackish water lake, Lake Vargsundet; fish killed: 1997 (Jun-Jul)
halophyte Prymnesium spp. And thousands; species killed: Roach, bream, silver bream,
cyanobacterium Planktothrir agardhii rudd, bleak, carp, pike, perch, ruff, burbot, crayfish
Finland High temperature Boreal lake NA
Germany Spill from chemical warehouse Rhine river; 500,000 fish 1986 (Jan)
Germany Insecticide endosulfan Rhine river; 40 million fish 1969 (Jun)
Greece Anoxia and growth of toxic Chattonella spp. Malliakos gulf NA
(red tides)
Hong Kong Summer and winter fish kill, algal bloom, Earthen Ponds fertlised with chicken manure; Summer 1976 (Feb-
low dissolved oxygen and high ammonia kill- bighead, silver carp; Winter kill- Grey mullet, silver Aug)- 1977
concentration carp, bighead, common carp (Oct-Mar)
Hungary, Cyanide, cyanide toxicty caused major fish Somes River 2000
Yugoslavia kills affecting 62 species of fish (20 of which
are protected species)
India Low dissolved oxygen (2.3 mg/L); higher Yamuna River, Panipat, Haryana; species: Barari, 2001 (Aug)
concentrations of metals (chromium and Wallago attu
copper); and pesticides (benzene
hexachloride, endosulfan, DDT)
India Eutrophication (caused by livestock Lakes and fish ponds, coastal surf zone fish killed ribbon NA
effluents) and low dissolved oxygen; fish (Gujrat)
Domestic sewage, sudden rise of
temperature, bird droppings (algal blooms
and low DO)
India Sudden rise of temperature Coastal surf zone NA

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 Dr Golam Kibria: Global fish kills-causes and consequences. ResearchGate. 26 November 2014

India Dynamite blast Mahandi River; species killed: all types including rare 2010 (Dec)
species
Iraq Microcystis spp bloom. Lake (Habbaniyah lake) NA

Israel Upwelling of anoxic water Sea of Galilee NA

Italy Lake overturn, higher concentrations of H2S, Lake Averno, Campi Flegrei volcanic system 2005 (Feb)
CH4
Kuwait Infection, eutrophication Coastal waters 2001, 2004,
2009, 2011
Kuwait Bacterium, Streptococcus agalactiae Kuwait Bay; fish killed:> 2500 tons; species killed: 2001 (sep)
Mullet, Liza klunzingerii
New Zealand Weather related Coromandel Peninsula; fish killed: 500; species killed: 2010 (Jan)
Snapper
Oman Ichthyotoxic dinoflagellate/red tides Arabian Gulf, Gulf of Oman; thousands tons of 2008-09 (Aug-
(Cochlodinium polykrikoides) fish dead May)
Philippines Bloom and toxicity of algae, Procentrum Aquaculture pens and cages, Bolinao, Pangasinan; 2002 (Jan-Feb)
minimum; Lack of oxygen (1.95-2.25 mg/L) Massive fish kill, loss US$120,000; species killed:
Mainly milkfish Chanos chanos; others: reef fish, eels,
octopus, urchins
Philippines 99% of bloom contained algae Procentrum Lingayen Gulf, Pangasinan, Luzon Island, Bolinao; fish 2002 (Feb)
minimum during fish kill; low killed: Thousands kilo of milk fish; loss US$ 9 million;
dissolved oxygen (< 2 mg/L) species killed: milk fish
Romania The lack of oxygen during warm days of the Lakes NA
summer
Russia Algal blooms Gorkovsky reservoir NA
Saudi Arabia Low water level, temperature and increased Oceanic waters 21 Nov 1992
wind speed
South Africa Non-toxic red tide (Procentrum micans, St Helena Bay; species killed: 57 fish species, 90% fish 1994 (Mar)
Ceratium furca), anoxic water condition, killed was hardier Liza richardsonni, others sharks,
hydrogen sulphide poisoning and black tide bottom dwelling fish; >1500 t (fish), 60 t (crayfish)
event
Switzerland Accidental spills of liquid manure Fish kills in streams. NA

Tanzania, Upwelling of deep anoxic waters during dry Species killed: (Lates niloticus and Oreochromis 1980s
Zambia seasons niloticus) in Lake Victoria and Lake Tanganyika

UK Bacterial & parasitic infections: ulcerative Recreational lakes (England and Wales); fish killed : 2004-05 (187
disease by Aeromonas salmonicida, >1500 kg; species killed: 66% Carp (main), roach and fish kills)
Pseudomonas and parasites Icthyophthirius common bream (9%), rainbow trout (1%); > 1500 kg (Apr-Jun)
multifilis, Chilodenella spp. And Icthybodo
nectar, Argulus spp.
UK Release of whey into River River Dee; fish killed: 100,000 fish; species killed: 2002 (Jul)
Salmon, trout, roach, perch.
USA Phosphorus pollution and acid mine drainage West Virginia NA

USA Summer temperatures, drought, depletion of Lake Mendota in Madison, massive fish kills of Cisco, 1980
oxygen Coregonus artedii.
USA Cold water stress Chesapeake Bay; fish killed: 2 million; species killed: 2011 (Jan)
Drum fish
USA Low dissolved oxygen, golden alga Coastal areas of Texas; fish killed: 383 million fish (55 1951-2006 (55
Prymnesium parvum yrs); Gulf menhaden (Brevoortia patronus) (77%), years)
Finescale menhaden (B. gunteri)
USA Natural upwelling, hydrogen sulphide Neuse River, North Carolina; fish killed: 1,900,000 fish; 2004 (Sep)
species killed: Menhaden
USA Wind induced upwelling events Saline lake, Salton sea, California; fish killed: 3.54 2001 (May-
million fish Jul)
USA Bloom of Karenia brevis Texas coast; fish killed: 21,000,000 fish 1997-1998
USA Alga, Gymnodinium pulchellum Indian River, Florida; species killed: Common snook, 1996 (Oct)
striped mullet, hardhead catfish, red rum, sheep's head,
black drum
USA Low Dissolved oxygen or anoxia (0.1-3.7 Missouri River; fish killed: 9770 fish; species killed: 37% 1992 (Apr-
mg/L); high unionised ammonia (upto 2418 common carp (Cyprinus carpio); 34% Ameiurus melas; Aug)
pg/L) 3% Ictiobus cyprinellus
USA Red tide (Gymnodinium breve) Gulf of Mexico; fish killed: 22 million fish; species 1986
killed: Gulf menhaden, striped mullet and other species
USA Thermal shock Oyster creek, New Jersey; species killed: Menhaden 1972 (Jan)
(major), anchovies (minor)
USA Red tide (Gymnodinium breve) Gulf of Mexico (Corpus Christi); fish killed: 2 million 1935
fish
Cold front: A cold front is defined as the transition zone where a cold air mass is replacing a warmer air mass. Cold fronts generally move from northwest to
southeast. The air behind a cold front is noticeably colder and drier than the air ahead of it. When a cold front passes through, temperatures can drop more
than 15 degrees within the first hour; Billabong=lagoon & small permanent water body or waterholes; Blackwater: a natural feature of lowland river systems
during flooding when organic material from floodplains is consumed by bacteria, which leads to depletion of dissolved oxygen in water; Upwelling= an
oceanographic phenomenon that involves wind-driven motion of dense, cooler, and usually nutrient-rich water towards the ocean surface, replacing the
warmer, usually nutrient depleted surface water.

movement, larger fish die earlier than smaller fish of the same species, kill occur at night or in the early morning. In marine
environment, toxic algal blooms poison fish directly or indirectly via bioaccumulation through progressive trophic levels,
whereas nontoxic blooms cause fish mortalities through anoxia or hydrogen sulphide poisoning arising from algal decay.

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 Dr Golam Kibria: Global fish kills-causes and consequences. ResearchGate. 26 November 2014

River water temperatures due to climate change are projected to increase in a number of rivers (e.g. USA-Mississippi,
Colorado, and Mackenzie basins; Europe- Rhine, Danube, and Rhone basins; Eastern China- Yangtze; Australia-Murray-
Darling). Freshwater organisms such as fish could be stressed in rivers with high water temperature. The rise of temperatures
would cause a decrease in oxygen supply (since oxygen solubility in water is inversely related with temperature) and may
cause more fish kills in the wild. In general, dissolved oxygen concentrations of 5 mg/L or more are suitable for most
aquatic organisms and concentrations below 2 mg/L is hypoxic. In addition, rise of water temperature may enhance
proliferation of both marine and freshwater harmful algae causing water quality problems including fish kills. Toxicity of
contaminants- persistent organic pollutants such as pesticides (atrazine, endosulfan), trace metals (copper, mercury) may be
enhanced with increasing temperatures affecting fish and other wildlife living in the aquatic environment. At higher
temperatures the metabolism of aquatic organisms is increased and oxygen concentration is reduced in water and therefore,
the rate of water inflow into the animal can increase to extract more oxygen, which can increase the entrance of dissolved
chemical pollutant(s) into the body.

Agricultural chemicals such as some herbicides and insecticides are highly toxic to fish and can enter into natural waters as
spray drift, drainage discharges, spills, surface run-off and through leaching or soil dusts. Signs of fish kills associated with
pesticide toxicity are convulsive, erratic swimming, sluggishness, smaller fish die earlier than larger fish of the same species,
kills occur at any time. Pollutants such as suspended solids can prevent oxygen uptake by fish or can damage functioning of
gills and thus may cause fish kills. Rapid fluctuations in temperatures can cause fish death. This is generally occurs in small
water bodies that heat and cool rapidly. Flood associated mass mortality of fish is related to fish gills being clogged by
suspended sediments, and osmoregulatory stress and reduced dissolved oxygen concentrations. Prolonged high temperatures
period is harmful to cold water fish species; conversely prolonged cold water period is harmful to warm-water species. Fish
affected by thermal stress (cold or warm temperatures shock) reduces its resistance to diseases thereby could be susceptible
to bacterial and fungal infections that eventually kill them. Release of cooling water from electric/nuclear power generations
reported to have caused some fish kills. Winter mass mortality of fish (e.g. North America and Europe) are related to winter
hypoxia and physical disturbance (thermal stress due to long ice covers) etc.

Fish kills can also occur when water has a low pH. Acid spills, acid rain, runoff or industrial effluent, drainage of acid soils
can lower pH of water. A pH below 4 is lethal. Nitrogen such as unionised ammonia (NH3) is highly toxic to fish. Potential
sources of ammonia are organic pollution, fertilisers, overcrowding of fish and industrial effluents. Weather related
disturbances or turnovers could bring anoxic (lack of oxygen) bottom water and decaying materials of lakes into the water
column and release large quantities of hydrogen sulphide (H2S). Fish kills due to H2S poisoning include lager fish and fish
with brown/chocolate gill filaments. The possible signs of H2S in water include an odour (rotten egg), black, decaying
organic matter on the wind ward shore. Table 1 provides an overview of fish kills in the world freshwaters, brackish waters
and coastal waters including lakes, ponds, creek, flood plains, billabong, rivers etc.

Fish kills event is an indicator of environmental stress, a declining of aquatic ecosystems health, and water quality problems.
Furthermore, fish kills events provide useful information on the spatial and temporal distributions of pollutants (e.g.
nutrients, pesticides, trace metals, oils) and problems (e.g. hypoxia, anoxia) in aquatic environment. It is one of the most
visible evidence that water quality has been degraded and as a consequence environmental water may be unsafe for
beneficial usage for a period of time. Fish kills can severely reduce the recreational and commercial fisheries, as a result
national economic losses could be substantial. For example, harmful algal blooms cost the US economy between 2.2 and 4.6
billion dollars per annum. Therefore, it is essential that scientific investigations are carried out so that causes of fish kills are
established, future fish kills can be avoided, environmental factors relating to fish kills can be identified and water quality
can be maintained or improved. It is important that public should be advised against the risk of consuming dead fish since
fish killed due to biotoxins or pollutants/chemicals or diseases could be harmful to humans.

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Website:File://F:\fish_kill.htm-22 Jan 2011

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