CS131 Part V, Abstract Algebra

CS131 Mathematics for Computer Scientists II Note 29

RINGS AND FIELDS

We now look at some algebraic structures which have more than one
binary operation. Rings and fields have addition, subtraction and
multiplication operations. In a field, division is also possible.

Rings
A ring consists of a set R with two binary operations + and . (the . is
usually omitted when writing products) such that:
(1) R is an abelian group under + (its identity element is usually denoted
by 0 and called the zero element of R)
(2) R is closed under multiplication
(3) the operation . is associative
(4) the following distributive laws hold for any a, b, c ∈ R:
a(b + c) = ab + ac
(b + c)a = ba + ca
(5) R may or may not have an identity element under . and may or may
not have inverse elements under .
An identity under . in a ring R is an element 1 ∈ R with 1 6= 0 and
1a = a = a1 for all a ∈ R.
If R is a ring with an identity 1 under . , then we say that an element a −1
of R is an inverse of a ∈ R if
aa −1 = 1 = a −1 a
A ring R is called commutative if ab = ba for all a, b ∈ R

Examples of Rings:
• Each of the sets Z, R and C is a commutative ring with identity under
the usual addition and multiplication operations.
• Let n ≥ 2 be an integer. The set
Zn = {0, 1, . . . , n − 1}
of integers mod n is a commutative ring with identity under addition
and multiplication mod n. In this ring we have ab = p and a + b = s
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 if and only if p and q are the unique integers with 0 ≤ p, q ≤ n − 1
and
(1) ab ≡ p mod n,
(2) a + b ≡ q mod n.
• Let n ≥ 2 be an integer. The set of n × n matrices with entries from
R is a ring with identity under matrix addition and multiplication.
The identity is the n × n identity matrix and the zero element is the
n × n zero matrix. This ring is not commutative.
• The set of all even integers forms a commutative ring under the usual
addition and multiplication of integers. This ring does not have an
identity.
• A Boolean algebra becomes a ring when addition and multiplication
are defined by:
a + b = (a ∧ b 0 ) ∨ (a 0 ∧ b)
a.b = a ∧ b

Properties of Rings. For any elements a and b of a ring:

(1) 0a = 0 = a0
(2) (−a)b = −ab = a(−b)
(3) (−a)(−b) = ab

Examples of Inverses.
• In the ring Z3 = {0, 1, 2} we have 1.1 = 1 and 2.2 = 1 so every
nonzero element is its own inverse.
• In the ring Z4 = {0, 1, 2, 3} the element 2 has no inverse. To see this
we can check all the candidates:
0.2 = 0, 1.2 = 2, 2.2 = 0, 3.2 = 2.
• The Cayley table for multiplication in Z6 is:
. 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 2 3 4 5
2 0 2 4 0 2 4
3 0 3 0 3 0 3
4 0 4 2 0 4 2
5 0 5 4 3 2 1
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 and we see from this that 1 and 5 are the only elements of this ring
which have inverses.

Fields
A field F is a commutative ring F with identity in which every nonzero
element has an inverse.
Examples of Fields:
• the rational numbers Q with the usual addition and multiplication
• the real numbers R with the usual addition and multiplication
• the complex numbers C with the usual addition and multiplication
• the set Zp of integers mod p where p is a prime number is a field
under addition and multiplication mod p

Properties of Fields.
(1) In a field, a product of two nonzero elements is nonzero, or equiva-
lently
ab = 0 ⇒ a = 0 or b = 0
(2) If a, b, c are elements of a field and a 6= 0, then the following
cancellation law holds:
ab = ac ⇒ b = c

Proof. (1) Suppose ab = 0. If a 6= 0, then a has an inverse a −1 and so

ab = 0 ⇒ a −1 ab = a −1 0 ⇒ 1b = 0 ⇒ b = 0.
(2) If a 6= 0, then:
ab = ac ⇒ a −1 ab = a −1 ac ⇒ 1b = 1c ⇒ b = c. 

Note that properties (1) and (2) of fields need not hold in general for rings.
For example in the ring Z4 we have 2.2 = 0 so a product of two nonzero
elements can be zero. Similarly the cancellation law does not hold in Z4
since 2.2 = 2.0 but 2 6= 0.

Proposition. The integer ring Zn mod n is a field if and only if n is

prime.
Proof. First suppose that p is prime. To show that Zp is a field we let
m ∈ {0, 1, . . . , p − 1} and suppose that m has no inverse in Zp . Then none
of the p numbers
0m, 1m, 2m, . . . , (p − 1)m
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can be equal to 1 so this list must contain two numbers which are equal in
Zp .
Hence we have
im ≡ jm (mod p) or (i − j )m ≡ 0 (mod p)
for some i , j with 0 < i − j < p. Since p is prime one of the numbers i − j or
m must be a multiple of p and considering their ranges the only possibility
is m = 0
Hence 0 is the only element with no inverse and so Zp is a field.
To complete the proof we show that if n is not prime, then Zn is not a field.
If n ≥ 2 is not prime then we can write n = qr for some q, r ≥ 2. But now
we have two nonzero elements q and r whose product is the zero element of
Zn . Since this is not possible in a field it follows that Zn is not a field. 

Other examples of finite fields can be constructed by taking a polynomial

which has no root in Zp and adjoining a root.
For example the polynomial x 2 + 1 has no root in Z3 so if we add one and
call it i , say, then the set
{a + ib | a, b ∈ Z3 }
becomes a field if we define addition and multiplication by
(a + ib) + (c + id ) = (a + c) + i (b + d )
(a + ib)(c + id ) = (ac − bd ) + i (bc + ad )
i.e. we write i 2 as −1. This gives an example of a field with 9 elements.

Finite fields have applications to generating sequences of pseudo-random

numbers. See D. Knuth, “The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 2”
(page 28) for details.

ABSTRACT
Content definition of ring, definition of field, properties of rings and fields
In this Note, we study algebraic structures which are more complicated than groups. Rings and Fields
have two binary operations compared with only one for a group. These structures were created in order
to describe, among others, the properties of number systems.
History
Trygve Nagell was a Norwegian mathematician who published papers and books, in Swedish and English,
on number theory. From the late 1920s onwards his chief interest was the study of algebraic numbers, and
his 1931 study of algebraic rings was perhaps his most important contribution to abstract algebra.
Emil Artin [1898-1962] was an Austrian mathematician who made important contributions to the develop-
ment of class field theory and the theory of hypercomplex numbers. He was one of the creators of modern
abstract algebra.

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Joseph Henry Wedderburn [1882-1948] was a Scottish mathematician who opened new lines of thought in
the subject of mathematical Fields and who had a deep influence on the development of modern algebra.

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