TEK MANUAL FOR

CONCRETE MASONRY
DESIGN AND
CONSTRUCTION
a complete manual of facts on designing and building with concrete
masonry and related concrete units

TEK INDEX (TB-11)

September 2017

Phone 703.713.1900 Fax 703.713.1910 www.ncma.org

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 TEK MANUAL FOR MASONRY DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
1. Building Codes & Specifications
1-1F ASTM Specifications for Concrete Masonry Units (4-2012)
1-2C Specification for Masonry Structures (2-2010)
1-3D Building Code Requirements for Concrete Masonry (9-2011)
1-4 Glossary of Concrete Masonry Terms (2004)

2. C/M Unit Properties, Shapes, & Sizes

2-1A Typical Sizes and Shapes of Concrete Masonry Units (2002)
2-2B Considerations for Using Specialty Concrete Masonry Units (7-2010)
2-3A Architectural Concrete Masonry Units (2001)
2-4C Segmental Retaining Wall Units (2-2015)
2-5B New CM Unit Configurations Under ASTM C90 (10-2012)
2-6 Density-Related Properties of Concrete Masonry Assemblies (2008)

3. Construction
3-1C All-Weather Concrete Masonry Construction (2002)
3-2A Grouting Concrete Masonry Walls (2005)
3-3B Hybrid Concrete Masonry Construction Details (2009)
3-4C Bracing Concrete Masonry Walls Under Construction (2014)
3-5A Surface Bonded Concrete Masonry Construction (1998)
3-6C Concrete Masonry Veneers (1-2012)
3-7A Concrete Masonry Fireplaces (2003)
3-8A Concrete Masonry Construction (2001)
3-9A Strategies for Termite Resistance (2000)
3-10A Metric Concrete Masonry Construction (2008)
3-11 Concrete Masonry Basement Wall Construction (2001)
3-12 Construction of High-Rise Concrete Masonry Buildings (1998)
3-13 Construction of Low-Rise Concrete Masonry Buildings (2005)
3-14 Post-Tensioned Concrete Masonry Wall Construction (2002)
3-16A Concrete Masonry Screen Walls (2016)

4. Costs, Estimating
4-1A Productivity and Modular Coordination in Concrete Masonry Construction (2002)
4-2A Estimating Concrete Masonry Materials (2004)

5. Details
5-1B Concrete Masonry Veneer Details (2003)
5-2A Clay & Concrete Masonry Banding Details (2002)
5-2C CAN-TEK Clay and Concrete Masonry Banding Details (2014)
5-3A Concrete Masonry Foundation Wall Details (2003)
5-4B Concrete Masonry Residential Details (2002)
5-5B Integrating Concrete Masonry Walls with Metal Building Systems (5-2011)
5-6A Concrete Masonry Curtain and Panel Wall Details (2001)
5-7A Floor and Roof Connections to CM Walls (2001)
5-8B Detailing Concrete Masonry Fire Walls (2005)
5-9A Concrete Masonry Corner Details (2004)
5-10A Concrete Masonry Radial Walls (2006)
5-11 Residential Details for High Wind Areas (2003)
5-12 Modular Layout of Concrete Masonry (2008)
5-13 Rolling Door Details for Concrete Masonry Const. (2007)
5-14 Concrete Masonry Hurricane and Tornado Shelters (2008)
5-15 Details for Half-High Concrete Masonry Units (1-2010)
5-16 Aesthetic Design with Concrete Masonry (3-2011)

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6. Energy & Indoor Air Quality
6-1C R-Values of Multi-Wythe Concrete Masonry Walls (4-2013)
6-2C R-Values and U-Values for Single Wythe Concrete Masonry Walls (3-2013)
6-3 Shifting Peak Energy Loads With Concrete Masonry Construction (1991)
6-4B Energy Code Compliance Using COMCheck (02-2012)
6-5A Passive Solar Design Strategies (8-2006)
6-6B Determining the Recycled Content of Concrete Masonry Products (6-2009)
6-7A Earth-Sheltered Buildings (9-2006)
6-8 Discontinued (merged with TEK 6-5A)
6-9C Concrete Masonry and Hardscape Products in LEEDTM 2009 (2-2009)
6-10A Concrete Masonry Radiant Heating/Cooling Systems (2006)
6-11A Insulating Concrete Masonry Walls (6-2010)
6-12C International Energy Conservation Code and Concrete Masonry (2003 & 2006 IBC) (9-2007)
6-12D Concrete Masonry in the 2009 Edition of the IECC (5-2012)
6-12E Concrete Masonry in the 2012 Edition of the IECC (On line only 5-2012)
6-13B Thermal Bridges in Wall Construction (11-2010)
6-14A Control of Air Leakage in Concrete Masonry Walls (2-2011)
6-15A Radon-Resistant Concrete Masonry Foundation Walls (5-2006)
6-16A Heat Capacity (HC) Values for Concrete Masonry Walls (6-2008)
6-17B Condensation Control in Concrete Masonry Walls (8-2011)
6-18 ASHRAE Standard 90.2 Requirements for Residential Buildings (1996) (Discontinued)

7. Fire Resistance
7-1C Fire Resistance Ratings of Concrete Masonry Assemblies (2009)
7-2 Balanced Design Fire Protection (2008)
7-3A Firestopping for Concrete Masonry Walls (9-2010)
7-4A Foam Plastic Insulation in Concrete Masonry Walls (11-2013)
7-5A Evaluating Fire-Exposed Concrete Masonry Walls (6-2006)
7-6A Steel Column Fire Protection (1-2009)

8. Maintenance & Cleaning

8-1A Maintenance of Concrete Masonry Walls (2004)
8-2A Removal of Stains from Concrete Masonry (2005)
8-3A Control and Removal of Efflorescence (2003)
8-4A Cleaning Concrete Masonry (2005)

9. Mortar, Grout, & Stucco

9-1A Mortars for Concrete Masonry (2004)
9-2B Self-Consolidating Grout for Concrete Masonry (12-2007)
9-3A Plaster and Stucco For Concrete Masonry (2002)
9-4A Grout for Concrete Masonry (2005)

10. Movement Control

10-1A Crack Control in Concrete Masonry Walls (4-2005)
10-2C Control Joints for Concrete Masonry Walls - Empirical Method (4-2010)
10-3 Control Joints for Concrete Masonry Walls - Alternative Engineered Method (2003)
10-4 Crack Control for Concrete Brick & other CM Veneers (2001)

11. Articulated Concrete Block (ACBs)

Note: NCMA's Paver TEK have been discontinued - See the Interlocking Concrete Pavement Institute's series on
TechSpec.
11-9B Articulated Concrete Block for Erosion Control (7-2014)
11-12A ACB Revetment Design - Factor of Safety Method (10-2011)
11-13 Articulating Concrete Block (ACB) Installation (7-2006)

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12. Reinforcement & Connectors
12-1B Anchors and Ties for Masonry (11-2011)
12-2B Joint Reinforcement for Concrete Masonry (2005)
12-3C Design of Anchor Bolts Embedded in Conc. Masonry (12-2013)
12-4D Steel Reinforcement for Concrete Masonry (1-2007)
12-5 Fasteners for Concrete Masonry (12-2005)
12-6 Splices, Development & Standard Hooks for CM (2006 IBC) (1-2007)
12-6A Splices, Development and Standard Hooks for CM Based on the 2009 & 2012 IBC (2013)

13. Sound
13-1C Sound Transmission Class Ratings for CM Walls (11-2012)
13-2A Noise Control with Concrete Masonry (5-2007)
13-3A Concrete Masonry Highway Sound Barriers (1999)
13-4A Outdoor-Indoor Transmission Class of CM Walls (2-2013)

14. Structural—General
14-1B Section Properties of Concrete Masonry Walls (8-2007)
14-2 Discontinued - See TEK 14-4A & TEK 14-7A
14-3A Designing Concrete Masonry for Wind Loads (1995)
14-4B Strength Design Provisions for Concrete Masonry (1-2008)
14-5A Loadbearing Concrete Masonry Wall Design (2006)
14-6 Concrete Masonry Bond Patterns (2004)
14-7B ASD of Concrete Masonry (2005 and 2008 MSJC) (5-2009)
14-7C ASD of Concrete Masonry (2012 IBC & 2011 MSJC) (2013)
14-8B Empirical Design of Concrete Masonry Walls (7-2008)
14-9A Hybrid Concrete Masonry Design (11-2009)
14-10B Impact Resistance of CM Correctional Facilities (2003)
14-11B Strength Design of CM Walls for Axial Load & Flexure (2003)
14-12B Seismic Design Forces on Conc. Masonry Buildings (2005)
14-13B Concrete Masonry Wall Weights (8-2008)
14-14 Concrete Masonry Arches (1994)
14-15B ASD of Pier and Panel Highway Sound Barrier Walls (2004)
14-16B Concrete Masonry Fence Design (6-2007)
14-17A Software for Structural Design of Concrete Masonry (12-2010)
14-18B Seismic Design and Detailing Requirements for Mas Strs (9-2009)
14-19A ASD Tables for Reinforced CM Walls (2006 & 2009 IBC) (4-2005)
14-19B ASD Tables for Reinforced CM Walls (2012 IBC & 2011 MSJC) (7-2011)
14-20A Post-Tensioned Concrete Masonry Wall Design (2002)
14-21A Design of Concrete Masonry Walls for Blast Loading (8-2014)
14-22 Design and Construction of Dry-Stack Masonry Walls (2003)
14-23 Design of Concrete Masonry Infill (12-2012)

15. Structural—Foundation & Retaining Walls

15-1B Allowable Stress Design of CM Foundation Walls (2001)
15-2B Strength Design of Reinforced CM Foundation Walls (2004)
15-3A Roles and Responsibilities on SRW Projects (6-2010)
15-4B Segmental Retaining Wall Global Stability (4-2010)
15-5B Segmental Retaining Wall Design (7-2010)
15-6 Concrete Masonry Gravity Retaining Walls (1995)
15-7B Concrete Masonry Cantilever Retaining Walls (2005)
15-8B Guide to Segmental Retaining Walls (12-2009)
15-9A Seismic Design of Segmental Retaining Walls (10-2010)

16. Structural—Multi-Wythe Walls

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16-1A Multi-Wythe Concrete Masonry Walls (2005)
16-2B Structural Design of Unreinforced Composite Masonry (2001)
16-3B Reinforced Composite Concrete Masonry Walls (2006)
16-4A Design of Concrete Masonry Noncomposite Walls (2004)

17. Structural—Beams, Columns & Lintels

17-1D ASD of CM Lintels Based on 2012 IBC/2011MSJC (12-2011)
17-2A Precast Lintels for Concrete Masonry Construction (2000)
17-3A Allowable Stress Design of Conc. Masonry Columns (2001)
17-4B Allowable Stress Design of CM Pilasters (2000)

18. Quality Assurance, Inspection, & Testing

18-1B Evaluating the Compressive Strength of CM based on 2012IBC/2011 MSJC (6-2011)
18-1C Evaluating the Compressive Strength of CM based on 2015IBC/2013 MSJC (3-2014)
18-2C Sampling and Testing Concrete Masonry Units (8-2014)
18-3B Concrete Masonry Inspection (2006)
18-4A Creep Properties of Post-Tensioned and High-Rise CM (2000)
18-5B Masonry Mortar Testing (8-2014)
18-6 Structural Testing of CM Assemblages (1997)
18-7 Compressive Strength Testing Variables for CM Units (2004)
18-8B Grout Quality Assurance (2005)
18-9A Evaluating Existing Concrete Masonry Construction (2003)
18-10A Sampling and Testing Segmental Retaining Wall Units (2-2015)
18-11B Inspection Guide for Segmental Retaining Walls (8-2012)

19. Water Penetration Resistance

19-1 Water Repellents for Concrete Masonry Walls (3-2006)
19-2B Design for Dry Single-Wythe Concrete Masonry Walls (3-2012)
19-3B Preventing Water Penetration in Below-Grade CM Wall (9-2012)
19-4A Flashing Strategies for Concrete Masonry Walls (3-2008)
19-5A Flashing Details for Concrete Masonry Walls (3-2008)
19-6A Joint Sealants for Concrete Masonry Walls (1-2014)
19-7 Characteristics of CMU with Integral Water Repellent (12-2008)

20. Manufactured Stone Veneer

20-1 Key Installation Checkpoints for Manufactured Stone Veneer (12-2014)

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 TEK Update History
Total Rewrites
2015: 2-4C, 18-10A
2014: 3-4C, 11-9B, 14-3A, 14-21A, 18-1C, 18-2C, 18-5B, 19-6A, 20-1
2013: 6-1C, 6-2C, 7-4A, 12-03C, 13-4A
2012: 1-1F, 2-5B, 3-6C, 6-4B, 6-12D, 6-12E, 12-6A, 13-1C, 14-23, 18-2B, 18-11B, 19-3B
2011: 1-3B, 5-5B, 5-16, 6-14A, 6-17B, 11-9B, 11-12A, 12-1B, 14-7C, 14-19B, 17-1D, 18-1B
2010: 1-2C, 2-2B, 6-11A, 6-13B, 7-3A, 10-2C, 14-17A, 15-3A, 15-4B, 15-5B, 15-9A, 18-11A
2009: 7-6A, 6-1B, 6-2B, 6-6B, 6-9C, 7-1C, 12-3B, 14-7B, 14-9A, 14-18B, 15-8A, 17-1C
2008: 2-6, 5-14, 5-15, 6-6A, 6-16A, 7-1B, 13-4, 14-4B, 14-8B, 14-13B, 19-6, 19-7
2007: 1-1E, 1-3C, 5-13, 6-4C, 6-12C, 9-2B, 12-4D, 12-6, 13-1B, 13-2A, 14-1B, 14-16B, 18-11
2006: 1-1D, 5-10A, 6-5A, 6-7A, 6-9B, 6-10A, 6-15A, 7-5A, 11-13, 12-4D, 16-3B, 18-3B
2005: 3-2A, 5-8B, 8-4A, 9-4A, 12-2B, 12-5, 14-12B, 15-7B, 16-1A, 18-5A, 18-8B, 18-10
2004: 1-4, 4-3A, 5-9A, 5-12, 6-9A, 6-12B, 12-3A, 14-15B, 15-2B, 15-5A, 16-4A, 18-2A
2003: 3-6B, 3-7A, 5-1B, 5-3A, 5-11, 10-3, 14-1A, 14-10B, 14-11B, 14-18A, 14-22, 15-4A, 18-9A
2002: 3-1 C, 3-14, 4-1A, 5-2A, 5-4B, 11-11, 11-12, 12-4C, 14-7A, 14-4A, 14-13A, 14-20A
2001: 3-10A, 3-13, 5-6A, 5-7A, 10-2B, 10-4, 14-8A, 15-1B, 16-2B, 17-1B, 17-3A
2000: 1-1C, 3-1B, 3-4B, 3-9A, 6-17A, 11-10, 13-1A, 14-5A, 14-19A, 15-9, 17-2A, 17-4B, 18-4A
1999: 1-2B, 1-3B, 2-3A, 2-4B, 2-5A, 3-4B, 6-12A, 7-1A, 9-1A,
11-9A, 12-1A, 13-3A, 14-21, 18-1A, 18-8A, 19-4A, 19-5A
1998: 2-2A, 3-5A, 3-12, 8-1A, 8-2A, 9-2A, 10-1A, 10-2A, 12-4B, 14-16A, 19-2A
1997: 3-8A, 5-5A, 6-3A, 6-18, 12-2A, 14-12A, 14-15A, 14-20, 17-1A, 18-3A
1996: 5-4A, 5-8A, 6-2A, 6-13, 8-3A, 9-4, 11-7, 11-8, 14-18, 14-19, 15-7A

Updates (Updated references plus minor corrections)

2014 11-9B
2013: 12-6A, 14-7C
2010: 5-15
2008: 2-4B, 3-10A, 5-12, 7-2, 13-1B, 15-4A, 15-5A, 15-8, 19-2A, 19-4A,19-5A
2006: 7-1A, 14-5A
2005: 2-4B, 3-6B, 3-13, 6-2A, 8-2A, 10-1A, 10-2B, 14-19A, 19-1
2004: 1-2B, 8-1A, 9-1A, 10-1A, 10-2B, 1-9A, 14-6, 14-7A, 15-8, 18-7A, 18-7, 19-2A, 19-5A
2003: 3-2, 7-1A, 7-2, 7-6, 8-3A, 10-1A, 10-2B, 19-4A, 19-5A
2002: 1-1C, 2-1A, 2-4B, 9-3A, 9-4, 11-6, 13-1A, 18-5, 19-1, 19-2A
2001: 1-2B, 2-3A, 3-3A, 3-8A, 3-11, 5-1A, 6-1A, 6-11, 7-1A, 7-2, 7-4, 9-1A, 10-1A, 11-1, 11-3, 11-4, 11-10, 12-
1A, 15-8, 18-1, 18-3A, 19-2A, 19-3A, 19-4A, 19-5A
2000: 2-1A, 3-1B, 3-2, 6-1A, 8-3A, 19-5A

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An information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology

ASTM SPECIFICATIONS FOR TEK 1-1F

CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS Codes & Specs (2012)

INTRODUCTION
The most widely-used standards for specifying concrete
masonry units in the United States are published by ASTM Inter-
national. These ASTM standards contain minimum requirements
that assure properties necessary for quality performance. These
requirements include items such specified component materials,
compressive strength, permissible variations in dimensions, and
finish and appearance criteria. Currently, seven ASTM standards
apply to units intended primarily for construction of concrete
masonry walls, beams, columns or specialty applications (see
Table 1).
The letter and first number of an ASTM designation is the
fixed designation for that standard. For example, ASTM C55 is
the fixed designation for concrete building brick. The number
immediately following indicates the year of last revision (i.e.,
ASTM C55-11 is the version of C55 published in 2011). A date
in parentheses after the last revision date is the reapproval date.
Because significant changes can be introduced into sub-
sequent editions, the edition referenced by the building code
or by a project specification can be an important consideration
when determining specific requirements. Also note that it may
take several years between publication of a new ASTM standard
and its subsequent reference by a building code. For this reason,
Table 1 includes the editions referenced in the 2006, 2009 and
2012 editions of the International Building Code (IBC) (ref. 1),
as well as the most current ASTM edition. Code officials will
commonly accept more current editions of ASTM standards
than that referenced in the code, as they represent state-of-the-art
requirements.
LOADBEARING CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS—
ASTM C90
As the most widely-referenced ASTM standard for concrete
masonry units, ASTM C90 is under continuous review and
revision. The bulk of these revisions are editorial, although
two recent major changes are discussed here.
In 2011, web thickness requirements were significantly
revised. Prior to ASTM C90-11b (ref. 3), there were different
minimum web thicknesses based on unit width. Additionally,
equivalent web thickness, a measure of the width of web per
foot of wall length was used to determine if sufficient web
was present to transfer shear loads. In ASTM C90-11b, these
requirements were replaced with a single minimum web
thickness (0.75 in., 19.1 mm), regardless of unit width. The
equivalent web thickness was replaced with a normalized web
area, a measure of the area of web contact with the face shells
per square foot of wall (see Table 2).

Table 1—ASTM Specifications for Concrete Masonry Units

Edition referenced in:
ASTM the 2006 the 2009 the 2012
Type of unit designation IBC IBC IBC Most current edition
Concrete Building Brick C55 C55-03 C55-06e C55-06e
1 1
C55-11
Calcium Silicate Brick C73 C73-99a C73-05 C73-05 C73-10
Loadbearing Concrete Masonry Units C90 C90-03 C90-06b C90-08 C90-11b
Nonloadbearing Concrete Masonry Units C129 C129-01 C129-05 C129-06
A A A
C129-11
Catch Basin and Manhole Units C139 N/AB N/AB N/AB C139-11
Prefaced Concrete Units C744 C744-99 C744-05 C744-08 C744-11
Concrete Facing Brick C1634 N/AB N/AB N/AB C1634-11
A Although not directly referenced in the IBC, C129 is referenced in Specification for Masonry Structures (ref. 2)
B This standard is not referenced in the IBC.

Related TEK: Keywords: absorption, ASTM specifications, calcium silicate brick,

10-2C, 10-3, 14-22 compressive strength, concrete brick, dimensions, face shell and web thick-
ness, gross area, net area, specifications, testing, water absorption

NCMA TEK 1-1F 1

 In 2000, the Type I (moisture-controlled) and Type II (non
moisture-controlled) unit designations were removed from
C90. The designations were withdrawn because they were
difficult to effectively use and enforce, and because of newly
developed concrete masonry crack control provisions. The new
crack control guidelines are based on anticipated total volume
changes, rather than on the specified moisture contents that
formed the basis for Type I requirements. Control joint criteria
can be found in References 5 and 6. For more detailed informa-
tion on removal of the Type designations, see the Frequently
Asked Questions section of the NCMA website (http://www.
ncma.org/resources/design/Technical FAQ).
Physical Requirements
Physical requirements prescribed by ASTM C90 include
dimensional tolerances, minimum face shell and web thicknesses
for hollow units, minimum strength and maximum absorption
requirements, and maximum linear shrinkage.
Overall unit dimensions (width, height and length) can vary
by no more than ± 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) from the standard specified
dimension. Exceptions are faces of split-face units and faces
of slump units which are intended to provide a random surface
texture. In these cases, consult local suppliers to determine
achievable tolerances. Molded features such as rib and scores
must be within ± 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) of the specified dimension
and within ± 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) of the specified placement on
the mold. For dry-stack masonry units, the physical tolerances
are typically limited to ± 1/16 in. (1.6 mm), which precludes the
need for mortaring, grinding of face shell surfaces or shimming
to even out courses during construction (ref. 7).
Minimum face shell and web thicknesses are those deemed
necessary to obtain satisfactory structural and nonstructural per-
formance. Note that although there are some unique face shell
thickness requirements for split-faced units (see Table 2 footnote
B), ground-face units (i.e., those ground after manufacture) must
meet the face shell thickness requirements contained in the body
Table 2—ASTM C90-11b Minimum Face Shell &
Web Requirements for Hollow Units (ref. 3) A
Webs
Nominal Face shell Web Normalized
width of thickness, thick- web area,
unit, in. min., in. ness C in. min., in.2/ft2
(mm) (mm) B, C (mm) (mm2/m2) D
3 (76.2) & 3
/4 (19) 3
/4 (19) 6.5 (45.14)
4 (102)
6 (152) 1 (25) 3
/4 (19) 6.5 (45.14)
8 (203) & 1 /4 (32)
1 3
/4 (19) 6.5 (45.14)
greater
A
Average of measurements on a minimum of 3 units when
measured as described in Test Methods C140 (ref. 4).
B
For units with split surfaces, a maximum of 10% of the
split surface may have thickness less than those shown,
but not less than 3/4 in. (19 mm). When the units are to be
solid grouted, the 10% limit does not apply and Footnote C
establishes a thickness requirement for the entire face shell.
C
When the units are to be solid grouted, minimum face
shell and web thickness shall be not less than 5/8 in. (16 mm).
D
Minimum normalized web area does not apply to the
portion of the unit to be filled with grout. The length of that
portion shall be deducted from the overall length of the unit
for the calculation of the minimum web cross-sectional area.
2 NCMA TEK 1-1F
of Table 2. In addition to minimum permissible web thicknesses
for individual webs, the specification also requires a minimum
total web contact area with face shells per square foot of wall
area. When evaluating this normalized web area, the portion of
a unit to be filled with grout is exempted. This provision avoids
excluding units intentionally manufactured with reduced webs,
including bond beam units and open-end block, where grout
fulfills the structural role of the web.
A solid unit is one with a net cross-sectional area in every
plane parallel to the bearing surface of at least 75% of the gross
cross-sectional area measured in the same plane. Minimum face
shell and web thicknesses are not prescribed for solid units.
The net area used to determine compressive strength is
the “average” net area of the unit, calculated from the unit net
volume based on tests described in ASTM C140 (ref. 4). Gross
and net areas are shown in Figure 1.
Net area compressive strength is used for engineered
masonry design, taking into account the mortar bedded and
grouted areas. Gross area compressive strength is still used for
empirically designed masonry (IBC Section 2109).
Maximum permissible water absorption is shown in Table
3. Absorption is a measure of the total water required to fill all
voids within the net volume of concrete. It is determined from
the weight-per-unit-volume difference between saturated and
oven-dry units. Aggregates with relatively large pores, such as
some lightweight aggregate, have a greater absorption than dense,
nonporous aggregates, given the same compaction. As a result,
lightweight units are permitted higher absorption values than
medium or normal weight units.
Because concrete masonry units tend to contract as they
dry, C90 limits their potential drying shrinkage to 0.065%,
measured using ASTM C426 (ref. 8).
Finish and Appearance
Finish and appearance provisions prohibit defects that would
impair the strength or permanence of the construction, but permit
minor cracks incidental to usual manufacturing methods. For
units which will be exposed, the presence of objectionable im-
perfections is based on viewing the unit face(s) from a distance
of at least 20 ft (6.1 m) under diffused lighting. Five percent of
a shipment may contain chips not larger than 1 in. (25.4 mm) in
any dimension, or cracks not wider than 0.02 in. (0.5 mm) and
not longer than 25% of the nominal unit height. The specification
requires that color and texture be specified by the purchaser. An
Gross area* (shaded) = width (actual) x length (actual)
Net area* (shaded) = net volume (actual)
height (actual)
= (% solid) x (gross area)
* For design calculations, a masonry element's section
properties are based upon minimum specified dimensions
instead of actual dimensions.
Figure 1—Gross and Net Areas
approved sample of at least four units, representing the range of NONLOADBEARING CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS—
color and texture permitted, is used to determine conformance. ASTM C129

CONCRETE BUILDING BRICK—ASTM C55
ASTM C55-03 (ref. 9a) included two grades of concrete
brick: Grade N for veneer and facing applications and Grade
S for general use. In 2006, the grades were removed and
requirements for concrete brick used in veneer and facing
applications were moved into a new standard: C1634 (see be-
low). ASTM C55 now only applies to concrete masonry units
with: a maximum width of 4 in. (102 mm); a weight that will
typically permit it to be lifted and placed using one hand; and
an intended use in nonfacing, utilitarian applications.
Requirements for C55-11 (ref. 9b) units include:
• 2,500 psi (17.2 MPa) minimum compressive strength (aver-
age of three units),
• 0.065% maximum linear drying shrinkage,
• 75% minimum percent solid, and
• maximum average absorption requirements of 13 pcf for
normal weight brick, 15 pcf for medium weight brick and 18
pcf for lightweight brick (208, 240 and 288 kg/m3).
Finish and appearance criteria only address defects which
might affect placement or permanence of the resulting con-
struction.
CONCRETE FACING BRICK—ASTM C1634
A facing brick (C1634) is distinguished from a building
brick (C55) primarily by its intended use: a facing brick is for
uses where one or more unit faces will be exposed.
Compression and absorption requirements are listed in
Table 4. Linear drying shrinkage, dimensional tolerances and
finish and appearance requirements are similar to those in C90,
with the exception that chip size is limited to + 1/2 in. (13 mm).
Both C1634 and C55 refer to C140 (ref. 4) for compression
testing, which requires compression test specimens to have
a height that is 60% + 10% of its least lateral dimension, to
minimize the potential impact of specimen aspect ratio on
tested compressive strengths.
ASTM C129 (ref. 11) covers hollow and solid nonloadbear-
ing units, intended for use in nonloadbearing partitions. These
units are not suitable for exterior walls subjected to freezing
cycles unless effectively protected from the weather. These units
must be clearly marked to preclude their use as loadbearing units.
Minimum net area compressive strength requirements are 500
psi (3.45 MPa) for an individual unit and 600 psi (4.14 MPa)
average for three units.
CALCIUM SILICATE FACE BRICK—ASTM C73
ASTM C73 (ref. 12) covers brick made from sand and
lime. Two grades are included:
• Grade SW—Brick intended for exposures below freezing
in the presence of moisture. Minimum compressive strength
requirements are 4,500 psi (31 MPa) for an individual unit and
5,500 psi (37.9 MPa) for an average of three units, based on
average gross area. The maximum water absorption is 15 lb/
ft3 (240 kg/m3).
• Grade MW—Brick intended for exposure to temperatures
below freezing, but unlikely to be saturated with water.
Minimum compressive strength requirements are 3,000 psi
(20.7 MPa) for an individual unit and 3,500 psi (24.1 MPa)
for an average of three units, based on average gross area.
The maximum water absorption is 18 lb/ft3 (288 kg/m3).
PREFACED CONCRETE AND CALCIUM SILICATE
MASONRY UNITS—ASTM C744
ASTM C744 (ref. 13) establishes requirements for the
facing materials applied to masonry unit surfaces. For the units
onto which the surface is molded, C744 requires compliance
with the requirements contained in ASTM C55, C90 or C129,
as appropriate. Facing requirements in C744 include: resistance
to crazing, surface burning characteristics, adhesion, color
permanence, chemical resistance, cleansability, abrasion, and
dimensional tolerances.

Table 3—Strength and Absorption Requirements for Concrete Masonry Units, ASTM C90 (ref. 3)
Maximum water absorption, Minimum net area com-
Oven-dry density of concrete, lb/ft3 (kg/m3) pressive strength, psi (MPa)
Weight lb/ft3 (kg/m3) Average of 3 Individual Average of 3 Individual
classification Average of 3 units units units units units
Lightweight Less than 105 (1,680) 18 (288) 20 (320) 1,900 (13.1) 1,700 (11.7)
Medium weight 105 to less than 125 (1,680 - 2,000) 15 (240) 17 (272) 1,900 (13.1) 1,700 (11.7)
Normal weight 125 (2,000) or more 13 (208) 15 (240) 1,900 (13.1) 1,700 (11.7)

Table 4—Strength and Absorption Requirements for Concrete Facing brick, ASTM C1634 (ref. 10)
Maximum water absorption, Minimum net area com-
Oven-dry density of concrete, lb/ft3 (kg/m3) pressive strength, psi (MPa)
Density lb/ft3 (kg/m3) Average of 3 Individual Average of 3 Individual
classification Average of 3 units units units units units
Lightweight Less than 105 (1,680) 15 (240) 17 (272) 3,500 (24.1) 3,000 (20.7)
Medium weight 105 to less than 125 (1,680 - 2,000) 13 (208) 15 (240) 3,500 (24.1) 3,000 (20.7)
Normal weight 125 (2,000) or more 10 (160) 12 (192) 3,500 (24.1) 3,000 (20.7)

NCMA TEK 1-1F 3

CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS FOR CATCH BASINS
AND MANHOLES—ASTM C139

ASTM C139 (ref. 14) covers solid precast segmental

units intended for use in catch basins and manholes. Units are
required to be at least 5 in. (127 mm) thick, with a minimum
gross area compressive strength of 2,500 psi (17 MPa) (average
of 3 units) or 2,000 psi (13 MPa) for an individual unit, and a
maximum water absorption of 10 pcf (16 kg/m³) (average of
3 units). The overall unit dimensions must be within ± 3% of
the specified dimensions.

REFERENCES
1. International Building Code. International Code Council, 2006, 2009, 2012.
2. Specification for Masonry Structures, TMS 602-11/ACI 530.1-11/ASCE 6-11. Reported by the Masonry Standards Joint Com-
mittee, 2011.
3. Standard Specification for Loadbearing Concrete Masonry Units, ASTM C90-11b. ASTM International, 2011.
4. Standard Test Methods for Sampling and Testing Concrete Masonry Units and Related Units, ASTM C140-11b. ASTM Inter-
national, 2011.
5. Control Joints for Concrete Masonry Walls—Empirical Method, TEK 10-2C. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2010.
6. Control Joints for Concrete Masonry Walls—Alternative Engineered Method. TEK 10-3. National Concrete Masonry Associa-
tion, 2003.
7. Design and Construction of Dry-Stack Masonry Walls, TEK 14-22. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2003.
8. Standard Test Method for Linear Drying Shrinkage of Concrete Masonry Units, ASTM C426-10. ASTM International, 2010.
9. Standard Specification for Concrete Brick, ASTM C55.
9a. ASTM C55-03, ASTM International, 2003.
9b. ASTM C55-11, ASTM International, 2011.
10. Standard Specification for Concrete Facing Brick, ASTM C1634-11. ASTM International, 2011.
11. Standard Specification for Nonloadbearing Concrete Masonry Units, ASTM C129-11. ASTM International, 2011.
12. Standard Specification for Calcium Silicate Brick (Sand-Lime Brick), ASTM C73-10. ASTM International, 2010.
13. Standard Specification for Prefaced Concrete and Calcium Silicate Masonry Units, ASTM C744-11. ASTM International, 2011.
14. Standard Specification for Concrete Masonry Units for Construction of Catch Basins and Manholes, ASTM C139-11. ASTM
International, 2011.

NCMA and the companies disseminating this technical information disclaim any and all responsibility and liability for the accuracy
and the application of the information contained in this publication.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION

13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171
www.ncma.org

To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index, contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900

4 NCMA TEK 1-1F


National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology
GLOSSARY OF
CONCRETE MASONRY TERMS
Keywords: definitions, glossary, terminology
“A” block: Hollow masonry unit with one end closed by a
cross web and the opposite end open or lacking an end cross
web. (See “Open end block.”)
Absorption: The difference in the amount of water contained
within a concrete masonry unit between saturated and oven-
dry conditions, expressed as weight of water per cubic foot
of concrete. [4]
Accelerator: A liquid or powder admixture added to a
cementitious paste to speed hydration and promote early
strength development. An example of an accelerator material
is calcium nitrite.
Adhesive anchor : An anchoring device that is placed in a
predrilled hole and secured using a chemical compound.
Admixture: Substance other than prescribed materials of
water, aggregate and cementitious materials added to
concrete, mortar or grout to improve one or more chemical
or physical properties. [3]
Aggregate: An inert granular or powdered material such as
natural sand, manufactured sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag,
fines and lightweight aggregate, which, when bound together
by a cementitious matrix forms concrete, grout or mortar. [3]
Air entraining: The capability of a material or process to
develop a system of uniformly distributed microscopic air
bubbles in a cementitious paste to increase the workability
or durability of the resulting product. Some admixtures act
as air entraining agents.
Anchor: Metal rod, tie, bolt or strap used to secure masonry
to other elements. May be cast, adhered, expanded or
fastened into masonry. [1]
Angle: A structural steel section that has two legs joined at 90
degrees to one another. Used as a lintel to support masonry
over openings such as doors or windows in lieu of a masonry
arch or reinforced masonry lintel. Also used as a shelf to
vertically support masonry veneer. Sometimes referred to
as a relieving angle.
Arch: A vertically curved compressive structural member
spanning openings or recesses. May also be built flat by
using special masonry shapes or specially placed units.
Area, gross cross-sectional: The area delineated by the out-to-
out dimensions of masonry in the plane under consideration.
This includes the total area of a section perpendicular to the
TEK 1-4 © 2004 National Concrete Masonry Association
NCMA TEK
TEK 1-4
Codes & Specs (2004)
direction of the load, including areas within cells and voids. [1]
Area, net cross-sectional: The area of masonry units, grout
and mortar crossed by the plane under consideration, based
on out-to-out dimensions and neglecting the area of all voids
such as ungrouted cores, open spaces, or any other area
devoid of masonry. [1]
Axial load: The load exerted on a wall or other structural
element and acting parallel to the element’s axis. Axial loads
typically act in a vertical direction, but may be otherwise
depending on the type and orientation of the element.
Backing: The wall or surface to which veneer is secured. The
backing material may be concrete, masonry, steel framing or
wood framing. [1]
Beam: A structural member, typically horizontal, designed to
primarily resist flexure.
Burnished block: (See “Ground face block.”)
Bedded area: The surface area of a masonry unit that is in
contact with mortar in the plane of the mortar joint.
Blast furnace slag cement: A blended cement which
incorporates blast furnace slag.
Blended cement: Portland cement or air-entrained portland
cement combined through blending with such materials as
blast furnace slag or pozzolan, which is usually fly ash. May
be used as an alternative to portland cement in mortar.
Block: A solid or hollow unit larger than brick-sized units. (See
also “Concrete block, concrete masonry unit, masonry unit”)
Block machine: Equipment used to mold, consolidate and
compact shapes when manufacturing concrete masonry units.
Bond: (1) The arrangement of units to provide strength, stability
or a unique visual effect created by laying units in a prescribed
pattern. See reference 6 for illustrations and descriptions of
common masonry bond patterns. (2) The physical adhesive or
mechanical binding between masonry units, mortar, grout and
reinforcement. (3) To connect wythes or masonry units.
Bond beam: (1) The grouted course or courses of masonry
units reinforced with longitudinal bars and designed to take
the longitudinal flexural and tensile forces that may be
induced in a masonry wall. (2) A horizontal grouted element
within masonry in which reinforcement is embedded.
Bond beam block: A hollow unit with depressed webs or with
"knock-out" webs (which are removed prior to placement)
to accommodate horizontal reinforcement and grout.
Bond breaker: A material used to prevent adhesion between
two surfaces.
Bond, running: The placement of masonry units such that head
joints in successive courses are horizontally offset at least one-
quarter the unit length. [1] Centering head joints over the unit
below, called center or half bond, is the most common form of
running bond. A horizontal offset between head joints in
successive courses of one-third and one-quarter the unit length
is called third bond and quarter bond, respectively.
Bond, stack: For structural design purposes, Building Code
Requirements for Masonry Structures considers all masonry not
laid in running bond as stack bond. [1] In common use, stack bond
typically refers to masonry laid so head joints in successive courses
are vertically aligned. Also called plumb joint bond, straight stack,
jack bond, jack-on-jack and checkerboard bond.
Bond strength: The resistance to separation of mortar from
masonry units and of mortar and grout from reinforcing steel
and other materials with which it is in contact.
Brick: A solid or hollow manufactured masonry unit of either
concrete, clay or stone.
Cantilever: A member structurally supported at only one end
through a fixed connection. The opposite end has no structural
support.
Cap block: A solid slab used as a coping unit. May contain
ridges, bevels or slopes to facilitate drainage. (See also
“Coping block.”)
Cavity: A continuous air space between wythes of masonry or
between masonry and its backup system. Typically greater
than 2 in. (51 mm) in thickness. (See “Collar joint.”)
Cell: The hollow space within a concrete masonry unit formed
by the face shells and webs. Also called core.
Cementitious material: A generic term for any inorganic material
including cement, pozzolanic or other finely divided mineral
admixtures or other reactive admixtures, or a mixture of such
materials that sets and develops strength by chemical reaction with
water. In general, the following are considered cementitious
materials: portland cement, hydraulic cements, lime putty, hydrated
lime, pozzolans and ground granulated blast furnace slag. [3]
Cleanout/cleanout hole: An opening of sufficient size and
spacing so as to allow removal of debris from the bottom of
the grout space. Typically located in the first course of
masonry. [2]
Cold weather construction: Procedures used to construct
masonry when ambient air temperature or masonry unit
temperature is below 40°F (4.4°C).
Collar joint: A vertical longitudinal space between wythes of
masonry or between masonry wythe and backup construction,
sometimes filled with mortar or grout. Typically less than 2
in. (51 mm) in thickness. [1] (See also “Cavity.”)
Color (pigment): A compatible, color fast, chemically stable
admixture that gives a cementitious matrix its coloring.
Column: (1) In structures, a relatively long, slender structural
compression member such as a post, pillar, or strut. Usually
vertical, a column supports loads that act primarily in the
direction of its longitudinal axis. (2) For the purposes of design,
an isolated vertical member whose horizontal dimension measured
at right angles to the thickness does not exceed 3 times its thickness
and whose height is greater than 4 times it thickness. [1]
Composite action: Transfer of stress between components of
a member designed so that in resisting loads, the combined
components act together as a single member. [1]
Compressive strength: The maximum compressive load that
a specimen will support divided by the net cross-sectional
area of the specimen.
Compressive strength of masonry: Maximum compressive
force resisted per unit of net cross-sectional area of masonry,
determined by testing masonry prisms or as a function of
individual masonry units, mortar and grout in accordance
with ref. 2. [2] (See also “Specified compressive strength of
masonry.”)
Concrete: A composite material that consists of a water reactive
binding medium, water and aggregate (usually a combination
of fine aggregate and coarse aggregate) with or without
admixtures. In portland cement concrete, the binder is a
mixture of portland cement, water and may contain admixtures.
Concrete block: A hollow or solid concrete masonry unit.
Larger in size than a concrete brick.
Concrete brick: A concrete hollow or solid unit smaller in
size than a concrete block.
Concrete masonry unit: Hollow or solid masonry unit,
manufactured using low frequency, high amplitude vibration
to consolidate concrete of stiff or extremely dry consistency.
Connector: A mechanical device for securing two or more
pieces, parts or members together; includes anchors, wall ties
and fasteners. May be either structural or nonstructural. [1]
Connector, tie: A metal device used to join wythes of masonry
in a multiwythe wall or to attach a masonry veneer to its
backing. [1] (See also “Anchor.”)
Control joint: A continuous unbonded masonry joint that is
formed, sawed or tooled in a masonry structure to regulate
the location and amount of cracking and separation resulting
from dimensional changes of different parts of the structure,
thereby avoiding the development of high stresses.
Coping: The materials or masonry units used to form the
finished top of a wall, pier, chimney or pilaster to protect the
masonry below from water penetration.
Coping block: A solid concrete masonry unit intended for use
as the top finished course in wall construction.
Corbel: A projection of successive courses from the face of
masonry. [1]
Core: (See “Cell.”)
Corrosion resistant: A material that is treated or coated to
retard corrosive action. An example is steel that is galvanized
after fabrication.
Course: A horizontal layer of masonry units in a wall or, much
less commonly, curved over an arch.
Crack control: Methods used to control the extent, size and
location of cracking in masonry including reinforcing steel,
control joints and dimensional stability of masonry materials.
Cull: A masonry unit that does not meet the standards or
specifications and therefore has been rejected.
Curing: (1) The maintenance of proper conditions of moisture
and temperature during initial set to develop a required
strength and reduce shrinkage in products containing portland
cement. (2) The initial time period during which cementitious
materials gain strength.
Damp-proofing: The treatment of masonry to retard the
passage or absorption of water or water vapor, either by
application of a suitable coating or membrane to exposed
surfaces or by use of a suitable admixture or treated cement.
Damp check: An impervious horizontal layer to prevent
vertical penetration of water in a wall or other masonry
element. A damp check consists of either a course of solid
masonry, metal or a thin layer of asphaltic or bituminous
material. It is generally placed near grade to prevent upward
migration of moisture by capillary action.
Diaphragm: A roof or floor system designed to transmit
lateral forces to shear walls or other lateral load resisting
elements. [1]
Dimension, actual: The measured size of a concrete masonry
unit or assemblage.
Dimension, nominal: The specified dimension plus an
allowance for mortar joints, typically 3/8 in. (9.5 mm).
Nominal dimensions are usually stated in whole numbers.
Width (thickness) is given first, followed by height and then
length. [1]
Dimension, specified: The dimensions specified for the
manufacture or construction of a unit, joint or element.
Unless otherwise stated, all calculations are based on
specified dimensions. Actual dimensions may vary from
specified dimensions by permissible variations. [1]
Dowel: A metal reinforcing bar used to connect masonry to
masonry or to concrete.
Drip: A groove or slot cut beneath and slightly behind the
forward edge of a projecting unit or element, such as a sill,
lintel or coping, to cause rainwater to drip off and prevent it
from penetrating the wall.
Drying shrinkage: The change in linear dimension of a
concrete masonry wall or unit due to drying.
Dry stack: Masonry work laid without mortar.
Eccentricity: The distance between the resultant of an applied
load and the centroidal axis of the masonry element under
load.
Effective height: Clear height of a braced member between
lateral supports and used for calculating the slenderness
ratio of the member. [1]
Effective thickness: The assumed thickness of a member used
to calculate the slenderness ratio.
Efflorescence: A deposit or encrustation of soluble salts (generally
white), that may form on the surface of stone, brick, concrete
or mortar when moisture moves through the masonry materials
and evaporates on the surface. In new construction, sometimes
referred to as new building bloom. Once the structure dries, the
bloom normally disappears or is removed with water.
Equivalent thickness: The solid thickness to which a hollow
unit would be reduced if the material in the unit were recast
into a unit with the same face dimensions (height and length)
but without voids. The equivalent thickness of a 100% solid
unit is equal to the actual thickness. Used primarily to
determine masonry fire resistance ratings.
Expansion anchor: An anchoring device (based on a friction
grip) in which an expandable socket expands, causing a
wedge action, as a bolt is tightened into it.
Face: (1) The surface of a wall or masonry unit. (2) The
surface of a unit designed to be exposed in the finished
masonry.
Face shell: The outer wall of a hollow concrete masonry unit. [5]
Face shell mortar bedding: Hollow masonry unit construction
where mortar is applied only to the horizontal surface of the
unit face shells and the head joints to a depth equal to the
thickness of the face shell. No mortar is applied to the unit
cross webs. (See also “Full mortar bedding.”)
Facing: Any material forming a part of a wall and used as a
finished surface.
Fastener: A device used to attach components to masonry,
typically nonstructural in nature.
Fire resistance: A rating assigned to walls indicating the
length of time a wall performs as a barrier to the passage of
flame, hot gases and heat when subjected to a standardized
fire and hose stream test. For masonry, fire resistance is most
often determined based on the masonry’s equivalent thickness
and aggregate type.
Flashing: A thin impervious material placed in mortar joints
and through air spaces in masonry to prevent water penetration
and to facilitate water drainage.
Fly ash: The finely divided residue resulting from the
combustion of ground or powdered coal.
Footing: A structural element that transmits loads directly to
the soil.
Freeze-thaw durability: The ability to resist damage from
the cyclic freezing and thawing of moisture in materials and
the resultant expansion and contraction.
Full mortar bedding: Masonry construction where mortar is
applied to the entire horizontal surface of the masonry unit
and the head joints to a depth equal to the thickness of the
face shell. (See also “Face shell mortar bedding.”)
Glass unit masonry: Masonry composed of glass units
bonded by mortar. [1]
Glazed block: A concrete masonry unit with a permanent
smooth resinous tile facing applied during manufacture.
Also called prefaced block.
Ground face block: A concrete masonry unit in which the
surface is ground to a smooth finish exposing the internal
matrix and aggregate of the unit. Also called burnished or
honed block.
Grout: (1) A plastic mixture of cementitious materials,
aggregates, water, with or without admixtures initially
produced to pouring consistency without segregation of the
constituents during placement. [3] (2) The hardened
equivalent of such mixtures.
Grout, prestressing: A cementitious mixture used to
encapsulate bonded prestressing tendons. [2]
Grout, self-consolidating: Highly fluid and stable grout used
in high lift and low lift grouting that does not require
consolidation or reconsolidation.
Grout lift: An increment of grout height within a total grout
pour. A grout pour consists of one or more grout lifts. [2]
Grout pour: The total height of masonry to be grouted prior
to erection of additional masonry. A grout pour consists of
one or more grout lifts. [2]
Grouted masonry: (1) Masonry construction of hollow units
where hollow cells are filled with grout, or multiwythe
construction in which the space between wythes is solidly
filled with grout. (2) Masonry construction using solid
masonry units where the interior joints and voids are filled
with grout.
Grouting, high lift: The technique of grouting masonry in lifts
for the full height of the wall.
Grouting, low lift: The technique of grouting as the wall is
constructed, usually to scaffold or bond beam height, but not
greater than 4 to 6 ft (1,219 to 1,829 mm), depending on code
limitations.
“H” block: Hollow masonry unit lacking cross webs at both
ends forming an “H” in cross section. Used with reinforced
masonry construction. (See also “Open end block.”)
Header: A masonry unit that connects two or more adjacent
wythes of masonry. Also called a bonder. [1]
Height of wall: (1) The vertical distance from the foundation
wall or other similar intermediate support to the top of the
wall. (2) The vertical distance between intermediate supports.
Height-to-thickness ratio: The height of a masonry wall
divided by its nominal thickness. The thickness of cavity
walls is taken as the overall thickness minus the width of the
cavity.
High lift grouting: (See “Grouting, high lift.”)
Hollow masonry unit: A unit whose net cross-sectional area
in any plane parallel to the bearing surface is less than 75 %
of its gross cross-sectional area measured in the same plane.
[4]
Honed block: (See “Ground face block.”)
Hot weather construction: Procedures used to construct
masonry when ambient air temperature exceeds 100°F
(37.8°C) or temperature exceeds 90°F (32.2°C) with a wind
speed greater than 8 mph (13 km/h).
Inspection: The observations to verify that the masonry
construction meets the requirements of the applicable design
standards and contract documents.
Jamb block: A block specially formed for the jamb of windows
or doors, generally with a vertical slot to receive window
frames, etc. Also called sash block.
Joint: The surface at which two members join or abut. If they
are held together by mortar, the mortar-filled volume is the
joint.
Joint reinforcement: Steel wires placed in mortar bed joints
(over the face shells in hollow masonry). Multi-wire joint
reinforcement assemblies have cross wires welded between
the longitudinal wires at regular intervals.
Lap: (1) The distance two bars overlap when forming a splice.
(2) The distance one masonry unit extends over another.
Lap splice: The connection between reinforcing steel generated
by overlapping the ends of the reinforcement.
Lateral support: The means of bracing structural members in
the horizontal span by columns, buttresses, pilasters or cross
walls, or in the vertical span by beams, floors, foundations,
or roofs.
Lightweight aggregate: Natural or manufactured aggregate
of low density, such as expanded or sintered clay, shale,
slate, diatomaceous shale, perlite, vermiculite, slag, natural
pumice, volcanic cinders, diatomite, sintered fly ash or
industrial cinders.
Lightweight concrete masonry unit: A unit whose oven-dry
density is less than 105 lb/ft3 (1,680 kg/m3). [4]
Lime: Calcium oxide (CaO), a general term for the various
chemical and physical forms of quicklime, hydrated lime
and hydraulic hydrated lime.
Lintel: A beam placed or constructed over a wall opening to
carry the superimposed load.
Lintel block: A U-shaped masonry unit, placed with the open
side up to accommodate horizontal reinforcement and grout
to form a continuous beam. Also called channel block.
Loadbearing: (See “Wall, loadbearing.”)
Low lift grouting: (See “Grouting, low lift.”)
Manufactured masonry unit: A man-made noncombustible
building product intended to be laid by hand and joined by
mortar, grout or other methods. [5]
Masonry: An assemblage of masonry units, joined with
mortar, grout or other accepted methods. [5]
Masonry cement: (1) A mill-mixed cementitious material to
which sand and water is added to make mortar. (2) Hydraulic
cement produced for use in mortars for masonry construction.
Medium weight concrete masonry unit: A unit whose oven-
dry density is at least 105 lb/ft3 (1,680 kg/m3) but less than
125 lb/ft3 (2,000 kg/m3). [4]
Metric: The Systeme Internationale (SI), the standard
international system of measurement. Hard metric refers to
products or materials manufactured to metric specified
dimensions. Soft metric refers to products or materials
manufactured to English specified dimensions, then
converted into metric dimensions.
Mix design: The proportions of materials used to produce
mortar, grout or concrete.
Modular coordination: The designation of masonry units,
door and window frames, and other construction components
that fit together during construction without customization.
Modular design: Construction with standardized units or
dimensions for flexibility and variety in use.
Moisture content: The amount of water contained within a
unit at the time of sampling expressed as a percentage of the
total amount of water in the unit when saturated. [4]
Mortar: (1) A mixture of cementitious materials, fine aggregate
water, with or without admixtures, used to construct unit
masonry assemblages. [3] (2) The hardened equivalent of
such mixtures.
Mortar bed: A horizontal layer of mortar used to seat a
masonry unit.
Mortar bond: (See “Bond.”)
Mortar joint, bed: The horizontal layer of mortar between
masonry units. [1]
Mortar joint, head: The vertical mortar joint placed between
masonry units within the wythe. [1]
Mortar joint profile: The finished shape of the exposed
portion of the mortar joint. Common profiles include:
Concave: Produced with a rounded jointer, this is the standard
mortar joint unless otherwise specified. Recommended for
exterior walls because it easily sheds water.
Raked: A joint where 1/4 to 1/2 in. (6.4 to 13 mm) is removed
from the outside of the joint.
Struck: An approximately flush joint. See also “Strike.”
Net section: The minimum cross section of the member under
consideration.
Nonloadbearing: (See “Wall, nonloadbearing.”)
Normal weight concrete masonry unit: A unit whose oven-
dry density is 125 lb/ft3 (2000 kg/m3) or greater. [4]
Open end block: A hollow unit, with one or both ends open.
Used primarily with reinforced masonry construction. (See
“A” block and “H” block.)
Parging: (1) A coating of mortar, which may contain damp-
proofing ingredients, over a surface. (2) The process of
applying such a coating.
Pier: An isolated column of masonry or a bearing wall not
bonded at the sides to associated masonry. For design, a
vertical member whose horizontal dimension measured at
right angles to its thickness is not less than three times its
thickness nor greater than six times its thickness and whose
height is less than five times its length. [1]
Pigment: (See “Color.”)
Pilaster: A bonded or keyed column of masonry built as part
of a wall. It may be flush or project from either or both wall
surfaces. It has a uniform cross section throughout its height
and serves as a vertical beam, a column or both.
Pilaster block: Concrete masonry units designed for use in the
construction of plain or reinforced concrete masonry pilasters
and columns.
Plain masonry: (See “Unreinforced masonry.”)
Plaster: (See "Stucco.")
Plasticizer: An ingredient such as an admixture incorporated
into a cementitious material to increase its workability,
flexibility or extensibility.
Post-tensioning: A method of prestressing in which
prestressing tendons are tensioned after the masonry has
been placed. [1] See also “Wall, prestressed.”
Prestressing tendon: Steel element such as wire, bar or
strand, used to impart prestress to masonry. [1]
Prism: A small assemblage made with masonry units and mortar
and sometimes grout. Primarily used for quality control purposes
to assess the strength of full-scale masonry members.
Prism strength: Maximum compressive force resisted per
unit of net cross-sectional area of masonry, determined by
testing masonry prisms.
Project specifications: The written documents that specify
project requirements in accordance with the service
parameters and other specific criteria established by the
owner or owner’s agent.
Quality assurance: The administrative and procedural
requirements established by the contract documents and by
code to assure that constructed masonry is in compliance
with the contract documents. [1]
Quality control: The planned system of activities used to
provide a level of quality that meets the needs of the users
and the use of such a system. The objective of quality control
is to provide a system that is safe, adequate, dependable and
economic. The overall program involves integrating factors
including: the proper specification; production to meet the
full intent of the specification; inspection to determine
whether the resulting material, product and service is in
accordance with the specifications; and review of usage to
determine any necessary revisions to the specifications.
Reinforced masonry: (1) Masonry containing reinforcement
in the mortar joints or grouted cores used to resist stresses.
(2) Unit masonry in which reinforcement is embedded in
such a manner that the component materials act together to
resist applied forces.
Reinforcing steel: Steel embedded in masonry in such a
manner that the two materials act together to resist forces.
Retarding agent: An ingredient or admixture in mortar that
slows setting or hardening, most commonly in the form of
finely ground gypsum.
Ribbed block: A block with projecting ribs (with either a
rectangular or circular profile) on the face for aesthetic
purposes. Also called fluted.
Sash block: (See “Jamb block.”)
Scored block: A block with grooves on the face for aesthetic
purposes. For example, the grooves may simulate raked joints.
Screen block: An open-faced masonry unit used for decorative
purposes or to partially screen areas from the sun or from view.
Shell: (See “Face shell.”)
Shoring and bracing: The props or posts used to temporarily
support members during construction.
Shrinkage: The decrease in volume due to moisture loss, decrease
in temperature or carbonation of a cementitious material.
Sill: A flat or slightly beveled unit set horizontally at the base
of an opening in a wall.
Simply supported: A member structurally supported at top
and bottom or both sides through a pin-type connection,
which assumes no moment transfer.
Slenderness ratio: (1) The ratio of a member’s effective
height to radius of gyration. (2) The ratio of a member's
height to thickness.
Slump: (1) The drop in the height of a cementitious material
from its original shape when in a plastic state. (2) A
standardized measurement of a plastic cementitious material
to determine its flow and workability.
Slump block: A concrete masonry unit produced so that it
slumps or sags in irregular fashion before it hardens.
Slushed joint: A mortar joint filled after units are laid by
“throwing” mortar in with the edge of a trowel.
Solid masonry unit: A unit whose net cross-sectional area in
every plane parallel to the bearing surface is 75 percent or more
of its gross cross-sectional area measured in the same plane. [4]
Note that Canadian standards define a solid unit as 100% solid.
Spall: To flake or split away due to internal or external forces
such as frost action, pressure, dimensional changes after
installation, vibration, impact, or some combination.
Specified dimensions: (See “Dimension, specified.”)
Specified compressive strength of masonry, f'm: Minimum
masonry compressive strength required by contract
documents, upon which the project design is based (expressed
in terms of force per unit of net cross-sectional area). [1]
Split block: A concrete masonry unit with one or more faces
purposely fractured to produce a rough texture for aesthetic
purposes. Also called a split-faced or rock-faced block.
Stirrup: Shear reinforcement in a flexural member. [1]
Strike: To finish a mortar joint with a stroke of the trowel or
special tool, simultaneously removing extruded mortar and
smoothing the surface of the mortar remaining in the joint.
Stucco: A combination of cement and aggregate mixed with a
suitable amount of water to form a plastic mixture that will
adhere to a surface and preserve the texture imposed on it.
Temper: To moisten and mix mortar to a proper consistency.
Thermal movement: Dimension change due to temperature
change.
Tie: (See “Connector, tie.”)
Tolerance: The specified allowance in variation from a
specified size, location, or placement.
Tooling: Compressing and shaping the face of a mortar joint
with a tool other than a trowel. See "Mortar joint profile" for
definitions of common joints.
Unreinforced masonry: Masonry in which the tensile
resistance of the masonry is taken into consideration and the
resistance of reinforcement, if present, is neglected. Also
called plain masonry. [1]
Veneer, adhered: Masonry veneer secured to and supported
by the backing through adhesion. [2]
Veneer, anchored: Masonry veneer secured to and supported
laterally by the backing through anchors and supported
vertically by the foundation or other structural elements.
Veneer, masonry: A masonry wythe that provides the finish
of a wall system and transfers out-of-plane loads directly to
a backing, but is not considered to add load resisting
capacity to the wall system. [1]
Wall, bonded: A masonry wall in which two or more wythes
are bonded to act as a composite structural unit.
Wall, cavity: A multiwythe noncomposite masonry wall with
a continuous air space within the wall (with or without
insulation), which is tied together with metal ties. [1]
Wall, composite: A multiwythe wall where the individual
masonry wythes act together to resist applied loads. (See
also “Composite action.”)
Wall, curtain: (1) A nonloadbearing wall between columns or
piers. (2) A nonloadbearing exterior wall vertically supported
only at its base, or having bearing support at prescribed
vertical intervals. (3) An exterior nonloadbearing wall in
skeleton frame construction. Such walls may be anchored to
columns, spandrel beams or floors, but not
Wall, foundation: A wall below the floor nearest grade serving
as a support for a wall, pier, column or other structural part of
a building and in turn supported by a footing.
Wall, loadbearing: Wall that supports vertical load in addition
to its own weight. By code, a wall carrying vertical loads
greater than 200 lb/ft (2.9 kN/m) in addition to its own weight. [1]
Wall, multiwythe: Wall composed of 2 or more masonry
wythes.
Wall, nonloadbearing: A wall that supports no vertical load
other than its own weight. By code, a wall carrying vertical
loads less than 200 lb/ft (2.9 kN/m) in addition to its own
weight. [1]
Wall, panel: (1) An exterior nonloadbearing wall in skeleton
frame construction, wholly supported at each story. (2) A
nonloadbearing exterior masonry wall having bearing support
at each story.
Wall, partition: An interior wall without structural function. [2]
Wall, prestressed: A masonry wall in which internal
compressive stresses have been introduced to counteract
stresses resulting from applied loads. [1]
Wall, reinforced: (1) A masonry wall reinforced with steel
embedded so that the two materials act together in resisting
forces. (2) A wall containing reinforcement used to resist
shear and tensile stresses.
Wall, retaining: A wall designed to prevent the movement of
soils and structures placed behind the wall.
Wall, screen: A masonry wall constructed with more than
25% open area intended for decorative purposes, typically
to partially screen an area from the sun or from view.
Wall, shear: A wall, bearing or nonbearing, designed to resist
lateral forces acting in the plane of the wall. [1]
Wall, single wythe: A wall of one masonry unit thickness.
Disclaimer: Although care has been taken to ensure the enclosed information is as accurate and complete as possible, NCMA
does not assume responsibility for errors or omissions resulting from the use of this TEK.
NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION
13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171
www.ncma.org
Wall, solid masonry: A wall either built of solid masonry
units or built of hollow units and grouted solid.
Wall tie: A metal connector that connects wythes of masonry.
Wall tie, veneer: A wall tie used to connect a facing veneer to
the backing.
Water permeance: The ability of water to penetrate through
a substance such as mortar or brick.
Waterproofing: (1) The methods used to prevent moisture
flow through masonry. (2) The materials used to prevent
moisture flow through masonry.
Water repellency: The reduction of absorption.
Water repellent: Material added to the masonry to increase
resistance to water penetration. Can be a surface treatment
or integral water repellent admixture.
Web: The portion of a hollow concrete masonry unit connecting
the face shells.
Weep hole: An opening left (or cut) in mortar joints or
masonry face shells to allow moisture to exit the wall.
Usually located immediately above flashing.
Workability: The ability of mortar or grout to be easily placed
and spread.
Wythe: Each continuous vertical section of a wall, one masonry
unit in thickness. [1]
REFERENCES
1. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, ACI 530-
02/ASCE 5-02/TMS 402-02. Reported by the Masonry Standards
Joint Committee, 2002.
2. Specification for Masonry Structures, ACI 530.1-02/ASCE 6-02/
TMS 602-02. Reported by the Masonry Standards Joint Commit-
tee, 2002.
3. Standard Terminology of Mortar and Grout for Unit Masonry,
ASTM C 1180-03. ASTM International, 2003.
4. Standard Terminology of Concrete Masonry Units and Related
Units, ASTM C 1209-01a. ASTM International, 2001.
5. Standard Terminology of Masonry, ASTM C 1232-02. ASTM
International, 2002.
6. Concrete Masonry Bond Patterns, TEK 14-6. National Concrete
Masonry Association, 1999.
To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
An information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology

TYPICAL SIZES AND SHAPES OF

CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS TEK 2-1B
Unit Properties (2017)

INTRODUCTION of concrete masonry units as listed in Table 1. Overall unit

Concrete masonry is one of the most versatile building
products available because of the wide variety of appearances
that can be achieved using concrete masonry units. Concrete
masonry units are manufactured in different sizes, shapes, col-
ors, and textures to achieve a number of finishes and functions.
In addition, because of its modular nature, different concrete
masonry units can be combined within the same wall to achieve
variations in texture, pattern, and color.
Certain concrete masonry sizes and shapes are considered
standard, while others are popular only in certain regions. Lo-
cal manufacturers can provide detailed information on specific
products, or the feasibility of producing custom units.
UNIT SIZES
dimensions (width, height, and length) are permitted to vary
by ±1/8 in. (3.2 mm) from the specified dimensions. Where
required, units may be manufactured to closer tolerances than
those stipulated by ASTM C90. ASTM C90 also defines the
difference between hollow and solid concrete masonry units.
The net cross-sectional area of a solid unit is at least 75% of
the gross cross-sectional area.
In addition to the unit sizes above, concrete brick comply-
ing with ASTM C1634, Standard Specification for Concrete
Facing Brick (ref. 2), are available in a wide array of nominal
lengths and heights; typically with a nominal 4 in. (102 mm)
width for veneer applications. Concrete brick may be 100%
solid or cored, provided that the cored area of the brick does
not exceed 25% of the gross cross-sectional area.

Typically, concrete masonry units have nominal face di-

8" (203 mm)
mensions of 8 in. (203 mm) by 16 in. (406 mm), available in
nominal thicknesses of 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, and 16 in. (102, 152,
203, 254, 305, 356, and 406 mm). Nominal dimensions refer m)
to the module size for planning bond patterns and modular 8" 6m
(20 " (40
3m 16
layout with respect to door and window openings. Specified m)
dimensions of concrete masonry units are typically 3/8 in.
Nominal Unit Dimension
(9.5 mm) less than nominal dimensions, so that a 4 or 8 in. (102
or 203 mm) module is maintained with 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) mortar
joints. Figure 1 illustrates nominal and specified dimensions 7 5/8" (194 mm)
for a nominal 8 x 8 x 16 in. (203 x 203 x 406 mm) concrete
masonry unit. In addition to these standard sizes, other unit
heights, lengths, and thicknesses may be available from local m)
75 7m
/8" 39
concrete masonry producers. "(
(19 5/8
4m 15
Standard Specification for Loadbearing Concrete Masonry m)
Units, ASTM C90 (ref. 1) is the most frequently referenced Specified Unit Dimensions
standard for concrete masonry units. ASTM C90 includes
minimum face shell and web thicknesses for the different sizes Figure 1—Nominal and Specified Unit Dimensions

Related TEK: Keywords: acoustal, architectural units, bond beam units, concrete
brick, dimensions, lintel units, modular, screen block, sizes and shapes
1-1F, 1-4, 2-2B, 2-3A, 2-5B, 3-6C,
3-16A, 5-12, 5-16, 6-11A, 13-2A,

NCMA TEK 2-1B (replaces TEK 2-1A) 1

 Table 1—–Minimum Face Shell and Web RequirementsA

Webs
Nominal Width (W) of Units, Face Shell Thickness (tfs ),
in. (mm) minimum, in. (mm) B,C Web Thickness (tw), mini-
C
Normalized Web Area (Anw),
mum, in. (mm) minimum, in.2/ft2 (mm2/m2)D
3 (76.2) and 4 (102) 3
/4 (19) 3
/4 (19) 6.5 (45,140)
6 (152) 1 (25) 3
/4 (19) 6.5 (45,140)
8 (203) and greater 1 /4 (32)
1
/4 (19)
3
6.5 (45,140)
A
Average of measurements on a minimum of 3 units when measured as described in Test Methods C140/C140M (ref. 3).
B
For units having split surfaces, a maximum of 10% of the split surface is permitted to have a face shell thickness less than
those shown, but not less than 3/4 in. (19 mm). When the units are to be solid grouted, the 10 % limit does not apply and
Footnote C establishes a thickness requirement for the entire face shell.
C
When the units are to be solid grouted, minimum face shell and web thickness shall not be less than 5/8 in. (16 mm).
D
Minimum normalized web area does not apply to the portion of the unit to be filled with grout. The length of that portion
shall be deducted from the overall length for the calculation of the minimum web cross-sectional area.

UNIT SHAPES beams in concrete masonry walls can be accommodated either

Concrete masonry unit shapes have been developed for a
wide variety of applications. Some common unit configurations
are shown in Figure 2. Typically, the face shells and webs are
tapered on concrete masonry units. Depending on the core
molds used in the manufacture of the units, face shells and
webs may be tapered with a flare at one end, or may have a
straight taper from top to bottom. The taper provides a wider
surface for mortar and easier handling for the mason.
Open-ended units allow the units to be threaded around
reinforcing bars. This eliminates the need to lift units over
the top of the reinforcing bar, or to thread the reinforcement
through the masonry cores after the wall is constructed. Bond
by saw-cutting a portion of the webs out of a standard unit, or
by using bond beam units. Bond beam units are either manu-
factured with reduced webs or with “knock-out” webs, which
are removed prior to unit placement in the wall. Horizontal
bond beam reinforcement is easily accommodated in these
units. Lintel units are similar to bond beam units except the
bottom of the unit is solid to confine grout to the lintel. Lintel
units are available in various depths to carry appropriate lintel
loads over door and window openings. Sash block have a
vertical groove molded into one end to accommodate a window
sash. Sash block can be laid with the grooves adjacent to one
another to accommodate a preformed control joint gasket. An
all-purpose or kerf unit contains two closely spaced webs

Stretcher unit Single corner unit Sash unit All purpose or kerf unit

Open end, or Double open end unit Lintel unit Double corner unit or
"A" shaped unit plain end unit

Bond beam units Concrete brick

Figure 2—Typical Concrete Masonry Units

2 NCMA TEK

Control joint unit
Pilaster units
Figure 3—Special Unit Sapes
Figure 4—Examples of Concrete Masonry Units
Designed for Energy Efficiency
in the center, rather than the typical single web. This allows
the unit to be easily split on the jobsite, producing two 8 in.
(203  mm) long units, which are typically used adjacent to
openings or at the ends or corner of a wall.
Figure 3 shows units developed for specific wall applications.
Control joint units are manufactured with one male and one
female end to provide lateral load transfer across control joints.
Bull-nosed units are available with either a single or double
bull nose, to soften corners. Screen units are available in many
sizes and patterns (ref. 4). Typical applications include exterior
fences, interior partitions, and openings within interior concrete
masonry walls. Bevelled-end units, forming a 45° angle with
the face of the unit, are used to form walls intersecting at 135°
angles. Units in adjacent courses overlap to form a running bond
pattern at the corner. Pilaster and column units are used to
easily accommodate a wall-column or wall- pilaster interface,
allowing space for vertical reinforcement in the hollow center.
A variety of concrete masonry units are designed to increase
energy efficiency. These units, examples of which are shown
in Figure 4, may have reduced web areas to reduce heat flow
through the webs. Web areas can be reduced by reducing the
web height or thickness, reducing the number of webs, or
both. In addition, the interior face shell of the unit can be made
NCMA TEK 3
Bull-nosed unit Corner return unit
Screen units
Figure 5—Examples of Acoustical Concrete
Masonry Units
thicker than a typical face shell for increased thermal storage,
and hence further increase energy efficiency. Insulating inserts
can also be incorporated into standard concrete masonry units
to increase energy efficiency.
Acoustical units (Figure 5) dampens sound, thus improving
the noise reduction attributes of an interior space. Acoustical
units are often used in schools, industrial plants, and churches,
and similar applications where improved internal acoustics
are desired.
SURFACE FINISHES
The finished appearance of a concrete masonry wall can be
varied with the size of units, shape of units, color of units and
mortar, bond pattern, and surface finish of the units. The various
shapes and sizes of concrete masonry units described above
are often available in a choice of surface finishes. Some of the
surfaces are molded into the units during the manufacturing
process, while others are applied separately.
For more information on architectural surface finishes, see
TEK 2-3B Architectural Concrete Masonry Units (ref. 5).
NOTATIONS

Anw = Normalized web area, in.2/ft2 (mm2/m2)

tfs = Minimum face shell thickness, in. (mm)
tw = Minimum web thickness, in. (mm)
W = Nominal unit width, in. (mm)

REFERENCES

1. Standard Specification for Loadbearing Concrete Masonry Units, ASTM C90-16, ASTM International, 2016.
2. Standard Specification for Concrete Facing Brick, ASTM C1634-15, ASTM International, 2015.
3. Standard Test Methods for Sampling and Testing Concrete Masonry Units and Related Units, ASTM C140/C140M-16, ASTM
International, 2016.
4. Concrete Masonry Screen Walls, TEK 3-16A, National Concrete Masonry Association, 2016.
5. Architectural Concrete Masonry Units, TEK 2-3B, National Concrete Masonry Association, 2017.

NCMA and the companies disseminating this technical information disclaim any and all responsibility and liability for the accuracy
and the application of the information contained in this publication.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION

13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171
www.ncma.org

To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index, contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900

4 NCMA TEK
 NCMA TEK
National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology

GROUTING CONCRETE MASONRY WALLS TEK 3-2A

Construction (2005)

Keywords: cleanouts, concrete masonry units, construc-
tion techniques, consolidation, demonstration panel,
grout, grouting, lift height, pour height, puddling,
reinforced concrete masonry, reinforcement
INTRODUCTION
Grouted concrete masonry construction offers design
flexibility through the use of partially or fully grouted walls,
whether plain or reinforced. The industry is experiencing
fast-paced advances in grouting procedures and materials as
building codes allow new opportunities to explore means and
methods for constructing grouted masonry walls.
Grout is a mixture of: cementitious material (usually
portland cement); aggregate; enough water to cause the mix-
ture to flow readily and without segregation into cores or
cavities in the masonry; and sometimes admixtures. Grout is
used to give added strength to both reinforced and unrein-
forced concrete masonry walls by grouting either some or all
of the cores. It is also used to fill bond beams and occasionally
to fill the collar joint of a multi-wythe wall. Grout may also be
added to increase the wall's fire rating, acoustic effectiveness
termite resistance, blast resistance, heat capacity or anchor-
age capabilities. Grout may also be used to stabilize screen
walls and other landscape elements.
In reinforced masonry, grout bonds the masonry units
and reinforcing steel so that they act together to resist
imposed loads. In partially grouted walls, grout is placed
only in wall spaces containing steel reinforcement. When all
cores, with or without reinforcement, are grouted, the wall is
considered solidly grouted. If vertical reinforcement is
spaced close together and/or there are a significant number
of bond beams within the wall, it may be faster and more
economical to solidly grout the wall.
Specifications for grout, sampling and testing proce-
dures, and information on admixtures are covered in Grout for
Concrete Masonry (ref. 1). This TEK covers methods for
laying the units, placing steel reinforcement and grouting.
WALL CONSTRUCTION
Figure 1 shows the basic components of a typical rein-
forced concrete masonry wall. When walls will be grouted,
concrete masonry units must be laid up so that vertical cores
are aligned to form an unobstructed, continuous series of
vertical spaces within the wall.

Place mesh or other grout Flashing

stop device under bond beam
to confine grout or use solid Leave this block out to
bottom unit serve as a cleanout
until wall is laid up
Vertical reinforcement -
lap and secure as required Drip edge
Cells containing
reinforcement are filled
solidly with grout;
vertical cells should
provide a continuous
Reinforcement in
cavity, substantially free
bond beams is set in
of mortar droppings
place as wall is laid up

Place mortar on cross

webs adjacent to cells
which will be grouted

Figure 1—Typical Reinforced Concrete Masonry Wall Section

TEK 3-2A © 2005 National Concrete Masonry Association (replaces TEKs 3-2 and 3-3A)
 Head and bed joints must be filled with mortar for the
full thickness of the face shell. If the wall will be partially
grouted, those webs adjacent to the cores to be grouted are
mortared to confine the grout flow. If the wall will be solidly
grouted, the cross webs need not be mortared since the grout
flows laterally, filling all spaces. In certain instances, full
head joint mortaring should also be considered when solid
grouting since it is unlikely that grout will fill the space
between head joints that are only mortared the width of the
face shell, i.e., when penetration resistance is a concern such
as torm shelters and prison walls. In cases such as those,
open end or open core units (see Figure 3) should be
considered as there is no space between end webs with these
types of units.
Care should be taken to prevent excess mortar from
extruding into the grout space. Mortar that projects more than
1
/2 in. (13 mm) into the grout space must be removed (ref. 3).
This is because large protrusions can restrict the flow of grout,
which will tend to bridge at these locations potentially causing
incomplete filling of the grout space. To prevent bridging,
grout slump is required to be between 8 and 11 in. (203 to 279
mm) (refs. 2, 3) at the time of placement. This slump may be
adjusted under certain conditions such as hot or cold weather
installation, low absorption units or other project specific
conditions. Approval should be obtained before adjusting the
slump outside the requirements. Using the grout demonstra-
tion panel option in Specification for Masonry Structures
(ref. 3) is an excellent way to demonstrate the acceptability of
an alternate grout slump. See the Grout Demonstration Panel
section of this TEK for further information.
At the footing, mortar bedding under the first course of
block to be grouted should permit grout to come into direct
contact with the foundation or bearing surface. If foundation
Vertical
reinforcement,
as required
Grout, as
required
Concrete
masonry wall
Dowels may be
bent up to 1 in.
(25 mm) laterally
per 6 in. (152 mm)
vertically
Concrete
foundation
Figure 2—Foundation Dowel Clearance
dowels are present, they should align with the cores of the
masonry units. If a dowel interferes with the placement of the
units, it may be bent a maximum of 1 in. (25 mm) horizontally
for every 6 in. (152 mm) vertically (see Figure 2). When walls
will be solidly grouted, saw cutting or chipping away a portion
of the web to better accommodate the dowel may also be
acceptable. If there is a substantial dowel alignment problem,
the project engineer must be notified.
Vertical reinforcing steel may be placed before the
blocks are laid, or after laying is completed. If reinforcement
is placed prior to laying block, the use of open-end A or H-
shaped units will allow the units to be easily placed around the
reinforcing steel (see Figure 3). When reinforcement is placed
after wall erection, reinforcing steel positioners or other
adequate devices to hold the reinforcement in place are
commonly used, but not required. However, it is required
that both horizontal and vertical reinforcement be located
within tolerances and secured to prevent displacement during
grouting (ref. 3). Laps are made at the end of grout pours and
any time the bar has to be spliced. The length of lap splices
should be shown on the project drawings. On occasion there
may be locations in the structure where splices are prohibited.
Those locations are to be clearly marked on the drawing.
Reinforcement can be spliced by either contact or
noncontact splices. Noncontact lap splices may be spaced as far
apart as one-fifth the required length of the lap but not more than
8 in. (203 mm) per Building Code Requirements for Masonry
Structures (ref. 4). This provision accommodates construction
interference during installation as well as misplaced dowels.
Open end, or "A" Double open end or
shaped unit "H" shaped unit
Bond beam units Pilaster units
Lintel unit Open core unit
Figure 3—Concrete Masonry Units for
Reinforced Construction
Splices are not required to be tied, however tying is often used
as a means to hold bars in place.
As the wall is constructed, horizontal reinforcement
can be placed in bond beam or lintel units. If the wall will not
be solidly grouted, the grout may be confined within the
desired grout area either by using solid bottom masonry
bond beam units or by placing plastic or metal screening,
expanded metal lath or other approved material in the
horizontal bed joint before laying the mortar and units being
used to construct the bond beam. Roofing felt or materials
that break the bond between the masonry units and mortar
should not be used for grout stops.
CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS AND
REINFORCING BARS
Standard two-core concrete masonry units can be
effectively reinforced when lap splices are not long, since the
mason must lift the units over any vertical reinforcing bars that
extend above the previously installed masonry. The concrete
masonry units illustrated in Figure 3 are examples of shapes
that have been developed specifically to accommodate
reinforcement. Open-ended units allow the units to be placed
around reinforcing bars. This eliminates the need to thread
units over the top of the reinforcing bar. Horizontal
reinforcement in concrete masonry walls can be
accommodated either by saw-cutting webs out of a standard
unit or by using bond beam units. Bond beam units are
manufactured with either reduced webs or with “knock-out”
webs, which are removed prior to placement in the wall.
Pilaster and column units are used to accommodate a wall-
column or wall-pilaster interface, allowing space for vertical
reinforcement and ties, if necessary, in the hollow center.
Concrete masonry units should meet applicable ASTM
standards and should typically be stored on pallets to prevent
excessive dirt and water from contaminating the units. The
units may also need to be covered to protect them from rain
and snow.
The primary structural reinforcement used in concrete
masonry is deformed steel bars. Reinforcing bars must be of
the specified diameter, type and grade to assure compliance
with the contract documents. See Steel Reinforcement for
Concrete Masonry, TEK 12-4C for more information (ref. 6).
Shop drawings may be required before installation can begin.
Light rust, mill scale or a combination of both need not
be removed from the reinforcement. Mud, oil, heavy rust and

2 ft 8 in. (813 mm) 2 ft 8 in.

pour and 2 ft 8 in. (813 mm)
(813 mm) lift lift

5 ft (1.5 m) pour
and 5 ft (1.5 m) lift 5 ft (1.5 m)
lift 12 ft 8 in.
(3.9 m)
12 ft 8 in. pour
Lap (3.9 m) pour and
12 ft 8 in
(3.9 m) lift

5 ft (1.5 m) pour
and 5 ft (1.5 m) lift 5 ft (1.5 m)
lift

Lap Lap Lap

Cleanout Cleanout

Grouting without cleanouts: Grouting with cleanouts: Grouting with cleanouts per
(Low-lift) (High-lift) MSJC (2005) or grout demonstration panel:
No cleanouts required Cleanouts required Cleanouts required
Wall built in 3 stages Wall built full height Wall built full height
Bars spliced at pour height Bars installed full length (no splicing) Bars installed full length (no splicing)
Three grout lifts Three grout lifts One grout lift
Figure 4—Comparison of Grouting Methods for a 12 ft-8 in. (3,860 mm) High Concrete Masonry Wall
other materials which adversely affect bond must be removed project above the top of the pour for sufficient height to
however. The dimensions and weights (including heights of provide for the minimum required lap splice, except at the
deformations) of a cleaned bar cannot be less than those top of the finished wall.
required by the ASTM specification. Grout is to be placed within 11/2 hours from the initial
introduction of water and prior to initial set (ref. 3). Care
GROUT PLACEMENT should be taken to minimize grout splatter on reinforcement,
on finished masonry unit faces or into cores not immediately
To understand grout placement, the difference between a being grouted. Small amounts of grout can be placed by hand
grout lift and a grout pour needs to be understood. A lift is the with buckets. Larger quantities should be placed by grout
amount of grout placed in a single continuous operation. A pumps, grout buckets equipped with chutes or other
pour is the entire height of masonry to be grouted prior to the mechanical means designed to move large volumes of grout
construction of additional masonry. A pour may be composed without segregation.
of one lift or a number of successively placed grout lifts, as Grout must be consolidated either by vibration or puddling
illustrated in Figure 4. immediately after placement to help ensure complete filling
Historically, only two grout placement procedures have of the grout space. Puddling is allowed for grout pours of 12
been in general use: (l) where the wall is constructed to pour in. (305 mm) or less. For higher pour heights, mechanical
heights up to 5 ft (1,520 mm) without cleanouts—generally vibration is required and reconsolidation is also required. See the
termed “low lift grouting;” and (2) where the wall is section titled Consolidation and Reconsolidation in this TEK.
constructed to a maximum pour height of 24 ft (7,320 mm)
with required cleanouts and lifts are placed in increments of Grouting With Cleanouts—"High-Lift Grouting”
5 ft (1,520 mm)—generally termed “high lift grouting.” Many times it is advantageous to build the masonry wall
With the advent of the 2002 Specification for Masonry to full height before grouting rather than building it in 5 ft
Structures (ref. 5), a third option became available – grout (1,520 mm) increments as described above. With the
demonstration panels. The 2005 Specification for Masonry installation of cleanouts this can be done. Typically called
Structures (ref. 3) offers an additional option: to increase high-lift grouting within the industry, grouting with cleanouts
the grout lift height to 12 ft-8 in. (3,860 mm) under the permits the wall to be laid up to story height or to the
following conditions: maximum pour height shown in Table 1 prior to the installation
1. the masonry has cured for at least 4 hours, of reinforcement and grout. (Note that in Table 1, the
2. grout slump is maintained between 10 and 11 in. (245 and maximum area of vertical reinforcement does not include
279 mm), and the area at lap splices.) High lift grouting offers certain
3. no intermediate reinforced bond beams are placed between advantages, especially on larger projects. One advantage is
the top and the bottom of the pour height. that a larger volume of grout can be placed at one time,
Through the use of a grout demonstration panel, lift thereby increasing the overall speed of construction. A
heights in excess of the 12 ft-8 in. (3,860 mm) limitation may
be permitted if the results of the demonstration show that the
Table 1—Grout Space Requirements (ref. 3)
completed grout installation is not adversely affected. Written
approval is also required.
Grout Max. grout Min. width Min. grout space
These advances permit more efficient installation and
type1 pour height, of grout dimensions for grouting
construction options for grouted concrete masonry walls (see
ft (m) space 2,3, cells of hollow units 3,4
Figure 4).
in. (mm) in. x in. (mm x mm)
Fine 1 (0.30) ¾ (19.1) 1½ x 2 (38.1 x 50.8)
Grouting Without Cleanouts—"Low-Lift Grouting”
Fine 5 (1.52) 2 (50.8) 2 x 3 (50.8 x 76.2)
Grout installation without cleanouts is sometimes called
Fine 12 (3.66) 2½ (63.5) 2½ x 3 (63.5 x 76.2)
low-lift grouting. While the term is not found in codes or
Fine 24 (7.32) 3 (76.2) 3 x 3 (76.2 x 76.2)
standards, it is common industry language to describe the
Coarse 1 (0.30) 1½ (38.1) 1½ x 3 (38.1 x 76.2)
process of constructing walls in shorter segments, without the
Coarse 5 (1.52) 2 (50.8) 2½ x 3 (63.5 x 76.2)
requirements for cleanout openings, special concrete block
Coarse 12 (3.66) 2½ (63.5) 3 x 3 (76.2 x 76.2)
shapes or equipment. The wall is built to scaffold height or to
Coarse 24 (7.32) 3 (76.2) 3 x 4 (76.2 x 102)
a bond beam course, to a maximum of 5 ft (1,520 mm). Steel
reinforcing bars and other embedded items are then placed in 1
Fine and coarse grouts are defined in ASTM C 476 (ref. 2).
the designated locations and the cells are grouted. Although 2
For grouting between masonry wythes.
not a code requirement, it is considered good practice (for all 3
Grout space dimension is the clear dimension between
lifts except the final) to stop the level of the grout being placed
any masonry protrusion and shall be increased by the
approximately 1 in. (25 mm) below the top bed joint to help
diameters of the horizontal bars within the cross section of
provide some mechanical keying action and water penetration
the grout space.
resistance. Further, this is needed only when a cold joint is 4
Area of vertical reinforcement shall not exceed 6 percent
formed between the lifts and only in areas that will be
of the area of the grout space.
receiving additional grout. Steel reinforcement should
second advantage is that high-lift grouting can permit
constructing masonry to the full story height before placing
vertical reinforcement and grout. Less reinforcement is
used for splices and the location of the reinforcement can be
easily checked by the inspector prior to grouting. Bracing
may be required during construction. See Bracing Concrete
Masonry Walls During Construction, TEK 3-4B (ref. 7)
for further information.
Cleanout openings must be made in the face shells of the
bottom course of units at the location of the grout pour. The
openings must be large enough to allow debris to be removed
from the space to be grouted. For example, Specification for
Masonry Structures (ref. 3) requires a minimum opening
dimension of 3 in. (76 mm). Cleanouts must be located at the
bottom of all cores containing dowels or vertical reinforcement
and at a maximum of 32 in. (813 mm) on center (horizontal
measurement) for solidly grouted walls. Face shells are
removed either by cutting or use of special scored units
which permit easy removal of part of the face shell for
cleanout openings (see Figure 5). When the cleanout opening
is to be exposed in the finished wall, it may be desirable to
remove the entire face shell of the unit, so that it may be
replaced in whole to better conceal the opening. At flashing
where reduced thickness units are used as shown in Figure 1,
the exterior unit can be left out until after the masonry wall
is laid up. Then after cleaning the cell, the unit is mortared
in which allowed enough time to gain enough strength to
prevent blowout prior to placing the grout.
Proper preparation of the grout space before grouting is
very important. After laying masonry units, mortar droppings
and projections larger than 1/2 in. (13 mm) must be removed
from the masonry walls, reinforcement and foundation or
bearing surface. Debris may be removed using an air hose or
by sweeping out through the cleanouts. The grout spaces
should be checked by the inspector for cleanliness and
reinforcement position before the cleanouts are closed.
Cleanout openings may be sealed by mortaring the original
face shell or section of face shell, or by blocking the
openings to allow grouting to the finish plane of the wall.
Face shell plugs should be adequately braced to resist fluid
grout pressure.
It may be advisable to delay grouting until the mortar has
Figure 5—Unit Scored to Permit Removal of Part of
Face Shell for Cleanout
been allowed to cure, in order to prevent horizontal movement
(blowout) of the wall during grouting. When using the
increased grout lift height provided for in Article 3.5 D of
Specification for Masonry Structures (ref 3), the masonry
is required to cure for a minimum of 4 hours prior to
grouting for this reason.
Consolidation and Reconsolidation
An important factor mentioned in both grouting
procedures is consolidation. Consolidation eliminates voids,
helping to ensure complete grout fill and good bond in the
masonry system.
As the water from the grout mixture is absorbed into the
masonry, small voids may form and the grout column may
settle. Reconsolidation acts to remove these small voids and
should generally be done between 3 and 10 minutes after
grout placement. The timing depends on the water absorption
rate, which varies with such factors as temperature, absorptive
properties of the masonry units and the presence of water
repellent admixtures in the units. It is important to
reconsolidate after the initial absorption has taken place and
before the grout loses its plasticity. If conditions permit and
grout pours are so timed, consolidation of a lift and
reconsolidation of the lift below may be done at the same
time by extending the vibrator through the top lift and into the
one below. The top lift is reconsolidated after the required
waiting period and then filled with grout to replace any void
left by settlement.
A mechanical vibrator is normally used for consolidation
and reconsolidation—generally low velocity with a 3/4 in. to
1 in. (19 to 25 mm) head. This “pencil head” vibrator is
activated for a few seconds in each grouted cell. Although
not addressed by the code, recent research (ref. 8) has
demonstrated adequate consolidation by vibrating the top 8
ft (2,440 mm) of a grout lift, relying on head pressure to
consolidate the grout below. The vibrator should be withdrawn
slowly enough while on to allow the grout to close up the
space that was occupied by the vibrator. When double open-
end units are used, one cell is considered to be formed by the
two open ends placed together. When grouting between
wythes, the vibrator is placed at points spaced 12 to 16 in.
(305 to 406 mm) apart. Excess vibration may blow out the
face shells or may separate wythes when grouting between
wythes and can also cause grout segregation.
GROUT DEMONSTRATION PANEL
Specification for Masonry Structures (ref. 3) contains
a provision for “alternate grout placement” procedures when
means and methods other than those prescribed in the
document are proposed. The most common of these include
increases in lift height, reduced or increased grout slumps,
minimization of reconsolidation, puddling and innovative
consolidation techniques. Grout demonstration panels have
been used to allow placement of a significant amount of a
relatively new product called self-consolidating grout to be
used in many parts of the country with outstanding results.
Research has demonstrated comparable or superior
performance when compared with consolidated and
reconsolidated conventional grout in regard to reduction of
voids, compressive strength and bond to masonry face shells.
Construction and approval of a grout demonstration
panel using the proposed grouting procedures, construction
techniques and grout space geometry is required. With the
advent of self-consolidating grouts and other innovative
consolidation techniques, this provision of the Specification
has been very useful in demonstrating the effectiveness of
alternate grouting procedures to the architect/engineer and
building official.
COLD WEATHER PROTECTION
Protection is required when the minimum daily
temperature during construction of grouted masonry is
expected to fall below 40oF (4.4oC). Grouted masonry requires
special consideration because of the higher water content and
potential disruptive expansion that can occur if that water
freezes. Therefore, grouted masonry requires protection for
longer periods than ungrouted masonry to allow the water to
dissipate. For more detailed information on cold, hot, and
wet weather protection, see All-Weather Concrete Masonry
Construction, TEK 3-1C (ref. 9).
Disclaimer: Although care has been taken to ensure the enclosed information is as accurate and complete as possible, NCMA
does not assume responsibility for errors or omissions resulting from the use of this TEK.
NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION
13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171
www.ncma.org
REFERENCES
1. Grout for Concrete Masonry, TEK 9-4. National Concrete
Masonry Association, 2002.
2. Standard Specification for Grout for Masonry, ASTM C
476-02, ASTM International, 2005.
3. Specification for Masonry Structures, ACI 530.1-05/
ASCE 6-05/TMS 602-05. Reported by the Masonry
Standards Joint Committee, 2005.
4. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures,
ACI 530-05/ASCE 5-05/TMS 402-05. Reported by the
Masonry Standards Joint Committee, 2005.
5. Specification for Masonry Structures, ACI 530.1-02/
ASCE 6-02/TMS 602-02. Reported by the Masonry
Standards Joint Committee, 2002.
6. Steel Reinforcement for Concrete Masonry, TEK 12-4C.
National Concrete Masonry Association, 2002.
7. Bracing Concrete Masonry Walls During Construction,
TEK 3-4B. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2002.
8. Investigation of Alternative Grouting Procedures in
Concrete Masonry Construction Through Physical
Evaluation and Quality Assessment, MR 25. National
Concrete Masonry Association, 2004.
9. All-Weather Concrete Masonry Construction, TEK 3-1C.
National Concrete Masonry Association, 2002.
To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
An information series from the national
HYBRID CONCRETE MASONRY
CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
INTRODUCTION
Hybrid masonry is a structural system that utilizes rein-
forced masonry walls with a framed structure. While the frame
can be constructed of reinforced concrete or structural steel, the
discussion here includes steel frames with reinforced concrete
masonry walls. The reinforced masonry infill participates
structurally with the frame and provides strength and stiffness
to the system. It can be used in single wythe or cavity wall
construction provided the connections and joints are protected
against water penetration and corrosion. The hybrid walls are
constructed within the plane of the framing. Depending on
the type of hybrid wall used, the framing supports some or all
of the masonry wall weight.
Hybrid masonry/frame structures were first proposed in
2006 (ref. 1). There are several reasons for its development but
one primary reason is to simplify the construction of framed
buildings with masonry infill. While many designers prefer
masonry infill walls as the backup for veneers in framed build-
ings, there is often a conflict created when structural engineers
design steel bracing for the frame which interferes with the
masonry infill. This leads to detailing and construction interfer-
ences trying to fit masonry around braces. One solution is to
eliminate the steel bracing and use reinforced masonry infill
as the shear wall bracing to create a hybrid structural system.
The concept of using masonry infill to resist lateral forces
is not new; having been used successfully throughout the world
in different forms. While common worldwide, U.S. based
codes and standards have lagged behind in the establishment
of standardized means of designing masonry infill.
The hybrid masonry system outlined in this TEK is a
unique method of utilizing masonry infill to resist lateral forces.
The novelty of the hybrid masonry design approach relative to
other more established infill design procedures is in the con-
nection detailing between the masonry and steel frame, which
Related TEK: Keywords: frame structures, infill, hybrid, shear walls, tie-down,
14-9A reinforced masonry
NCMA TEK 3-3B 1
authority on concrete masonry technology
TEK 3-3B
Construction (2009)
offers multiple alternative means of transferring loads into the
masonry—or isolating the masonry infill from the frame.
Prior to implementing the design procedures outlined in
this TEK, users are strongly urged to become familiar with
the hybrid masonry concept, its modeling assumptions, and
its limitations particularly in the way in which inelastic loads
are distributed during earthquakes throughout the masonry and
frame system. This system, or design methods, should not be
used in Seismic Design Category D and above until further
studies and tests have been performed; and additional design
guidance is outlined in adopted codes and standards.
CLASSIFICATION OF WALLS
There are three hybrid wall types, Type I, Type II and Type
III. The masonry walls are constructed within the plane of the
framing. The classification is dependent upon the degree of
confinement of the masonry within the frame.
Type I walls have soft joints (gaps that allow lateral drift
at the columns or vertical deflection at the top) at the columns
and the top of the wall. The framing supports the full weight
of the masonry walls and other gravity loads.
Type II walls have soft joints at the columns and are built
tight at the top of the wall.
Type III walls are built tight at the columns and the top
of the wall.
For Type II and III walls, the masonry walls share the
support of the vertical loads, including the wall weight, with
the framing.
CONSTRUCTION
Type I Hybrid Walls
Practically speaking, the concept of Type I walls is that
the masonry wall is a nonloadbearing shear wall built within
the frame which also supports out-of-plane loads (see Figure
1). The details closely match those for current cavity wall
construction where the infill masonry is within the plane of the
frame, except that the vertical reinforcement must be welded
to the perimeter framing at supported floors.
Since the walls are generally designed to span vertically,
the walls may not have to be anchored to the columns. The
engineer’s design should reflect whether anchors are required
but only for out-of-plane loads. The masonry does have to
be isolated from the columns so the columns do not transmit
loads to the walls when the frame drifts.
In multi-story buildings, each wall is built independently.
Walls can be constructed on multiple floors simultaneously.
Because the steel framing is supporting the entire wall weight,
Type 1 walls are more economical for lower rise buildings.
It is possible with Type 1 walls to position the walls outside
the framing so they are foundation supported as in caged
construction (ref. 1), providing a more economical design for
the framing.
DETAILS
Sample construction details were developed in conjunction
with the National Concrete Masonry Association, International
Masonry Institute (IMI), and David Biggs. They are hosted on
the NCMA web site at www.ncma.org and the IMI web site at
www.imiweb.org. Alternate details for hybrid construction are
continually under development and will be posted on the web
sites. There are several key details that must be considered,
including: the wall base, the top of the wall, at columns, and
parapets.
Base of Wall
As previously noted for Type I and Type IIa walls, vertical
reinforcement must be anchored to either foundation or frame
to provide tension-tie downs for the structure. Figure 2 shows
the reinforcement anchored to the foundation with a tension lap
splice, and also shows the reinforcement anchored at a floor
level and tension lap spliced.

Type II Hybrid Walls

With Type ll walls, the masonry wall is essentially a BEAM OR
GIRDER GAP 3
loadbearing shear wall built within the frame: it supports both
gravity and out-of-plane loads (see Fig. 1). COLUMN
There are two options: Type IIa and Type IIb. The en- SHEAR (IN-PLANE)

gineer must indicate which will be used. For Type IIa walls, GAP 1 GAP 2

the vertical reinforcement (dowels) must be welded to the TYPE I COLUMN

perimeter framing to transfer tension tie-down forces into SHEAR WALL

the frame. The vertical dowels also transfer shear. For Type
IIb walls, vertical reinforcement only needs to be doweled to
the concrete slab to transfer shear forces because tie-down is
not required. This simplifies the construction of multi-story
GAPS 1, 2: NO IN-PLANE LOAD TRANSFER
buildings. GAP 3: TRANSFERS IN-PLANE SHEAR LOAD; NO AXIAL LOAD
The top of the masonry wall must bear tight to the framing.
Options include grouting the top course, using solid units, or
Type I Hybrid Wall
casting the top of the wall. The top connectors must extend
down from the framing to overlap with the vertical wall rein- NO GAP AXIAL LOAD
BEAM OR
forcement. GIRDER

Since the walls generally span vertically, the engineer must

COLUMN
decide whether column anchors are needed similar to Type I SHEAR (IN-PLANE)
walls. These anchors only need to transmit out-of-plane loads. GAP 1 GAP 2
The design must take into account the construction phas-
TYPE II COLUMN
ing. In multi-story buildings, each wall may be structurally SHEAR WALL

dependent on a wall from the floor below which is very similar

to a loadbearing masonry building.

Type III Hybrid Walls

GAPS 1, 2: NO IN-PLANE LOAD TRANSFER (SOFT JOINTS)
This wall type is fully confined within the framing—at BEAM/GIRDER TRANSFERS IN-PLANE SHEAR LOAD
beams and columns. Currently, there are no standards in the
United States that govern Type III design. Standards are un-
der development and research is underway to help determine Type II Hybrid Wall
structural and construction requirements. Therefore, no details
are provided at this time. Figure 1—Hybrid Wall Types I and II

2 NCMA TEK 3-3B

 For Type IIb walls, the vertical reinforcement does not 3. Using the in-plane loading, analyze the connector and design
have to be anchored for tension forces because it only transfers the bolts.
shear forces. Figure 3 shows the reinforcement anchored to 4. If the design does not work, repeat using a smaller connec-
the foundation. Figure 4 shows the reinforcement anchored at tor spacing.
a floor level. The designer must determine if the dowel can The steel framing is affected by out-of-plane load transfer
be effectively anchored to the slab for shear or if it must be to the beam's bottom flange. Beam analysis and flange bracing
welded to the framing as shown for Type I and Type IIa walls. concerns for the steel are identical to those for any infill wall.

Top of Wall Column
For all wall types, the top of the wall must be anchored to For Type I and IIa walls, the wall must be kept separated
transfer in-plane shear loads from the framing to the wall. It from the columns so that when the frame drifts it does not bear
also accommodates out-of-plane forces. This is accomplished on the wall. Lightweight anchors can be used to support out-
by a connector. Figures 5 and 5A show an example with bent of-plane loads if desired. Figure 6 shows a possible anchor.
plates and slotted holes. For Type I walls, the gap at the top of
the wall must allow for the framing to deflect without bearing
on the wall or loading the bolts. For Type II walls, the gap is
filled tight so the framing bears on the wall.
The vertical reinforcement must overlap with the con-
nectors at the top of the wall. Since the top course could be a
solid unit, the connector should extend down to a solid grouted
bond beam.
Top of wall construction raises the most concern by design-
ers. Constructability testing by masons has been successfully
performed. The design concept for the connectors is:
1. Determine the out-of-plane loads to the wall top.
2. Design the top bond beam to span horizontally between
connectors. Connector spacing is a designer's choice but is
generally between 2 and 4 ft (6.09 and 1.22 m) o. c.

Figure 3—Type IIb Foundation Detail

Figure 2—Type I and IIa

Foundation and Floor Detail Figure 4—Type IIb Floor Detail

NCMA TEK 3-3B 3

 Note: For Type I walls, provide soft joint (gap to allow for movement. For Type II walls, fill gap tight.

Figure 5—Top of Wall Details

4 NCMA TEK 3-3B

 Figure 5—Top of Wall Details (continued)

Figure 5A—Connector Plate Detail

NCMA TEK 3-3B 5

 Figure 6—Column Details

Option 1

Figure 7—Parapet Details

6 NCMA TEK 3-3B

 Option 2

Option 3

Figure 7—Parapet Details (continued)

NCMA TEK 3-3B 7

Parapet
Parapets can be constructed by cantilevering off the roof
framing. Details vary depending on the framing used but are
similar to Figure 2. Figure 7 shows three variations for: con-
crete slab, wide flange framing, and bar joist framing. There
is a plate on the beam's top flange for the bar joist and wide
flange framing options.
QUALITY ASSURANCE
Special inspections should be an essential aspect of the
quality assurance plan. Besides verifying the vertical rein-
forcement is properly installed as required by Building Code
Requirements for Masonry Structures (ref. 2), the connector
must be checked as well. If Type I walls are used, the bolts
from the connector to the wall must allow for vertical deflec-
tion of the framing without loading the wall.
CONCLUSIONS
Hybrid masonry offers many benefits and complements
framed construction. By using the masonry as a structural shear
wall, the constructability of the masonry with the frames is im-
proved, lateral stiffness is increased, redundancy is improved,
and opportunities for improved construction cost are created.
For now, Type I and Type II hybrid systems can be de-
signed and constructed in the United States using existing
codes and standards. Criteria for Type III hybrid systems are
under development.
Design issues for hybrid walls are discussed in TEK 14-9A
and IMI Tech Brief 02.13.01 (refs. 3, 4).

REFERENCES
1. Biggs, D.T., Hybrid Masonry Structures, Proceedings of the Tenth North American Masonry Conference. The Masonry Soci-
ety, June 2007.
2. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, ACI 530-08/ASCE 5-08/TMS 402-08. The Masonry Society, 2008.
3. Hybrid Concrete Masonry Design, TEK 14-9A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2009.
4. Hybrid Masonry Design, IMI Technology Brief 02.13.01. International Masonry Institute, 2009.

NCMA and the companies disseminating this technical information disclaim any and all responsibility and liability for the accuracy
and the application of the information contained in this publication.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION

13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171
www.ncma.org

To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index, contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900

8 NCMA TEK 3-3B

 NCMA TEK
National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology

SURFACE BONDED TEK 3-5A

Structural (1998)
CONCRETE MASONRY CONSTRUCTION
Keywords: construction techniques, mortar, surface bonding
porated into the surface bonding mortar to produce a
finished surface without the need to paint.
INTRODUCTION Surface bonded concrete masonry construction offers all
of the benefits and advantages of conventional concrete
Surface bonding is an economical construction technique masonry construction, such as:
which was first introduced in the late sixties by the U. S. • fire safety
Department of Agriculture for use in low cost housing. In • acoustic insulation
surface bonded construction, concrete masonry units are laid • energy efficiency
dry and stacked, without mortar, to form walls. Walls are • lasting durability and beauty
constructed with units that have been precision ground or
honed to achieve a uniform bearing surface, or with shims DESIGN STRENGTH
placed periodically to maintain a level and plumb condition.
Both sides of the wall are then coated with a thin layer of Many structural and nonstructural tests have been per-
reinforced surface bonding mortar. The synthetic fibers formed on surface bonded walls to establish design param-
which reinforce the surface bonding mortar impart a tensile eters for the system.
strength of about 1500 psi (10.3 MPa), producing a strong wall The nonstructural properties, such as sound transmission
despite the relatively thin thickness of material on each side. class, fire resistance period, and energy efficiency, of surface
The surface coating on each side of the wall bonds the concrete bonded concrete masonry can be considered equivalent to a
masonry units together in a strong composite construction, conventional mortared concrete masonry wall.
and serves as a protective water resistant shield. There are a few differences between the structural prop-
Surface bonded concrete masonry has a number of advantages: erties of the two types of construction. These differences are
• Less time and skill are required for wall construction. In discussed in the following paragraphs, and are illustrated in
a 1972 study of mason productivity sponsored by the U. Figure 1 for ungrouted, unreinforced walls. Although national
S. Department of Housing and Urban Development and building codes, such as the BOCA National Building Code
other interested organizations, it
was found that surface bonded
concrete masonry construction
resulted in 70 percent greater
productivity than that achiev-
able with conventional construc-
tion.
• The surface bonding mortar pro-
vides excellent resistance to wa-
ter penetration in addition to its
function of holding the units to-
gether. Tests of surface bonded
walls have repeatedly shown
their resistance to wind driven
rain to be “excellent” even with
wind velocities as great as 100
mph (161 km/h), and over test
periods of 8 hours.
• Colored pigment can be incor- Figure 1—Surface Bonded and Mortared Concrete Masonry Wall Strengths

TEK 3-5A © 1998 National Concrete Masonry Association (replaces TEK 3-5)
and the Standard Building Code (refs. 1, 3) do not specifically
address reinforced or grouted surface bonded walls, manufac-
turers of surface bonding mortars may have code-approved
criteria for their products.
Compressive Loads
Resistance to vertical compressive loads depends prima-
rily on the compressive strength of the concrete block used in
the wall construction. Stronger units make stronger walls.
With mortared construction, a rule of thumb is that the wall
strength will generally be about seventy percent of the unit
strength. In comparison, surface bonded walls built with
unground concrete masonry units develop approximately
thirty percent of the strength of the individual block. This
reduced wall strength is depicted in Figure 1 for walls con-
structed with unground concrete masonry units.
The lower value obtained with the unground units is due
to a lack of solid bearing contact between units, due to the
natural roughness of the concrete units. The mortar bed used
in conventional construction compensates for this roughness
and provides a uniform bearing between units. If the masonry
unit bearing surfaces are ground flat and smooth before the
wall is erected, results similar to those for a mortared wall can
be expected. In Figure 1, note that surface bonded walls built
with precision ground concrete masonry units are equally as
strong in compression as the conventional construction.
Flexural Resistance
The flexural strength of a surface bonded wall is about the
same as that of a conventional mortared wall, as shown in
Figure 1. When walls are tested in the vertical span (i.e., a
horizontal force, such as wind, is applied to a wall that is
supported at the top and bottom) surfaced bonded walls and
mortared walls have about the same average strength; failure
occurs in the surface bonded coating due to tensile stress at or
near one of the horizontal joints. With mortared construction,
failure occurs at a horizontal joint with bond failure between
the mortar and the masonry units. The data from numerous
tests on surface bonded constructions led to an allowable
stress of 18 psi (0.12 MPa) based on the gross area.
When walls are laid in a running bond pattern, either with
mortar joints or with surface bonding, and tested in the
horizontal span, (i.e., a wall supported at each end is subjected
to a horizontal wind force) the strength in bending depends
primarily on the strength of the units. This is due to the
interlocking of the masonry units laid when in a running bond
configuration. In such tests in the horizontal span, the wall
strength of the surface bonded wall is exactly the same as the
conventional construction. In Table 1, an allowable flexural
stress of 30 psi (0.21 MPa) is recommended for horizontal
span when the units have been laid in running bond.
Shear Strength
The shear resistance of surface bonded construction is the
same as that of conventional walls. With face shell mortar
bedding, conventional concrete masonry walls averaged 42
psi (0.29 MPa) shear resistance, based on gross area. Nine
surface bonded walls, 8 in. (203 mm) in thickness, had an
Table 1—Allowable Stress, Gross Cross-Sectional Area,
Dry-Stacked, Surface-Bonded Concrete Masonry Walls a
Compression: 45 psi (0.31 MPa)
Shear: 10 psi (0.07 MPa)
Flexural Tension: Horizontal span: 30 psi (0.21 MPa)
Vertical span: 18 psi (0.12 MPa)
a
References 1 & 3
average shear resistance of 39 psi (0.27 MPa), and three 6 in.
(152 mm) thick surface bonded walls averaged 40 psi (0.28
MPa). These data are compared in Figure 1, and led to a
recommended allowable shear stress of 10 psi (0.07 MPa) on
the gross area (see Table 1).
CONSTRUCTION
The construction procedure for surface bonded walls is
similar to that of conventional, except that mortar is not placed
between the masonry units. Standard Practice for Construc-
tion of Dry-Stacked, Surface-Bonded Walls, ASTM C 946
(ref. 4), governs the construction methods. Care should be
taken to ensure uncoated walls are adequately braced.
Because the walls are constructed without mortar joints,
surface bonded wall dimensions do not conform to the stan-
dard 4 in. (102 mm) design module. Wall and opening
dimensions should be based on actual unit dimensions, which
are typically 75/8 in. high by 155/8 in. long (194 by 397 mm).
Materials
Surface bonding mortar should comply with Standard
Specification for Packaged, Dry, Combined Materials for
Surface Bonding Mortar, ASTM C 887 (ref. 6), which gov-
erns flexural and compressive strength, sampling, and testing.
ASTM C 946 requires Type I, moisture-controlled, con-
crete masonry units be used for surface bonded construction.
Type I units must be in a dry condition when delivered to the
job site. Walls laid using dry units will undergo less drying
shrinkage after construction, hence minimizing cracks. Stan-
dard Specification for Loadbearing Concrete Masonry Units,
ASTM C 90 (ref. 5) governs these requirements.
As for mortared masonry construction, materials should
be properly stored on site to prevent contamination by rain,
ground water, mud, and other materials likely to cause stain-
ing or to have other deleterious effects.
If the bearing surfaces of the concrete masonry units are
unground, metal or plastic shims or mortar may occasionally
be required between units to maintain the wall level and
plumb. Shims must have a minimum compressive strength of
2000 psi (13.8 MPa) to ensure their long term durability after
the wall is loaded. Metal shims, if used, should be corrosion
resistant to reduce the possibility that they will corrode and
bleed through the finished masonry at a later time.
Leveling
Because the footing is not typically level enough to lay up
the dry units without additional leveling, the first course of
masonry units is laid in a mortar bed or set in the fresh footing
concrete to obtain a level base for the remainder of the wall.
Vertical head joints should not be mortared, even when the
first course is mortar bedded, since mortar in the head joints
will misalign the coursing along the wall length.
When required, additional leveling courses are constructed
in the wall. Leveling courses should be placed when:
• the wall is out of level by more than 1/2 in. (13 mm) in 10 ft,
• at each floor level, and
• at a horizontal change in wall thickness (see Figure 2).
After the first course of masonry units is laid level in a
mortar bed, dry stacking proceeds with the remaining courses
beginning with the corners, and followed by stacking, in
running bond, between the corners. As they are dry stacked,
the ends of the concrete masonry units should be butted
together tightly. Small burrs should be removed prior to
placement.
After every fourth course, the wall should be checked for
plumb and level.
Crack Control
Temperature and moisture movements have the poten-
tial to cause small vertical cracks in a masonry wall. These
cracks are an aesthetic, rather than a structural, concern. In
exposed concrete masonry, where shrinkage cracks may be
objectionable, horizontal joint reinforcement, control joints,
or bond beams are used to control cracking. The absence of a
mortar bed joint in surface bonded walls means that there is no
space in the wall for joint reinforcement, so control joints or
bond beams are used for crack control.
Control joints should be placed:
1. at wall openings and at changes in wall height and
thickness
2. at wall intersections, at pilasters, chases, and recesses
3. in walls without openings, at intervals of 20 ft (6.1 m)
when there are no bond beams in the construction, and at
intervals of 60 ft (18.3 m) when bond beams are incorpo-
rated every 4 ft (1.2 m) vertically.
Control joints for surface bonded walls are similar to
Figure 2—Change in Wall Thickness
those for mortared concrete masonry. At the control joint
location, the surface bonding mortar should be raked out and
the joint caulked.
Placing Accessories & Utilities
The absence of a mortar bed joint in the construction also
requires that the face shell and/or the cross web of the concrete
masonry units be notched or depressed whenever wall ties or
anchors must be embedded in the wall. A coarse rasp is
typically used to make small notches, while deeper notches
are cut with a masonry saw. Cores containing anchors or wall
ties should be grouted, or other adequate anchorage should be
provided.
Electrical lines and plumbing are often located in the
cores of concrete masonry units. These lines should be placed
before the surface bonding mortar is applied, so that the
masonry units are visible.
Applying Surface Bonding Mortar
Manufacturer’s recommendations should be followed
for job site mixing of the premixed surface bonding mortar
and application to the dry stacked concrete masonry wall.
As with mortared masonry construction, clean water and
mixing equipment should be used to prevent foreign materials
from being introduced into the mortar. Batches should be
mixed in full bag multiples only, to compensate for any
segregation of materials within a bag.
All materials should be mixed for 1 to 3 minutes, until the
mixture is creamy, smooth, and easy to apply. Note that
mixing time should be kept to a minimum, as overmixing can
damage the reinforcing fibers.
The stacked concrete masonry units should be clean and
free of any foreign matter which would inhibit bonding of the
plaster. Contrary to recommended practice with conventional
mortared walls, the dry stacked concrete masonry units should
be damp when the surface bonding plaster is applied to
prevent water loss from the mortar due to suction of the units.
Care should be taken to avoid saturating the units.
It is very important that the surface bonding mortar be
applied to both sides of the dry stacked wall since the wall
strength and stability depend entirely on this coating.
Premixed surface bonding mortars are smooth textured
and easily applied by hand with a trowel. The workability is
due to the short 1/2 in. (13 mm) glass fibers which reinforce the
mixture. The mortar should be troweled on smoothly with a
minimum thickness of 1/8 in. (3 mm).
Surface bonding mortar can also be sprayed on. On large
projects, use of a power sprayer greatly increases the coverage
rate of the mortar and further reduces wall costs. As applied,
the “sprayed-on” surface bonding mortar usually has a rougher
surface texture than a troweled finish, and possesses slightly
less tensile strength due to the lack of fiber orientation in the
plane of the mortar coating. This can be overcome by
troweling, hand or mechanical, following spray application of
the mortar. Hand or mechanical troweling of the sprayed
coating also assures that all gaps and crevices are filled.
When a second coat of surface bonding mortar is applied,
either by trowel or spray, it should be applied after the first coat
is set, but before it is completely hardened or dried out. The
second coat may be textured to achieve a variety of finishes.
Joints in surface bonding mortar are weaker than a
continuous mortar surface, and, for this reason, should not
align with joints between masonry units. If application of the
surface bonding mortar is discontinued for more than one
hour, the first application should be stopped at least 11/4 in. (32
mm) from the horizontal edge of the concrete masonry unit.
At the foundation, the surface bonding mortar should
either form a cove between the wall and the footer or, for a slab
on grade, should extend below the masonry onto the slab
edge, as shown in Figure 3. These details help prevent water
penetration at the wall/footer interface.
Curing
After surface bonding application, the wall must be
properly cured by providing sufficient water for full hydration
of the mortar, to ensure full strength development. The wall
should be dampened with a water mist between 8 and 24 hours
after surface bonding mortar application. In addition, the wall
should be fog sprayed twice within the first 24 hours, although
with pigmented mortar, this may be extended to 48 hours.
The recommendations above may need to be modified for
either cold or hot weather conditions. For example, dry, warm,
wall-footing
Figure 3—Wall/Footing Interface
NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION
2302 Horse Pen Road, Herndon, Virginia 20171-3499
www.ncma.org
windy weather accelerates the water evaporation from the
mortarrequiring more frequent fog spraying.
At the end of the day, tops of walls should be covered to
prevent moisture from entering the wall until the top is
permanently protected. Typically, a tarp is placed over the
wall, extending at least 2 ft (0.6 m) down both sides of the wall,
and weighted down with lumber or masonry units.
REFERENCES
1. BOCA National Building Code. Country Club Hills, IL:
Building Officials and Code Administrators International,
Inc. (BOCA), 1996.
2. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, ACI
530-95/ASCE 5-95/TMS 402-95. Reported by the Masonry
Standards Joint Committee, 1995.
3. Standard Building Code. Birmingham, AL: Southern Build-
ing Code Congress International, Inc. (SBCCI), 1997.
4. Standard Practice for Construction for Dry-Stacked, Sur-
face-Bonded Walls, ASTM C 946-91 (1996)e1. American
Society for Testing and Materials, 1996.
5. Standard Specification for Loadbearing Concrete Masonry Units,
ASTM C 90-97. American Society for Testing and Materials, 1997.
6. Standard Specification for Packaged, Dry, Combined Mate-
rials for Surface Bonding Mortar, ASTM C 887-79a (1996)e1.
American Society for Testing and Materials, 1996.
wall-slab on grade
To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
 NCMA TEK
National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology

CONCRETE MASONRY CONSTRUCTION TEK 3-8A

Construction (2001)

Keywords: ASTM specifications, bond patterns, cleaning, perform as a unit.

construction techniques, construction tolerances, grout, mortar.
INTRODUCTION
Concrete masonry is a popular building material because
of its strength, durability, economy, and its resistance to fire,
noise, and insects. To function as designed however, concrete
masonry buildings must be constructed properly.
This TEK provides a brief overview of the variety of
materials and construction methods currently applicable to
concrete masonry. In addition, a typical construction sequence
is described in detail.
Grout is used to fill masonry cores or wall cavities to
improve the structural performance and/or fire resistance of
masonry. Grout is most commonly used in reinforced con-
struction, to structurally bond the steel reinforcing bars to the
masonry, allowing the two elements to act as one unit in
resisting loads.
Reinforcement incorporated into concrete masonry struc-
tures increases strength and ductility, providing increased re-
sistance to applied loads and, in the case of horizontal rein-
forcement, to shrinkage cracking.
Specifications governing material requirements are listed
in Table 1.

MATERIALS CONSTRUCTION METHODS

The constituent masonry materials: concrete block, mor- Mortared Construction

tar, grout, and steel, each contribute to the performance of a Most concrete masonry construction is mortared con-
masonry structure. Concrete masonry units provide strength, struction, i.e., units are bonded together with mortar. Varying
durability, fire resistance, energy efficiency, and sound attenu- the bond or joint pattern of a concrete masonry wall can create
ation to a wall system. In addition, concrete masonry units are a wide variety of interesting and attractive appearances. In
manufactured in a wide vari-
ety of sizes, shapes, colors,
and architectural finishes to
achieve any number of ap-
pearances and functions. The
Concrete Masonry Shapes
and Sizes Manual (ref. 4)
illustrates a broad sampling
of available units.
While mortar consti-
tutes approximately 7% of a
typical masonry wall area, its
influence on the performance
of a wall is significant. Mor-
tar bonds the individual ma-
sonry units together, allow-
ing them to act as a compos-
ite structural assembly. In
addition, mortar seals joints
against moisture and air leak-
age and bonds to joint rein-
forcement, anchors, and ties
to help ensure all elements Placement of Concrete Masonry Units

TEK 3-8A © 2001 National Concrete Masonry Association (replaces TEK 3-8)
 Table 1—Masonry Material Specifications
Units
Loadbearing Concrete Masonry Units, ASTM C 90
Concrete Building Brick, ASTM C 55
Calcium Silicate Face Brick (Sand-Lime Brick), ASTM C 73
Nonloadbearing Concrete Masonry Units, ASTM C 129
Prefaced Concrete and Calcium Silicate Masonry
Units, ASTM C 744
Mortar
Mortar for Unit Masonry, ASTM C 270
Grout
Grout for Masonry, ASTM C 476
Reinforcement
Axle-Steel Deformed and Plain Bars for Concrete
Reinforcement, ASTM A 617
Deformed and Plain Billet-Steel Bars for Concrete
Reinforcement, ASTM A 615
Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing Steel Bars, ASTM A 775
Low-Alloy Steel Deformed Bars for Concrete
Reinforcement, ASTM A 706
Rail-Steel Deformed and Plain Bars for Concrete
Reinforcement, ASTM A 616
Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Bars for Concrete
Reinforcement, ASTM A 767
Masonry Joint Reinforcement, ASTM A 951
Ties & Anchors
Steel Wire, Plain, for Concrete Reinforcement, ASTM A 82
Stainless and Heat-Resisting Steel Wire, ASTM A 580
addition, the strength of the masonry can be influenced by the
bond pattern. The most traditional bond pattern for concrete
masonry is running bond, where vertical head joints are offset
by half the unit length.
Excluding running bond construction, the most popular
bond pattern with concrete masonry units is stack bond. Al-
though stack bond typically refers to masonry constructed so
that the head joints are vertically aligned, it is defined as
masonry laid such that the head joints in successive courses are
horizontally offset less than one quarter the unit length (ref. 2).
Concrete Masonry Bond Patterns (ref. 3) shows a variety of
bond patterns and describes their characteristics.
Dry-Stacked Construction
The alternative to mortared construction is dry-stacked
(also called surface bonded) construction, where units are
placed without any mortar, then both surfaces of the wall are
coated with surface bonding material. Shims or ground units are
used to maintain elevations. This construction method results in
faster construction, and is less dependent on the skill of the
laborer than mortared construction. In addition, the surface
bonding coating provides excellent rain penetration resistance.
Surface Bonded Concrete Masonry Construction (ref. 9)
contains further information on this method of construction.
CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE
Mixing Mortar
To achieve consistent mortar from batch to batch, the same
quantities of materials should be added to the mixer, and they
should be added in the same order. Mortar mixing times,
placement methods, and tooling must also be consistent to
achieve uniform mortar for the entire job.
In concrete masonry construction, site-mixing of mortar
should ideally be performed in a mechanical mixer to ensure
proper uniformity throughout the batch. Mortar materials
should be placed in the mixer in a similar manner from batch
to batch to maintain consistent mortar properties. Typically,
about half the mixing water is added first into a mixer. Ap-
proximately half the sand is then added, followed by any lime.
The cement and the remainder of the sand are then added. As
the mortar is mixed and begins to stiffen, the rest of the water
is added. Specification for Masonry Structures (ref. 7) re-
quires that these materials be mixed for 3 to 5 minutes. If the
mortar is not mixed long enough, the mortar mixture may not
attain the uniformity necessary for the desired performance. A
longer mixing time can increase workability, water retention,
and board life.
The mortar should stick to the trowel when it is picked up,
and slide off the trowel easily as it is spread. Mortar should
also hold enough water so that the mortar on the board will not
lose workability too quickly, and to allow the mason to spread
mortar bed joints ahead of the masonry construction. The mor-
tar must also be stiff enough to initially support the weight of
the concrete masonry units.
To help keep mortar moist, the mortarboard should be
moistened when a fresh batch is loaded. When mortar on the
board does start to dry out due to evaporation, it should be
retempered. To retemper, the mortar is mixed with a small
amount of additional water to improve the workability. After a
significant amount of the cement has hydrated, retempering
will no longer be effective. For this reason, mortar can be
retempered for only 11/2 to 21/2 hours after initial mixing,
depending on the site conditions. For example, dry, hot, and
windy conditions will shorten the board life, and damp, cool,
calm conditions will increase the board life of the mortar. Mor-
tar should be discarded if it shows signs of hardening or if 21/2
hours have passed since the original mixing.
Placing Mortar
Head and bed joints are typically 3/8 in. (10 mm) thick, except at
foundations. Mortar should extend fully across bedding sur-
faces of hollow units for the thickness of the face shell, so that
joints will be completely filled. Solid units are required to be
fully bedded in mortar.
Although it is important to provide sufficient mortar to
properly bed concrete masonry units, excessive mortar should
not extend into drainage cavities or into cores to be grouted.
For grouted masonry, mortar protrusions extending more than
1/2 in. (13 mm) into cells or cavities to be grouted should be
removed (ref. 7).

The Importance of Laying to the Line
Experienced masons state that they can lay about five times
as many masonry units when working to a mason line than when
using just their straightedge. The mason line gives the mason a
guide to lay the block straight, plumb, at the right height, and
level. The line is attached so that it gives a guide in aligning the
top of the course.
If a long course is to be laid, a trig may be placed at one or
more points along the line to keep the line from sagging. Be-
fore work begins, the mason should check to see that the line
is level, tight, and will not pull out.
Each mason working to the same line needs to be careful
not to lay a unit so it touches the line. This will throw the line
off slightly and cause the rest of the course to be laid out of
alignment. The line should be checked from time to time to be
certain it has remained in position.
PLACING UNITS
The Foundation
Before building the block wall, the foundation must be
level, and clean so that mortar will properly adhere. It must
also be reasonably level. The foundation should be free of ice,
dirt, oil, mud, and other substances that would reduce bond.
Laying Out the Wall
Taking measurements from the foundation or floor plan
and transferring those measurements to the foundation, foot-
ing, or floor slab is the first step in laying out the wall.
Once two points of a measurement are established, cor-
ner to corner, a chalk line is marked on the surface of the foun-
dation to establish the line to which the face of the block will
be laid. Since a chalk line can be washed away by rain, a grease
crayon, line paint, nail or screwdriver can mark the surface for
key points along the chalk line, and a chalk line re-snapped along
these key points. After the entire surface is marked for loca-
tions of walls, openings, and control joints, a final check of all
measurements should be made.
The Dry Run—Stringing Out The First Course
Starting with the corners, the mason lays the first course
without any mortar so a visual check can be made between the
dimensions on the floor or foundation plan and how the first
course actually fits the plan. During this dry layout, concrete
blocks will be strung along the entire width and length of the
foundation, floor slab, and even across openings. This will show
the mason how bond will be maintained above the opening. It
is helpful to have 3/8 in. (10 mm) wide pieces of wood to place
between block as they are laid dry, to simulate the mortar joints.
At this dry run the mason can check how the block will
space for openings which are above the first course—windows,
etc., by taking away block from the first course and checking
the spacing for the block at the higher level. These checks will
show whether or not units will need to be cut. Window and
door openings should be double checked with the window shop
drawings prior to construction.
When this is done, the mason marks the exact location
and angle of the corners. It is essential that the corner be built
as shown on the foundation or floor plan, to maintain modular
dimensions.
Laying the Corner Units
Building the corners is the most precise job facing the
mason as corners will guide the construction of the rest of the
wall. A corner pole can make this job easier. A corner pole is
any type of post which can be braced into a true vertical posi-
tion and which will hold a taut mason’s line without bending.
Corner poles for concrete block walls should be marked every
4 or 8 in. (102 to 203 mm), depending on the course height,
and the marks on both poles must be aligned such that the
mason’s line is level between them.
Once the corner poles are properly aligned, the first course
of masonry is laid in mortar. Typically, a mortar joint between
1/4 and 3/4 in. (6.4 to 19 mm) is needed to make up for irregu-
larities of the footing surface. The initial bed joint should be a
full bed joint on the foundation, footing, or slab. In some ar-
eas, it is common practice to wet set the initial course of ma-
sonry directly in the still damp concrete foundation.
Where reinforcing bars are projecting from the founda-
tion footing or slab, the first course is not laid in a full mortar
bed. In this case, the mason leaves a space around the rein-
forcing bars so that the block will be seated in mortar but the
mortar will not cover the area adjacent to the dowels. This per-
mits the grout to bond directly to the foundation in these loca-
tions.
After spreading the mortar on the marked foundation, the
first block of the corner is carefully positioned. It is essential
that this first course be plumb and level.
Once the corner block is in place, the lead blocks are set—
three or four blocks leading out from each side of the corner.
The head joints are buttered in advance and each block is lightly
shoved against the block in place. This shove will help make a
tighter fit of the head joint, but should not be so strong as to
move the block already in place. Care should be taken to spread
mortar for the full height of the head joint so voids and gaps do
not occur.
If the mason is not working with a corner pole, the first
course leads are checked for level, plumb, and alignment with
a level.
Corners and leads are usually built to scaffold height, with
each course being stepped back one half block from the course
below. The second course will be laid in either a full mortar
bed or with face shell bedding, as specified.
Laying the Wall
Each course between the corners can now be laid easily
by stretching a line between. It should be noted that a block has
thicker webs and face shells on top than it has on the bottom.
The thicker part of the webs should be laid facing up. This pro-
vides a hand hold for the mason and more surface area for mor-
tar to be spread. The first course of block is thereafter laid
from corner to corner, allowing for openings, with a closure
block to complete the course. It is important that the mortar
for the closure block be spread so all edges of the opening
between blocks and all edges of the closure block are buttered
before the closure block is carefully set in place. Also, the
location of the closure block should be varied from course to
course so as not to build a weak spot into the wall.
The units are leveled and plumbed while the mortar is still
soft and pliable, to prevent a loss of mortar bond if the units
need to be adjusted.
As each block is put in place, the mortar which is squeezed
out should be cut off with the edge of the trowel and care should
be taken that the mortar doesn’t fall off the trowel onto the
wall or smear the block as it is being taken off. Should some
mortar get on the wall, it is best to let it dry before taking it off.
All squeezed out mortar which is cut from the mortar joints
can either be thrown back onto the mortar board or used to
butter the head joints of block in place. Mortar which has fallen
onto the ground or scaffold should never be reused.
At this point, the mason should:
• Use a straightedge to assure the wall is level, plumb and
aligned.
• Be sure all mortar joints are cut flush with the wall, await-
ing tooling, if necessary.
• Check the bond pattern to ensure it is correct and that
the spacing of the head joints is right. For running bond,
this is done by placing the straightedge diagonally across
the wall. If the spacing of head joints is correct, all the
edges of the block will be touched by the straightedge.
• Check to see that there are no pinholes or gaps in the
mortar joints. If there are, and if the mortar has not yet
taken its first set, these mortar joint defects should be
repaired with fresh mortar. If the mortar has set, the only
way they can be repaired is to dig out the mortar joint
where it needs repairing, and tuckpoint fresh mortar in
its place.
Tooling Joints
When the mortar is thumbprint hard, the head joints are
tooled, then the horizontal joints are finished with a sled run-
ner and any burrs which develop are flicked off with the blade
of the trowel. When finishing joints, it is important to press
firmly, without digging into the joints. This compresses the
surface of the joint, increasing water resistance, and also pro-
motes bond between the mortar and the block. Unless other-
wise required, joints should be tooled with a rounded jointer,
producing a concave joint. Once the joints are tooled, the wall
is ready for cleaning.
Cleanup
Masonry surfaces should be cleaned of imperfections that
may detract from the final appearance of the masonry structure
including stains, efflorescence, mortar droppings, grout drop-
pings, and general debris.
Cleaning is most effective when performed during the wall
construction. Procedures such as skillfully cutting off excess
mortar and brushing the wall clean before scaffolding is raised,
help reduce the amount of cleaning required.
When mortar does fall on the block surface, it can often
be removed more effectively by letting it dry and then knock-
ing it off the surface. If there is some staining on the face of
the block, it can be rubbed off with a piece of broken block, or
brushed off with a stiff brush.
Masons will sometimes purposefully not spend extra
time to keep the surface of the masonry clean during con-
struction because more aggressive cleaning methods may
have been specified once the wall is completed. This is of-
ten the case for grouted masonry construction where grout
smears can be common and overall cleaning may be neces-
sary.
The method of cleaning should be chosen carefully as
aggressive cleaning methods may alter the appearance of
the masonry. The method of cleaning can be tested on the
sample panel or in an inconspicuous location to verify that
it is acceptable.
Specification for Masonry Structures (ref. 7) states
that all uncompleted masonry work should be covered at
the top for protection from the weather.
DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCES
While maintaining tight construction tolerances is de-
sirable to the appearance, and potentially to the structural
integrity of a building, it must be recognized that factors
such as the condition of previous construction and non-
modularity of the project may require the mason to vary the
masonry construction slightly from the intended plans or
specifications. An example of this is when a mason must
vary head or bed joint thicknesses to fit within a frame or
other preexisting construction. The ease and flexibility with
which masonry construction accommodates such change is
one advantage to using masonry. However, masonry should
still be constructed within certain tolerances to ensure the
strength and appearance of the masonry is not compromised.
Specification for Masonry Structures (ref. 7) contains
site tolerances for masonry construction which allow for
deviations in the construction that do not significantly alter
the structural integrity of the structure. Tighter tolerances
may be required by the project documents to ensure the fi-
nal overall appearance of the masonry is acceptable. If site
tolerances are not being met or cannot be met due to previ-
ous construction, the Architect/Engineer should be notified.
Mortar Joint Tolerances
Mortar joint tolerances are illustrated in Figure 1. Al-
though bed joints should be constructed level, they are per-
mitted to vary by ± 1/2 in. (13 mm) maximum from level
provided the joint does not slope more than ± 1/4 in. (6.4
mm) in 10 ft (3.1 m).
Collar joints, grout spaces, and cavity widths are per-
mitted to vary by -1/4 in. to + 3/8 in. (6.4 to 9.5 mm). Provi-
sions for cavity width are for the space between wythes of
non-composite masonry. The provisions do not apply to situ-
ations where the masonry extends past floor slabs or span-
drel beams.
Dimensions of Masonry Elements
Figure 2 shows tolerances that apply to walls, columns,
and other masonry building elements. It is important to note
that the specified dimensions of concrete masonry units are
3
/8 in. (9.5 mm) less than the nominal dimensions. Thus a Location of Elements
wall specified to be constructed of 8 in. (203 mm) concrete Requirements for location of elements are shown in Fig-
masonry units should not be rejected because it is 7 5/8 in. (194 ures 4 and 5.
mm) thick, less than the apparent minimum of 7 3/4 in. (197
mm) (8 in. (203 mm) minus the 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) tolerance).
Instead the tolerance should be applied to the 7 5/8 in. (194
mm) specified dimension.

Plumb, Alignment, and Levelness of Masonry Elements

Tolerances for plumbness of masonry walls, columns,
and other building elements are shown in Figure 3. Masonry
building elements should also maintain true to a line within
the same tolerances as variations from plumb.
Columns and walls continuing from one story to an-
other may vary in alignment by ± 3/ 4 in. (19 mm) for
nonloadbearing walls or columns and by ± 1/2 in. (13 mm)
for bearing walls or columns.
The top surface of bearing walls should remain level
within a slope of ± 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) in 10 ft (3.1 m), but no
more than ± 1/2 in. (13 mm).

Figure 3—Permissible Variations From Plumb

Figure 1—Mortar Joint Tolerances

Figure 4—Location Tolerances in Plan

Figure 2—Element Cross Section and Elevation

Tolerances Figure 5—Location Tolerances in Story Height
REFERENCES
1. Building Block Walls, VO 6. National Concrete Masonry Association, 1988.
2. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, ACI 530-99/ASCE 5-99/TMS 402-99. Reported by the Masonry
Standards Joint Committee, 1999.
3. Concrete Masonry Bond Patterns, TEK 14-6. National Concrete Masonry Association, 1999.
4. Concrete Masonry Shapes and Sizes Manual, CM 260A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 1997.
5. Inspection of Concrete Masonry Construction, TR 156. National Concrete Masonry Association, 1996.
6. Nolan, K. J. Masonry & Concrete Construction. Craftsman Book Company, 1982.
7. Specification for Masonry Structures, ACI 530.1-99/ASCE 6-99/TMS 602-99. Reported by the Masonry Standards Joint
Committee, 1999.
8. Standard Specification for Loadbearing Concrete Masonry Units, ASTM C 90-00. American Society for Testing and
Materials, 2000.
9. Surface Bonded Concrete Masonry Construction, TEK 3-5A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 1998.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
2302 Horse Pen Road, Herndon, Virginia 20171-3499 contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
www.ncma.org
 NCMA TEK
National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology

CONCRETE MASONRY BASEMENT TEK 3-11

WALL CONSTRUCTION
Keywords: basements, basement wall, bracing, construc-
tion details, construction techniques, corners, details, foun-
dation walls, grout, insulation, mortar, plain concrete
masonry, reinforced concrete masonry, surface bonding,
unreinforced concrete masonry, waterproofing
INTRODUCTION
Basements allow a building owner to significantly increase
usable living, working, or storage space at a relatively low cost.
Old perceptions of basements have proven outdated by state-
of-the-art waterproofing, improved drainage systems, and natu-
ral lighting features such as window wells. Other potential ben-
efits of basements include room for expansion of usable space,
increased resale value, and safe haven during storms.
Historically, plain (unreinforced) concrete masonry walls have
been used to effectively resist soil loads. Currently, however, rein-
forced walls are becoming more popular as a way to use thinner
walls to resist large backfill pressures. Regardless of whether the
wall is plain or reinforced, successful performance of a basement
wall relies on quality construction in accordance with the structural
design and the project specifications.
Construction (2001)
MATERIALS
Concrete Masonry Units
Concrete masonry units should comply with Standard
Specification for Loadbearing Concrete Masonry Units,
ASTM C 90 (ref. 8). Specific colors and textures may be
specified to provide a finished interior to the basement. Dry-
wall can also be installed on furring strips, if desired. A rule
of thumb for estimating the number of concrete masonry
units to order is 113 units for every 100 ft2 (9.3 m2) of wall
area. This estimate assumes the use of 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) mor-
tar joints.
Mortar
Mortar serves several important functions in a concrete
masonry wall; it bonds the units together, seals joints against
air and moisture penetration, and bonds to joint reinforce-
ment, ties, and anchors so that all components perform as a
structural element.
Mortar should comply with Standard Specification for
Mortar for Unit Masonry, ASTM C 270 (ref. 9). In addi-

Table 1—Mortar Proportions by Volume (Ref. 12)

Proportions by volume (cementitious materials) Aggregate measured

Portland cement or Masonry cement Mortar cement Hydrated lime in a damp,
Mortar Type blended cementa M S N M S N or lime puttya loose condition
Cement- M 1 — — — — — — 1/4

lime S 1 — — — — — — over 1/4 to 1/2 Not less than 21/4

N 1 — — — — — — over 1/2 to 11/4 and not more than
O 1 — — — — — —- over 11/4 to 21/2 3 times the sum
Mortar M 1 — — — — — 1 — of the separate
cement M — --- — — 1 — — — volumes of
S 1/2 — — — — — 1 — cementitious
S — — — — — 1 — — materials.
N — — — — — — 1 —
Masonry M 1 — — 1 — — — —
cement M — 1 — — — — — —
S 1/2 — — 1 — — — —
S — — 1 — — — — —
N — — — 1 — — — —
O — — — 1 — — — —
1
When plastic cement is used in lieu of portland cement, hydrated lime or putty may be added, but not in excess of one
tenth of the volume of cement.
TEK 3-11 © 2001 National Concrete Masonry Association
tion, most building codes require the use of Type M or S All other mortar joints should be approximately 3/8 in.
mortar for construction of basement walls (refs. 2, 4, 5, 9, (9.5 mm) thick and, except for partially grouted masonry,
13), because Type M and S mortars provide higher com- need only provide face shell bedding for the masonry units.
pressive strengths. Table 1 lists mortar proportions. In partially grouted construction, webs adjacent to the grouted
Typical concrete masonry construction uses about 8.5 ft3 cells are mortared to restrict grout from flowing into un-
(0.24 m3) of mortar for every 100 ft2 (9.3 m2) of masonry wall grouted cores. Head joints must be filled solidly for a thick-
area. This figure assumes 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) thick mortar joints, ness equal to a face shell thickness of the units.
face shell mortar bedding, and a 10% allowance for waste. Tooled concave joints provide the greatest resistance to
water penetration. On the exterior face of the wall, mortar
Grout joints may be cut flush if parging coats are to be applied.
In reinforced concrete masonry construction, grout is When joint reinforcement is used, it should be placed di-
used to bond the reinforcement and the masonry together. rectly on the block with mortar placed over the reinforcement
Grout should conform to Standard Specification for Grout in the usual method. A mortar cover of at least 5/8 in. (15.9
for Masonry, ASTM C 476 (ref. 10), with the proportions mm) should be provided between the exterior face of the wall
listed in Table 2. As an alternative to complying with the and the joint reinforcement. A mortar cover of 1/2 in. (12.7
proportion requirements in Table 2, grout can be specified to mm) is needed on the interior face of the wall. For added safety
have a minimum compressive strength of 2000 psi (13.8 MPa) against corrosion, hot dipped galvanized joint reinforcement is
at 28 days. Enough water should be added to the grout so recommended.
that it will have a slump of 8 to 11 in. (203 to 279 mm). The See Figures 1-4 for construction details.
high slump allows the grout to be fluid enough to flow around
reinforcing bars and into small voids. This initially high Reinforced Masonry
water-to-cement ratio is reduced significantly as the masonry For reinforced masonry construction, the reinforcing bars
units absorb excess mix water. Thus, grout gains high must be properly located to be fully functional. In most cases,
strengths despite the initially high water-to-cement ratio. vertical bars are positioned towards the interior face of
basement walls to provide the greatest resistance to soil
Table 2—Grout Proportions by Volume (Ref. 10) pressures. Bar positioners at the top and bottom of the wall
prevent the bars from moving out of position during grouting.
Proportions by volume Aggregate A space of at least 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) for coarse grout and 1/4
(cementitious materials) measured in in. (6.4 mm) for fine grout should be maintained between
portland hydrated a damp, the bar and the face shell of the block so that grout can flow
cement or lime or loose condition completely around the reinforcing bars.
Type blended cement lime putty Fine Coarse As mix water is absorbed by the units, voids can form in
Fine 2¼ to 3 times the grout. Accordingly, grout must be puddled or consoli-
Grout 1 0 to 1/10 the sum of the dated after placement to eliminate these voids and to increase
volumes of the the bond between the grout and the masonry units. Most codes
cementitious permit puddling of grout when it is placed in lifts less than
materials about 12 in. (305 mm). Lifts over 12 inches (305 mm) should
Coarse 1 0 to 1/10 2¼ to 3 times 1 to 2 times be mechanically consolidated and then reconsolidated after
Grout the sum of the the sum of the about 3 to 10 minutes.
volumes of volumes of
cementitious cementitious Surface Bonding
materials materials Another method of constructing concrete masonry walls
is to dry stack units (without mortar) and then apply surface
CONSTRUCTION bonding mortar to both faces of the wall. The surface bond-
ing mortar contains thousands of small glass fibers. When
Prior to laying the first course of masonry, the top of the the mortar is applied properly to the required thickness, these
footing must be cleaned of mud, dirt, ice or other materials fibers, along with the strength of the mortar itself, help pro-
which reduce the bond between the mortar and the footing. duce walls of comparable strength to conventionally laid plain
This can usually be accomplished using brushes or brooms, masonry walls. Surface bonded walls offer the benefits of
although excessive oil or dirt may require sand blasting. excellent dampproof coatings on each face of the wall and
Masons typically lay the corners of a basement first so ease of construction.
that alignment is easily maintained. This also allows the ma- Dry-stacked walls should be laid in an initial full mor-
son to plan where cuts are necessary for window openings or tar bed to level the first course. Level coursing is maintained
to fit the building’s plan. by using a rubbing stone to smooth small protrusions on the
To make up for surface irregularities in the footing, the block surfaces and by inserting shims every two to four
first course of masonry is set on a mortar bed joint which can courses.
range from 1/4 to 3/4 in. (6.4 to 19 mm) in thickness. This
initial bed joint should fully bed the first course of masonry Water Penetration Resistance
units, although mortar should not excessively protrude into Protecting below grade walls from water entry involves
cells that will be grouted. installation of a barrier to water and water vapor. An imper-
 19

18
17
12
7
5 6

4 1
3
15 9
11 2
14
10
13
8
16

1. Concrete masonry units, typically 8-in. units. Larger sizes may be required in for some soil and backfill height conditions.
2. Mortar, generally Type S. Joints should be tooled for improved impermeability unless the exterior side is parged.
3. Vertical reinforcing bars, if required. Reinforcement should be placed adjacent to openings, in corners and at a maximum
spacing determined from a structural analysis. Positioners hold the vertical bars in proper position.
4. Joint reinforcement or horizontal reinforcing bars to aid in control of shrinkage cracking and in Seismic Design Categories C,
D, E, and F. See TEK 14-18 (ref. 7) for more information on seismic reinforcement requirements.
5. Grout of 2,000 psi (13.8 MPa) minimum compressive strength in cores containing reinforcement. Consolidate grout by
puddling or vibration to reduce voids.
6. Solid grouted and reinforced top course to distribute loads from the walls above and increase soil gas and insect resistance.
7. Anchor bolts. Typically 7 in. (178 mm) long, 1/2 in. (12.7 mm) diameter anchor bolts are spaced no more than 4 ft (1.2 m)
on center. Anchor bolts significantly increase earthquake and high wind resistance.
8. Concrete footing. Footings distribute loads to the supporting soil. Concrete should have a minimum strength of 2500 psi
(17.2 MPa) and be at least 6 in. (152 mm) thick, although many designers prefer footings to be as thick as the wall thickness
and twice as wide as the wall thickness. Incorporating two #4 bars (or larger) increases the ability to span weak spots.
9. Concrete slab, typically minimum 2500 psi (17.2 MPa), 4 in. (101 mm) thick. Contraction joint spacing should not exceed
about 15 ft (4.6 m). Welded wire fabric located near the center of the slab increases strength and holds unplanned shrinkage
cracks tightly together. Welded wire fabric should be cut at contraction joints.
10. Aggregate base. A 4 to 6 in. (102 to 152 mm) base of washed aggregate (3/4 to 11/2 in. (19 to 38 mm) diameter) distributes slab
loads evenly to the underlying soil, provides a level, clean surface for slab placement, and allows for inclusion of a soil gas
depressurization system.
11. Vapor retarder. Continuous or lapped sheets of 6 mil (152 mm) polyethylene, PVC or equivalent reduce rising dampness and
block soil gas infiltration through the slab. Vapor retarders can be placed on top of the aggregate base to increase the
effectiveness of the soil gas barrier system, or under the aggregate to reduce concrete placement and curing difficulties.
12. Waterproof or dampproof membrane. Dampproof where hydrostatic pressure will not occur. Where ground water levels are
high, soil drainage is slow, or where radon gas levels are high, consideration of waterproof membranes such as rubberized
asphalt, polymer-modified asphalt, butyl rubber and/or drainage boards should be considered.
13. Foundation drain. Perforated pipe collects and transports ground water away from the basement. Drains should be located
below the top of the slab and should be sloped away from the building to natural drainage, a storm water sewer, or a sump.
14. Free draining backfill. At least 12 in. (305 mm) of washed gravel or other free draining backfill material should be placed
around drains to facilitate drainage. Cover the top of the gravel with a filtering geotextile to prevent clogging.
15. Backfill. Backfill should be placed after wall has gained sufficient strength and is properly braced or supported.
16. Undisturbed soil. Soil beneath footings and slabs should be undisturbed or compacted.
17. Top of grade. Surrounding soil should slope away from building to drain water away from walls. The top 4 to 8 in. (102 to 203
mm) of soil should be of low permeability so that water is absorbed slowly into the soil.
18. Floor diaphragm. A floor diaphragm supports the tops of masonry walls and distributes loads from the superstructure to them.
19. Flashing. Flashing should be installed at the top of basement walls to prevent water from entering the wall.
Figure 1— Basement/Foundation Wall (Ref. 1)
 12 1
3
15 4
9 Alternate
5 Courses
10
14

13 2
8
11
16

(A) 8-in. to 8-in. (203 to 203 mm)

Figure 2—Typical Footing Detail (Ref. 1) Wall Corner Detail

18 Alternate
Courses
Solid 2 x 6 x 8 in.
(51 x 153 x 203 mm)
19
7

17 6 1
2
5 (B) 10-in. to 10-in. (254 to 254 mm)
4 Wall Corner Detail
15 3

Figure 3—Typical Floor Connection (Ref. 1)

vious barrier on the exterior wall surface can prevent

moisture entry. The barrier is part of a comprehensive
system to prevent water penetration, which includes proper
wall construction and the installation of drains, gutters,
and proper grading.
Building codes (refs. 2, 4 , 5, 9, 13) typically require
that basement walls be dampproofed for conditions where
hydrostatic pressure will not occur, and waterproofed where
hydrostatic pressures may exist. Dampproofing is appro-
priate where groundwater drainage is good, for example
where granular backfill and a subsoil drainage system are
present. Hydrostatic pressure may exist due to a high water
table, or due to poorly draining backfill, such as heavy clay
soils. Materials used for waterproofing are generally elas-
tic, allowing them to span small cracks and accommodate
minor movements.
When choosing a waterproof or dampproof system,
consideration should be given to the degree of resistance
to hydrostatic head of water, absorption characteristics,
elasticity, stability in moist soil, resistance to mildew and
algae, impact or puncture resistance, and abrasion resis-
tance. A complete discussion of waterproofing, damp-
proofing, and drainage systems is included in TEK 19-3A
(ref. 6).
All dampproofing and waterproofing systems should
be applied to walls that are clean and free from dirt, mud
Alternate Solid 4 x 4 x 8 in.
Courses (102 x 102 x 203 mm)
(C) 12-in. to 12 in. (305 to 305 mm)
Wall Corner Detail
Figure 4—Standard Corner Layout Details
and other materials which may reduce bond between
the coating and the concrete masonry wall.
Draining water away from basement walls signifi-
cantly reduces the pressure the walls must resist and
reduces the possibility of water infiltration into the base-
ment if the waterproofing (or dampproofing) system
fails. Perforated pipe has historically proven satisfactory
when properly installed. When placed on the exterior side
of basement walls, perforated pipes are usually laid in
crushed stone to facilitate drainage. To prevent migration
of fine soil into the drains, filter fabrics are often placed
over the gravel.
Drainage pipes can also be placed be-
neath the slab and connected into a sump.
Pipes through the footing or the wall drain
water from the exterior side of the basement
wall.
The drainage and waterproofing systems
should always be inspected prior to backfill-
ing to ensure they are adequately placed. Any
questionable workmanship or materials
should be repaired at this stage since repairs
are difficult and expensive after backfilling.
Backfilling
One of the most crucial aspects of base-
ment construction is how and when to prop-
erly backfill. Walls should be properly braced
or have the first floor in place prior to back-
filling. Otherwise, a wall which is designed to
be supported at the top may crack or even fail from the
large soil pressures. Figure 5 shows one bracing scheme
which has been widely used for residential basement walls.
More substantial bracing may be required for high walls
or large backfill pressures.
The backfill material should be free-draining soil with-
out large stones, construction debris, organic materials,
and frozen earth. Saturated soils, especially saturated clays,
should generally not be used as backfill materials since
wet materials significantly increase the hydrostatic pres-
sure on the walls.
Backfill materials should be placed in several lifts
and each layer should be compacted with small mechani-
cal tampers. Care should be taken when placing the back-
fill materials to avoid damaging the drainage, water-
proofing or exterior insulation systems. Sliding boul-
ders and soil down steep slopes should thus be avoided
since the high impact loads generated can damage not
only the drainage and waterproofing systems but the wall
as well. Likewise, heavy equipment should not be oper-
ated within about 3 feet (0.9 m) of any basement wall
system.
The top 4 to 8 in. (102 to 203 mm) of backfill mate-
rials should be low permeability soil so rain water is
absorbed into the backfill slowly. Grade should be sloped
away from the basement at least 6 in. (152 mm) within
10 feet (3.1 m) of the building. If the ground naturally
slopes toward the building, a shallow swale can be in-
stalled to redirect runoff.
Construction Tolerances
Specifications for Masonry Structures (ref. 8) speci-
fies tolerances for concrete masonry construction. These
tolerances were developed to avoid structurally impair-
ing a wall because of improper placement.
1. Dimension of elements in cross section or elevation
......................-1/4 in. (6.4 mm), +1/2 in. (12.7 mm)
2. Mortar joint thickness: bed............+1/8 in. (3.2 mm)
head...................-1/4 in (6.4 mm), +3/8 in. (9.5 mm)
3. Elements
Ensure water/dampproofing
or drainage systems and bracing
are properly in place prior to
backfilling
2x10 in. (51x254 mm)
plank vertical brace
2x4 in.
(51x102 mm)
cleat Two 2x6 in.
(51x152 mm)
2x4 in. stakes driven into
(51x102 mm) firm soil at least
brace strut
Figure 5—Typical Bracing for Concrete Masonry Basement
a. Variation from level: bed joints.................................
+1/4 in. (6.4 mm) in 10 ft (3.1 m), +1/2 in. (12.7 mm) max
top surface of bearing walls....................................
+1/4 in.(6.4 mm), +3/8 in.(9.5 mm), +1/2 in.(12.7mm) max
b. Variation from plumb...........+1/4 in. (6.4 mm) 10 ft (3.1 m)
...........................+3/8 in. (9.5 mm) in 20 ft (6.1 m)
.................................+1/2 in. (12.7 mm) maximum
c. True to a line..............+1/4 in. (6.4 mm) in 10 ft (3.1 m)
...........................+3/8 in. (9.5 mm) in 20 ft (6.1 m)
.................................+1/2 in. (12.7 mm) maximum
d. Alignment of columns and bearing walls (bottom ver-
sus top)......................................+1/2 in (12.7 mm)
4. Location of elements
a. Indicated in plan...........+1/2 in (12.7 mm) in 20 ft (6.1 m)
...................................+3/4 in. (19.1 mm) maximum
b. Indicated in elevation
.............................+1/4 in. (6.4 mm) in story height
.................................+3/4 in. (19.1 mm) maximum
Insulation
The thermal performance of a masonry wall depends
on its R-value as well as the thermal mass of the wall. R-
value describes the ability to resist heat flow; higher R-values
give better insulating performance. The R-value is
determined by the size and type of masonry unit, type and
amount of insulation, and finish materials. Depending on
the particular site conditions and owner’s preference,
insulation may be placed on the outside of block walls, in
the cores of hollow units, or on the interior of the walls.
Thermal mass describes the ability of materials like con-
crete masonry to store heat. Masonry walls remain warm or
cool long after the heat or air-conditioning has shut off, keep-
ing the interior comfortable. Thermal mass is most effective
when insulation is placed on the exterior or in the cores of
the block, where the masonry is in direct contact with the
interior conditioned air.
Exterior insulated masonry walls typically use rigid board
insulation adhered to the soil side of the wall. The insula-
tion requires a protective finish where it is exposed above
grade to maintain durability, integrity, and effectiveness.
 Concrete masonry cores may be insulated with molded
polystyrene inserts, expanded perlite or vermiculite granu-
lar fills, or foamed-in-place insulation. Inserts may be placed
in the cores of conventional masonry units, or they may be
used in block specifically designed to provide higher R-val-
ues.
Interior insulation typically consists of insulation in-
stalled between furring strips, finished with gypsum wall
board or panelling. The insulation may be fibrous batt, rigid
board, or fibrous blown-in insulation.
DESIGN FEATURES
Interior Finishes
Split faced, scored, burnished, and fluted block give
owners and designers added options to standard block
surfaces. Colored units can be used in the entire wall or in
sections to achieve specific patterns.
Although construction with staggered vertical mortar
joints (running bond) is standard for basement construction,
the appearance of continuous vertical mortar joints (stacked
bond pattern) can be achieved by using of scored units or
reinforced masonry construction.
Natural Lighting
Because of the modular nature of concrete masonry,
windows and window wells of a variety of shapes and sizes
can be easily accommodated, giving basements warm, natural
lighting. For additional protection and privacy, glass blocks
can be incorporated in lieu of traditional glass windows.

REFERENCES
1. Basement Manual-Design and Construction Using Concrete Masonry, TR-68A, National Concrete Masonry Association, 2001.
2. BOCA National Building Code. Country Club Hills, IL: Building Officials and Code Administrators International, Inc. (BOCA), 1999.
3. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, ACI 530-02/ASCE 5-02/TMS 402-02. Reported by the Masonry
Standards Joint Committee, 2002.
4. International Residential Code. Falls Church, VA: International Code Council, 2000.
5. International Building Code. Falls Church, VA: International Code Council, 2000.
6. Preventing Water Penetration in Below-Grade Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 19-3A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2001.
7. Seismic Design Provisions for Masonry Structures, TEK 14-18, National Concrete Masonry Association, 1996.
8. Specifications for Masonry Structures, ACI 530.1-02/ASCE 6-99/TMS 602-02. Reported by the Masonry Standards Joint
Committee, 2002.
9. Standard Building Code. Birmingham, AL: Southern Building Code Congress International, Inc. (SBCCI), 1999.
10.Standard Specification for Grout for Masonry, ASTM C 476-01. American Society for Testing and Materials, 2001.
11.Standard Specification for Load-Bearing Concrete Masonry Units, ASTM C 90-01. American Society for Testing and
Materials, 2001.
12.Standard Specification for Mortar for Unit Masonry, ASTM C 270-00. American Society for Testing and Materials, 2000.
13.Uniform Building Code. Whittier, CA: International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO), 1997.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
2302 Horse Pen Road, Herndon, Virginia 22071-3499 contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
www.ncma.org

National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology
CONSTRUCTION OF HIGH-RISE
CONCRETE MASONRY BUILDINGS
Keywords: construction techniques, economical construction,
high-rise, inspection, load-bearing masonry, scaffolding, specified
compressive strength of masonry (f'm)
INTRODUCTION
Masonry structures have been used for centuries through-
out the world. Concrete masonry units, however, are a
relatively recent innovation. Initially, these units were made
with hand-operated equipment, although by the 1940’s, block
production had developed to incorporate automated mixing,
molding, and curing methods, resulting in consistent quality
of materials. These new manufacturing processes allowed
concrete masonry to be used in engineered structural systems
such as multistory load-bearing structures.
In the late 1940’s, one of the first examples of engineered
multistory construction was used by Professor Paul Haller in
Switzerland. Today there are many examples of loadbearing
masonry buildings up to 15 to 28 stories high.
The modular nature of concrete masonry units makes
construction straightforward and the small unit size makes
changes in plan or elevation easy. Special unit shapes are
manufactured to accommodate reinforcement. Open end
units, with one or both end webs removed, permit the place-
Figure 1–The four towers of the 28-story Excalibur Hotel in Las Vegas are load-bearing masonry.
TEK 3-12 © 1998 National Concrete Masonry Association
NCMA TEK
TEK 3-12
Construction (1998)
ment of units around vertical reinforcing bars. Slots manufac-
tured into the webs of units (termed bond beam units) are used
to position horizontal reinforcement within the wall.
Concrete masonry is widely used because of the strength,
durability, economy, architectural appeal, and versatility of the
masonry system. A major milestone in the advancement of
engineered concrete masonry was the establishment of the
Specifications for Design and Construction of Load Bearing
Concrete Masonry by NCMA in the late 1960's (ref. 1). This
served as the building code for engineered concrete masonry
structures and was adopted by the Southern Building Code
Congress and other model codes. It has evolved into our
present-day Building Code Requirements for Masonry Struc-
tures (ref. 2) and Specification for Masonry Structures (ref. 3).
One of the earliest wall bearing concrete masonry structures
using this new technology was a nine story senior citizens
building in Cleveland, Tennessee which was built in 1969
utilizing partially reinforced concrete masonry walls.
(photo)
Excalibur Hotel and Casino
 In our world of economics, the bottom line is still a deciding
factor in determining a building's construction type. The real
economy of concrete masonry lies in utilizing the strength of
the masonry units (making them load-bearing) and minimizing
the cutting of the modular building unit by utilizing multiples
of 8 in. for building dimensions and openings. Regarding
finish, the most economical one of course is normally plain,
painted block. However, if the owner's budget permits en-
hancements, a wide variety of architectural units are available
(i.e. colored, split-face, scored, fluted, burnished, and slump
block). Prefaced units with a glazed finish, vibrant colors and
graffiti resistance are also available. Architectural units not
only provide pleasing aesthetics but also greatly reduce main-
tenance and upkeep costs. Additionally, stucco or a variety of
proprietary finishing systems also can be applied.
BUILDING TYPES
Most concrete masonry multistory buildings fall into two
main types; loadbearing shear wall-type buildings and infilled
walls. The Uniform Building Code (ref. 4) has also recently
approved a design method for moment-resisting masonry wall
frames.
Loadbearing/Shear Wall Buildings
Loadbearing concrete masonry shear wall buildings make
the most effective use of concrete masonry by relying on both
the economy and the structural capacity—compressive
strength and shear resistance—of the concrete masonry. The
most common application uses concrete masonry walls with
concrete floor and roof diaphragms. The concrete diaphragms
can be poured in place, although precast hollow core slabs are
the most common.
Concrete masonry/precast slab buildings provide a fast,
economical construction method that has allowed some build-
ers to construct one story each week. Floors are enclosed
quickly, so that mechanical, electrical, plumbing, and other
contractors can begin working on one floor while masonry wall
and plank construction continues on floors above them.
Concrete Masonry Infill
Infilled concrete masonry walls utilize the concrete ma-
sonry as cladding and interior partitions between concrete or
steel frames, which form the structural load-resisting system.
Concrete masonry walls are often used in this application
because of the cost effectiveness and ease of construction.
Historically, most of these walls have been constructed using
standard concrete masonry units which were painted or plas-
tered. More recently, however, architectural units are being
used to eliminate the need for finishing the walls.
Construction of infilled masonry walls is usually straight-
forward since the main building system is in place prior to the
masonry construction. The most important consideration is
whether “gapped” or “ungapped” infilled walls will be pro-
vided. Gapped infilled walls are constructed with a predeter-
mined space between the masonry and the building frame.
These gaps act as isolation joints, allowing the building frame
to drift and sway under lateral loads. Ungapped infilled walls,
by contrast, are constructed tightly against the building frame
so that the infilled walls serve as shear walls.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
The typical specified compressive strength of concrete
masonry, f'm, is 1500 psi (10.3 MPa). However, using high
strength concrete masonry units, f'm values up to 4000 psi (27.6
MPa) are achievable. These high strength units are often
specified on high-rise loadbearing projects to minimize wall
thickness. For further economy, some designers specify lower
f'm values in the upper stories, where the higher compressive
strength is not needed, since high strength units may cost more
than standard units. For example, the four, fast-track, 28-story
towers of the $300 million, 4,000 room Excalibur hotel in Las
Vegas, Nevada, used an f'm of 4000 psi (27.6 MPa) for the load-
bearing walls on the first thirteen floors (ref. 5). The specified
compressive strength decreased in successive stories, until
the top floors where standard block with an f'm of 1500 psi (10.3
MPa) was used.
Contractors prefer repetitive floor plans for high-rise con-
struction. This important design feature allows similar con-
struction and provides structural continuity from floor to floor
both of which lend to economy in construction. The same
holds true for architectural details. Designs which facilitate
scheduling repetitive, “assembly-line” construction proce-
dures improve productivity and reduce construction costs.
Obviously, aesthetic and functional constraints must also be
considered, so that buildings are useful and attractive as well
as economical.
Connections between building elements is key to the
performance of the structures and should therefore be con-
sidered carefully during the design process. Connections
should be simple and easy to construct and, where necessary,
should accommodate building movements from expansion
and/or contraction of building materials.
Differential movement deserves particular attention on
high-rises where concrete masonry is clad with clay brick.
Concrete materials tend to shrink, while clay tends to expand.
Over the height of many stories, these opposing movements
can be significant. In one case, the seventeen story Crittenden
Court in Cleveland, Ohio, these movements were accommo-
dated by designing the exterior brick as a reinforced curtain wall
supported on the foundation (ref. 6). The brick was tied to the
precast concrete floor planks using slotted anchors that allow
vertical but not horizontal movement. This accommodates the
differential movement, and also provides enough lateral stiff-
ness to transfer wind and seismic loads from the brick to the
floor diaphragms.
Because of the large size of most multistory buildings, a
predefined quality control/quality assurance plan is recom-
mended. Inspection, to ensure that key building elements
have been installed properly, is essential to assure that the
building was constructed as designed. Material testing may be
required by the Specifications for Masonry Structures or the
contract documents to verify that supplied materials meet the
project specifications. As with all construction, tolerances
should be carefully monitored. Steel or concrete frames con-
structed out of tolerance make the mason's job difficult and
slow. Proper alignment of these elements will facilitate the
construction process and provide a more appealing completed
structure.
CONSTRUCTION
Construction Materials
For construction to proceed smoothly and quickly, it is
necessary to carefully schedule construction procedures and
supply of materials. Where space allows, it is preferable to
stockpile materials on site so that they are readily available
when needed. For small sites, material delivery must be timed
so that the materials can be moved quickly to the place they are
needed.
Materials are delivered to the masons on upper stories via
crane or hoist. Materials can either be stocked from the building
floors, or can be placed on the work platform, if the platform is
large enough and can support the weight. Coordination with
crane and elevator schedules should also be considered so that
they are available when materials arrive on site.
An adequate supply of concrete masonry units for the
entire story should be supplied at one time. Mortar materials
can be mixed using traditional techniques, although silo mix
mortar systems have become increasingly popular. These
systems deliver 14 to 28 yd3 (10.7 to 21.4 m3) of mortar ingredi-
ents, and produce consistent mortar from batch to batch.
Additional advantages include ability to be lifted easily from
floor to floor, mortar containment, and easy cleanup.
Reinforcement cut to proper length and provided in bundles
for each story level also facilitates construction. Grout is
typically supplied via ready-mix trucks and is pumped to the top
of the wall or is lifted using cubic yard buckets. Silo mixed grout
is also supplied on some jobs. Also, as with all grouted
masonry, it is vitally important that the grout has a slump
between 8 and 11 in. per the Specification for Masonry Struc-
tures for proper placement and final performance of the build-
ing.
Placing the Masonry
Concrete masonry can either be laid from the inside of the
building with the masons working on the interior floor area or
from the outside of the building with the masons working on
scaffolds or work platforms. The choice depends on the size
of the job, type of construction, and mason's preferences.
Laying Units from Inside the Building
For load-bearing and infilled exterior walls, concrete ma-
sonry can often be laid from the inside of the building. This
normally is the most efficient and cost effective method as this
allows the masons to work on the building's floor area provid-
ing ample room for units, mortar, and other building materials.
Since the mason's work is confined to the perimeter of the floor,
other trades can also work at the same time. Laying from the
interior may also be an advantage in windy conditions, when
work on exterior platforms may be limited.
Block for the next story are normally stacked on the
concrete floor as soon as it has hardened enough to prevent
damaging the surface, usually a couple of hours after the steel
troweling is completed. An example of this is a hotel structure
where the wall between each room is a bearing wall and the floor
system is a concrete, one-way, continuous slab. To ensure
structural adequacy and maximum economy, two practices
must be observed: 1) no shoring can be removed until the next
story of walls has been laid up, and 2) sand must be spread over
the new slab to facilitate cleanup of any dropped mortar.
For masonry veneers laid from the interior, the building
design and construction must accommodate the construction
technique. For example, if the walls are masonry veneer with
concrete masonry backup, both masonry wythes can easily be
laid at the same time. If, on the other hand, the interior wythe
is steel studs with sheathing, the veneer would have to be
placed from the exterior. Similarly, large columns and deep
beams may interfere with masonry veneer placement from the
interior.
One drawback to laying units from the inside of the
building is that more time is typically required to place the units
to assure they align on the exterior since the masons are facing
the interior, unexposed, side of the wall. However, this decrease
in productivity is often offset by large reductions in scaffolding
costs, which can be substantial. Although some scaffolding is
needed to lay the top portion of each wall, only one level of
scaffold is required.
Laying Units from Work Platforms
Scaffolds and other temporary work platforms allow the
masons to work facing the exposed side of the masonry, making
it easier to ensure the exposed side is laid plumb and level. Most
mason contractors own a supply of scaffolding, but often must
rent supplemental scaffolds for high-rise construction. Time
should be allotted for placing, dismantling, and moving scaf-
folds on the job.
Two alternatives to traditional scaffolding for high-rise
construction are powered mast-climbing platforms and sus-
pended scaffolds. Both eliminate the labor required to con-
struct multiple levels of conventional scaffolding.
Powered mast-climbing work platforms are erected on the
ground and use electric or hydraulic power to move the
platform up and down the supporting mast or masts (ref. 7). The
masts are attached to the building using adjustable ties or
anchors.
One advantage of these systems is that the platform can
be easily moved in small increments. This means the platform
can be adjusted as the wall is laid to keep it at the mason's
optimum working height. This reduces the amount of lifting of
individual units and improves productivity. Powered mast-
climbing platforms have maximum heights ranging from 300 to
almost 700 ft (91 to 213 m), depending on the type chosen. Other
variables include maximum safe wind exposure, attachment
requirements, speed, and optional equipment such as over-
head protection.
Suspended scaffolds (ref. 8) are work platforms that are
suspended from either the roof of the building or from an
intermediate floor and therefore would mainly be limited to use
on infill projects where the structural frame precedes the wall.
Like the mast-climbing platforms, the suspended scaffolds are
adjustable in small increments to keep the platform at the
optimum working height for the masons. Most suspended
scaffolds are raised and lowered by hand, rather than by a
powered system. The attachment requirements for suspended
scaffolds are fairly complex, and are typically designed for each
project and installed by the scaffold supplier.
Suspended scaffolds have the advantage of keeping the
lower floors of the building accessible once the work has
progressed above this point. They may also be preferable on
sloping sites where erection of frame scaffolding would be
difficult.
Suspended scaffolds typically become cost effective at
building heights of seven to ten stories. Below this height,
traditional or power mast scaffolding is probably more cost
effective.
CONCLUSION
Many economical concrete masonry structures have been
built around the country ranging from buildings to over twenty
stories in height to fifteen foot high retaining walls. Rapid
growth in areas like that of Orlando, Florida, spurred by the
arrival of Disney World produced a market for quality, eco-
nomical building systems. Concrete masonry construction
and the early NCMA Specification for Design and Construc-
tion of Load-Bearing Concrete Masonry were ready with the
technology to allow engineers and architects to design eco-
nomical and aesthetically pleasing structures. High-rise build-
ings have seen an unprecedented growth with modern, inno-
vative construction methods, proper engineering design and
use of concrete masonry materials.

REFERENCES
1. Specification for Design and Construction of Load-Bearing Concrete Masonry, National Concrete Masonry Association,
1970.
2. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, ACI 530-95/ASCE 5-95/TMS 402-95. Reported by the Masonry
Standards Joint Committee, 1995.
3. Specification for Masonry Structures, ACI 530.1-95/ASCE 6-95/ TMS 602-95. Reported by the Masonry Standards Joint
Committee, 1995.
4. Uniform Building Code. Whittier, CA: International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO), 1997.
5. Keating, Elizabeth. "A Floor a Week per Tower." Masonry Construction, November 1989.
6. Keating, Elizabeth. "Powered Mast-Climbing Work Platforms." Masonry Construction, May 1997.
7. Wallace, Mark A. "Loadbearing Masonry Rises High in Cleveland." Masonry Construction, May 1997.
8. Hooker, Kenneth A. "Suspended Scaffolds Cut High-Rise Masonry Costs." Masonry Construction, March 1991.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
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www.ncma.org

National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology
CONSTRUCTION OF LOW-RISE
CONCRETE MASONRY BUILDINGS
Keywords: architectural details, bond beams, composite wall,
construction details, construction techniques, flashing, joint
reinforcement, construction techniques, lintels, water repel-
lents, weep holes.
INTRODUCTION
The current trend of urban renewal and infill has sparked a
high volume of new low-rise masonry residences. These structures
come in many forms, but quite often they employ the use of load
bearing concrete masonry walls supporting a wood floor system.
These new buildings are largely derivative of the historic loadbear-
ing masonry “brownstone” or “three flat” structures of old. This
guide is intended to assist contractors and architects to give this
building type a modern approach to detailing.
FLOOR SYSTEM CONNECTIONS
When designing low-rise loadbearing structures, the connec-
tion detail between the floor system and the wall system is critical for
achieving a watertight structure. Much of this TEK will deal with
which strategy should be utilized in connecting a wood floor system
to a masonry load-bearing wall. Connection methods covered are
joist hangers, beam pockets and ledger beam details. Other floor sys-
tems are used in low-rise construction that are not addressed here -
see TEK 5-7A for further information (ref. 2).
BRICK AND BLOCK COMPOSITE WALL DETAILS
Quite often, the front facade of these structures is composed
of brick to give the building a more residential, more human scale.
One way to construct a brick and block wall is to separate the two
wythes with an airspace, creating a cavity wall. Another is to use
a composite wall design. The composite wall consists of an exte-
rior wythe of brick directly mortared or grouted and tied to an inner
wythe of CMU. The collar joint between the two wythes should be
100% solid as it is the only defense against water penetration. Mini-
mum tie requirements are one tie per 22/3ft2 of wall area for W1.7
(MW11)(9 gauge) wire or one tie per 41/2ft2 of wall area using W2.8
(MW19)(3/16 in.)wire (ref. 2). A W1.7 (MW11)(9 gauge) joint rein-
forcement @16 in. (406 mm) on center would meet this requirement
and is often used. Details covered for this system are base flashing,
window head and window sill details.
EXTERIOR CONCRETE MASONRY
The use of water repellent admixtures in concrete masonry
and mortars can greatly reduce the amount of water entering the
masonry. In addition, they inhibit any water that penetrates the face
from wicking to the back of the wall.
TEK 3-13 © 2005 National Concrete Masonry Association
NCMA TEK
TEK 3-13
Construction (2005)
Figure 1––Exterior Concrete Masonry in a Residence
Proper selection and application of integral water repellents
and surface treatments can greatly enhance the water resistive proper-
ties of masonry, but they should not be considered as substitutes for
good fundamental design including flashing details and crack control
measures. See TEKs 19-1, 19-2A and 19-4A (refs. 6, 3, & 5) for more
information on water resistant concrete masonry construction.
Because a 4 in. (102 mm) concrete masonry veneer will
shrink over time, a 4 in. (102 mm) hot-dipped galvanized ladder type
joint reinforcement should be placed in bed joints spaced 16 in. (406
mm) vertically.
Compared to type N or O, type S mortar tends to be less
workable in the field and should only be specified when dictated
by structural requirements. Sills, copings and chimney caps of
solid masonry units, reinforced concrete, stone, or corrosion resistant
metal should be used. Copings, sills and chimney caps should proj-
ect beyond the face of the wall at least 1 in. (25 mm) and should have
functional flashing and weep holes. In addition, all sills, copings and
chimney caps should have a minimum slope of 1:4, be mechanically
anchored to the wall, and should have properly sized, sealed, and
located movement joints when necessary.
Flashing should be installed at locations shown on the plans
and in strict accordance with the details and industry standard flash-
ing procedures. Functional, unpunctured flashing and weep holes
are to be used at the base of wall above grade, above openings, at
shelf angles, lintels, wall-roofing intersections, chimneys, bay win-
dows, and below sills and copings. The flashing should be extended
past the face of the wall. The flashing should have end dams at dis-
continuous ends, and properly sealed splices at laps.
JOIST HANGER DETAILS BEAM POCKET DETAILS

The use of a joist hanger system can greatly simplify the
bearing detail. The floor system does not interrupt the continuity of
the bearing wall. Installation is quicker and easier resulting in a
more economical installation.
The traditional beam pocket detail still can be effective.
Stepped flashing above the bearing line is critical to the perfor-
mance of this system. Without the flashing, any water present in
the wall has an unobstructed path inside the building and has the
potential to deteriorate the floor structure.

Block & mortar

treated with integral
water repellent (where
required)

Stepped Through wall

Block & mortar flashing
treated with integral
water repellent 2 wythes of
4 in. (102 mm) CMU
(where required)
Inner wythe cut
Through Wall
to form pocket
Flashing
Drip Edge
Drip Edge

Joist Hanger Grouted Bond Beam

Grouted Bond Beam

Figure 2––Joist Hanger Bearing Detail Figure 4––Beam Pocket Bearing Detail

2 Wythes of Stepped through

4 in. (102 mm) CMU wall flashing

Stepped Through Strap anchor in

Wall Flashing head joint.

Strap Anchor 2 wythes of

4” (102 mm) CMU
Drip Edge
Drip Edge

Grouted Bond Beam Grouted Bond Beam

Figure 3 Joist Hanger Non-Bearing Detail Figure 5 Beam Pocket Non-Bearing Detail
LEDGER BEAM DETAILS PARAPETS AND WINDOW SILLS

The use of a ledger beam which is bolted to a bond beam is
also a good option for this bearing condition. Through wall flashing
is still required to maintain a watertight wall. Any water that pen-
etrates the block with run down the inner cores of the block until it
hits the flashing. The flashing and weep holes will allow the water
to exit without damaging the structure.
Below are details for a parapet condition and a window sill
condition. The parapet is reinforced with No. 4 bars at 48 in.
(No.13M @1219 mm) on center or as required for wind resistance.
If a metal cap is used, it should extend down the face of the wall at
least 3 in. (76 mm) with continuous sealant at the joint on both sides
of the wall. The sill detail shows the arrangement of flashing, end
dam, weep holes and drip edge and how they all form a watertight

Optional: Counter-
flashing or waterproof-
ing adhered to CMU
Block & mortar
treated with integral Block & mortar
water repellent treated with integral
(where required) water repellent
Through wall (where required)
flashing
Metal coping
Drip edge
Continuous sealant
Anchor bolts grouted (both sides)
into bond beam
Flashing
Ledger Beam
Bond Beam

Grouted Bond Beam Reinforcement if

required for wind
resistance.

Figure 6––Ledger Beam Bearing Detail Figure 8––Parapet Detail

Joint reinforcement
as required

Flashing

Flashing end dam

Through wall
Cotton sash weep
flashing
Grouted cell
Drip edge
(under flashing)
Anchor bolts grouted
Drip edge
into bond beam

Ledger Beam

Grouted Bond Beam

Figure 7––Ledger Beam Non-Bearing Detail Figure 9––Window Sill Detail

WINDOW HEAD DETAILS CONTROL JOINT DETAILS

These two window head details show the relationship
between the steel lintel, drip edge, flashing, end dams, and weep
holes. The first option shows the use of a concrete masonry lintel
which is grouted solid and reinforced. The second detail shows
two steel lintels used for spanning the opening.
Control joints simply are weakened planes placed at
approximately 20 ft. (6 m) on center in concrete masonry walls
and at changes in wall elevation/thickness. Notice that the joint
reinforcement is discontinuous at the joint. Cores are shown
grouted adjacent to the joints as well to ensure structural stability
in taller walls and/or high load situations.

Joint Reinforc-
ing

Rebar / Grout

Mortar

Backer Rod

Sealant

Joint reinforcing as
required

Flashing Joint Reinforc-

ing
Cotton weep Rebar / Grout
Drip edge Mortar

Bond beam Backer Rod

Sealant

Figure 10––Masonry Lintel Detail Figure 12––Control Joint Details

Control joint
location using
masonry lintel

Control joint
location when
using steel lintel

Flashing with
end dams

Joint reinforcing as
required
Control joint
Steel lintels
Additional control
joint [if opening
Cotton weep is more than 6 ft.
(1.8 m)wide]
Drip edge

Figure 11––Double Angle Lintel Detail Figure 13––Control Joint at Opening

COMPOSITE WALL BASE FLASHING DETAILS COMPOSITE WALL WINDOW DETAILS

Figure 14 shows a stair-stepped flashing detail with the
exposed drip edge and weep holes. Figure 15 shows a straight
through wall flashing detail. The flashing must be set in mastic on
top of the concrete foundation, or the flashing must be self adhe-
sive. The flashing should be turned up on the inner side of the
wall to direct water to the outside of the wall.
Here steel lintels back-to-back create the above window
span. Stepped flashing turned up on the inside, and folded to form
an end dam protects the head condition from moisture. The sill
detail also uses flashing, end dams and weep holes to keep moisture
out of the wall. The use of a precast concrete or stone sill is highly
suggested over using brick rowlock sills.

Flashing support angle

Stepped through wall Continuous

flashing collar joint

Continuous
collar joint
Flashing End Dam
Cotton sash weep
Cotton sash weep
@16 in. (406 mm) o.c.
Stepped flashing
Drip Edge
Drip Edge

Steel Lintel

Figure 14––Stepped Flashing at Base Figure 16––Window Head Detail

Joint reinforcement
as required

Collar joint

Sealant and backer

rod

Flashing end dam

Continuous Cotton sash weep

collar joint

Flashing support
angle Flashing

Through wall Drip Edge

flashing
Grouted solid
Cotton weep 16 in.
(406 mm) o.c.

Drip Edge

Figure 15––Level Flashing and Angle Figure 17––Window Sill Detail

CONCRETE MASONRY
VENEER DETAILING

Figure 18 shows the detail-

PLAN
ing of a 4 in. (102 mm) concrete
masonry veneer used in conjunc-
tion with a 8 in. (205 mm) CMU
backup wall.
Three types of joint rein-
forcement are shown including
tri-rod, tab and adjustable types.
It is imperative that the veneer 8 in. (203 mm) CMU
have a continuous wire embed- 1 in. (25 mm) Rigid
ded in every other course to con- insulation

trol movement. With the tri-rod Tri-rod joint rein-

system, the joint reinforcement forcement @ 16in. Tab type reinforce-
Adjustable joint rein-
(406 mm) o.c. ment@ 16 in. (406
SECTION

satisfies this requirement. With vertically* mm) o.c. vertically* forcement@ 16 in.
(406 mm) o.c.
the other two systems, an addi- 1 in. (25 mm)
tional ladder type joint reinforce- airspace 4 in. (102 mm) 4 in. (102 mm)
2 wire ladder joint 2 wire ladder joint
ment is used to provide this 4 in. (102 mm) CMU reinforcement@ reinforcement @
movement control for the veneer. alternate16 in. (406 alternate 16 in.
Flashing mm) o.c. vertically (406 mm) o.c.

* All joint reinforcement should be

hot-dipped galvanized (minimum)
Tri-rod Tab type Adjustable
Figure 18––Concrete Masonry Veneer Detailing

REFERENCES
1. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, ACI 530-05/ASCE 6-05/TMS-402-05. Reported by the Masonry Standards Joint Committee, 2005.
2. Floor and Roof Connections to Concrete Masonry Walls, NCMA TEK 5-7A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2001.
3. Design for Dry Single-Wythe Concrete Masonry Walls, NCMA TEK 19-2A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2004.
4. Flashing Details for Concrete Masonry Walls, NCMA TEK 19-5A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2004.
5. Flashing Strategies for Concrete Masonry Walls, NCMA TEK 19-4A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2003.
6. Water Repellents for Concrete Masonry Walls, NCMA TEK 19-1. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2002.

Disclaimer: Although care has been taken to ensure the enclosed information is as accurate and complete as possible, NCMA does not assume any responsibility
for errors or ommisions resulting from the use of this TEK

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13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171-4662 contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
www.ncma.org

National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology
CLAY AND CONCRETE MASONRY
BANDING DETAILS
Keywords: architectural bands, architectural details,
banding, clay brick, crack control, control joints, joint
reinforcement, veneer, wall ties
INTRODUCTION
Masonry is often specified because of its aesthetic
versatility. Combining masonry units of different size, color
and finish provides a virtually limitless palette. Often, exte-
rior concrete masonry walls incorporate clay brick, or con-
crete masonry is used in clay brick walls as accent bands. The
bands add architectural interest to the wall and can also help
hide horizontal elements such as flashing and expansion
joints. However, combining these two materials within one
wythe of masonry requires special detailing due to their
different material properties.
In general, all masonry walls should be designed and
detailed to accommodate anticipated movement resulting
from volume changes in the masonry materials themselves.
For example, vertical control joints and horizontal joint
reinforcement can be incorporated into concrete masonry
walls to control cracking and still allow horizontal shrinkage
of the concrete masonry units to occur without introducing
undue stress into the wall. Similarly, clay masonry walls
incorporate vertical and horizontal expansion joints to allow
the clay to expand without distress. When both clay and
concrete masonry units are used in the same masonry wythe,
detailing is required to accommodate concrete masonry
shrinkage and clay masonry expansion occurring side by side.
Concrete masonry is a hydraulic cement product and as
such requires water for cement hydration, which hardens the
concrete. Therefore, concrete masonry units are relatively
wet at the time of manufacture and from that time on tend to
shrink as the units dry. Conversely, clay masonry units are
very dry subsequent to firing during the manufacturing pro-
cess and then tend to expand as they pick up moisture from the
atmosphere and from mortar as they are laid. Without due
consideration of these opposing movements, cracking can
result. In veneers, the cracking is primarily an aesthetic issue,
as any water that penetrates the veneer through cracks be-
tween the two materials drains down the cavity and is directed
out of the wall via flashing and weep holes.
TEK 5-2A © 2002 National Concrete Masonry Association (replaces TEK 5-2)
NCMA TEK
TEK 5-2A
Details (2002)
BANDING DETAILS
When detailing a wall to accommodate movement, the
design goal is to allow the movement to occur (as restraint
will cause cracking) while providing appropriate support. The
recommendations that follow are based on a record of suc-
cessful performance in many locations across the United
States. These can be adjusted as needed to suit local condi-
tions and/or experience.
In general, several strategies are used to accommodate
movement. These include movement joints (control joints in
concrete masonry and expansion joints in clay masonry);
horizontal joint reinforcement to take tension due to con-
crete masonry shrinkage and help keep any cracks that occur
closed; and sometimes horizontal joints to allow longitudinal
movement. In veneers, it is particularly important that the
band, as well as the wall panel above and below the band be
supported by wall ties. Wall ties should be installed within 12
in. (305 mm) of the top and bottom of the band to help ensure
the surrounding masonry is adequately supported.
In addition, using a lower compressive strength mortar
helps ensure that if cracks do occur, they occur in the mortar
joint rather than through the unit. Type N mortar is often
specified for veneers, because it tends to be more flexible
than other mortar Types.
Concrete Masonry Band in Clay Brick Wall
Figure 1a shows a two-course high concrete masonry
band in a clay brick exterior wythe of a cavity wall. With this
type of construction, the following practices are employed to
minimize the potential for cracking.
Horizontal joint reinforcement is placed in the mortar
joints above and below the band to take stress from the
differential movement in that plane. For bands higher than
two courses, joint reinforcement should also be placed within
the band itself at a spacing of 16 in. (406 mm) on center
vertically. Ideally, the joint reinforcement and ties should be
placed in alternate joints so that one does not interfere with
placement of the other. Some designers,
Wall tie, within
however, prefer placing joint reinforce- Vapor retarder, per
12 in. (305 mm)
ment in every bed joint in the concrete local practice
of band
masonry band, particularly if the aspect
ratio of the band is high. In this case, a tie Adjustable ladder
which accommodates both tie and wire Clay brick wall tie (hot dipped
in the same mortar joint should be used, galvanized) @ 16 in.
such as a seismic clip type wall tie. Joint reinforcement, (406 mm) o.c. vertical
Although the detail in Figure 1a has W1.7 (9 gage)
demonstrated good performance in (MW 11) at
many areas of the United States, there 16 in. (406 mm) Closed cell rigid
are locations where use of bond breaks o.c. or equivalent insulation, as
at the top and bottom of the band is required
preferred (see Figure 1b) A local ma-
sonry industry representative should be Concrete masonry Air space, 1 in.
contacted for further information on accent band (25 mm), min.,
which detail has been more successful in 2 in. (51 mm)
a given location. preferred
Wall tie, within
Figure 1b shows a slip plane incor- 12 in. (305 mm)
porated into the interfaces between the of band
concrete and clay masonry to allow un-
restrained longitudinal movement be-
tween the two materials. This can be 1a—with joint reinforcement at top and bottom of band
accomplished by placing building paper,
polyethylene, flashing or a similar mate-
Wall tie, within Vapor retarder, per
rial in the horizontal bed joints above and 12 in. (305 mm)
below the band. When hollow masonry of band local practice
units are used for the band, the slip plane
Clay brick Seismic clip-type
below the band should incorporate flash-
wall tie
ing, so that any water draining down the
cores of the band can be directed out of Sealant and building
the wall at that point. paper or other Closed cell rigid
When slip planes are used, joint bond break material insulation, as
Joint reinforcement required
reinforcement should be incorporated
into the concrete masonry band. The Air space, 1 in.
exposed mortar joint at the top and bot- Concrete masonry (25 mm), min.,
tom of the band should be raked back and accent band 2 in. (51 mm),
sealed with an appropriate sealant to preferred
prevent water penetration at these joints.
Note that this construction is typically Wall tie, within
more expensive than the detail shown in 12 in. (305 mm)
Figure 1a. of band
In addition to joint reinforcement,
1b—with slip planes at top and bottom of band
reduced spacing of expansion joints in
the wall is recommended to reduce the Figure 1—Multi-Course Concrete Masonry Band in Clay Brick Veneer
potential for cracking. Experience has
shown that vertical expansion joints in the clay masonry reinforcement continuous through that joint. The continuous
should extend through the concrete masonry band as well, and joint reinforcement in this location helps keep the clay brick
be placed at a maximum of 20 ft (6.1 m) along the length of above and below the band from cracking as the concrete
the wall. Although concrete masonry construction typically masonry shrinks.
requires control joints rather than expansion joints, control Bands only one course high must be detailed to incor-
joints should not be used in the concrete masonry band at the porate joint reinforcement and wall ties in the joints above
expansion joint locations. and below the band (see Figure 2).
Note that local experience may require reducing the When concrete masonry banding is used over a wood
expansion joint spacing to 16 ft (4.9 m). If brick vertical stud backup, similar provisions apply (see Figure 3). It is
expansion joint spacing does exceed 20 ft (6.1 m), consider imperative that joint reinforcement be used in the concrete
placing an additional vertical movement joint through the masonry band, even if it is not used in the surrounding clay
concrete masonry accent band near mid-panel with joint brick masonry.
 Clay Brick Band in
Wall tie, within
12 in. (305 mm) Concrete Masonry Wall
Vapor retarder, per The recommendations to control
Clay brick local practice differential movement for clay brick
of band Seismic clip-type masonry bands in concrete masonry are
Concrete masonry wall tie very similar to those for a concrete
accent band
Closed cell rigid masonry band in clay brick veneer: joint
Joint reinforcement, insulation, as reinforcement above and below the band
W1.7 (9 gage) required and wall ties within the band. Seismic
(MW 11) at clip-type wall ties are recommended,
16 in. (406 mm) Air space, 1 in. as they provide an adjustable wall tie and
o.c. or equivalent (25 mm), min.,
2 in. (51 mm), joint reinforcement in one assembly.
Wall tie, within preferred With this construction, it is im-
12 in. (305 mm) perative that the veneer control joint
of band
not contain mortar as it goes through
Figure 2—Single-Course Concrete Masonry Band in Clay Brick Veneer the clay brick band (see Figure 4). Mor-
tar in this joint will restrict brick expan-
Wall tie, within sion, reducing the movement joint's
12 in. (305 mm) Vapor retarder, per
effectiveness. Note that although con-
of band local practice
trol joints in structural masonry walls
must permit free longitudinal move-
Clay brick Interior finish
ment while resisting lateral or out-of-
Sheathing plane shear loads, veneers are laterally
Joint reinforcement, supported by the backup and do not
W1.7 (9 gage) Building paper, require a shear key.
(MW 11) at 6 in. (152 mm) In single wythe construction as
min. lap shown in Figure 5, flashing and weep
16 in. (406 mm)
o.c. or equivalent holes are used above the accent band to
facilitate removal of any water that may
Air space, 1 in. accumulate in the wall. The use of two
(25 mm), min. reduced thickness concrete masonry
Concrete masonry
accent band units allows flashing to be placed within
the wall without causing a complete
horizontal bond break at the flashing.
Wall tie, within Corrosion resistant
8d common nail, In reinforced walls (Figure 5b),
12 in. (305 mm)
of band or one with flashing and weeps are also used. On the
equivalent pull-out wall interior, rather than using reduced
strength thickness units, a full size unit is cut to
Figure 3—Concrete Masonry Band in Clay Brick Veneer Over fit to allow adequate space for the rein-
Wood Stud Backup forcement and grout.

Wall tie, within Vapor retarder, per Vapor retarder, per

12 in. (305 mm) local practice local practice
of band Closed cell
Adjustable ladder
Concrete wall tie (hot dipped rigid insulation
masonry galvanized) @ 16 in. Air space, 1 in.
Joint (406 mm) o.c. vertical (25 mm) min.,
reinforcement, at 16 in. (406 mm) o.c., 2 in. (51 mm),
W1.7 (9 gage) as required preferred
(MW 11) at Closed cell rigid
insulation, as Adjustable tie
16 in. (406 mm) required Expansion joint
o.c. or equivalent
Air space, 1 in. Sealant and No mortar
Clay brick (25 mm), min., backer rod in joint
accent band 2 in. (51 mm),
preferred Expansion Joint Plan View for Clay Brick
Wall tie, within (Control joint in concrete masonry is similar,
12 in. (305 mm) except it may contain a raked out mortar joint)
of band

Figure 4—Multi-Course Clay Brick Band in Concrete Masonry Veneer

 Cavity filter or Vertical
other mortar reinforcement,
collection 4 in. (102 mm) as required
device thick concrete
masonry unit
4 in. (102 mm)
thick concrete Concrete Concrete
Flashing and
masonry unit masonry unit, masonry unit
nominal weeps at 32 in.
with one
thickness = wall (813 mm), max.,
faceshell and
Flashing and thickness - 4 in. between part of webs
(102 mm) grouted cells
weeps at 32 in. cut off to fit
(813 mm) o.c., Joint
max. Clay brick
reinforcement accent band Joint
Clay brick reinforcement
accent band

(a) unreinforced wall (b) reinforced wall

Figure 5—Multi-Course Clay Brick Band in Loadbearing Concrete Masonry Wall

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171 contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
www.ncma.org
 NCMA TEK
National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology

CONCRETE MASONRY TEK 5-3A

FOUNDATION WALL DETAILS Details (2003)

Keywords: architectural details, basement wall, crawlspace

wall, foundation wall, pier, plain concrete masonry,
reinforced concrete masonry, residential details, stemwall

INTRODUCTION

Concrete masonry is used to construct various founda- sulting from heaving caused by freezing of water in the soil.
tion wall types, including full basement walls, crawlspace walls, Footings should be placed on undisturbed native soil,
stem walls and piers. Concrete masonry is well suited for below unless this soil is unsuitable, weak or soft. In this case, the soil
grade applications, because of its strength, durability, economy, should be removed and replaced with compacted soil, gravel or
and resistance to fire, insects and noise. The modular nature of concrete. Similarly, tree roots, construction debris and ice
concrete masonry allows floor
plan and wall height changes
to be easily accommodated as Building paper
Sheathing
well. Concrete masonry can be Flashing
used to provide a strong, du- Floor sheathing
rable, energy efficient and in- Drip edge Sill, pressure treated
sect resistant foundation for all Sealant or use moisture barrier
building types. Fill all voids Anchor bolt
This TEK contains details under flashing Concrete
for various types of concrete with mortar masonry wall
masonry foundation walls, with Grade
Mesh or other
accompanying text as appro- grout stop
priate. The reader is referred to device
TEK 3-11, Concrete Masonry Waterproof or dampproof
Basement Wall Construction, membrane Insulation Concrete masony wall
TEK 19-3A, Preventing Water
Backfill Horizontal joint
Penetration in Below-Grade reinforcement, as
Concrete Masonry Walls and required
NCMA's Basement Manual for Free draining
1
backfill 2 in. (13 mm) isolation
more detailed design and con- joint
Concrete slab
struction information (refs. 2, 3,
4, respectively). Undisturbed
Vapor retarder
soil
Footings Aggregate base
Footings lie under the Optional
basement, crawlspace or stem foundation drain
wall and transfer structural
Full bed joint
loads from the building to the Foundation
supporting soil. Footings are drain Concrete footing Reinforcement,
typically cast-in-place con- Optional footing as required
drain
crete, placed beneath the frost
depth to prevent damage re- Figure 1—Plain Basement Wall

TEK 5-3A © 2003 National Concrete Masonry Association (replaces TEK 5-3)
should be removed prior to placing footings.
Unless otherwise required, footings should be carefully
aligned so that the concrete masonry wall will be near the center
line of the footing. Although the top surface of poured concrete
footings should be relatively level, it should generally not be
troweled smooth, as a slightly roughened surface enhances the
bond between the mortar and concrete. Concrete footing
design is governed by Building Code Requirements for Struc-
tural Concrete, ACI 318 (ref. 5), and concrete foundations are
constructed with tolerances conforming to the requirements of
Standard Specifications for Tolerances for Concrete Con-
struction and Materials, ACI 117 (ref. 9).
BASEMENT WALLS
Basements are typically built as conditioned space so that
they can be used for storage, work or living space. Because of
this, water penetration resistance is of paramount importance
to basement wall design and construction.
Following recommended backfill procedures will help pre-
vent basement wall cracking during this operation. Walls
should always be properly braced to resist backfill soil loads
or have the first floor diaphragm in place prior to backfilling.
Otherwise, a wall designed to be supported at the top may crack
or even fail from overstressing the wall. Similarly, heavy equip-
ment, such as bulldozers or cranes, should not be operated over
Flashing
Drip edge
Sealant
Fill all voids
under flashing
with mortar
Grade
the backfill during construction unless the basement walls are
appropriately designed for the higher resulting loads.
The top 4 to 8 in. (102 to 203 mm) of backfill should be low
permeability soil so rain water absorption into the backfill is
minimized. Finished grade should be sloped away from the
building.
Control joints are not typically used in foundation walls
due to concerns with waterproofing the joint and the fact that
shrinkage is less significant in below grade walls due to
relatively constant temperature and moisture conditions. If
warranted, horizontal joint reinforcement can be installed as a
crack control measure.
The foundation drain shown in Figures 1 and 2 can also be
located on the interior side of the footing, or on both sides if
necessary. The drain should be placed below the top of the
footing. The optional footing drain shown, such as 2 in. (51 mm)
PVC pipe at 8 ft (2400 mm) on center, allows water on the interior
to reach the foundation drain. Footing drains can either be cast
into the footing or constructed using plastic pipes through the
bottom of the first course of masonry, directly on top of the
footing.
For reinforced construction (Figure 2), reinforcing bars
must be properly located to be fully functional. In most cases,
vertical reinforcement is positioned towards the interior face of
below grade walls to provide the greatest resistance to soil
pressures.
A solid top course on the be-
low grade concrete masonry wall
Building paper
spreads loads from the building
Sheathing above and also improves soil gas
Floor sheathing and termite resistance. Where only
the top course is to be grouted,
Sill, pressure treated or
use moisture barrier
wire mesh or another equivalent
grout stop material can be used to
Anchor bolt contain the grout to the top course.
Note that local codes may re-
Reinforced bond
beam strict the use of foam plastic insu-
Vertical reinforcement,
lation below grade in areas where
as required the hazard of termite damage is high.

Grout STEMWALLS FOR

Backfill Concrete masonry wall CRAWLSPACES
Waterproof Vertical reinforcement, as required
or dampproof Unlike basements, crawlspaces
Horizontal joint reinforcement, as
membrane are typically designed as uncondi-
required
Isolation joint tioned spaces, either vented or
unvented. Several alternate
Foundation drain Concrete slab crawlspace constructions are
Vapor retarder shown in Figures 3 and 4.
Optional foundation Although most building
Free draining
drain codes require operable louvered
backfill
vents near each corner of a crawl
Undisturbed soil space to reduce moisture buildup,
Optional footing research has shown that the use
Concrete footing Reinforcement, drain of a moisture retardant ground
as required cover eliminates the need for
vents in many locations (ref. 6). If
Figure 2—Reinforced Basement Wall the crawlspace is vented, the
 Vertical reinforcement,
as required Continuous band joist or
Horizontal joint blocking, pressure treated
reinforcement, as or use moisture barrier
required
Finish varies
Floor sheathing

Concrete masonry Floor joist

wall

Sill, pressure treated or

Reinforced bond use moisture barrier
beam, as required
Termite shield required when no
Grade bond beam is provided below sill
Install drain for water
Anchor bolt removal if not higher
Bottom of footing
minimum 12 in. than adjacent exterior
(305 mm) below Concrete masonry grade for majority of
grade or below stem wall perimeter
frost line,
whichever is Vapor retarder
greater Concrete footing
Bottom of footing Reinforcement,
as required

Figure 3—Crawlspace Stemwall with Masonry Above Grade

floor, exposed pipes and ducts are typically insulated. If
unvented, either the walls or the floor above can be insu-
lated. Unvented crawlspaces must have a floor covering to
minimize moisture and, where applicable, soil gas entry. A
vapor retarder (typically 6-mil (0.15 mm) polyethylene, PVC
or equivalent) is good practice to minimize water migration
and soil gas infiltration. A 2 1/2 in. (64 mm) concrete mud slab
is generally used when a more durable surface is desired for
access to utilities. A thicker concrete slab may be desirable,
particularly if the crawlspace will be used for storage. A
dampproof coating on the exterior crawlspace wall will also
help prevent water entry into the crawlspace.
STEMWALLS FOR SLAB ON GRADE
A stemwall with slab on gradesupports the wall above and
often also provides a brick ledge to support an exterior masonry
veneer. Figures 5 and 6 show concrete masonry stemwalls with
masonry and with frame above grade walls, respectively.
Because the wall is exposed to soil on both sides, water-
proofing or dampproofing coatings are generally not required.
Stemwalls are typically insulated on the exterior of the masonry.
If insulated on the interior, it is important to place insulation in
the joint between the slab edge and the foundation wall to avoid
thermal bridging.
A stemwall with brick ledge is shown in Figure 6. For this
case, note that masonry design codes typically require a
minimum 1 in. (25 mm) clear air space between the masonry and
backup to ensure an open drainage cavity. A 1 in. (25 mm) air
space is considered appropriate if special precautions are taken
to keep the air space clean (such as by beveling the mortar bed
away from the cavity or by drawing a piece of wood up the
cavity to collect mortar droppings). Otherwise, a 2 in. (51 mm)
air space is preferred.
FOUNDATION PIERS
Foundation piers (see Figure 7) are isolated structural
elements used to support the building above. Structural design
ensures the piers are sized and spaced to carry the necessary
building loads. Piers typically are in enclosed crawlspaces, so
recommendations for moisture and soil gas resistance for
crawlspaces should be followed for piers as well. Building
Code Requirements for Masonry Structures (ref. 7) requires a
foundation pier to have a minimum nominal thickness of 8 in.
(203 mm), with a nominal height not exceeding four times its
nominal thickness and a nominal length not exceeding three
times its nominal thickness. Note that the International Build-
ing Code, (ref. 8) allows foundation piers to have a nominal
height up to ten times the nominal thickness if the pier is solidly
grouted, or four times the nominal thickness if it is not solidly
grouted.
 Stud Water resistant sheathing
Finish varies Brick veneer
Floor sheathing Wall tie
Continuous plate
Sill, pressure
treated or use 1 in. (25 mm) air space, min. for drainage (note:
moisture barrier 1 in. (25 mm) is maximum when corrugated
Joist ties are used)
Continuous band joist or blocking
Termite shield, Building paper
as required Anchor bolt
Flashing, adhered to sheathing
Weeps at 32 in. (813 mm) o.c.
18 in. (457 mm) min. Fill solid below flashing
Drain to daylight or Grade
install drain for water
removal when below Bottom of footing
exterior grade minimum 12 in.
(305 mm) below
grade or below
Concrete masonry frost line,
Vapor retarder whichever is
greater

Bottom of footing
Reinforcement,
Concrete footing
as required

Finish varies Exterior sheathing and

finish
Stud
Floor sheathing

Joist Sill, pressure treated or

use moisture barrier
Termite shield,
as required Anchor bolt

Mesh or other grout

stop device
Isolation joint Grade
18 in.
(457 mm)
min. 2 1 2 in. (64 mm)
concrete mud slab
Bottom of footing
Optional minimum 12 in.
Install drain for
foundation (305 mm) below
water removal if not
drain grade or below frost
higher than adjacent
exterior grade line, whichever is
Vapor Waterproof or dampproof greater
retarder membrane

Concrete Bottom of footing

footing
Reinforcement,
as required
Figure 4—Crawlspace Stemwalls with Wood Frame Above Grade
 Concrete masonry wall Concrete masonry
wall
Concrete masonry header unit
Isolation joint
Concrete slab on grade with Concrete slab on
WWF grade with WWF

Control joint, as required

in concrete slab

Bottom of footing
Vapor retarder minumum 12 in. Vapor retarder
(305 mm) below
Concrete footing grade or below Concrete footing
frost line,
Reinforcement, whichever is Reinforcement,
as required greater as required

Figure 5—Slab on Grade Stemwalls with Masonry Above Grade

Building paper Sheathing

Flashing 1 in. (25 mm) air space, min. for drainage,
(note: 1 in. (25 mm) is maximum when
Concrete slab on vapor retarder corrugated ties are used)
on 4 in. (102 mm) gravel Wall ties
Drip edge
Sealant
Sill, pressure treated or use moisture barrier
Anchor bolt
Flashing (top adhered to backup)
Perimeter insulation,
as required Weeps at 32 in. (813 mm) o.c.

Bottom of footing
6 in. (152 mm) 10 in. (254 mm) minimum 12 in. (305
concrete masonry solid concrete mm) below grade or
masonry top course, below frost line,
Concrete footing or grouted whichever is greater

Figure 6—Slab on Grade Stemwall with Wood Frame Above Grade

 Sill plate
Strap anchor nailed to Finish varies
girder and embedded Sheathing
in masonry

Joist hanger

Joist 18 in. (457 mm)

min.
Grout at strap Girder
anchor locations
Sill, pressure
treated or use
moisture barrier Bottom of footing
8 in. (203 mm) 12 in. (305 mm)
nominal, min. below grade or
below frost line,
whichever is greater

Figure 7—Concrete Masonry Foundation Pier

REFERENCES
1. Annotated Design and Construction Details for Concrete Masonry, TR 90A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2002.
2. Concrete Masonry Basement Wall Construction, TEK 3-11. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2001.
3. Preventing Water Penetration in Below-Grade Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 19-3A. National Concrete Masonry Association,
2001.
4. Basement Manual, Design and Construction Using Concrete Masonry, TR 149. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2001.
5. Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete, ACI 318 -02. American Concrete Institute, 2002.
6. 2001 ASHRAE Handbook, Fundamentals. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.,
2001.
7. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, ACI 530-02/ASCE 5-02/TMS 402-02. Reported by the Masonry Standards
Joint Committee, 2002.
8. International Building Code. International Code Council, 2000.
9. Standard Specifications for Tolerances for Concrete Construction and Materials, ACI 117-90. American Concrete
Institute, 1990.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171 contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
www.ncma.org
 NCMA TEK
National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology

CONCRETE MASONRY TEK 5-4B

Details (2002)
RESIDENTIAL DETAILS
Keywords: architectural details, energy conservation,
residential, roof/wall connections, water penetration
resistance

INTRODUCTION

Concrete masonry homes re- Insulation, as

flect the beauty and durability of required
concrete masonry materials. Ma- Roof deck
+

sonry housing provides a high stan- +

+
+

dard of structural strength, design o

o Moisture barrier
versatility, energy efficiency, ter-
Exterior grade Embedded strap anchor
mite resistance, economy and aes- (alternate: anchor bolt
sheathing (vent
thetic appeal. as required) and top plate)
A wide range of architectural
styles can be created using both Bond beam Finish varies
architectural concrete masonry Standard window system Concrete masonry lintel
units and conventional units. Ar- Sill
Wood backing, as required
chitectural units are available with
many finishes, ranging from the See TEK 19-5A Solid unit to support flashing
for flashing details
rough-hewn look of split-face to
Flashing with drip edge
the polished appearance of ground- Horizontal joint reinforcement,
Insulation
face units, and can be produced in as required
many colors and a variety of sizes. Drainage layer
Vertical reinforcement
Concrete masonry can also be fin- Concrete masonry as required
ished with brick, stucco or any num- wall Isolation joint
ber of other finish systems if desired. Stucco
Concrete masonry's mass pro- Concrete slab
Moisture barrier
vides many consumer benefits. It
has a high sound dampening abil- Flashing with drip edge
ity, is energy efficient, fire and in- Positive slope
sect proof, durable and can easily Vapor retarder
be designed to resist hurricane-
force winds and earthquakes.
Perimeter
WALLTYPES insulation, as
Concrete masonry required
Figures 1 through 3 illustrate a foundation
few of the construction options
available for concrete masonry Concrete footing Reinforcement,
home construction, some of which as required
are described in more detail below.
Both top plate/anchor bolt and Figure 1—Stucco Exterior Finish

TEK 5-4B © 2002 National Concrete Masonry Association (replaces TEK 5-4A)
 Roof system

Roof insulation

Top plate, pressure

treated or use
moisture barrier
(alternate: embedded Finish varies
strap anchor)
Concrete masonry lintel
Soffit
Wood backing,
as required
Standard window system
Furring and insulation,
as required
Sill
Vapor retarder,
as required
See TEK 19-5A
Solid unit to support flashing
for flashing details

Flashing with drip edge

Solid or filled unit
1 in. (25 mm) partially open to support flashing
head joints for weeps at 32 in.
(813 mm) o.c., max. between
Sheathing
grouted cores
Wood joist
See TEK 19-2A for
flashing details Joist hanger
Flashing with drip edge
Ledger, pressure treated or
Anchor bolt use moisture barrier
Grade Bond beam
Horizontal joint reinforcement, Insulation, as required
as required
Vertical reinforcement,
as required
Backfill Grout, as required
Concrete masonry wall
Waterproof or
dampproof membrane
Isolation joint

Foundation drain
Concrete slab
Vapor retarder
Free draining Optional foundation drain
backfill

Undisturbed soil Optional footing drain

Reinforcement,
Concrete footing as required

Figure 2—Exposed Concrete Masonry Exterior

Roof system

Roof insulation

Top plate, pressure

treated or use
moisture barrier
(alternate: embedded
strap anchor) Finish varies

Soffit Concrete masonry lintel

Wood backing,
as required
Standard window system

Furring and insulation,

as required Horizontal joint reinforcement,
as required
Vapor retarder,
as required Vertical reinforcement,
as required

Concrete masonry wall

Subfloor
Siding

Positive slope

Floor joist
Anchor bolt

Bond beam Sill, pressure treated or

use moisture barrier
Install drain for water
Vapor retarder removal if not higher
than adjacent exterior
12 in. (305 mm) grade for majority of
concrete perimeter
masonry wall

Concrete footing
Reinforcement,
as required

Figure 3—Wood or Vinyl Siding Exterior Finish

embedded strap anchor roof connections are shown and can
be used interchangeably, along with several foundation types.
See also TEK 5-7A Floor and Roof Connections to Concrete
Masonry Walls and TEK 5-3A Concrete Masonry Foundation
Wall Details (refs. 2, 3) for additional alternatives.
Single wythe walls offer the economy of providing struc-
ture and an architectural facade in a single building element.
They supply all of the attributes of concrete masonry construc-
tion with the thinnest possible wall section. To enhance the
performance of this wall system, two areas in particular need
careful consideration during design and construction—water
penetration resistance and energy efficiency. Design for water
resistance is discussed in detail in References 4 through 6. A
full discussion of options for energy efficient concrete ma-
sonry walls is contained in Insulating Concrete Masonry
Walls (ref. 7).
The use of exterior finish systems lends itself to exterior
insulation. Figure 1 shows an exterior insulation system, in-
cluding a water drainage plane and stucco. Stucco can also be
applied directly to the exterior block surface and used in
conjunction with integral or interior insulation. Note that local
codes may restrict the use of foam plastic insulation below
grade in areas where the hazard of termite damage is high.
Figure 2 shows a residential wall section with exposed
concrete masonry on the exterior and a furred-out and insulated
interior. Concrete masonry can be exposed on the interior as
NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION
13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171
www.ncma.org
well. In this case, integral insulation (placed in the masonry
cores) can be used as required.
Figure 3 shows exterior siding with insulation installed
between furring. Wood or vinyl siding, as shown, is typically
attached using exterior wood furring strips which have been
nailed to the masonry.
Cavity wall details are shown in TEK 5-1A Concrete
Masonry Cavity Wall Details (ref. 8).
REFERENCES
1. Annotated Design and Construction Details for Concrete
Masonry, TR 90A. National Concrete Masonry Associa-
tion, 2002.
2. Floor and Roof Connections to Concrete Masonry Walls,
TEK 5-7A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2001.
3. Concrete Masonry Foundation Wall Details, TEK 5-3A.
National Concrete Masonry Association, 2003.
4. Water Repellents for Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 19-1.
National Concrete Masonry Association, 2002.
5. Design for Dry Single-Wythe Concrete Masonry Walls,
TEK 19-2A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2002.
6. Flashing Details for Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 19-5A.
National Concrete Masonry Association, 2000.
7. Insulating Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 6-11. National
Concrete Masonry Association, 2001.
8. Concrete Masonry Cavity Wall Details, TEK 5-1A. Na-
tional Concrete Masonry Association, 1995.
To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
An information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology

INTEGRATING
CONCRETE MASONRY WALLS TEK 5-5B
WITH METAL BUILDING SYSTEMS Details (2011)

INTRODUCTION steel and masonry, careful consideration must be given to ac-

Metal buildings are used extensively for warehouses and
other structures requiring large, open floor spaces. Part of their
design flexibility comes from the ability to clad metal buildings
with a variety of materials to provide different appearances or
functions to the buildings. Concrete masonry walls are popular
enclosure systems for metal buildings because of masonry's
aesthetic appeal, impact resistance, strength, and fire resistance.
The durability of concrete masonry resists incidental impacts
from hand carts and forklifts, provides maximum protection in
disasters such as earthquakes and hurricanes, as well as superior
security, fire resistance, and noise control.
Concrete masonry walls used for metal buildings can include:
exterior full-height walls, either with or without a parapet; exterior
partial-height or wainscot walls; and interior loadbearing walls or
nonloadbearing walls or partitions. Architectural concrete masonry
units, such as colored, split faced, burnished, or scored units, can
be used to provide an almost limitless array of textures and
patterns to the walls. These units can be used for the entire Ridge
facade or for banding courses to achieve specific patterns
Roof System
or highlight certain design aspects of the building.
A more detailed discussion of the system, along Gutter
with structural design and construction considerations, is
included in Concrete Masonry Walls for Metal Building
height
commodating differential movement between the two materials
and their assemblies. In Serviceability Design Considerations
for Low-Rise Buildings (ref. 2), a lateral drift limit of H/100 for
a ten year recurrence wind loading based on main wind force
resisting system loads is suggested for low rise buildings with
exterior masonry walls reinforced vertically. See Table 12.12.1 of
ASCE 7 (ref. 4) for the allowable story drift for seismic loading.
Most reinforced masonry walls for metal buildings are designed
to span vertically, supported by a steel spandrel at the top and by
the foundation at the bottom.
Wall Base
Because of stiffness and deformation incompatibilities between
flexible steel and rigid masonry assemblies, and consequently, to
control the location of cracking in the masonry walls that may result
from relatively larger steel frame deflections at the top of the structure,
Roof purlin
Eave strut
Rigid frame
column
Rigid frame

Systems (ref. 1). The manual is intended to bridge the gap

Eave

n
between the engineer who designs the metal building system
r spa
a
and the engineer who designs the concrete masonry walls Cle
to unify their respective knowledge.
CMU wall
DETAILS Spandrel Ba End wall frame
ys
Bracing pac End wall column
ing
A typical metal building clad with masonry is shown End wall roof beam
in Figure 1. Figures 2 - 6 show some typical details used End wall
Sidewall
for exterior concrete masonry cladding on a metal building. End wall corner column
These details may need to be modified to meet individual
design conditions. Figure 1—Schematic of Metal Building Clad with
Because of the inherent material differences between Concrete Masonry Walls

Related TEK: Keywords: anchorage, architectural details, cladding, connectors,

construction details, deflection, drift, lateral loads, lateral support, metal
building, shear walls, veneer, wall movement

NCMA TEK 5-5B 1

 a “hinge” can be incorporated at the base of
the masonry assembly to allow out-of-plane
Rigid frame column Concrete masonry
wall rotation.
Two such hinge connections are shown
Flashing adhered to Extend foundation dowel 2 in.
concrete masonry (51 mm) into grouted cell of in Figures 2 and 3. The construction shown in
wall. Tape bar above flashing Figure 2 uses through-wall flashing to break
"Hairpin" reinforcement to reduce bond to grout the bond at the base of the wall providing a
as required by design simply supported condition allowing shear
Mastic seal around transfer but no moment for out-of-plane
reinforcing bar
loading. In many cases the shear force can
be adequately transferred by friction through
Continuous flashing the flashed bed joint. However, it is recom-
with drip mended that a positive shear connection be
provided by extending foundation dowels
Column footing as Concrete column across the joint. It is recommended that the
required by design number of bars extended across the horizontal
Wall strip footing joint be minimized, and that the extension be
beyond limited to 2 in. (51 mm), to ensure that the
joint will behave as assumed. Therefore, every
Footing
reinforcement as vertical bar otherwise required for strength at
required by design critical sections does not necessarily need to
be extended through the joint.
Masonry shear walls are very strong
Figure 2—Vertically Spanning Reinforced Concrete Masonry Side Wall at and stiff and are often used to resist lateral
Foundation for Other than Shear Wall Segment loads. However, masonry wall sections used
as shear wall segments must have vertical
reinforcement continuous into the foundation as shown in Figure
3. Flashing is also incorporated at the floor level to allow the wall
some out-of-plane rotation due to building drift. Design aids are
included in Concrete Masonry Walls for Metal Building Systems
(ref. 1) for in-plane and out-of-plane reinforced masonry walls
as well as for lintels and anchor bolts.
Appendix C also presents design ex-
Rigid frame column Concrete masonry wall amples using NCMA’s popular, easy
to use Structural Masonry Design
Lap splice per design System Software (ref. 3). As shown
Flashing adhered to in Figure 4, these walls normally span
concrete masonry Continuous flashing vertically and are laterally supported
"Hairpin" reinforcement with drip by a spandrel at the top of the masonry
as required by design
portion of the wall.
Foundation dowel-extend past When the masonry is designed
flashing and lap with vertical with a base hinge, it is important to
reinforcement in masonry shear properly detail the building corners
wall segment where required by to accommodate the movements.
design to maintain continuity and A vertical isolation joint should be
resist in-plane overturning forces
placed near the building corner and
Column footing as proper consideration should be given
required by design Concrete column to the masonry and steel connections
Wall strip footing at corner columns. Flexible anchors
beyond and/or slotted connections should be
used.
Footing
reinforcement as Wainscot Walls
required by design
Although full height masonry walls
provide the most benefit particularly
when the masonry is used for shear
Figure 3—Vertically Spanning Reinforced Concrete Masonry walls, partial-height walls, or wain-
Side Wall Shear Wall Segment Detail at Foundation scots, are sometimes used. These walls
are commonly 4 to 10 ft (1.2 to 3.0 m)

2 NCMA TEK 5-5B

high with metal panel walls extending from the top of
the masonry to the roof. The masonry provides strength
and impact resistance for the portion of the wall most
susceptible to damage.

Column Detail Rigid frame

Figure 5 shows the connection of a rigid frame
column to concrete masonry sidewalls with a coinci- Bond beam
dent vertical control joint. The details show vertically Anchor bolts at 17 in.
adjustable column anchors connecting the wall to the (432 mm) o.c., or 34 in.
column. For walls designed to span vertically, it is (864 mm) o.c. max.
good practice to provide a nominal number of anchors Reinforced bond
connecting the wall to the column to add stiffness and beam at spandrel
strength to the edge of the wall. If rigid enough, these
Grout cell at anchor Spandrel
anchors can assist in laterally bracing the outside col-
bolt locations
umn flange. For larger lateral loads, more substantial
connections may be required. Anchorage to end wall Mesh to confine grout
columns is very similar. Reinforced concrete
masonry wall
Spandrel Detail (reinforcement not
A typical spandrel detail is shown in Figure 6. shown for clarity)
Spandrels should be placed as high as possible to re-
duce the masonry span above the spandrel, especially Note: A standardized punching of 9/16 in. (14 mm) diameter holes at 17 in.
on walls with parapets. Depending on the rigid frame (432 mm) centers for ½ in. (13 mm) masonry anchors is recommended
configuration used, rigid frame connection plates and The masonry engineer may choose to place the anchors farther apart than
diagonal stiffeners may restrict the spandrel location. 17 in. (432 mm) o.c.; however, anchors should not be spaced more than 34
The spandrel is designed by the metal building manu- in. (864 mm) as this could affect lateral stability of the steel member being
facturer. If the inner flange of the spandrel needs to connected to prevent torsional buckling (ref. 1).
be braced, the metal building manufacturer will show
on the drawings where the braces are required along
Figure 4—Single Wythe Wall Without Parapet at
with the information needed for the masonry engineer
Low Side Wall or Eave (see also Figure 6)
to design them and their anchorage to the wall.
Shim plates should be used at spandrel/masonry connections
to allow for camber in the spandrel and other construction toler-
ances (see Figure 6). The steel spandrel should never be pulled
to the masonry wall by tightening the anchor bolts.

CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE
Rigid frame column
Vertical reinforcement
Typically, construction of metal buildings as required by wall Inside flange brace as
with concrete masonry walls proceeds as fol- design required by metal
lows: concrete footing and column placement; building manufacturer
concrete masonry foundation wall construction (typ.)
to grade; concrete slab placement; steel erec- Anchor bolt (typ.)
tion; and concrete masonry wall construction. Shim as
Note, however, that this sequence may need to required (typ.)
be modified to meet the needs of a particular
project. For example, this construction sequence
changes when loadbearing end walls are used.
In this case, the steel supported by the masonry
is erected after the masonry wall is in place.
Coordination between the various trades Contol joint Grout cell at anchor
is essential for efficient construction. Precon- Sash unit location (typ.)
struction conferences are an excellent way for Preformed gasket Adjustable anchors
contractors and subcontractors to coordinate Rake joint, fill with sealant
construction scheduling and to avoid conflicts on closed-cell backer rod
and delays.
Figure 5—Adjustable Anchor Connection to Rigid Frame Column
and Control Joint Detail

NCMA TEK 5-5B 3

 Concrete masonry wall
A Reinforced bond beam at
Anchor bolt spandrel. 6 in.(152 mm) min.
grout on all sides of anchor which
Spandrel flange may require a two or more course
high bond beam as shown
Anchor bolt
21 2 in.
(64 mm) Spandrel
min. Brace if required by metal
building manufacturer (may be
under spandrel or on top of
spandrel)
Section A-A
A Shim plates as required
Grout cell at anchor bolt for
brace

Figure 6—Structural Spandrel for Lateral Load Detail

REFERENCES
1. Concrete Masonry Walls for Metal Building Systems, TR 149A. National Concrete Masonry Association, Metal Building Manufacturers As-
sociation, International Code Council, 2011.
2. Serviceability Design Considerations for Steel Buildings, AISC Steel Design Guide #3. American Institute of Steel Construction, 2003.
3. Structural Masonry Design System Software. National Concrete Masonry Association, Western States Clay Products Association, The Brick
Industry Association, and the International Code Council, 2010.
4. Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE 7-05. American Society for Civil Engineers, 2005.

NCMA and the companies disseminating this technical information disclaim any and all responsibility and liability for the accuracy
and the application of the information contained in this publication.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION

13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171
www.ncma.org

To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index, contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900

4 NCMA TEK 5-5B

 NCMA TEK
National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology

CONCRETE MASONRY TEK 5-6A

Details (2001)
CURTAIN AND PANEL WALL DETAILS
Keywords: architectural details, construction details, curtain
walls, high rise construction, nonbearing walls, panel walls, wall
movement, veneer

however, to ensure proper bolt tension to avoid slipping once

INTRODUCTION positioned.
For high-rise construction, allowance should be made for
Steel and concrete structural frames often rely on nonload- differential movement between the shelf angle and the panel
bearing masonry curtain or panel walls to enclose the structure. wall below due to creep of the frame and/or masonry thermal
Panel and curtain walls are distinguished by the fact that a panel expansion. This is accomplished by leaving an open (mortar-
wall is wholly supported at each story, while a curtain wall is less) space between the bottom of the shelf angle and the
supported only at its base, or at prescribed interims. Both are masonry below or by filling the space with compressible
designed to resist lateral wind or seismic loads and transfer
these lateral loads to the structural frame. They typically do not
carry any vertical loads other than their own weight. Curtain Anchor Air space
bolt
and panel walls differ from anchored masonry veneer in that Flashing
veneer is continuously supported by a backup material. Cavity filter or
Curtain and panel walls must be isolated from the frame to other mortar
collection device
prevent the unintentional transfer of structural loads and to
Weep holes at
allow differential movement between the frame and the ma- 32 in. (813 mm) o.c.
sonry. Anchorage between the concrete masonry and struc-
tural frame must also account for different construction toler- Shelf
angle Sealant and
ances for each building material. backer
Concrete masonry curtain and panel walls should incorpo- Rigid insulation
board Clearance
rate flashing and weep holes as for other concrete masonry Vapor retarder,
Horizontal joint
construction. Design for Dry Single-Wythe Concrete Masonry reinforcement as per local
required practice
Walls, Flashing Strategies for Concrete Masonry Walls and
Flashing Details for Concrete Masonry Walls (refs. 3, 4 & 5)
Rigid
provide detailed information. insulation Air space
board
Flashing
PANEL WALLS
Cavity filter or
Concrete masonry panel walls are supported at each other mortar
collection device
building story by means of concrete beams, concrete slabs or
steel members. Weep holes at
32 in. (813 mm) o.c.
Supports must take into account the strains and deforma- Steel anchor
plate Sealant and
tions in both the concrete masonry panel wall and the structural backer
frame. Steel supports, often in the form of shelf angles, can be Shelf
angle Clearance
attached to the frame either by welding or bolting, although
bolting is often preferred because slotted bolt holes permit Horizontal joint Vapor retarder, per
reinforcement local practice
adjustments to be made for proper alignment with the masonry. as required
In addition, bolted connections are inherently more flexible
than welded connections, allowing a limited amount of move-
Figure 1—Shelf Angle Connections to Concrete
ment between the masonry and the frame. Care should be taken,

TEK 5-6A © 2001 National Concrete Masonry Association (replaces TEK 5-6)
 Rigid
insulation
board
Bolted anchor,
welded to
steel beam
Shelf
angle
Horizontal joint
reinforcement as
required
Figure 2—Shelf Angle Connection to Steel Members
material. The joint is then sealed with caulking to prevent
moisture intrusion. The horizontal movement joint below the
shelf angle also helps prevent vertical loads from inadvertently
being transferred to the concrete masonry panel wall below the
shelf angle.
Flashing and weep holes should be installed immediately
above all shelf angles to drain moisture. In multi-wythe panel
walls, wall ties between the exterior and interior masonry
wythes should be located as close to the shelf angle as
possible. Figures 1 and 2 show steel shelf angle attachments
to concrete and steel, respectively.
CURTAIN WALLS
Concrete masonry curtain walls can be designed to span
either vertically or horizontally between supports. They can
also incorporate reinforcement to increase lateral load resis-
tance and the required distance between lateral supports.
Anchors used to provide lateral support must be suffi-
ciently stiff in the out-of-plane direction to transfer lateral loads
to the frame and be flexible enough in-plane to allow differential
movement between the curtain wall and the frame. In addition,
Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures (ref. 1)
includes specific corrosion-resistance requirements to ensure
long-term integrity of the anchors, consisting of AISI Type 304
stainless steel or galvanized or epoxy coatings.
Anchors are required to be embedded at least 11/2 in. (38.1
mm) into the mortar bed when solid masonry units are used (ref.
1) to prevent failure due to mortar pullout or pushout. Because
of the magnitude of anchor loads, it is also recommended that
they be embedded in filled cores when using hollow units. As
an alternative to completely filling the masonry core, this can
be accomplished by placing a screen under the anchor and
building up 1 to 2 in. (25 to 51 mm) of mortar into the core of the
block above the anchor.
For both concrete and steel frames, the space between the
column and the masonry should be kept clear of mortar to avoid
rigidly bonding the two elements together.
Concrete
Air space column
Flashing Dovetail
slot
Cavity filter or
other mortar Dovetail
collection device anchor
Weep holes at
32 in. (813 mm) o.c.
Adjustable
channel slot
Sealant and anchor
backer
Clearance
Concrete
Vapor retarder, column
per local
practice
Figure 3—Curtain Wall Connections to
Concrete Frames
Figures 3 through 5 show curtain wall attachments to
concrete and steel frames.
CONSTRUCTION TOLERANCES
Tolerances are allowable variations, either in individual
component dimensions or in building elements such as walls
or roofs. Construction tolerances recognize that building ele-
ments cannot always be placed exactly as specified, but estab-
lish limits on how far they can vary to help ensure the finished
building will function as designed.
When using masonry with another structural system,
such as steel or concrete, construction tolerances for each
material need to be accommodated, since construction toler-
ances vary for different building materials.
In general, masonry must be constructed to tighter toler-
ances than those applicable to steel or concrete frames (refs.
2, 7). Particularly in high-rise buildings, tolerances can poten-
tially affect anchor embedment, flashing details and available
support at the shelf angle. To help accommodate these varia-
tions in the field, the following recommendations should be
considered.
• Use bolted connections with slotted holes for steel shelf
angles to allow the shelf angle location to be adjusted to meet
field conditions. Steel shims can be used to make horizontal
adjustments to the shelf angle location. Figure 6 shows an
example of a shelf angle connection which is adjustable in all
three directions. For connections like this, the bottom flange
needs to be evaluated for adequate load carrying capability
as does the beam for torsion.
• When shimming shelf angles, use shims that are the full
height of the vertical leg of the shelf angle for stability.
Shimming is limited to a maximum of 1 in. (25 mm) (ref. 7).
• Provide a variety of anchor lengths to allow proper embed-
ment over the range of construction tolerances.
• Use two-piece flashing to accommodate varying cavity widths.
• Cut masonry units only with the permission of the architect
or engineer (this may be proposed when the frame cants
 Notched steel Steel column Fill cells of
adjustable CMU solid with
Steel column anchor (typ) grout or mortar
Fill cells of
CMU solid with 1 in. (25 mm) Horizontal joint
grout or mortar Adjustable min. clearance reinforcement
anchor as required
Horizontal Preformed
1 in. (25 mm) rubber control (discontinue at
joint reinforcement control joint)
as required min. clearance joint

Fill cells of CMU solid

Fill cells of Steel column with grout or mortar Steel column
CMU solid with 1 in. (25 mm)
grout or mortar min. clearance
Adjustable
Horizontal anchor Horizontal Adjustable
joint reinforcement 1 in. (25 mm) joint reinforcement anchor
as required min. clearance as required

Figure 4—Curtain Wall Connections to Steel Columns

Horizontal joint 1 in. (25 mm)

reinforcement min. clearance Horizontal joint
as required reinforcement
Concrete slab as required
1 in. (25 mm)
min. clearance
Steel angle Adjustable Adjustable
welded to anchor anchor
beam

Fill cell of Fill cells of

Concrete slab CMU solid with CMU solid with
on metal decking grout or mortar grout or mortar
Steel beam
Steel beam

1 in. (25 mm) min.

clearance Horizontal joint
Sleeve Concrete slab reinforcement
as required
Steel angle
welded to
beam

Steel beam Strip anchor installed

Concrete slab
on metal decking in masonry head joint
Fill head joint (spot weld where
solid with mortar anchor engages beam
flange)

Figure 5—Curtain Wall Connections to Steel Beams

 towards the masonry, making the cavity between the two REFERENCES
materials too small). 1. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures,
• Include instructions for handling building element misalign- ACI 530-99/ASCE 5-99/TMS 402-99. Reported by the
ment in the construction documents. Masonry Standards Joint Committee, 1999.
2. Specification for Masonry Structures, ACI 530.1-99/
ASCE 6-99/TMS 602-99. Reported by the Masonry Stan-
dards Joint Committee, 1999.
3. Design for Dry Single-Wythe Concrete Masonry Walls,
TEK 19-2A. National Concrete Masonry Association,
Clip angle 2001.
adjustability to 4. Flashing Strategies for Concrete Masonry Walls , TEK
maintain plumb
19-4A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2001.
5. Flashing Details for Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 19-
5A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2000.
Adjustability to level 6. Laska, W. Masonry and Steel Detailing Handbook.
Adjustability shelf angle
for initial The Aberdeen Group, 1993.
alignment 7. Code of Standard Practice for Steel Buildings and
Bridges, American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc.,
Fig 6—Connection Adjustable in Three Directions 2000.
(ref. 6, z Hanley-Wood, reproduced with permission from Hanley-Wood, LLC)

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
2302 Horse Pen Road, Herndon, Virginia 20171-3499 contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
www.ncma.org
 NCMA TEK
National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology

FLOOR AND ROOF CONNECTIONS TO TEK 5-7A

Details (2001)
CONCRETE MASONRY WALLS
Keywords: connections, floor systems, hollowcore, floor system. Hangers are generally anchored to a wall
joists, ledger, loadbearing concrete masonry, pocket, through a joint and into a bond beam. However, hangers
roof systems, trusses approved for direct attachment to the surface of a masonry
wall are also available.
· Ledger Connection – As with hangers, ledger connec-
INTRODUCTION
tions minimize the impact on the continuity of a masonry
wall. A ledger connection reduces the necessary pre-plan-
Floor and roof systems for use with loadbearing struc-
ning and does not unduly impact the mason’s work as opposed
tural concrete masonry walls serve three primary functions:
to a pocket connection; thereby reducing the number of field
they transmit the vertical dead load and live load to the bearing
modifications.
walls; they function as diaphragms, transmitting lateral wind
Note: Most of the connections herein depict flashing for
and seismic loading through the walls to the foundation; and
water penetration resistance which should be used in all exterior
they act to support the walls from out-of-plane loads. In
walls. Normally flashing is not provided in interior walls.
addition to these structural functions, floors and roofs should
provide a satisfactory barrier to the transmission of sound,
FLOOR AND ROOFING SYSTEMS
fire, and heat. The many types of floor and roof systems in use
today are designed to satisfy all of these requirements in an
Several materials are common to roof and floor con-
economical manner.
struction. Wood, concrete, and steel are among the most
frequently used framing materials in these applications.
CONNECTIONS
Wood Systems
The transfer of loads between diaphragms and walls
Wood framed floors and roofs are common in residen-
requires the proper design and detailing of the connection
tial and low-rise construction. It is imperative when con-
linking these elements. Connections critical to the integrity
structing a wood-framed system that it not be in direct
of a structure. The connections detailed herein address
contact with the concrete masonry. Wood in contact with
minimal requirements. Additional requirements may be
masonry materials may absorb moisture present in the con-
necessary in some locals, particularly where earthquake and
crete masonry causing the wood to rot. To prevent the
high wind forces are to be resisted. The four primary types of
resulting unwanted decay, the lumber used should be pres-
connections, each having specific advantages, include:
sure-treated, naturally decay resistant, or have a moisture
· Direct Bearing Connection – The direct bearing connec-
barrier placed between the wood and the concrete masonry.
tion is often the simplest type of connection. This connec-
tion is used at the top of concrete masonry walls or when a
Steel Systems
change in wall thickness provides a ledge with sufficient
Steel-framed roofs using steel bar joints are very com-
bearing area as shown in Figure 1.
mon in commercial structures because they are capable of
· Pocket Connection – A pocket connection consists of
spanning long distances. Steel bar joists typically use pock-
framing the floor or roof system into a void in the masonry
eted or ledger connections to concrete masonry walls. Pro-
wall. This detail is used when masonry continues above
prietary systems that use concrete masonry units as a filler
(either as part of the wall or as a parapet) the connection
between the steel joists are also available.
location and eccentricity is to be minimized. Care must be
taken to insure that the use of a pocket does not interfere with
Concrete Systems
the continuity of the vertical reinforcement in the wall.
Concrete slabs can take many forms, including pre-
· Hanger Connection – When it is desired to maintain the
stressed, precast, and cast-in-place construction. Depending
continuity of the wall for structural, aesthetic, or construc-
upon the size and number of stories associated with a given
tion reasons, a wall hanger can be used to suspend the roof or

TEK 5-7A © 2001 National Concrete Masonry Association (replaces TEK 5-7 and TEK 17-5 )
 Superstructure
Blocking or band joist
Toenail or tie as required
Solid or filled masonry
unit to support flashing
Wood joist Stop flashing at
Cavity fill or inside of faceshell
other mortar Void/pocket
Sill (pressure treated collection device Fire-cut end of joist
or provide moisture barrier) (as required)
Anchorage as required 1 in. (25 mm) Sheathing
partially open
"L" shaped head
Reinforced bond beam joints for weeps
Concrete masonry wall at 32 in. (814 mm)
o.c.
Drip edge Wood joist
Figure 1—Direct Bearing Wood Floor Joist (ref. 2) Pressure treated or
provide moisture barrier
Reinforcement
Stop flashing at inside
Cavity fill or other mortar of faceshell Grout stop Concrete masonry bond beam
collection device Provide gap or moisture
barrier as required
Blocking or band joist Figure 5—Wood Floor Joist With Pocket
1 in. (25 mm) partially Sheathing
open "L" shaped head Wood joist
joints for weeps Toe nail or tie
at 32 in. (814 mm) as required

Drip edge Sill (pressure treated or

provide moisture barrier) 2 in. (51 mm) deep
Cavity fill or other Solid or filled
4 in. (102 mm) unit Anchorage as required unit to support
mortar collection device flashing
(solid or filled) to
Reinforced bond beam Reinforced
support flashing 1 in. (25 mm) partially
open "L" shaped head bond beam
Concrete masonry wall Ledger
joints for weeps
at 32 in. (814 mm)
Sheathing
Figure 2—Direct Bearing Wood Floor Joist Drip edge

Stop flashing at Grout stop

Cavity fill or other mortar inside of faceshell Wood joist
collection device Joist hanger; fasten
as required by Joist hanger
1 in. (25 mm) partially hanger manufacturer
open "L" shaped head Double (shown) or
Sheathing staggered anchor
joints for weeps bolt as required
Drip edge Wood joist
4 in. (102 mm) unit Reinforced
Figure 6—Wood Ledger and Hanger
(solid or filled) to bond beam
support flashing

Figure 3—Wood Floor Joist Hanger (ref. 2)

Concrete masonry wall

Stop flashing at Stop flashing at
inside of faceshell inside of faceshell
Cavity fill or Cavity fill or
other mortar 4 in. (102 mm) unit (solid or Provide gap or moisture
filled) to support flashing other mortar barrier as required
collection device collection device
Notch/pocket
1 in. (25 mm) Wood truss 1 in. (25 mm)
partially open partially open
"L" shaped head
joints for weeps "L" shaped head
at 32 in. (814 mm) joints for weeps
at 32 in. (814 mm)
o.c. o.c. Wood Truss
Drip edge Bearing truss hanger; Drip edge Reinforcement
fasten as required by hanger
Concrete manufacturer Bond beam
masonry wall
Reinforced bond beam

Figure 4—Wood Floor Truss Hanger (ref. 2) Figure 7—Wood Floor Truss Pocket (ref. 2)
 Sloping sheet metal coping
cap with cont. cleat. each side
Grout cores solid at anchor bolts
Wood Nailer with anchor bolts
Attachment strip
Cavity fill or other mortar
collection device Counter flashing
Standard unit with Sealant
inside faceshell and
part of web removed Stop flashing at inside of
Sill (pressure treated or faceshell (see TEK 19-2A)
provide moisture barrier) 1 in. (25 mm) partially
Toenail per open "L" shaped head Cant
code or use Anchor bolt or joints for weeps Parapet flashing
rated connector specialty anchor at 32 in. (814 mm) Sealant
as required
Drip edge Roofing membrane
Bond beam
Concrete masonry wall Solid unit notched
around joist steel
plate with anchor
Figure 8—Wood Roof Truss with Top Plate (ref. 2) Grout stop

Reinforced bond beam

Masonry wall Steel bar joist welded
or bolted to bearing
plate

Figure 11—Steel Joist with Pocket (ref. 3, 4, 5)

+
+
+
+
o
o
o
Moisture barrier
Uplift connector
as required
Reinforced bond beam
Concrete masonry wall Isolation joint
1 in. (25 mm) partially Steel bar joist welded or
Figure 9—Wood Roof Truss with Embedded open "L" shaped head bolted to ledger angle
Strap Anchor (ref. 2) joints for weeps
at 32 in. (814 mm)
Drip edge

Steel ledger angle

bolted to wall

1
Reinforced bond beam
2 in. (51 mm) min. to 4 /2 in.
(114 mm) max. cavity
Sloping sheet metal coping Figure 12—Steel Joist with Ledger Angle
cap with cont. cleat. each side
Attachment strip
Wood Nailer with anchor bolts
Counter flashing
Sealant
Cant
Wall ties (typ.) Parapet flashing
Sealant
Roofing membrane
Reinforced bond beam
Anchor bolts spaced
as required
Insulation

Steel Decking attached

Steel bar joist welded angle to steel
Cavity fill or other mortar
collection device or bolted to bearing angle as
1 in. (25 mm) partially plate required for
open "L" shaped head Reinforced bond beam diaphragm
joints for weeps shear transfer
Reinforced lintel
at 32 in. (814 mm) o.c.
Sealant at top of
Drip edge flashing unless self Concrete masonry wall
Steel shelf angle adhearing flashing or
tuck into mortar joint

Figure 10—Steel Joist Direct Bearing on Cavity Wall Figure 13—Steel Joist at Sidewall
 Stop flashing at inside
Cavity fill or other mortar of faceshell (see TEK 19-2A)
collection device
4 in. (25 mm) unit (solid
1 in. (25 mm) partially or filled) to support flashing
open "L" shaped head Hooked shear bar grouted
joints for weeps in slab keyway
at 32 in. (814 mm)
o.c. Topping if required
Drip edge
Reinforced
bond beam
Grout stop
Precast hollow core slab
Bearing strip
Hooked bar in wall at shear
bar (not required if vertical
reinforcement at this location)
Stop flashing at inside
Cavity fill or other mortar of faceshell (see TEK 19-2A)
collection device
4 in. (25 mm) unit (solid
1 in. (25 mm) partially or filled) to support flashing
open "L" shaped head Reinforcement with hooks
joints for weeps on both ends grouted
into broken core
at 32 in. (814 mm) o.c.
Topping if required
Drip edge
Grouted cells at
location of
shear bar
Reinforced
bond beam
Precast hollow core slab
Grout stop
Hooked bar in wall at shear
bar (not required if vertical
reinforcement at this location)

Figure 14—Concrete Hollowcore at Bearing (ref. 3) Figure 15—Hollowcore at Sidewall (ref. 3)

project, one concrete framing system may have unique ben-
efits over another. For example, hollow core prestressed
slabs can be erected quickly, without the need for formwork
or shoring. Where sufficient space is available at the job site,
precast slabs can be formed in stacks on-site, starting with the
roof slab and using the top surface of the lower slab as the
form for the next slab. Once cured, the precast slabs are lifted
to their final location. The use of cast-in-place concrete
floors and roofs, because of the time needed for forming,
pouring, finishing, and curing, requires a building plan which
is large enough to permit the masonry work to progress in one
part of the structure while the floor in another area is com-
pleted.
REFERENCES
1. Architectural and Engineering Concrete Masonry De-
tails for Building Construction, TR-95. National Concrete
Masonry Association, 1973.
2. Concrete Masonry Homes: Recommended Practices.
U.S Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office
of Policy Development and Research, 1999.
3. Design for Dry Single-Wythe Concrete Masonry Walls,
TEK 19-2A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 1998.
4. Flashing Details for Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK
19-5A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2000.
5. Generic Wall Design for Single-Wythe Loadbearing
Walls. Masonry Institute of Michigan, 2000.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
2302 Horse Pen Road, Herndon, Virginia 20171-3499 contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
www.ncma.org

National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology
MORTARS FOR CONCRETE MASONRY
Keywords: ASTM specifications, bond strength, masonry
cement, mortar, mortar cement, portland cement and lime
INTRODUCTION
While mortar represents only a small proportion of the
total wall area in concrete masonry construction (approxi-
mately 7 percent), its influence on the performance of a wall
is significant. Mortar serves many important functions: it
bonds units together into an integral structural assembly,
seals joints against penetration by air and moisture, accom-
modates small movements within a wall, accommodates
slight differences between unit sizes, and bonds to joint
reinforcement, ties and anchors so that all elements perform
as an assembly.
MORTAR MATERIALS
The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
maintains national standards for mortars and materials com-
monly used in mortars, as follows:
Portland cement (ASTM C 150, ref. 4d) is a hydraulic
cement (sets and hardens by chemical reaction with water)
and is one of the main constituents of mortar. Types I
(normal), II (moderate sulfate resistance), and III (high early
strength) are permitted according to ASTM C 270 (ref. 4f).
Air-entrained portland cements (IA, IIA, and IIIA) may be
used as alternatives to each of these types.
Masonry cement (ASTM C 91, ref. 4b) is a hydraulic
cement consisting of a mixture of portland cement or blended
hydraulic cement and plasticizing materials (such as lime-
stone, hydrated or hydraulic lime) together with other mate-
rials introduced to influence such properties as setting time,
workability, water retention, and durability. Masonry ce-
ments are classified as Type M, Type S, or Type N according
to ASTM C 270. In addition, Type N masonry cement can be
combined with portland cement or blended hydraulic cement
to produce Type S or M mortars.
Mortar cement (ASTM C 1329, ref. 4j) is a hydraulic
cement similar to masonry cement, with the added require-
ment of a minimum bond strength requirement.
Blended hydraulic cements (ASTM C 595, ref. 4g)
consist of standard portland cement or air-entrained portland
cement (denoted by -A) combined through blending with
such materials as blast furnace slag (S), or pozzolan (P & PM)
which is usually fly ash. Types IS, IS-A, IP, IP-A, I(PM), or
I(PM)-A blended cements may be used as alternatives to
TEK 9-1A © 2004 National Concrete Masonry Association (replaces TEK 9-1)
NCMA TEK
TEK 9-1A
Mortar, Grout, Stucco (2004)
portland cement to produce ASTM C 270 compliant mortars.
Types S or SA (slag cement) may also be used in mortars
meeting the property specification requirements of ASTM C
270 (Table 2 of this TEK).
Quicklime (ASTM C 5, ref. 4a) is calcined (burned-
decarbonated) limestone, the major constituents of which are
calcium oxide (CaO) and magnesium oxide (MgO). Quick-
lime must be slaked (combined chemically with water) prior
to use. The resultant lime putty must be stored and allowed to
hydrate for at least 24 hours before use. Consequently,
quicklime is rarely used in mortar.
Hydrated lime (ASTM C 207, ref. 4e) is a dry powder
obtained by treating quicklime with enough water to satisfy its
chemical affinity for water. ASTM C 207 designates Type N
(normal), Type S (special), and air-entraining Type NA and
Type SA hydrated limes. Slaking of hydrated lime is not
required, thus hydrated lime is immediately usable and much
more convenient than quicklime. ASTM C 207 limits the
amount of unhydrated oxides in Type S or Type SA hydrated
limes, assuring the soundness of mortar made using these
limes. Types N or NA lime are not typically used in mortar;
however, they are permitted if shown by test or performance
record to not be detrimental to the soundness of the mortar.
Air-entrained limes are only permitted in mortars containing
nonair-entrained cement.
Aggregates (ASTM C 144, ref. 4c) for mortar consist of
either natural or manufactured sand. Manufactured sand is
the product obtained by crushing stone, gravel, or air cooled
blast furnace slag. It is characterized by sharp, angular
shaped particles. Gradation limits are established in ASTM
C 144 for both natural and manufactured sands. Aggregates
which fail these gradation limits may be used, as long as the
resulting mortar complies with the property specification
requirements of ASTM C 270, as shown in Table 2.
Water for masonry mortar (ASTM C 270, ref. 4f) must be
clean and free of deleterious amounts of acids, alkalis, or
organic materials. Potability of water is not in itself a
consideration, but the water obtained from drinking supply
sources is considered suitable for use.
Admixtures (also sometimes called modifiers or addi-
tives) for masonry mortars (ASTM C 1384, ref. 4k) are
available for various purposes. Admixtures are functionally
classified as bond enhancers, workability enhancers, set
accelerators, set retarders, and water repellents. Since chlo-
rides accelerate the corrosion of steel reinforcement and
accessories ASTM C 1384 stipulates that admixtures add not
more than 65 ppm (0.0065%) water-soluble chloride or 90
ppm (0.0090%) acid-soluble chloride by weight of portland
cement. Similarly, the Specifications for Masonry Struc-
tures (ref. 3) limits admixtures to no more than 0.2% chlo-
ride ions. The document also limits pigments for coloring to
no more than 1 to 10% by weight of cement depending upon
the pigment type.
Changes in sand type and gradation affect mortar proper-
ties. Natural sand gives improved workability at a lower water
demand because of the spherical particle shape, while manu-
factured sands require additional water due to their angular
shape. In general, well graded aggregates reduce segregation
in a plastic mortar, which in turn inhibits bleeding and im-
proves workability. Sands deficient in fines generally pro-
duce harsh mortars, while sands with excessive fines typi-
cally result in mortars with lower compressive strengths.

Effect of Materials on Mortar TYPES OF MORTAR

With the diversity of materials available, masonry mor-
tars can be formulated to produce the desired properties for
most specific job requirements. Each of the individual
ingredients (cement, lime, sand, water, and any modifiers
present) contributes to the performance of the mortar. Port-
land cement provides strength and durability. Lime imparts
workability, water retention, as well as some limited cemen-
titious and autogenous healing properties. Sand acts as a
filler and provides body to the mortar while helping to reduce
shrinkage and control cracking. Water acts as a mixing agent,
a lubricant, and is also needed for hydration of the portland
cement.
The various material options alter the characteristics of
the mortar in a predictable manner. Changes in cement type
promote slight changes in setting characteristics, workabil-
ity, color, and strength development. Use of air-entrained
cement or lime generally results in decreased water demand,
improved workability, increased freeze-thaw resistance, and
decreased bond strength. Masonry cements, used singly or in
combination with portland cement, provide mortars with
excellent workability and freeze-thaw durability; however,
bond strengths may be reduced. Consequently, design allow-
able flexural tension values vary based on mortar type and
cementitious materials or lime used for unreinforced masonry
(ref. 1).
Building codes generally specify mortar types as refer-
enced in ASTM C 270, Standard Specification for Mortar for
Unit Masonry (ref. 4f). Four mortar types, M, S, N and O are
included in this standard. However, Types M, S, and N are
typically required by building codes. Building codes also may
restrict the use of some mortars for particular applications. For
example, empirical design of foundation walls requires Type M
or S mortar and glass unit masonry requires Type N or S mortar
(ref. 1). In seismic design categories , D, E, and F portland
cement/lime or mortar cement mortar Types S or M are
required (ref. 1).
PROPORTIONING MORTAR
All mortar types are governed by either of the two
specifications contained in ASTM C 270: the proportion
specification or the property specification. Only one of the
specifications should be called for in the project documents,
not both. The proportion specification (Table 1) prescribes
the parts by volume of each ingredient required to provide a
specific mortar type. A combination of portland cement and
lime may be used as the cementing agent in each type of
mortar. Also, masonry cements (ref. 4b) or mortar cements
(ref. 4j) are available that meet the requirements of M, S, and

TABLE 1—ASTM C 270 Proportion Specification Requirements (ref. 4)

Proportions by volume (cementitious materials)

Portland cement Aggregate ratio

Mortar Type or Mortar Cement Masonry cement Hydrated lime (measured in damp,
blended cement M S N M S N or lime putty loose condition)
Cement-lime M 1 ... ... ... ... ... ... /
14

S 1 ... ... ... ... ... ... over 1/4 to 1/2

N 1 ... ... ... ... ... ... over 1/2 to 11/4
O 1 ... ... ... ... ... ... over 11/4 to 21/2
Mortar Cement M 1 ... ... 1 ... ... ... ... Not less than 21/4 and
M ... 1 ... ... ... ... ... ... not more than 3 times
S /
12 ... ... 1 ... ... ... ... the sum of the
S ... ... 1 ... ... ... ... ... separate volumes of
N ... ... ... 1 ... ... ... ... cementitious materials.
O ... ... ... 1 ... ... ... ...
Masonry Cement M 1 ... ... ... ... ... 1 ...
M ... ... ... ... 1 ... ... ...
S /
12 ... ... ... ... ... 1 ...
S ... ... ... ... ... 1 ... ...
N ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 ...
O ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 ...

Note—Two air-entraining materials should not be contained in mortar.

N mortars with or without further addition of cement.
As an alternative, approved materials may be mixed in
controlled percentages as long as the resultant mortar meets
the physical requirements designated in ASTM C 270, as
shown in Table 2. The aggregate ratio noted in Table 2 must
be followed. Conformance to the property specification of
ASTM C 270 is established by testing laboratory prepared
mortar during a pre-construction evaluation of the mortar
proposed for the project. The laboratory then establishes
proportions for mortar, based on successful tests. These
proportions are then followed when preparing field mortar.
MASONRY MORTAR PROPERTIES
Many properties of mortar are not precisely definable in
quantitative terminology because of a lack of definitive
standards by which to measure them. For example, mortars
can be rated on the basis of obtaining visually satisfactory
mortar joints.
Depending on the particular circumstances for a given
project, the criteria for mortar selection are based on design
considerations, mortar properties in the plastic state or mortar
properties in a hardened state. Consideration of each is
necessary to achieve a desired result.
Properties of Plastic Mortar
Workability is the property of mortar characterized by
the smooth plastic consistency which makes it easy to spread.
This is the property of most importance to the mason. A
workable mortar spreads easily under the trowel; adheres to
vertical surfaces during unit handling, placement, and bed-
ding; maintains alignment as other units are positioned; and
provides a watertight, closed joint when tooled.
Once mix proportions have been established, the addi-
tion of water should be consistent with that required to
improve mortar placement without sacrificing the ability to
support the masonry unit. Adequate water content promotes
intimate contact between the unit and mortar, which is essen-
tial for satisfactory bond. While water content has the
greatest influence on the workability of a mortar, cementi-
tious materials, aggregate gradation, and air-entrainment also
contribute to a lesser degree.
Water retention of mortar is a measure of the mortar's
ability to retain its plasticity when subjected to the atmosphere
or the absorptive forces of a concrete masonry unit. Mortars
with low water retention stiffen more quickly, making it
difficult for the mason to bed and adjust the masonry unit
during placement. Mortars with desired water retention
characteristics allow the mason to lay a mortar bed two or
three units ahead before placing subsequent units. Water
retentivity is dependent on properties of the cementitious
materials, sand gradation, and mortar proportions.
The time lapse between spreading a mortar bed and
placing block should be kept to a minimum, because the
workability will be reduced as water is absorbed into the
block. If too much time elapses before a block is placed on a
fresh mortar bed, units are less easily positioned and the bond
will be reduced.
Evaporation of the mixing water from mortar may re-
quire retempering (mixing in additional water). This gener-
ally is not harmful as long as it is done prior to hydration of
the mortar. To avoid the stiffening effects of hydration,
mortar must be placed in final position within 21/2 hours after
the original mixing (ref. 3) unless special set retarding
admixtures are used.
Properties of Hardened Mortar
Properties of hardened mortar that affect the perfor-
mance of the finished concrete masonry include bond, com-
pressive strength, and durability. These properties are diffi-
cult to measure other than in laboratory or field specimens
prepared under controlled conditions. However, ASTM C
1324, Standard Test Method for Examination and Analysis of
Hardened Masonry Mortar, (ref. 4i) provides procedures for
petrographic examination and chemical analysis for compo-
nents of masonry mortar in the hardened state. A 0.35 oz. (10

Table 2—ASTM C 270 Property Specification RequirementsA(ref. 4)

Average compressive Water

Mortar Type strength at 28 days retention, Air content Aggregate ratio (measured in
min. psi (MPa) min. % max. % damp, loose conditions)
Cement-Lime M 2500 (17.2) 75 12
S 1800 (12.4) 75 12
N 750 (5.2) 75 14B
O 350 (2.4) 75 14B
Mortar Cement M 2500 (17.2) 75 12 Not less than 21/4 and not
S 1800 (12.4) 75 12 more than 31/2 times the sum
N 750 (5.2) 75 14B of the separate volumes of
O 350 (2.4) 75 14B cementitious materials.
Masonry Cement M 2500 (17.2) 75 18
S 1800 (12.4) 75 18
N 750 (5.2) 75 20c
O 350 (2.4) 75 20c

A
Laboratory prepared mortar only
B
When structural reinforcement is incorporated in cement-lime mortar, the maximum air content shall be 12%.
C
When structural reinforcement is incorporated in masonry cement mortar, the maximum air content shall be 18%.
g) sample is usually sufficient for both the petrographic and
chemical analysis. When obtaining the sample, however, it
is important to ensure that the sample is representative of the
mortar in question, i.e. original mortar as opposed to pointing
mortar or other mortars used on the project.
Bond is a term used to describe both the extent of contact
between mortar and unit and the strength of adhesion. Bond
is a function of several factors including mortar properties,
unit surface characteristics, workmanship, and curing. Other
factors being equal, bond strength will increase as the com-
pressive strength of the mortar increases, although not in
direct proportion. Bond may also be effectively increased
through the use of properly designed mortars having water
contents which provide good workability.
Compressive strength is perhaps the most commonly
measured property of mortar but is perhaps the most misun-
derstood. Whenever compressive strength results are in-
tended to be used to determine conformance of a mortar to the
property specifications of ASTM C 270, compressive strength
tests must be conducted in accordance with the laboratory
procedures required by ASTM C 270. However, field mortar
compressive testing is to be conducted in accordance with
ASTM C 780, Standard Test Method for Preconstruction
and Construction Evaluation of Mortars for Plain and
Reinforced Unit Masonry, (ref. 4h) and is only to verify the
consistency of materials and procedures, not to determine
mortar strength (ref. 3). ASTM C 780 contains no require-
ment for minimum compressive strength of field mortar. The
the mortar strength in the wall will be much higher than the
field test because of the reduced water cement ratio due
absorption of mix water into the masonry units and a greatly
reduced shape factor in the mortar joint versus the mortar test
cube. ASTM C 780 recognizes this and states that the
strength should not be construed as being representative of
the actual strength of the mortar.
Durability of mortar also is an important consideration
for parapets or other walls with an extreme exposure to the
weather. Oversanding or overtempering can decrease dura-
NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION
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bility. High strength mortars and air entrained mortars pro-
vide increased durability. For more detailed discussion on
field testing of mortar see TEK 18-5, Masonry Mortar Testing
(ref. 2).
REFERENCES
1. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, ACI
530-02/ASCE 5-02/TMS 402-02. Reported by the Masonry
Standards Joint Committee, 2002.
2. Masonry Mortar Testing, TEK 18-5. NCMA, 2002
3. Specifications for Masonry Structures, ACI 530.1-02/
ASCE 6-02/TMS 602-02. Reported by the Masonry Stan-
dards Joint Committee, 2002.
4. 2004 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, American Soci-
ety for Testing and Materials:
4a. C 5-03, Standard Specification for Quicklime for
Structural Purposes.
4b. C 91-03a, Standard Specification for Masonry Ce-
ment.
4c. C 144-03, Standard Specification for Aggregate for
Masonry Mortar.
4d. C 150-04, Standard Specification for Portland Ce-
ment.
4e. C 207-04, Standard Specification for Hydrated Lime
for Masonry Purposes.
4f. C 270-03b, Standard Specification for Mortar for
Unit Masonry.
4g. C 595-03, Standard Specification for Blended Hy-
draulic Cements.
4h. C 780-02, Standard Test Method for Preconstruction
and Construction Evaluation of Mortars for Plain and
Reinforced Unit Masonry.
4i. C 1324-03, Standard Test Method for Examination
and Analysis of Hardened Masonry Mortar.
4j. C 1329-04, Standard Specification for Mortar Cement.
4k. C 1384-03, Standard Specification for Admixtures
for Masonry Mortars.
To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900

National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology
SELF-CONSOLIDATING GROUT FOR
CONCRETE MASONRY
Keywords: admixtures, aggregates, ASTM specifications,
construction, grout, grouting, reinforced concrete mason-
ry, self-consolidating grout, testing
INTRODUCTION
Self-consolidating grout (SCG) is a specially-formulated
grout for use with reinforced masonry. It is designed to fill
the long, narrow and sometimes highly congested cores of
reinforced walls without the need for consolidation and re-
consolidation by mechanical vibration or by puddling.
Self-consolidating grout has been used in various parts of the
United States, under the grout demonstration panel provisions
of Specification for Masonry Structures (refs. 1, 2), which is
included by reference in the International Building Code (refs.
3, 4). The 2008 edition of Specification for Masonry Structures
(ref. 5), however, includes explicit provisions for SCG.
Unlike conventional grout and conventional concrete,
self consolidating grout (SCG) is a special application of self-
consolidating concrete (SCC) that uses aggregates complying
with ASTM C 404, Standard Specification for Aggregates for
Masonry Grout (ref. 6), as specified in ASTM C 476, Standard
Specification for Grout for Masonry (ref. 7).
Similar to conventional grout, there are two types of self-
consolidating grout, coarse and fine, with the latter containing
only fine aggregate. Coarse self-consolidating grout has been
the most common, although fine SCG is predominant in several
specific regions of the U.S.
MATERIALS FOR SELF-CONSOLIDATING GROUT
Self-consolidating grout attains a high flow not from
adding more water, but from a careful mix design to create a
flowable yet highly cohesive grout that will not segregate and
can pass freely through congested reinforcement and narrow
openings without "blocking or bridging." SCG must maintain its
fluidity without segregation and maintain consistent properties
throughout the grout lift. It is composed of aggregates, cementi-
tious materials, water and special admixtures which provide
the fluidity and stability to meet performance requirements.
Aggregate Size and Proportion
To obtain the desired filling and placing ability, aggregates
TEK 9-2B © 2007 National Concrete Masonry Association (replaces TEK 9-2A)
NCMA TEK
TEK 9-2B
Mortar, Grout, Stucco (2007)
used in SCG should meet the requirements of ASTM C 404,
as specified in ASTM C 476. The requirements for coarse ag-
gregate, for use in coarse SCG, are essentially the same as the
requirements for No. 8 and No. 89 coarse aggregate in ASTM
C 33, Standard Specification for Concrete Aggregates (ref.
8): they should be either a Size No. 8 or Size No. 89 gravel,
stone or air-cooled iron blast furnace slag with 100% passing
the ½ in. (13 mm) sieve and at least 85 to 90% passing the 3/8
in. (9.5 mm) sieve. Fine aggregate, for use in either coarse or
fine SCG, is typically Size No. 1, which is a concrete sand as
defined in ASTM C 33, but could also be Size No. 2, which
is a sand for masonry mortar as defined in ASTM C 144,
Specification for Aggregate for Masonry Mortar (ref. 9).
ASTM C 476 contains a proportion specification as well
as a performance specification for masonry grout. The pro-
portion specification specifies that coarse grout should have
fine aggregate in the amount of 21/4 to 3 times the sum of the
volume of the cementitious materials and coarse aggregate
in the amount of 1 to 2 times the sum of the volume of the
cementitious materials. These ASTM C 476 requirements are
equivalent to s/a (sand/total aggregate) ratios of approximately
0.50 to 0.60 on an absolute volume basis. By comparison,
most self-consolidating concrete mix designs have similar
s/a ratios in the 0.50 to 0.60 range.
Cementitious Materials and Minus 100 (0.150 mm) Sieve
Content and Composition
Grout is required to have a minimum compressive strength
of 2,000 psi (14 MPa) after 28 days of curing (ref. 7). Building
Code Requirements for Masonry Structures (ref. 10) sets an
upper limit on the specified compressive strength of grout at
5,000 psi (34.5 MPa) at 28 days when using strength design
of concrete masonry, although experience indicates that many
conventional grouts develop strengths greater than this speci-
fication limit. Note that actual strengths are somewhat higher
than the specified strength to assure compliance.
In the historical context of masonry materials, the term
cementitious materials has commonly referred to the cement
content (as well as lime in the case of masonry mortars) used
in the manufacturing of masonry units, mortar or grout. In the
production of SCG, however, the fraction of very fine aggregate
particles present in the mix can have a significant influence
on the plastic (and by association, the hardened) properties of
SCG, and therefore needs to be considered in the batching of
SCG. As such, the ‘powder’ content of an SCG mix, which
includes both conventional cementitious materials as well as
the very fine aggregate dust smaller than the 100 (0.150 mm)
sieve, is monitored to ensure a stable SCG.
Adequate paste content is critical for making stable SCG
mixes because the paste forms the matrix in which the particles
are suspended. This paste is composed of cementitious materi-
als (including the powder), water and entrained air, if any. The
entire powder content of some mixes may contain auxiliary
materials including pozzolanic and hydraulic materials, as
well as ground limestone and inert fillers. These additions can
improve and maintain cohesion and segregation resistance of
the mix while lowering the overall cost and helping to control
the ultimate strength of the mix.
Although not widely used in the U.S., ground limestone and
inert fillers can be very effective in SCG mixes as a means of
keeping compressive strengths to the lower range. They should
be considered if they are regionally available. Fly ash can
also be an effective addition because its use can help enhance
the filling ability and slump flow of the mix while providing
increased cohesion and reduced sensitivity to changes in wa-
ter content. Research has shown that slump flow values are
increased when the fly ash replacement rates are between 20
and 40% of portland cement (ref. 11). If the goal is to control
compressive strengths, Class F fly ash can be effective because
it typically does not contribute as much to strength gain as Type
C fly ash. GGBFS (Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag) has
successfully been used in SCG mixes to replace some of the
cement, but its high ultimate strength gain usually means that
the compressive strengths of these mixes are usually similar
(or sometimes higher) than straight cement mix designs.
Research (ref. 12) has demonstrated that coarse SCG mixes
could be made with total cementitious materials contents of 750
lb/yd3 (445 kg/m3), and possibly with 700 lb/yd3 (415 kg/m3).
By comparison, a typical conventional coarse grout made to the
proportion specifications of ASTM C 476 contains about 550
to 700 lb/yd3 (325 to 415 kg/m3) of cementitious materials.
Some limited testing in the NCMA research (ref. 12)
demonstrated that fine SCG could be made with total cementi-
tious materials contents in the range of 800 to 850 lb/yd3 (475
to 505 kg/m3). By comparison, a typical conventional fine
grout made to the proportion specifications of ASTM C 476
will contain about 700 to 1,000 lb/yd3 (415 to 590 kg/m3) of
cementitious materials.
Water Content
The term ‘natural slump’ describes the slump of the grout
mix before the polycarboxylate is added. A common procedure
for making self-consolidating concrete is to set the initial wa-
ter target to the amount needed to bring the mix to a ‘natural
slump’ of 2 to 4 in. (51 to 102 mm). The polycarboxylate is
then added to make the mix fluid enough to obtain the desired
slump flow. This would also be an acceptable initial water target
for making SCG, although NCMA research (ref. 12) indicated
that some of the most successful batches of coarse and fine
SCG made with the local materials used in the research had
initial water targets that yielded a ‘natural slump’ of 6 to 9 in.
(152 to 229 mm) before the polycarboxylate was added.
Admixtures
Admixtures are integral to the production of SCG. The
primary admixture used to impart fluidity and stability to the
SCG mix is a class of high-range water-reducing admixtures
known as polycarboxylates (PC). These long-chain polymers
are synthesized to help keep the cement grains dispersed while
adding some cohesiveness and stability to the SCG mix.
Another class of admixtures often used to make SCG in
conjunction with the PC is the Viscosity-Modifying Admix-
tures (VMA). VMAs help adjust viscosity and can improve the
cohesiveness and stability of the mix while allowing it to flow
without segregation. Not all PC and VMA products have the same
properties. Some PCs impart substantial amounts of stability and
cohesiveness to the mix and are recommended to be used without
VMA, while others benefit from the addition of VMA.
In the past (before polycarboxylates), there have been
indications that in some situations superplasticizers in grout
for masonry structures have not performed well because they
exhibited a short pot life, meaning the mix quickly lost fluid-
ity and rapid stiffing would follow. Absorption of mix water
into the surrounding masonry also negatively impacted the
flow. In high-lift grouting (placing grout into grout columns
as high as 24 ft (7.3 m)), enough water could be lost to cause
the grout to stiffen and bridge before reaching the bottom of
the grout column. With the advent of newer high-range water
reducers such as polycarboxylates, however, this problem is
no longer evident (ref. 13).
Note that proportioning of SCG is not permitted in the field
(ref. 5). However, final adjustment of the mix, in accordance
with the SCG manufacturer’s recommendations, utilizing
water or the same admixture used in the mix is permitted.
SCG PLACEMENT
Self-consolidating grout is pumped or placed into spaces
to be grouted using the same procedures as for conventional
grout. Research has shown that with SCG there is no need
to first remove mortar fins and protrusions exceeding 1/2 in.
(13 mm), as is required for conventionally grouted masonry
(refs. 3, 4), since SCG is fluid enough to flow around these
small obstructions (ref. 13). However, it is important to note
that Specification for Masonry Structures currently requires
the removal of mortar fins and protrusions exceeding 1/2 in.
(13 mm) for both conventional grout and SCG (ref. 5). Note
that because SCG is so fluid, it will flow through gaps wider
than about 3/8 in. (10 mm). To contain the grout, therefore, it
is recommended to mortar the masonry unit cross webs of
cells containing grout in partially grouted construction.
In bond beams, SCG will be adequately contained using
conventional grout-stop materials, such as plastic mesh. When
filling intermediate bond beams using high-lift grouting, place
the grout-stop material in the bed joints both above and below
the bond beam to prevent the SCG from rising above the bond
beam location.
Once the SCG is placed, consolidation and reconsolida-
tion is not necessary with either coarse or fine SCG.
Documented successful lifts of 12 ft 8 in. (3.9 m) have
been achieved by filling the grout columns of 8-in. (203-mm)
concrete masonry walls in a single lift in less than a minute using
a concrete pump (ref. 13). Other undocumented placements
have placed SCG in a single 24-ft (7.3-m) lift. Twenty-four
feet (7.3 mm) is the maximum pour height currently permitted
by Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures and
Specification for Masonry Structures (refs. 10, 5). Note also that
for SCG, grout lift height can equal the grout pour height.
Blowouts have not been shown to be a problem for con-
ventional masonry units in this research nor in field experience.
However, specialty units with reduced or removed webs, such
as "H-block" or large pilaster or column units, may require
reduced lift heights.
No special curing procedures are required when using SCG.
When appropriate, standard hot and cold weather construction
provisions should be followed, as for other masonry projects.
See All-Weather Concrete Masonry Construction, TEK 3-1C
(ref. 14), for more detailed information.
SCG QUALITY ASSURANCE AND
QUALITY CONTROL
Specification for Masonry Structures (ref. 5) requires
SCG to:
• meet the material requirements of ASTM C 476,
• attain the specified compressive strength or 2,000 psi
(13.79 MPa), whichever is greater, at 28 days when tested
in accordance with ASTM C 1019 (ref. 15),
• have a slump flow of 24 to 30 in. (610 to 762 mm) as
determined by ASTM C 1611 (ref. 16), and
• have a Visual Stability Index (VSI) less than or equal to
1 as determined in accordance with ASTM C 1611, Ap-
pendix X.1.
The ASTM C 476 material requirements are described
in Grout for Concrete Masonry, TEK 9-4A (ref. 17). Other
quality assurance and quality control provisions related to
SCG are described below.
Some methods commonly used for self-consolidating con-
crete to evaluate passing ability, like the L-Box or J-Ring, are
not normally used with SCG because experience indicates that
the 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) maximum aggregate size used in SCG has
adequate passing ability in masonry grouting applications.
Compressive Strength Testing of SCG Mixes
The current edition of ASTM C 1019, Standard Test
Method for Sampling and Testing Grout (ref. 15), addresses
the testing of SCG. The procedure for testing SCG is very
similar to that for conventional grout, except that SCG is
placed in the mold in one lift instead of two and SCG does
not need to be rodded.
Slump Flow
The slump flow test method defined in ASTM C 1611/C
1611M, Standard Test Method for Slump Flow of Self-Consoli-
dating Concrete (ref. 16) is used to monitor the consistency of
fresh, unhardened SCG and its unconfined flow potential. It
is particularly useful to assess the batch-to-batch consistency
of SCG supplied over time.
Because of the fluid nature of SCG, traditional measures
of consistency, such as the ASTM C 143 (ref. 18) slump test,
are not applicable to SCG. The slump flow test is an adapta-
tion of the ASTM C 143 slump cone test. In the slump flow
test, SCG is loaded into an inverted slump cone in a single lift
without consolidation. The cone is removed and the diameter
of the grout slump flow is measured (see Figure 1).
Visual Stability Index (VSI)
VSI, also defined in ASTM C 1611, is performed after
the slump flow test to provide a qualitative assessment of
the SCG's stability. The SCG patty resulting from the slump
flow test is examined for aggregate segregation, bleeding and
evidence of a mortar halo (a cement paste or mortar ring that
has clearly separated from the coarse aggregate, around the
outside circumference of the SCG patty). The SCG mix is then
assigned a VSI, from 0 (highly stable) to 3 (highly unstable).
T20 (T50)
Although not required by Specification for Masonry
Structures, T20 (T50) records the time it takes, during the
slump flow test, for the outer edge of the SCG patty to reach
a diameter of 20 in. (508 mm) from the time the mold is first
raised. It is an optional test for self-consolidating concrete, and
is similarly applicable to SCG to provide a relative measure
of the unconfined flow rate and an indication of the relative
viscosity of the SCG. While the actual target value for T20 (T50)
can vary for different SCG mixes, it has value in verifying the
consistency between SCG batches delivered to the job site.
Self-Healing Ability ‘S’ Test
The 'S' test can also be used to help determine the stability
of an SCG mix. While this is not a standardized test method,
it is adapted from a simple test that is done by some practitio-
ners in the field. There is a common version and a modified
version, which gives an indication of the relative segregation
resistance of the SCG when subjected to local vibration.
The common self-healing (non-disturbed) test is performed
after the slump flow, T20 (T50) and VSI have been recorded. A
10- to 12-in. (254- to 305-mm) ‘S’ is drawn in the SCG patty
with a finger, making sure to scrape off the SCG all the way
down to the board. The patty is observed to see if the ‘S’ will
self-heal. In cases where the self-healing is excellent, the SCG
flows back together and there is little or no evidence of the ‘S’
remaining. In cases where the self-healing is poor, the SCG
does not flow back together and the ‘S’ remains very visible
with severe aggregate, paste or water segregation.
Due to observations during the NCMA research (ref. 12),
a self-healing (after agitate) test was created. After completing
the common self-healing test, the SCG patty is vibrated and a
Figure 1—SCG Slump Flow Test
second test, designated self-healing (after agitate), is performed.
To vibrate the mix, the side of the slump flow base-plate is
lightly kicked or tapped six times with a foot (three on one side
followed by three on an orthogonal [right-angle] side). The 'S'
test is then repeated and the mix is rated again.
Suitability of Segregation Tests
In the NCMA research (ref. 12); several mixes were used to
determine the suitability of self-consolidating concrete segrega-
tion tests on the SCG mixes. Testing was performed to evaluate
both the Column Technique for Static Segregation (ASTM C
1610) (ref. 19) and the European Sieve Segregation Test (ref.
20). It was found that these tests were not able to distinguish
unstable SCG mixes from stable mixes. It is not clear if this
was a function of the particular raw materials used or a general
characteristic of coarse SCG mixes. The self-healing (after
agitation) test described above was found to be a much better
indicator of stable and unstable mixes for SCG.

REFERENCES
1. Specification for Masonry Structures, ACI 530.1-02/ASCE 6-02/TMS 602-02. Reported by the Masonry Standards Joint
Committee, 2002.
2. Specification for Masonry Structures, ACI 530.1-05/ASCE 6-05/TMS 602-05. Reported by the Masonry Standards Joint
Committee, 2005.
3. International Building Code 2003. International Code Council, 2003.
4. International Building Code 2006. International Code Council, 2006.
5. Specification for Masonry Structures, ACI 530.1-08/ASCE 6-08/TMS 602-08. Reported by the Masonry Standards Joint
Committee, 2008.
6. Standard Specification for Aggregates for Masonry Grout, ASTM C 404-07. ASTM International, Inc., 2007.
7. Standard Specification for Grout for Masonry, ASTM C 476-07. ASTM International, Inc., 2007.
8. Standard Specification for Concrete Aggregates, ASTM C 33-03. ASTM International, Inc., 2003.
9. Standard Specification for Aggregate for Masonry Mortar, ASTM C 144-04. ASTM International, Inc., 2004.
10. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, ACI 530-08/ASCE 5-08/TMS 402-08. Reported by the Masonry
Standards Joint Committee, 2008.
11. Studies of Self-Compacting High Performance Concrete with High Volume Mineral Additives. Fang, W.;Jianxiong, C.; Chan-
ghui, Y., Proceedings of the First International RILEM Symposium on Self-Compacting Concrete, 1999, p. 569-578.
12. Self-Consolidating Grout Investigation: Making and Testing Prototype SCG Mix Designs – Report of Phase II Research,
MR31. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2006. (Available at http://www.ncma.org/research/reports/MR31.pdf).
13. Self-Consolidating Grout Investigation: Compressive Strength, Shear Bond, Consolidation and Flow – Report of Phase I Research,
MR29. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2006. (Available at http://www.ncma.org/research/reports/MR29.pdf)
14. All-Weather Concrete Masonry Construction, TEK 3-1C. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2002.
15. Standard Test Method for Sampling and Testing Grout, ASTM C 1019-07. ASTM International, Inc., 2007.
16. Standard Test Method for Slump Flow of Self-Consolidating Concrete, ASTM C 1611/C 1611M-05. ASTM International,
Inc., 2005.
17. Grout for Concrete Masonry, TEK 9-4A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2005.
18. Standard Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic-Cement Concrete, ASTM C 143-05a. ASTM International, Inc., 2005.
19. Standard Test Method for Static Segregation of Self-Consolidating Concrete Using Column Technique, ASTM C 1610/C
1610M-06. ASTM International, Inc., 2006.
20. The European Guidelines for Self-Compacting Concrete: Specification, Production and Use. Self Compacting Concrete
European Project Group, 2005.

NCMA and the companies disseminating this technical information disclaim any and all responsibility and liability for the
accuracy and the application of the information contained in this publication.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171 contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
www.ncma.org

National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology
GROUT FOR CONCRETE MASONRY
Keywords: admixtures, ASTM standards, compressive
strength, grout, reinforced concrete masonry, self consoli-
dating grout, specification, slump
INTRODUCTION
Masonry grout is a cementitious mixture used to fill cores
or cavities in masonry construction. While usually added for
structural reasons, grout can also increase: fire ratings, security,
acoustical performance, termite resistance, blast resistance,
thermal storage capacity and anchorage capabilities. Grout is
composed of cement, aggregate, lime (optional) and sufficient
water to allow ease of placement and ensure complete filling of
the grout space. With approval, admixtures may be added to the
grout mix. The high initial water content of typical grout mixes
compensates for water absorption by the masonry during and
after grout placement. The final water-to-cement ratio is
significantly reduced, thus grout develops high compressive
strength despite its apparent high initial water to cement ratio.
Generally, grout is used to structurally bond wall elements
into a wall system. The most common example is in reinforced
construction, where grout bonds the steel reinforcing bars to
the masonry, allowing them to act as one system in resisting
loads. Composite walls consist of two wythes of masonry with
a solidly grouted collar joint with or without reinforcing steel.
Grouted cores also increase the net cross-sectional area of
concrete masonry and permit walls to carry higher compressive,
shear loads and lateral loads. Masonry cantilever retaining walls
are often solidly grouted to increase the wall’s weight, and
hence resistance to overturning. Grouted masonry construction
Table 1—Grout Proportions by Volume (ref. 3)
Parts by volume Parts by volume
Type of portland cement of hydrated lime
or blended cement or lime putty
Fine 1 0 to 1/10
grout
Coarse 1 0 to 1/10
grout
TEK 9-4A © 2005 National Concrete Masonry Association (replaces TEK 9-4)
NCMA TEK
TEK 9-4A
Mortar, Grout, Stucco (2005)
is not required to be reinforced, but typically is for design
economy. Reinforced masonry construction, however, requires
grout to be placed around the reinforcement.
This TEK includes information about: types of grout; grout
properties; grout admixtures; and self consolidating grout.
Information on grout mixing and placement and on grout testing
is contained in Grouting Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 3-2A
and Grout Quality Assurance, TEK 18-8B (refs. 1, 2),
respectively.
SPECIFYING GROUT
Grout Type
Grout for use in concrete masonry construction should
comply with ASTM C 476, Standard Specification for Grout
for Masonry (ref. 3), or the governing building code which may
permit grouting options other than those in set forth in ASTM C
476 . ASTM C 476 defines two types of grout: fine and coarse.
Fine grout contains sand smaller than 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) as its only
aggregate, while coarse grout allows pea gravel smaller than 1/
2 in. (13 mm), or other acceptable aggregate, in addition to the
sand.
Aggregates for grout must comply with ASTM C 404,
Standard Specification for Aggregates for Masonry Grout
(ref. 4), which includes requirements for grading, impurities,
soundness, and methods of aggregate sampling and testing.
When an aggregate does not meet the ASTM C 404 grading
requirements, it may still be used provided the requirements of
ASTM C 404 section 4.2 are met. These requirements prescribe
minimum and maximum aggregate sizes and a minimum grout
compressive strength of 2,000 psi (13.79 MPa).
Aggregate,
measured in a damp, loose condition
Fine Coarse
2-1/4 to 3 times the sum of
the volumes of the -----
cementitious materials
2-1/4 to 3 times the sum of 1 to 2 times the sum of
the volume of the the volumes of the
cementitious materials cementitious materials
 Building codes and ASTM Specifications do not recognize
any appreciable compressive strength difference between fine
and coarse grouts. The choice of grout type therefore depends
primarily on the minimum clear dimensions of the grout space,
the grout pour height and construction economics. Coarse
grout is typically more economical to produce. See TEK 3-2A
(ref. 1) for more information on grout space requirements and
grout type selection.
Grout Proportions
ASTM C 476 allows grout mixtures to be determined
either by compliance with the proportions listed in Table 1 or by
those established through compressive strength testing. Written
acceptance of grout mix submittals is required prior to the
commencement of grouting operations (ref. 7).
Using the proportions specified in Table 1 is a simple way
to demonstrate compliance with ASTM C 476.
When using the specified compressive strength method in
ASTM C 476, the grout must be sampled and tested in accordance
with ASTM C 1019 (ref. 5) and have a minimum compressive
strength of 2,000 psi (13.79 MPa) at 28 days. It must also be
mixed to a slump of 8 to 11 in. (203 - 279 mm) as determined
by ASTM C 143/143M (ref. 6). The grout proportions used to
produce a grout with acceptable physical properties are then
used to produce the grout for the project.
Compressive Strength
While 2,000 psi (13.79 MPa) is the minimum compressive
strength required by ASTM C 476, project requirements may
require higher strengths. For instance, when the unit strength
method is used to determine the specified compressive strength
of the masonry, f'm, Specification for Masonry Structures (ref.
7) requires the compressive strength of the grout to equal or
exceed f'm but not be less than 2,000 psi (13.79 MPa). As an
economic rule of thumb, unless structural criteria dictate
otherwise, it is best to balance the specified grout strength with
the specified concrete masonry assembly strength so that one
element of the system is not considerably stronger than the
other, resulting in material overstrength and design conservatism.
When using the strength design provisions of the Building
Code Requirements for Masonry Structures (ref. 8), a
maximum specified grout compressive strength of 5,000 psi
(34.47 MPa) for concrete masonry construction is applied.
This limitation is based solely on the specified compressive
strength of grout and does not limit the actual field-tested grout
compressive strength.
Grout Slump
Grout for masonry construction is a high slump material
with a flowable consistency to ease placement and facilitate
consolidation. Both the Specification for Masonry Structures
(ref. 7) and ASTM C 476 require grout to have a slump between
8 and 11 in. (203 – 279 mm). Grout must be fluid enough to flow
into the smallest grout spaces and around any obstructions, such
as reinforcing bars, joint reinforcement, anchors, ties and small
mortar protrusions (fins). Lower slump grouts are usually more
difficult to place. Although the high slump (high initial water-
cement ratio of conventional grout) may concern those familiar
with lower slump cementitious products such as concrete or
mortar, concrete masonry units are absorptive, and the higher
water content of grout is critical to insure that in-place grout has
sufficient remaining water, after absorption by the masonry
units, for cement hydration. Despite grout's relatively high
water to cement ratio, studies have shown that adequate grout
compressive strengths and bond strengths are achieved even
when using high slump grouts in wet concrete masonry units (ref. 9).
While both codes and standards specify grout slumps in
excess of 8 in. (203 mm), there may be certain conditions where
lower slumps could be used or may be warranted. For example,
if the concrete masonry units are low absorptive units or if the
grout spaces are large and the grout lifts are short, lower water
content grouts may work fine although care should be taken to
assure adequate filling around reinforcement or other
obstructions. Likewise, cold weather could present conditions
where lower water content grout would be advantageous under
certain circumstances (i.e. freezing conditions), but not as a
general rule. For demonstrating the suitability of alternate
grouting means and/or methods, the grout demonstration panel
option detailed in Specification for Masonry Structures (ref. 7)
should be used to qualify the proposed method. See NCMA
TEK 3-2A (ref. 1) for information on grout demonstration panels.
Production Methods
Production methods for grout are also described in ASTM
C 476. These include various forms of site-mixed and ready-
mixed grout. When cementitious materials and aggregates are
stored separately on site and then proportioned into the mixer,
they are required to be mixed for at least 5 minutes in a
mechanical mixer with sufficient water to bring the grout to the
desired consistency. Factory dry-blended cementitious materials
and aggregate can also be delivered to the job site and must be
mixed for the same 5 minute time period. Another option is for
the individual dry ingredients to be shipped to the job site in
compartments and then mixed with water on site using
continuous proportioning equipment and auger mixing to the
desired consistency. Grout also may arrive at the job site in a
wet-mixed condition. Ready-mixed grout may have the slump
adjusted at the site to bring it to the desired consistency. If water
is added, the grout must be remixed for at least 1 minute before
discharging. When approved by the specifier, grout may be
mixed by hand instead of a mechanical mixer when only small
volumes are required.
Grout quantities required on a job can vary depending on
the specific circumstances of the project. The unit properties,
such as absorption and configuration, can have a significant
impact. The delivery method (pumping versus bucketing) can
also introduce different amounts of waste. Although the absolute
volume of grout waste seen on a large project may be larger than
on a comparable small project, smaller projects may experience
a larger percentage of grout waste. Table 2 provides guidance
for estimating grout quantities.
ADMIXTURES
A variety of admixtures is available to enhance certain
grout properties. However, ASTM C 476 requires admixtures
to be included in the project documents or to be approved by the
purchaser. Likewise, Specification for Masonry Structures
(ref. 7) requires admixtures to be accepted by the architect or
engineer. Antifreeze compounds, used to lower the freezing
point of grout, are prohibited by ASTM C 476. Admixtures
containing chlorides should also not be used in grout, because
chlorides may corrode steel reinforcement and can contribute
to efflorescence in the wall. Several admixtures are available
that provide a combination of desirable characteristics, such as
shrinkage compensating, plasticizing and retarding. As with any
admixture, manufacturer’s directions and dosage rates should
be carefully followed. Note that individual admixture results
can vary from one cement supplier to another.
Shrinkage Compensators
Shrinkage compensating admixtures cause a slow,
controlled grout expansion that is intended to offset grout
shrinkage due to the initial water loss. These admixtures may be
especially useful for high-lift grouting, where a large volume of
grout is placed and consolidated at one time.
Retarders
Retarding admixtures are used in hot weather to keep the
grout workable long enough for placement, consolidation and
reconsolidation. They may also be used when the grout cannot
be placed right away, as may be the case when the plastic grout
will travel a long distance to the job site.

Superplasticizers Fly Ash and Blast-Furnace Slag

Superplasticizing admixtures are used to reduce the water
content of a plastic cementitious mix while maintaining high
flow consistency. They are not normally used in conventional
grout (except self-consolidating grout) since the excess water
is absorbed into the masonry units. In some areas, however, this
absorption of excess water has resulted in efflorescence
problems. Superplasticizers have been found effective in
reducing this problem by reducing the amount of water available
for absorption. It should be noted however, that special
formulation skills are required to ensure that the grout remains
fluid long enough to completely fill all the voids.
Accelerators
In grout, accelerating admixtures increase both the rate of
hydration and the amount of heat generated during hydration.
They are used in cold weather to decrease grout setting time and
increase the rate of strength gain. The increased heat of hydration
does not eliminate the need for cold weather protection
requirements. Accelerators should be free of chloride materials
and not perpetuate the corrosion of embedded metals.
Fly ash is a by-product of coal combustion, and is not
usually thought of as an admixture in the same sense as the
chemical admixtures discussed above. Fly ash can be used in
grout as a pumping aid or to provide a greater slump with less
water. Fly ash can also replace some of the portland cement in
the grout mix, which has an economic advantage since the unit
cost of fly ash is less than that of portland cement.
Addition rates of fly ash and raw natural pozzolans (ref. 10)
or blast-furnace slag (ref. 11) are governed by ASTM C 595,
Standard Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements (ref.
12). These products can produce grout mixes with a slower
initial strength gain, which may need to be considered in cold
weather to achieve the minimum compressive strength
previously discussed.
SELF-CONSOLIDATING GROUT
A new grout material is becoming increasingly known in
North American masonry markets – self-consolidating grout
(SCG). SCG is a highly fluid and stable grout mix that is easy to

Table 2—Grout Volume Estimationa

Volume of grout (ft3) per 100 ft2 of wall (m3 per 100 m2) for wall thickness:
Wall Grout Mortar 6 inch 8 inch 10 inch 12 inch
construction spacing bedding (152 mm) (203 mm) (254 mm) (305 mm)
Hollow 8 in. Full 25.6 (7.8) 36.1 (11.0) 47.0(14.3) 58.9 (18.0)
Hollow 16 in. Face shell 12.8 (3.9) 18.1 (5.5) 23.5 (7.2) 29.5 (9.0)
Hollow 24 in. Face shell 8.6 (2.6) 12.1 (3.7) 15.7 (4.8) 19.7 (6.0)
Hollow 32 in. Face shell 6.4 (2.0) 9.1 (2.8) 11.8 (3.6) 14.8 (4.5)
Hollow 40 in. Face shell 5.2 (1.6) 7.3 (2.2) 9.4 (2.9) 11.8 (3.6)
Hollow 48 in. Face shell 4.3 (1.3) 6.1 (1.9) 7.9 (2.4) 9.9 (3.0)
Hollow 56 in. Face shell 3.7 (1.1) 5.2 (1.6) 6.8 (2.1) 8.5 (2.6)
Hollow 64 in. Face shell 3.2 (1.0) 4.6 (1.4) 5.9 (1.8) 7.4 (2.3)
Hollow 72 in. Face shell 2.9 (0.9) 4.1 (1.2) 5.3 (1.6) 6.6 (2.0)
Hollow 80 in. Face shell 2.6 (0.8) 3.7 (1.1) 4.7 (1.4) 5.9 (1.8)
Hollow 88 in. Face shell 2.4 (0.7) 3.3 (1.0) 4.3 (1.3) 5.4 (1.6)
Hollow 96 in. Face shell 2.2 (0.7) 3.1 (0.9) 4.0 (1.2) 5.0 (1.5)
Hollow 104 in. Face shell 2.0 (0.6) 2.8 (0.9) 3.7 (1.1) 4.6 (1.4)
Hollow 112 in. Face shell 1.9 (0.6) 2.6 (0.8) 3.4 (1.0) 4.3 (1.3)
Hollow 120 in Face shell 1.8 (0.5) 2.5 (0.8) 3.2 (1.0) 4.0 (1.2)
a
Includes allowance for waste. Additional grout may be necessary for grouting horizontal courses of masonry, such as bond
beams.
place and does not require consolidation or reconsolidation.
SCG’s mix design is significantly different from conventional
grout. SCG is similar in nature to conventional grout, with the
exception that the proportions of constituent materials are
highly controlled and admixtures (typically in the form of
superplasticizers with or without viscosity modifiers) are used
to produce a plastic grout with desired properties. Controlled
aggregate gradation is also important to maintain fluidity without
segregation, to produce a mix that results in consistent properties
throughout the grout lift.
Because of the fluid nature of the material, traditional
measures of consistency and flow such as the slump cone test
(ASTM C 143) are not applicable to SCG. A slump flow test is
used instead, which is an adaptation of the conventional slump
cone test. In the slump flow test, SCG is loaded into an inverted
slump cone. The cone is removed and the flow of the material
is observed and measured. Typical slump flow spreads for SCG
range from 20 to 30 in. (508-762 mm). Indications of bleeding
or segregation should not be seen in the flow spread.
SCG is a relatively new material so it is not yet incorporated
into building codes and standards. To date, compliance has been
achieved in several cases by using the grout demonstration
panel option in Specification for Masonry Structures (ref. 7).
Work is under way to standardize and codify this material.

REFERENCES
1. Grouting Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 3-2A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2005.
2. Grout Quality Assurance, TEK 18-8B. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2005.
3. Standard Specification for Grout for Masonry, ASTM C 476-02. ASTM International, 2002.
4. Standard Specification for Aggregates for Masonry Grout, ASTM C 404-04. ASTM International, 2004.
5. Standard Test Method for Sampling and Testing Grout, ASTM C 1019-03. ASTM International, 2003.
6. Standard Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic-Cement Concrete, ASTM C 143/143M-03. ASTM International, 2003.
7. Specification for Masonry Structures, ACI 530.1-05/ASCE 6-05/TMS 602-05. Reported by the Masonry Standards Joint
Committee, 2005.
8. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, ACI 530-05/ASCE 5-05/TMS 402-05. Reported by the Masonry
Standards Joint Committee, 2005.
9. The Effects of Concrete Masonry Unit Moisture Content on Grout Bond and Grout Compressive Strength, MR 11.
National Concrete Masonry Association Research and Development Laboratory, 1997.
10. Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use in Concrete, ASTM C 618-
03. ASTM International, 2003.
11. Standard Specification for Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag for Use in Concrete and Mortars, ASTM C 989-
05. ASTM International, 2005.
12. Standard Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements, ASTM C 595–03. ASTM International, 2003.

NCMA and the companies disseminating this technical information disclaim any and all responsibility and liability for the
accuracy and the application of the information contained in this publication.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171 contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
www.ncma.org
An information series from the national
ANCHORS AND TIES
FOR MASONRY
INTRODUCTION
Masonry connectors can be classified as wall ties, anchors
or fasteners. Wall ties connect one masonry wythe to an adjacent
wythe. Anchors connect masonry to a structural support or
frame. Fasteners connect an appliance to masonry. This TEK
covers metal wall ties and anchors. Fasteners are discussed in
TEK 12-5 (ref. 1).
The design of anchors and ties is covered by the Inter-
national Building Code and Building Code Requirements for
Masonry Structures (refs. 2, 3). These provisions require that
connectors be designed to resist applied loads and that the
type, size and location of connectors be shown or indicated
on project drawings. This TEK provides a guide to assist the
designer in determining anchor and tie capacity in accordance
with the applicable standards and building code requirements.
DESIGN CRITERIA
Connectors play a very important role in providing
structural integrity and good serviceability. As a result, when
selecting connectors for a project, designers should consider
a number of design criteria. Connectors should:
1. Transmit out-of-plane loads from one wythe of masonry to
another or from masonry to its lateral support with a mini-
mum amount of deformation. It is important to reduce the
potential for cracking in masonry due to deflection. There
is no specific criteria on connector stiffness, but some au-
thorities suggest that a stiffness of 2,000 lb/in. (350 kN/m)
is a reasonable target.
2. Allow differential in-plane movement between two masonry
wythes connected with ties. This is especially significant as
more insulation is used between the outer and inner wythes
of cavity walls and where wythes of dissimilar materials are
anchored together. On the surface, it may appear that this
criterion is in conflict with Item 1, but it simply means that
connectors must be stiff in one direction (out-of-plane) and
flexible in the other (in-plane). Note that some connectors
allow much more movement than unreinforced masonry can
Related TEK: Keywords: anchors, cavity walls, column anchorage, connectors, corro-
3-6B, 5-1B, 10-3, 12-2B, 12-5, sion protection, joint reinforcement, multiwythe walls, veneer, wall ties
14-8B, 16-1A, 16-2B, 16-4A
NCMA TEK 12-1B 1
authority on concrete masonry technology
TEK 12-1B
Reinforcement & Connectors (2011)
tolerate (see ref. 27 for a discussion of potential masonry
wall movements). In order to preserve the in-plane and out-
of-plane wall tie stiffness, current codes (refs. 2, 3) allow
cavity widths up to 41/2 in. (114 mm) without performing
wall tie analysis. With an engineered analysis of the wall
ties, cavity widths may be significantly increased to accom-
modate thicker insulation.
3. Meet applicable material requirements:
• plate and bent-bar anchors—ASTM A36 (ref. 4)
• sheet-metal anchors and ties—ASTM A1008 (ref. 5)
• wire anchors and ties—ASTM A82 (ref. 6), and adjust-
able wire ties must also meet the requirements illustrated
in Figure 1
• wire mesh ties – ASTM A185 (ref. 7)
4. Provide adequate corrosion protection. Where carbon steel
ties and anchors are specified, corrosion protection must be
provided by either galvanizing or epoxy coating in confor-
mance with the following (ref. 8):
A. Galvanized coatings:
• Joint reinforcement in interior walls exposed to a mean
relative humidity of 75% or less—ASTM A641 (ref. 13),
0.1 oz zinc/ft2 (0.031 kg zinc/m2)
• Joint reinforcement, wire ties and wire anchors, exterior walls
or interior walls exposed to a mean relative humidity greater
than 75%—ASTM A153 (ref. 14), 1.5 oz zinc/ft2 (458 g/m2)
• Sheet metal ties or anchors, interior walls exposed to a
mean relative humidity of 75% or less—ASTM A653
(ref. 15) Coating Designation G60
• Sheet metal ties or anchors, exterior walls or interior
walls exposed to a mean relative humidity greater than
75%—ASTM A153 Class B
• Steel plates and bars, exterior walls or interior walls
exposed to a mean relative humidity greater than 75%—
ASTM A123 (ref. 16) or ASTM A153 Class B
B. Epoxy coatings:
• Joint reinforcement—ASTM A884 (ref. 17) Class A Type
1 > 7 mils (175 µm)
• Wire ties and anchors—ASTM A899 (ref. 18) Class C
20 mils (508 µm)
 WALL TIE AND ANCHOR REQUIREMENTS

Max. 1 1 4 in. (32 Multiwythe Masonry Wall Types

mm) Wall ties are used in all three types of multiwythe walls
(composite, noncomposite and veneer), although some require-
Joint reinforcement ments vary slightly depending on the application. The primary
as required differences between these wall systems are in construction
Vertical Section details and how the applied loads are assumed to be distributed.
W2.8 (MW 18) wire, minimum Composite walls are designed so that the masonry wythes
act together as a single structural member. This requires the
Max. clearance
1 in. (1.6 mm) masonry wythes to be connected by masonry headers or by a
16
mortar- or grout-filled collar joint and wall ties to help ensure
adequate load transfer. TEKs 16-1A and 16-2B (refs. 19, 20)
more fully describe composite walls.
Pintle unit, one or Eye unit In noncomposite masonry (also referred to as a cavity
more pintle legs wall), wythes are connected with metal wall ties, but they are
designed such that each wythe individually resists the loads
Plan View
imposed on it. Noncomposite walls are discussed in TEKs
16-1A and 16-4A (refs. 19, 21).
Figure 1—Additional Requirements for In a veneer wall, the backup wythe is designed as the load-
Adjustable Ties (ref. 8) resisting system, with the veneer providing the architectural
wall finish. Information on veneer walls can be found in TEKs
5-1B and 3-6B (refs. 22, 23). Note that although a cavity wall
is defined as a noncomposite masonry wall (ref. 3), the term
cavity wall is also commonly used to describe a veneer
Box tie Ladder type three wire wall with masonry backup.
Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures
also includes empirical requirements for wire wall ties
and strap-type ties used to connect intersecting walls.
These requirements are covered in TEK 14-8B (ref.
Grout both cells 24).

Z tie Adjustable assembly
Figure 2—Typical Wall Ties
• Sheet metal ties and anchors—20 mils (508 µm) per
surface or per manufacturer’s specification
Where stainless steel anchors and ties are specified, Specifica-
tion for Masonry Structures (ref. 8) requires that AISI Type
304 or 316 stainless steel be provided that complies with:
• Joint reinforcement—ASTM A580 (ref. 9)
• Plate and bent-bar anchors—ASTM A480 and ASTM
A666 (refs. 10, 11)
• Sheet metal anchors and ties—ASTM A480 and ASTM
A240 (refs. 10, 12)
• Wire ties and anchors—ASTM A580
5. Accommodate construction by being simple in design
and easy to install. Connectors should not be so large and
cumbersome as to leave insufficient room for mortar in the
joints, which can result in a greater tendency to allow water
migration into the wall. In the same way, connectors should
readily accommodate insulation in wall cavities.
Wall Ties
Wire wall ties can be either one piece unit ties, adjust-
able two piece ties, joint reinforcement or prefabricated
assemblies made up of joint reinforcement and adjust-
able ties (see Figure 2). Note that the 2011 edition of
Specification for Masonry Structures allows adjustable
pintle ties to have only one leg (previously, two legs
were required for this type of wall tie).
Wall ties do not have to be engineered unless the nominal
width of the wall cavity is greater than 41/2 in. (114 mm). These
wall tie analyses are becoming more common as a means
to accommodate more thermal insualtion in the wall cavity.
Masonry cavities up to 14 in. (356 mm) have been engineered.
Of note for these analyses is that the span of wire is a more
critical factor than cavity width, i.e. the span length of the
pintel component typically controls the mode of failure.
The prescribed size and spacing is presumed to provide
connections that will be adequate for the loading conditions
covered by the code. These wall tie spacing requirements
can be found in TEK 3-6B (for veneers) and TEK 16-1A (for
composite and noncomposite walls).
Note that truss-type joint reinforcement is stiffer in the plane
of a wall compared to ladder-type, so it is more restrictive of dif-
ferential movement. For this reason, ladder-type joint reinforce-
ment is recommended when significant differential movement is
expected between the two wythes or when vertical reinforcement
is used. See TEK 12-2B (ref. 25) for more information.

2 NCMA TEK
Anchors
Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures (ref.
3) does not contain prescriptive requirements for wall anchors,
but does imply that they be designed with a structural system
to resist wind and earthquake loads and to accommodate the
effects of deformation. Typical anchors are shown in Figure
3. The shapes and sizes of these typical anchors have evolved
over many years and satisfy the “constructability” criterion.
All of the anchors shown have been tested with the resulting
capacities shown in Table 1.
Additional tests are needed for adjustable anchors of
different configurations and for one piece anchors. Proprietary
anchors are also available. Manufacturers of proprietary an-
chors should furnish test data to document comparability with
industry-tested anchors.
Anchors are usually designed based on their contribu-
tory area. This is the traditional approach, but some computer
models suggest that this approach does not always reflect the
actual behavior of the anchorage system. However, there is
currently no accepted computer program to address this point,
so most designers still use the contributory area approach with
a factor of safety of three. The use of additional anchors near
the edges of wall panels is also recommended and required
around large openings and within 12 in. (305 mm) of unsup-
ported edges.
CONSTRUCTION

Column strap anchors When typical ties and anchors are properly
embedded in mortar or grout, mortar pullout or
pushout will not usually be the controlling mode
of failure. Specification for Masonry Structures
requires that connectors be embedded at least 11/2
Control joint in. (38 mm) into a mortar bed of solid units. The
required embedment of unit ties in hollow ma-
sonry is such that the tie must extend completely
across the hollow units. Proper embedment can
be easily attained with the use of prefabricated
assemblies of joint reinforcement and unit ties.
Because of the magnitude of loads on anchors, it
Control joint
is recommended that they be embedded in filled
cores of hollow units. See TEK 3-6B for more
detailed information.
Weld-on anchors Channel slot anchors

Figure 3—Typical Column Anchors

Table 1—Anchor Capacities (ref. 26)

Compression
Anchor Cavity 1, 1 in. Cavity 2, width var-
Description: Characteristic: Tension: (25 mm): ies, see Description: Shear:

Column Avg. load, lb (kN) 3,342 (14.9) 9,863 (43.9) 6,373 (28.3) 1,584 (7.05)
flange Standard deviation 324 1,041 1,773 438
(2 pieces),
Cavity 2 = 4 Avg. stiffness, lb/in. (kN/m) 96,063 (16,823) 191,595 (33,553) 123,452 (21,620) 25,094 (4,395)
in. (102 mm) Standard deviation 39,548 116,649 86,066 14,114
Weld-on Avg. load, lb (kN) 816 (3.63) 1,159 (5.16) 702 (3.12)
triangle, Standard deviation 76 332 153
Cavity 2 = 2
in. (51 mm) Avg. stiffness, lb/in. (kN/m) 5,379 (942) 29,944 (5,244) 22,268 (3,900)
Standard deviation 2,428 14,700 8,332
Dovetail Avg. load, lb (kN) 714 (3.18) 560 (2.49) 386 (1.72) 347 (1.54)
triangle, Standard deviation 76 95 75 15
Cavity 2 = 3
in. (76 mm) Avg. stiffness, lb/in. (kN/m) 11,667 (2,043) 7,526 (1,318) 6,857 (1,201) 3,844 (673)
Standard deviation 8,755 2,451 2,630 1,764
Channel slot, Avg. load, lb (kN) 832 (3.70) 271(1.21) 310 (1.38)
Cavity 2 = 4 Standard deviation 208 102 213
in. (102 mm)
Avg. stiffness, lb/in. (kN/m) 5,207 (912) 9,494 (1,663) 5,125 (897)
Standard deviation 2,978 5,992 2,117

NCMA TEK 3
REFERENCES
1. Fasteners for Concrete Masonry, TEK 12-5. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2005.
2. International Building Code. International Code Council, 2012.
3. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, TMS 402-11/ACI 530-11/ASCE 5-11. Reported by the Masonry Standards Joint Committee, 2011.
4. Standard Specification for Carbon Structural Steel, A36-08. ASTM International, 2008.
5. Standard Specification for Steel, Sheet, Cold-Rolled, Carbon, Structural, High-Strength Low-Alloy with Improved Formability, A1008-11.
ASTM International, 2011.
6. Standard Specification for Steel Wire, Plain for Concrete Reinforcement, A82-07. ASTM International, 2007.
7. Standard Specification for Steel Welded Wire Reinforcement, Plain, for Concrete, A185-07. ASTM International, 2007.
8. Specification for Masonry Structures, TMS 602 -11/ACI 530.1-11/ASCE 6-11. Reported by the Masonry Standards Joint Committee, 2011.
9. Standard Specification for Stainless Steel Wire, ASTM A580-08. ASTM International, 2008.
10. Standard Specification for General Requirements for Flat-Rolled Stainless and Heat-Resisting Steel Plate, Sheet, and Strip, ASTM A480-11a.
ASTM International, 2011.
11. Standard Specification for Annealed or Cold-Worked Austenitic Stainless Steel, Sheet, Strip, Plate and Flat Bar, ASTM A666-10. ASTM
International, 2010.
12. Standard Specification for Chromium and Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steel Plate, Sheet and Strip for Pressure Vessels and for General Ap-
plications, ASTM A240-11a. ASTM International, 2011.
13. Standard Specification for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Carbon Steel Wire, ASTM A641-09a. ASTM International, 2009.
14. Standard Specification for Zinc Coating (Hot-Dip) on Iron and Steel Hardware, ASTM A153-09. ASTM International, 2009.
15. Standard Specification for Steel Sheet, Zinc-Coated Galvanized or Zinc-Iron Alloy-Coated Galvannealed by the Hot-Dip Process, ASTM
A653-10. ASTM International, 2010.
16. Standard Specification for Zinc (Hot-Dip Galvanized) Coating on Iron and Steel Products, ASTM A123-09. ASTM International, 2009.
17. Standard Specification for Epoxy-Coated Steel Wire and Welded Wire Fabric for Reinforcement, ASTM A884-06. ASTM International, 2006.
18. Standard Specification for Steel Wire Epoxy Coated, ASTM A899-91(2007). ASTM International, 2007.
19. Multiwythe Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 16-1A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2005.
20. Structural Design of Unreinforced Composite Masonry, TEK 16-2B. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2002.
21. Design of Concrete Masonry Noncomposite (Cavity) Walls, TEK 16-4A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2004.
22. Concrete Masonry Veneer Details, TEK 5-1B. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2003.
23. Concrete Masonry Veneers, TEK 3-6B. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2005.
24. Empirical Design of Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 14-8B. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2008.
25. Joint Reinforcement for Concrete Masonry, TEK 12-2B. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2005.
26. Porter, Max L., Lehr, Bradley R., Barnes, Bruce A., Attachments for Masonry Structures, Engineering Research Institute, Iowa State University,
February 1992.
27. Control Joints for Concrete Masonry Walls—Alternative Engineered Method, TEK 10-3. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2003.

NCMA and the companies disseminating this technical information disclaim any and all responsibility and liability for the accuracy
and the application of the information contained in this publication.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION

13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171
www.ncma.org

To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index, contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900

4 NCMA TEK

National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology
JOINT REINFORCEMENT
FOR CONCRETE MASONRY
Keywords: cavity wall, building code, connectors,
flexural strength, joint reinforcement, movement control,
multiwythe wall, veneer, wall ties
INTRODUCTION
Standard joint reinforcement for concrete masonry is a
factory-fabricated welded wire assembly consisting of two or
more longitudinal wires connected with cross wires forming a
truss or ladder configuration. It was initially conceived prima-
rily to control wall cracking associated with thermal or mois-
ture shrinkage or expansion and as an alternative to masonry
headers when tying masonry wythes together. Note that
horizontal steel requirements for crack control can be met
using joint reinforcement or reinforcing bars. See Crack
Control in Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 10-1A (ref. 6).
Joint reinforcement also increases a wall’s resistance to
horizontal bending, but is not widely recognized by the model
building codes for structural purposes. In some instances, it
may be used in design for flexural resistance or to meet
prescriptive seismic requirements.
This TEK discusses the code and specification require-
ments for joint reinforcement and presents a general discus-
sion of the function of joint reinforcement in concrete masonry
walls. Detailed information on additional uses for joint rein-
forcement can be found in other TEK as referenced through-
out this publication.
MATERIALS
Reinforcement types used in masonry principally are
reinforcing bars and cold-drawn wire products. Joint
reinforcement is governed by Standard Specification for
Masonry Joint Reinforcement, ASTM A 951 (ref. 1), or
Standard Specification for Stainless Steel Wire, ASTM A
580/580M Type 304 or Type 316 (ref. 2), if the joint
reinforcement is stainless steel according to the Specification
for Masonry Structures (ref. 3). Cold-drawn wire for joint
reinforcement varies from W1.1 to W4.9 (11 gage to 1/4 in.
diameter; MW7 to MW32), the most popular size being W1.7
(9 gage, MW11). Wire for masonry is plain, except side wires for
joint reinforcement are deformed by means of knurling wheels.
Because Building Code Requirements for Masonry
TEK 12-2B © 2005 National Concrete Masonry Association (replaces TEK 12-2A)
NCMA TEK
TEK 12-2B
Reinforcement & Connectors (2005)
Structures (ref. 4) limits the size of joint reinforcement to one
half the joint thickness, the practical limit for wire diameter is
W2.8, (3/16 in., MW17) for a 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) bed joint. Joint
reinforcement of this thickness may be difficult to install
however, if a uniform mortar joint thickness of 3/8 in. (9.5 mm)
is to be maintained.
Types of Joint Reinforcement
Reflecting its multiple purposes in masonry walls, joint
reinforcement comes in several configurations. One longitudinal
wire is generally required for each bed joint (i.e., two wires for
a typical single wythe wall), but code or specification
requirements may dictate otherwise. Typical joint reinforcement
spacing is 16 in. (406 mm) on center. Adjustable ties, tabs, third
wires and seismic clips are also available in combination with
joint reinforcement for multiwythe and veneer walls.
• Ladder-type joint reinforcement (Figure 1) consists of
longitudinal wires flush welded with perpendicular cross wires,
creating the appearance of a ladder. It is less rigid than truss-
type joint reinforcement and is recommended for multiwythe
walls with cavity spaces or unfilled collar joints. This permits
the two wythes to move independently, yet still transfers out-
of-plane loads from the exterior masonry to the interior
masonry wall. Cross wires 16 in. (406 mm) on center should be
used for reinforced concrete masonry construction, to keep cross
wires out of the core spaces, thus preventing them from interfering
with the placement of vertical reinforcement and grout.
16 in. (406 mm)
o.c.
Figure 1—Ladder-Type Joint Reinforcement
16 in.
(406 mm) o.c.
Figure 2—Truss-Type Joint Reinforcement
• Truss-type joint reinforcement (Figure 2) consists of
longitudinal wires connected with diagonal cross wires. This
shape is stiffer in the plane of the wall than ladder-type joint
reinforcement and if used to connect multiple wythes restricts
differential movement between the wythes. For this reason, it
should be used only when differential movement is not a
concern, as in single wythe concrete masonry walls. Because
the diagonal cross wires may interfere with the placement of
vertical reinforcing steel and grout, truss-type joint reinforcement
should not be used in reinforced or grouted walls.
• Tabs, ties, anchors, third wires and seismic clips o f
assorted configurations are often used with the joint
reinforcement to produce a system that works to: control
cracking; bond masonry wythes together; anchor masonry;
and, in some cases, resist structural loads. Tie and anchor
spacing and other requirements are included in Anchors and
Ties for Masonry, TEK 12-1A (ref.5).
Table 1—Joint Reinforcement Applications
Recommendations for the use of some of the different
types of joint reinforcement are listed in Table 1.
CORROSION PROTECTION
Grout, mortar and masonry units usually provide adequate
protection for embedded reinforcement, provided that
minimum cover and clearance requirements are met.
Coating Requirements
The carbon steel in joint reinforcement can be protected
from corrosion by coating with zinc (galvanizing). The zinc
protects steel in two ways. First, it provides a barrier between
the steel and oxygen and water. Second, during the corrosion
process, the zinc provides a sacrificial coating. The protective
value of the zinc coating increases with increased coating
thickness; therefore the requiredamount of galvanizing increases
with the severity of exposure, as listed below (refs. 3, 4):
• Interior walls exposed to a mean relative
humidity less than or equal to 75%:
Mill galvanized, ASTM A 641 (0.1
oz/ft 2) (0.031 kg/m2 )
Hot-dip galvanized, ASTM A 153
(1.5 oz/ft 2) (458 g/m2)
Stainless steel AISI Type 304 or Type
Double wire ladder

Continuous tab tie

Adjustable ladder

adjustable ladder
316 conforming to ASTM A 580
Adjustable truss

adjustable truss
• Exterior walls or interior walls exposed
Ladder type

Three-wire
Truss type

to a mean relative humidity > 75%:

Seismic

Seismic

Hot-dip galvanized, ASTM A 153 (

Wall Configuration 1.5 oz/ft 2 (0.46 kg/m2)
Single-Wythe Walls: Epoxy coated, ASTM A 884 Class A
with vertical steel and/or insulation Type 1, > 7 mils (175 mm)
without vertical steel Stainless steel AISI Type 304 or Type
Multiwythe Walls: Both wythes "course out" and are laid simultaneously 316 conforming to ASTM A 580
Backup: Outside (exterior):
Concrete masonry Concrete masonry A B 1 1,2 1 2
Cover Requirements
Concrete masonry Clay brick 2 2 Specification for Masonry
Structures also lists minimum cover
As above in Seismic Design Category C or Higher
Backup:
requirements for joint reinforcement as
Outside (exterior):
a further means of corrosion protection.
Concrete masonry Concrete masonry A B
It must be placed so that longitudinal
Concrete masonry Clay brick
wires are embedded in mortar with a
Wythes do not "course out" or are laid at different times minimum cover of:
Backup: Outside (exterior): • 1/2 in. (13 mm) when not exposed to
Concrete masonry Concrete masonry 1,2 1 2 weather or earth,
Concrete masonry Clay brick 2 • 5/8 in. (16 mm) when exposed to weather
As above in Seismic Design Category C or Higher or earth.
Backup: Outside (exterior):
Concrete masonry Concrete masonry PRESCRIPTIVE CODE
Concrete masonry Clay brick REQUIREMENTS
Recommended Acceptable
1
Building Code Requirements for
Note that this assembly does not provide joint reinforcement for the veneer. If joint
reinforcement is required in the veneer, it can be installed in the bed joint above or below
Masonry Structures includes
this assembly. prescriptive requirements for joint
2
Except when backup wythe is reinforced. reinforcement. There are multiple uses
for joint reinforcement in masonry
A = If outside wythe is solid and laid with full mortar bedding
structures. Joint reinforcement can be
B = If outside wythe is laid with face shell bedding
used to provide crack control, horizontal
reinforcement, and bond for multiple wythes, corners and
intersections. The following list highlights only those
requirements specific to joint reinforcement. Crack control
topics are covered in the Movement Control Series, Section
10 of the NCMA TEK Manual (ref. 6). For information on
anchors and ties, see Anchors and Ties for Masonry, TEK 12-
1A (ref. 5). There is also a useful discussion on joint
reinforcement as structural reinforcing inSteel Reinforcement
for Concrete Masonry, TEK 12-4C (ref. 7).
General Requirements for Joint Reinforcement
• For masonry in other than running bond: Horizontal
reinforcement shall be 0.00028 times the gross vertical cross-
sectional area of the wall. This requirement can be met with
joint reinforcement placed in the horizontal bed joints. For 8-
in. (203-mm) masonry walls, this amounts to W1.7 (9 gage,
MW11) joint reinforcement every other course. There are
additional criteria for stack bond masonry in Seismic Design
Categories D, E and F.
• Seismic Requirements: In Seismic Design Category C and
higher (for concrete masonry other than veneer), horizontal
joint reinforcement spaced not more than 16 in. (406 mm) on
center vertically with at least two wires of W1.7 (MW11) is
required. Horizontal reinforcement also must be provided at
the bottom and top of all wall openings and must extend at
least 24 in. (610 mm) past the opening. Additional details on
seismic requirements, including shear walls, are covered in
Prescriptive Seismic Reinforcement Requirements for
Masonry Structures, NCMA TEK 14-18A (ref. 8).
Allowable Stress Design Requirements
• In addition to the requirements above, concrete masonry walls
designed by the allowable stress method and bonded by wall ties
must have a maximum tie spacing of 36 in. (914 mm) horizontally
and 24 in. (610 mm) vertically. Joint reinforcement cross wires
can be used in place of wall ties to meet this requirement.
• When the walls are designed for noncomposite action, truss-
type joint reinforcing is not to be used for tying the wythes.
• Combination joint reinforcement with tabs or adjustable
ties are popular options for bonding multiwythe walls and are
governed by additional code requirements.
Empirical Design Requirements
• When two wythes of masonry are bonded with joint
reinforcement, at least one cross wire must serve as a tie for
each 22/3 ft 2 (0.25 m2) of wall area. The vertical spacing of the
joint reinforcement can not exceed 24 in. (610 mm), and the
cross wires must be W1.7 (9 gage, MW11) minimum, without
drips, and embedded in mortar.
• Intersecting walls, when depending on each other for lateral
support, can be anchored by several prescriptive methods
including the use of joint reinforcement spaced no more than
8 in. (203 mm) on center vertically. The longitudinal wires
must extend at least 30 in. (762 mm) in each direction at the
intersection and be at least W1.7 (9 gage, MW11).
• Interior nonloadbearing wall intersections may be anchored
by several prescriptive methods, including joint reinforcement
at a maximum spacing of 16 in. (406 mm) o.c. vertically.
Requirements for Use in Veneer
• Prescriptive requirements for joint reinforcement in masonry
veneer are included inBuilding Code Requirements for
Masonry Structures, Chapter 6. These provisions are limited
to areas where the basic wind speed does not exceed 110 mph
(177 km/hr) as listed in ASCE 7-02 (ref. 9). Additional
limitations are covered in the Code. The information below is
for joint reinforcement or the joint reinforcement portion of a
tie/anchor system. For information on anchor and tie requirements
see Concrete Masonry Veneers, TEK 3-6B (ref. 10).
• Ladder-type or tab-type joint reinforcement is permitted in
veneer construction with the cross wires used to anchor the
masonry veneer. Minimum longitudinal and cross wire size is
W1.7 (9 gage, MW11), and maximum spacing is 16 in. (406
mm) on center vertically.
• Adjustable anchors combined with joint reinforcement
may be used as anchorage with the longitudinal wire of the
joint reinforcement being W1.7 (9 gage, MW11) minimum.
• Joint reinforcement may also be used to anchor masonry
veneer to masonry provided the maximum distance between
the inside face of the veneer and the outside face of the
concrete masonry backup wythe is 4 1/2 in. (114 mm).
• In Seismic Design Categories E and F, the 2005 edition of
Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures requires
continuous single wire joint reinforcement, W1.7 (9 gage,
MW11) minimum, in the veneer wythe at a maximum spacing
of 18 in. (457 mm) on center vertically. Clips or hooks must
attach the wire to the joint reinforcement. The International
Building Code 2003 (ref. 11) also mandates this requirement
for Seismic Design Category D.
• Anchor spacings, and, as a result, possibly joint
reinforcement spacing, are reduced for Seismic Design
Categories D, E and F and in high wind areas.
Requirements for Use in Glass Unit Masonry
• Horizontal joint reinforcement is to be spaced no more than
16 in. (406 mm) on center, located in the mortar bed joint, and
must not span across movement joints.
• Minimum splice length is 6 in. (152 mm).
• Joint reinforcement must be placed immediately above and
Laterally
offset laps
Lap length,
6 in. (152 mm),
min.
Figure 3—Lap Splices in Joint Reinforcement
below openings in the panel.
• Joint reinforcement must have at least 2 parallel, longitudinal
wires of size W1.7 (9 gage, MW11) and have welded cross
wires of W1.7 (9 gage, MW11) minimum.
INSTALLATION
Joint reinforcement installation is a routine task for
masons. The joint reinforcement is placed on the face shells
and mortar is placed over it. Cover requirements must be
maintained. Installing the correct type of joint reinforcement
with the specified corrosion resistant coating is important, as
is making sure it is installed at the proper spacings and
locations. Quality assurance provisions related to joint
reinforcement generally include:
Submittals
Material Certificate indicating compliance should include:
• material meets specified ASTM standard,
• corrosion protection specified has been supplied,
• configuration specified has been supplied, and
• other criteria as required or specified.
Inspection
• Oil, dirt and other materials detrimental to bond should be
removed. Light rust and mill scale are permissible.
• Cover requirements are met.
• Splices are a minimum of 6 in. (152 mm) (see Figure 3) to
properly transfer tensile stresses. Tying is not necessary.
Construction documents may specify longer splices, especially
if the joint reinforcement is being used as part of the structural
horizontal reinforcing steel.
• Verify that joint reinforcement utilized for crack control
does not continue through movement joints.
• If ties or anchors are part of the joint reinforcement, check
that embedment in the adjoining wythe, alignment and spacing
are within specified values.

REFERENCES
1. Standard Specification for Masonry Joint Reinforcement, ASTM A 951-02. ASTM International, 2002.
2. Standard Specification for Stainless Steel Wire, ASTM A 580/580M-98(2004). ASTM International, 2004.
3. Specification for Masonry Structures, ACI 530.1-05/ASCE 6-05/TMS 602-05. Reported by the Masonry Standards Joint Committee, 2005.
4. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, ACI 530-05/ASCE 5-05/TMS 402-05. Reported by the Masonry Standards Joint
Committee, 2005.
5. Anchors and Ties for Masonry, TEK 12-1A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2001.
6. Movement Control Series, Section 10, National Concrete Masonry Association:
Crack Control in Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 10-1A, 2005.
Control Joints for Concrete Masonry Walls – Empirical Method, TEK 10-2B, 2005.
Control Joints for Concrete Masonry Walls – Alternative Engineered Method, TEK 10-3, 2003.
Crack Control for Concrete Brick and Other Concrete Masonry Veneers, TEK 10-4, 2001.
7. Steel Reinforcement for Concrete Masonry, TEK 12-4C. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2002.
8. Prescriptive Seismic Reinforcement Requirements for Masonry Structures , TEK 14-18A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2003.
9. Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE 7-02. American Society of Civil Engineers, 2002.
10. Concrete Masonry Veneers, TEK 3-6B. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2005.
11. International Building Code 2003. International Code Council, 2003.

NCMA and the companies disseminating this technical information disclaim any and all responsibility and liability for the
accuracy and the application of the information contained in this publication.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171 contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
www.ncma.org
An information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology

DESIGN OF ANCHOR BOLTS

EMBEDDED IN
TEK 12-3C
CONCRETE MASONRY Reinforcement & Connectors (2013)

INTRODUCTION

The function of anchor bolts is to transfer loads to the
masonry from attachments such as ledgers, sills, and bearing
plates. Both shear and tension are transferred through anchor
bolts to resist design forces such as uplift due to wind at the
top of a column or wall or vertical gravity loads on ledgers
supporting joists or trusses (see Figure 1). The magnitude of
these loads varies significantly with the application.
This TEK summarizes the requirements to properly design,
detail and install anchor bolts embedded in concrete masonry
construction based on the provisions of the 2013 edition of
Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures (ref. 1).
It should be noted that the 2012 editions of the International
Building Code and International Residential Code (refs. 3 and
4) reference the provisions of the 2011 edition of Building Code
Requirements for Masonry Structures (ref. 5) which contain no
significant differences from the following analysis and design
methodologies.
• Headed anchors include conventional square head or hexhead
threaded bolts, but also include plate anchors (where a steel
plate is welded to the end of the bolt). Headed anchor bolts
must meet the requirements of Standard Specification for
Carbon Steel Bolts and Studs, 60,000 psi Tensile Strength,
ASTM A307, Grade A (ref. 7).
For other anchor bolt configurations, including post-
installed anchors, design loads are determined from testing a
minimum of five specimens in accordance with Standard Test
Methods for Strength of Anchors in Concrete and Masonry
Elements, ASTM E488 (ref. 8) under stresses and conditions
that represent the intended use. Allowable stress design values
are limited to 20% of the average tested anchor bolt strength.
Using strength design provisions, nominal design strengths
are limited to 65% of the average tested strength.

Anchorage Types and Configurations

Anchor bolts can generally be divided into two categories: Tension
embedded anchor bolts, which are placed in the grout during
the masonry construction; and post-installed anchors, which are
placed after the masonry is constructed. Post-installed anchors
Shear
achieve shear and tension (pull out) resistance by means of
expansion against the masonry or sleeves or by bonding with
epoxy or other adhesives. The design of post-installed anchors Shear
should be in accordance with the anchor manufacturer's litera-
ture and is beyond the scope of this TEK.
Anchor bolt configurations covered by Building Code
Requirements for Masonry Structures fall into one of two Tension
categories:
Shear
• Bent-bar anchors, which include the customary J and L bolts,
are threaded steel rods with hooks on the end embedded into
the masonry. Bent-bar anchor bolts must meet the material
requirements of Standard Specification for Carbon Structural
Steel, ASTM A36/A36M (ref. 6).
Figure 1—Anchorage Design Loads

Related TEK: Keywords: allowable stress design, anchorage, anchor bolts, bent-bar
14-4B, 14-7C anchor, connections, design values, headed anchor, strength design

NCMA TEK 12-3C (replaces TEK 12-3B) 1

GENERAL DESIGN AND DETAILING
REQUIREMENTS
Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures (ref.
1) contains anchor bolt design provisions for both the allowable
stress design and strength design methods (Chapters 2 and 3,
respectively). An overview of these design philosophies can be
found in Allowable Stress Design of Concrete Masonry, TEK
14-7C, and Strength Design Provisions for Concrete Masonry,
TEK 14-4B (refs. 9, 10). Note that Chapter 5 of the code also
includes prescriptive criteria for floor and roof anchorage that
are applicable to empirically designed masonry, but these
provisions are not covered here.
While many of the requirements for anchor design vary
between the allowable stress and strength design methods,
some provisions are commonly shared between the two de-
sign approaches. The following discussion and topics apply
to anchors designed by either the allowable stress or strength
design methods.
Effective Area of Anchor Bolts
For both design methods, the anchor bolt net area used to
determine the design values presented in this TEK are taken
equal to the following, which account for the reduction in area
due to the presence of the anchor threading:
1
/2 in. anchor = 0.142 in.2 (91.6 mm2)
5
/8 in. anchor = 0.226 in.2 (145.8 mm2)
3
/4 in. anchor = 0.334 in.2 (215.4 mm2)
7
/8 in. anchor = 0.462 in.2 (298.0 mm2)
Effective Embedment Length
The minimum effective embedment length for anchor
bolts is four bolt diameters (4db) or 2 in. (51 mm), whichever
is greater (see Figure 2). The embedment length of headed
bolts, lb, is measured parallel to the bolt axis
from the surface of the masonry to the bolt
head bearing surface. For bent-bar anchors,
the effective embedment length is measured
parallel to the bolt axis from the masonry
surface to the bearing surface on the bent end
minus one anchor bolt diameter.
Placement
Minimum clearance
Anchor bolts are required to be embedded
between anchor
in grout, with the exception that ¼ in. (6.4 and nearest masonry
mm) diameter anchors are permitted to be surface:
placed in mortar bed joints that are at least ¼ in. (6.4 mm) for
½ in. (12.7 mm) thick. Excluding anchors fine grout; ½ in. (12.7
mm) for coarse grout
placed in mortar bed joints, a minimum clear-
ance of ¼ in. (6.4 mm) and ½ in. (12.7 mm)
is required between the anchor bolt and the
nearest surface of masonry for fine grout and
coarse grout, respectively. This requirement
applies to anchor bolts embedded in the top
of a masonry element as well as those pen-
etrating through the face shells of masonry as
illustrated in Figure 2. While research (ref. 11) Figure 2—Minimum Effective Embedment Lengths
has shown that placing anchors in oversized
holes in masonry unit face shells has no significant impact
on the strength or performance of anchors compared to those
placed in holes only slightly larger than the anchor diameter,
the code has opted to maintain these clearance requirements
as a convenient means of verifying that grout has adequately
consolidated around the anchor bolt.
Although it rarely controls in typical masonry design,
Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures also
requires that the distance between parallel anchors be at least
equal to the diameter of the anchor, but not less than 1 in. (25.4
mm) to help ensure adequate anchor performance and grout
consolidation around the anchor.
Existing masonry codes do not address tolerances for
anchor bolt placement. In the absence of such criteria, construc-
tion tolerances used for placement of structural reinforcement
could be modified for application to anchor bolts. In order to
keep the anchor bolts properly aligned during grout placement,
templates can be used to hold the bolts within the necessary
tolerances. Templates, which are typically made of wood or
steel, also prevent grout leakage in cases where anchors pro-
trude from the side of a wall.
Projected Shear and Tension Areas
The projected tension breakout area, Apt, and the projected
shear breakout area, Apv, for headed and bent-bar anchors are
determined by Equations 1 and 2 as follows:
Apt = p lb2 Eqn. 1
πl 2
Apv = be Eqn. 2
2
The anchor bolt edge distance, lbe, is measured in the
direction of the applied load from the center of the anchor
bolt to the edge of the masonry. When the projected areas of
db Bent-bar anchor
bolt
eb
lb db
e
db
Headed anchor
bolt
e lb
Grout
Note: minimum embedment length, lb = 4db
but not less than 2 in. (51mm)

2 NCMA TEK 12-3C

adjacent anchor bolts overlap, the portion of the overlapping Shear
area is reduced by one-half for calculating Apt or Apv as shown The allowable shear load, Bv, for headed and bent-bar
in Figure 3. Any portion of the projected area that falls within anchor bolts is taken as the smallest of Equation 6, allowable
an open cell, open core, open head joint, or falls outside of the shear load governed by masonry breakout, Equation 7, al-
masonry element is deducted from the calculated value of Apt lowable shear load as governed by crushing of the masonry,
and Apv. A graphical representation of a tension breakout cone Equation 8, allowable shear load as governed by masonry
is shown in Figure 4. pryout, and Equation 9, allowable shear load as governed by
anchor yielding.
ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN OF Bvb = 1.25 Apv f m′
ANCHOR BOLTS Eqn. 6
Bvc = 350 f m′ Ab
4
Eqn. 7

Tension
The allowable axial tensile load, Ba, for headed and bent-bar B = 2.5 A f′ Eqn. 8
vc pt m

anchor bolts is taken as the smaller of Equation 3, allowable
Bvs = 0.36Ab fy Eqn. 9
axial tensile load governed by masonry breakout, and Equation
4, allowable axial tensile load governed by anchor yielding.
Combined Shear and Tension
For bent-bar anchors, the allowable axial tensile load must also
Anchor bolts subjected to combined axial tension and
be less than that determined by Equation 5 for anchor pullout.
shear must also satisfy the following unity equation:
Bvb = 1.25 Apt f m′ Eqn. 3 ba b
+ v ≤ 1.0 Eqn. 10
Bas = 0.6 Ab fy Eqn. 4 Ba Bv

Bvs = 0.6 f m′ ebdb + 120π(lb+eb+db)db Eqn. 5
The relationship between applied tension and shear loads versus
allowable tension and shear loads is illustrated in Figure 5.

STRENGTH DESIGN OF ANCHOR BOLTS

lb
Apt
The design provisions for anchor bolts using the strength
lb design method is nearly identical to that used for allowable stress
design, with appropriate revisions to convert the requirements
to produce nominal axial tension and shear design strengths.
The strength reduction factors, f, for use in Equations 11
through 18 are taken equal to the following values:
• when the nominal anchor strength is controlled by masonry
Overlap of
breakout, masonry crushing, or anchor pryout, f is taken
projected
Apt equal to 0.50,
areas
• when the nominal anchor strength is controlled by anchor
Apt = p lb2 - 1/2(area of overlap) bolt yielding,f is taken equal to 0.90,
• when the nominal amchor strength is controlled by anchor
pullout, f is taken equal to 0.65.
Figure 3—Reduction of Projected Area When
Failure Cones Overlap

P (failure) P (failure)
Assumed cone for
calculation ofApt

lb
lb
45° Conical 45° Conical
failure surface failure surface

Figure 4—Assumed Anchor Bolt Failure Cone

NCMA TEK 12-3C 3

Tension line of the bolt to the edge of the ledger, denoted as x for this
The nominal axial tensile strength, Ban, for headed and example. The induced tension force on the entire connection
bent-bar anchor bolts is taken as the smaller of Equation 11, can be calculated as follows:
nominal axial tensile strength governed by masonry breakout, Moment Ve 1,600(2.5 + 0.25)
T= = = =1920lb (8.54kN)
and Equation 12, nominal axial tensile strength governed by arm 5
( )x ( 5 )(2.75)
6 6
anchor yielding. For bent-bar anchors, the nominal axial tensile
strength must also be less than that determined by Equation
13 for anchor pullout. Using Equation 1, one can determine the area of tensile
breakout for each bolt to be 113.10 in2 (729.68 cm2), however
Banb = 4 Apt f m′ Eqn. 11 due to the proximity of the bolts to one another, there is an
Bans = Ab fy Eqn. 12 overlap in projected breakout area. To account for this, one
Banp = 1.5 f'm ebdb + 300π(lb + eb + db)db Eqn. 13 must reduce the projected breakout area by one half of the
overlap area when analyzing an individual bolt. The modified
Shear projected area for each bolt becomes:
The nominal shear strength, Bvn, for headed and bent-bar
l2
anchor bolts is taken as the smallest of Equation 14, nominal Apt = π l b 2 − b (θ − sin θ )
shear strength governed by masonry breakout, Equation 15, 2
nominal shear strength as governed by crushing of the masonry,  s  π 
where θ = 2 arccos    in radians
Equation 16, nominal shear strength as governed by masonry
 2lb   190 
pryout, and Equation 17, nominal shear strength as governed
by anchor yielding.
Bvb = 4 Apv f m′ Eqn. 14 Using the above equation, the modified Apt is found to be 90.99

Bvc = 1050 4 f m′ Ab Eqn. 15

Bvpry = 8 Apt f m′ Eqn. 16
Parapet
Bvs = 0.6Ab fy Eqn. 17

Combined Shear and Tension

As with allowable stress design, anchor bolts subjected
to combined axial tension and shear must also satisfy the 36 in.
following unity equation: (914 mm)
baf bvf PD = 800 lb.
+ ≤ 1.0 (363 kg)
φ Ban φ Bvn PL = 800 lb.
Eqn. 18
(363 kg)
DESIGN EXAMPLE A
1 in.
Two 1/2 in (12.7 mm) headed anchors comprise a 4
bolted connection for a roof beam to the side of an 8 in. (6.3 mm)
(203mm) masonry wall, see Figure 5 below. The wall has x = 2 3 4 in.
a minimum specified compressive strength, f'm of 2,000 (70 mm)
psi (13.8 MPa). The bolts have an effective yield stress of A
60 ksi (413.7 MPa) with and effective embedment length 212 in.
and spacing between bolts of 6 in. (50.8 mm). (64 mm) Roof beam
Bent PL 1
4 in. (6 mm)
Allowable Stress Design thick
It can be assumed that the D + LR is the govern-
ing load combination. With this, the total design shear
force for the connection is 1,600 lb (7.12 kN), with each
anchor bolt resisting half of the total load. As is typical
with bolted connections subjected to shear, the load is
imparted at an offset distance, e which is equivalent to
the additive thickness of the ledger and connector ele-
ments. This eccentric load generates a force couple with s = 6 in.
tensile forces in the anchor and bearing of the masonry (152 mm)
wall. Using engineering judgment, the moment arm can
be approximated as 5/6 times the distance from the center Figure 5—Configuration for Design Example

4 NCMA TEK 12-3C

in2 (578.03 cm2).
In turn, the axial tensile strength is controlled by either
masonry breakout (Equation 3) or anchor yielding (Equation
4) and determined as follows (Equation 5 is explicitly for
bent-bar anchors and need not be checked):
Bab = (1.25)(90.99) 2, 000 = 5, 087 lb (22.62 kN)
Bas = 0.6(0.142)(60,000) = 5,112 lb (22.73 kN)
For this example, the axial tensile strength is controlled
by the masonry breakout strength, Bab.
Similarly, to determine the allowable shear strength, one
would typically calculate the shear breakout area for each an-
chor. For this particular example, given the direction of shear
loading and large edge distance, masonry shear breakout will
not be the governing failure mode. Calculated strengths for
masonry crushing (Equation 7), anchor pryout (Equation 8),
and anchor yielding (Equation 9) are as follows:
Bvc = 350 4 2, 000(0.142) = 1, 437 lb (6.39 kN)
Bvpry = 2.5(90.00) 2, 000 = 10,173 lb (45.24 kN)
Bvs = 0.36(0.142)(60,000) = 3,067 lb (13.64 kN) satisfied.
In this instance, shear strength of each anchor is controlled
by the masonry crushing strength, Bvc.
Checking the combined loading effects for an individual
anchor against Equation 10 yields the following:
960 800
+ = 0.190 + 0.557 = 0.747 ≤ 1.0
5, 036 1, 437
Because the demand to capacity ratio is less than 1.0, the
design is satisfied.
Strength Design
It is assumed that the governing load combination for the
connection is 1.2D+1.6LR. With that, the effects of the eccentric
shear load are analyzed similarly to the allowable stress design
example yielding a factored tensile force of 2,688 lb (11.96
kN) acting on the whole connection. The factored shear load
acting on the connection is determined to be 2,240 lb (9.96
kN).
Again, citing Equation 1 and modifying it for the overlap
of projected breakout area, Apt for each anchor bolt is found
to be 90.99 in.2 (578.03 cm2). Refer to the allowable stress
design example for clarification.
Axial tensile strength determined by calculating masonry
breakout (Equation 11) and anchor yielding (Equation 12) are
as follows (as was the case before, Equation 13 need not be
checked as this applies only to bent-bar anchors):
Banb = 4 (90.00) 2, 000 = 16, 277 lb (72.40 kN) Bas = allowable axial tensile load on anchor bolt when
Bans = (0.142) (60, 000) = 8,520 lb (37.90 kN) governed by steel yielding, lb (N)
The nominal axial tensile strength is governed by the
anchor yielding, Bans.
Nominal shear strength is controlled by masonry crush-
ing (Equation 15), anchor pryout (Equation 16), and anchor
NCMA TEK 12-3C 5
yielding (Equation 17) and is checked as follows (as explained
previously, for this example the wall geometry and direction
of loading indicate shear breakout to be an unlikely failure
mode):
Bvnc = 1, 050 4 2, 000 (0.142) = 4,310 lb (19.17 kN)
Bvnpry = 8(90.00) 2, 000 = 32,554 lb (144.81 kN)
Bvns = 0.6(0.142)(60,000) = 5,112 lb (27.74 kN)
For this example, the nominal shear strength for each
anchor is controlled by masonry crushing, Bvnc.
Applying the appropriate strength reduction factors of f
= 0.9 for anchor yielding under tensile loads and f = 0.5 for
masonry crushing under shear loads, and checking the combined
loading effects for an individual anchor against Equation 18
yields the following:
1,344 1,120
+ = 0.175 + 0.520 = 0.695 ≤ 1.0
(0.9)(8,520) (0.5)(4,310)
With the demand to capacity ratio less than 1.0, the design is
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
A supplemental anchor design spreadsheet has been made
available at http://ncma-br.org/pdfs/41/TEK12-03CABolt.
xlsm for the design of both face and top-mounted masonry
anchors in accordance with the 2013 edition of Building Code
Requirements for Masonry Structures.
NOTATIONS
Ab = cross-sectional area of anchor bolt, in.2 (mm2 )
Apt = projected area on the masonry surface of a right cir-
cular cone for calculating tensile breakout capacity of
anchor bolts, in.2 (mm2 )
Apv = projected area on the masonry surface of one-half of
a right circular cone for calculating shear breakout
capacity of anchor bolts, in.2 (mm2 )
Ba = allowable axial force on anchor bolt, lb (N)
Bab = allowable axial tensile load on anchor bolt when
governed by masonry breakout, lb (N)
Ban = nominal axial strength of anchor bolt, lb (N)
Banb = nominal axial tensile strength of anchor bolt when
governed by masonry breakout, lb (N)
Banp = nominal axial tensile strength of anchor bolt when
governed by anchor pullout, lb (N)
Bans = nominal axial tensile strength of anchor bolt when
governed by steel yielding, lb (N)
Bap = allowable axial tensile load on anchor bolt when
governed by anchor pullout, lb (N)
Bv = allowable shear force on anchor bolt, lb (N)
Bvb = allowable shear load on an anchor bolt when governed
by masonry breakout, lb (N)
Bvc = allowable shear load on anchor bolt when governed
by masonry crushing, lb (N)
Bvn = nominal shear strength of anchor bolt, lb (N)
Bvnb = nominal shear strength of anchor bolt when governed
by masonry breakout, lb (N)
Bvnc = nominal shear strength of anchor bolt when governed
by masonry crushing, lb (N)
Bvnpry = nominal shear strength of anchor bolt when governed
by anchor pryout, lb (N)
Bvns = nominal shear strength of anchor bolt when governed
by steel yielding, lb (N)
Bvpry = allowable shear load on an anchor bolt when governed
by anchor pryout, lb (N)
Bvs = allowable shear load on an anchor bolt when governed
by steel yielding, lb (N)
ba = unfactored axial force on anchor bolt, lb (N)
baf = factored axial force in anchor bolt, lb (N)
bv = unfactored shear force on anchor bolt, lb (N)
bvf = factored shear force in anchor bolt, lb (N)
db = nominal diameter of anchor bolt, in. (mm)
e = eccentricity of applied loads on bolted connection, in.
(mm)
eb = projected leg extension of bent bar anchor, measured
from inside edge of anchor at bend to farthest point
of anchor in the plane of the hook, in. (mm)
f'm = specified compressive strength of masonry, psi (MPa)
fy = specified yield strength of steel for anchors, psi (MPa)
lb = effective embedment length of anchor bolts, in. (mm)
lbe = anchor bolt edge distance, measured in direction of
load, from edge of masonry to center of the cross sec-
tion of anchor bolt, in. (mm)
s = spacing between anchors, in. (mm)
x = depth from center line of anchor to edge of ledger
f = strength reduction factor

REFERENCES
1. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, TMS 402-13/ACI 530-13/ASCE 5-13, Reported by the Masonry Standards
Joint Committee, 2013.
2. Specification for Masonry Structures, TMS 605-13/ACI 530.1-13/ASCE 6-13, Reported by the Masonry Standards Joint Com-
mittee, 2013.
3. International Building Code, International Code Council, 2012.
4. International Residential Code, International Code Council, 2012.
5. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, TMS 402-11/ACI 530-11/ASCE 5-11, Reported by the Masonry Standards
Joint Committee, 2011.
6. Standard Specification for Carbon Structural Steel, ASTM A36-12, ASTM International, 2012.
7. Standard Specification for Carbon Steel Bolts and Studs, 60,000 psi Tensile Strength, ASTM A307-12, ASTM International,
2012.
8. Standard Test Methods for Strength of Anchors in Concrete and Masonry Elements, ASTM E488-10, ASTM International, 2010.
9. Allowable Stress Design of Concrete Masonry, TEK 14-7C, National Concrete Masonry Association, 2011.
10. Strength Design Provisions for Concrete Masonry, TEK 14-4B, National Concrete Masonry Association, 2008.
11. Testing of Anchor Bolts in Concrete Block Masonry, Tubbs, J. B., Pollock, D. G., and McLean, D. I., The Masonry Society
Journal, 2000.

NCMA and the companies disseminating this technical information disclaim any and all responsibility and liability for the accuracy
and the application of the information contained in this publication.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION

13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171
www.ncma.org

To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index, contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900

6 NCMA TEK 12-3C

 NCMA TEK
National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology

STEEL REINFORCEMENT TEK 12-4D

Reinforcement & Connectors (2006)
FOR CONCRETE MASONRY
Keywords: allowable stress, ASTM specifications, corro-
sion protection, development, embedment, joint reinforce-
ment, reinforcing bars, reinforcing steel, strength design,
wall ties, wire, working stress

INTRODUCTION

Reinforcement in concrete masonry walls increases
strength and ductility, increases resistance to applied loads,
and in the case of horizontal reinforcement, also provides
increased resistance to shrinkage cracking. This TEK covers
non-prestressed reinforcement for concrete masonry con-
struction. Prestressing steel is discussed in Post-Tensioned
Concrete Masonry Wall Construction, TEK 3-14 (ref. 1).
Unless otherwise noted, the information is based on the 2003
International Building Code (IBC) (ref. 2). For masonry
design and construction, the IBC references Building Code
Requirements for Masonry Structures and Specification for
Masonry Structures (MSJC Code and Specification) (refs. 4,
5). In some cases, the IBC has adopted provisions different
from the MSJC provisions. These instances have been noted
where applicable.
MATERIALS
Reinforcement used in masonry is principally reinforcing
bars and cold-drawn wire products. Wall anchors and ties are
usually formed of wire, metal sheets or strips. Table 1 lists
applicable ASTM Standards governing steel reinforcement,
as well as nominal yield strengths for each steel type.
Reinforcing Bars
Reinforcing bars are available in the United States in
eleven standard bar sizes designated No. 3 through 11, No.
14 and No. 18 (M#10-36, M#43, M#57). The size of a rein-
forcing bar is designated by a number corresponding to its
nominal diameter. For bars designated No. 3 through No. 8
(M#10-25), the number indicates the diameter in eighths of
an inch (mm), as shown in Table 2.
To help address potential problems associated with
reinforcement congestion and grout consolidation, the IBC
limits the reinforcing bar diameter to the lesser of one-eighth
the nominal member thickness, and one-fourth the least
dimension of the cell, course or collar joint into which it is
placed. For typical single wythe walls, this corresponds to
a maximum bar size of No. 8, 9 and 11 for 8-, 10- and 12-
in. walls, respectively (M#25, 29 and 36 for 203-, 254- and

Table 1—Reinforcement Used in Masonry (ref. 2)

Reinforcement Governing Minimum yield strength,

type: specification (ref.) Material Grade ksi (MPa)
Reinforcing bars ASTM A 6151 (6) Billet-steel 40, 60 40, 60 (300, 420)
ASTM A 7061 (7) Low-alloy steel 60 60 (420)
ASTM A 767 (8) Zinc-coated steel2
ASTM A 775 (9) Epoxy-coated steel2
ASTM A 996 (10) Rail-steel and axle-steel 40, 50, 60 40, 50, 60 (300, 350, 420)
Joint reinforcement ASTM A 951 (11) Joint reinforcement 70 (485)
ASTM A 580 (Type 304) (12) Stainless/heat-resisting wire 90 (620)
ASTM A 496 (13) Deformed steel wire 75 (515)
1
Weldability is not part of the specification; may be subject to agreement with supplier.
2
The reinforcing bars to be coated must meet the requirements of A 615, A 706 or A 996, as appropriate.

TEK 12-4D © 2006 National Concrete Masonry Association (replaces TEK 12-4C)
305-mm walls). In addition, the following limits apply: The ASTM standards include minimum requirements
• maximum bar size is No. 11 (M#36), for various physical properties including yield strength and
• the area of vertical reinforcement may not exceed 6% of stiffness. While not all reinforcing bars have a well-defined
the grout space area (i.e., about 1.26 in.2, 1.81 in.2, or 2.40 yield point, the modulus of elasticity, Es , is roughly the same
in.2 of vertical reinforcement for 8-, 10- and 12-in. concrete for all reinforcing steels and for design purposes is taken as
masonry, respectively (815, 1,170 or 1,550 mm2 for 203-, 29,000,000 psi (200 GPa).
254- and 305-mm units, respectively), and When designing by the allowable stress design method,
• for masonry designed using strength design procedures, the allowable tensile stress is limited to 20,000 psi (138 MPa) for
maximum bar size is No. 9 (M#29) and the maximum area Grade 40 or 50 reinforcing bars and 24,000 psi (165 MPa)
of reinforcement is 4% of the cell area (i.e., about 0.84 in.2, for Grade 60 reinforcing bars. For reinforcing bars enclosed
1.21 in.2, or 1.61 in.2 of vertical reinforcement for 8-, 10- and in ties, such as those in columns, the allowable compressive
12-in. concrete masonry, respectively (545, 781 or 1,039 stress is limited to 40% of the specified yield strength, with
mm2 for 203-, 254- and 305-mm units, respectively). a maximum of 24,000 psi (165 MPa). For strength design,
The prescriptive limits on reinforcement sizes, above, the nominal yield strength of the reinforcement is used to
are construction-related. Additional design limits to prevent size and distribute the steel.
over-reinforcing and brittle failures may also apply depend-
Cold-Drawn Wire
ing on the design method used and the design loads resisted.
Manufacturers mark the bar size, producing mill identificationCold-drawn wire for joint reinforcement, ties or anchors
varies from W1.1 to W4.9 (MW7 to MW32) with the most
and type of steel on reinforcing bars (see Figure 1). Note
that the bar size indicates the size in SI units per ASTMpopular size being W1.7 (MW11). Table 3 shows standard wire
standards. sizes and properties. Because the IBC limits the size of joint
reinforcement to one half the joint thickness, the
practical limit for wire diameter is 3/16 in. (W2.8,
Table 2—Reinforcing Bar Nominal Properties 4.8 mm, MW18) for a 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) bed joint.
Wire for masonry is plain with the exception that
Bar Weight, Diameter, Cross-sectional Perimeter, side wires for joint reinforcement are deformed
size, No. lb/ft (kg/m) in. (mm) area, in.2 (mm2) in. (mm) by means of knurling wheels.
3 (M#10) 0.376 (0.560) 0.375 (9.5) 0.11 (71) 1.178 (30) Stress-strain characteristics of reinforcing
4 (M#13) 0.668 (0.994) 0.500 (13) 0.20 (129) 1.571 (40) wire have been determined by extensive testing
5 (M#16) 1.043 (1.552) 0.625 (16) 0.31 (199) 1.963 (50) programs. Not only is the yield strength of cold-
6 (M#19) 1.502 (2.235) 0.750 (19) 0.44 (284) 2.356 (60) drawn wire close to its ultimate strength, but the
7 (M#22) 2.044 (3.042) 0.875 (22) 0.60 (387) 2.749 (70) location of the yield point is not clearly indicated
8 (M#25) 2.670 (3.973) 1.000 (25) 0.79 (510) 3.142 (80) on the stress-strain curve. ASTM A 82 (ref. 15)
9 (M#29) 3.400 (5.060) 1.128 (29) 1.00 (645) 3.544 (90) defines yield as the stress determined at a strain
10 (M#32) 4.303 (6.404) 1.270 (32) 1.27 (819) 3.990 (101) of 0.005 in./in. (mm/mm).
11 (M#36) 5.313 (7.907) 1.410 (36) 1.56 (1,006) 4.430 (113)

Type of steel: Main ribs Main ribs

S for billet (A 615)
Letter or symbol Letter or symbol
W for low-alloy (A 706) for producing mill for producing mill
Bar size, M#19³
Bar size, M#19³
Type of steel
Type of steel
Grade mark

Grade line (one line only)

Grade 40 and 50 Grade 60 and A 706
Notes:
1. Bar identification marks may also be oriented to read horizontally at 90° to those illustrated above.
2. Grade line must be continued at least five deformation spaces.
3. Most U.S.-produced bars are now marked with metric designations.
Figure 1—ASTM Standard Bar Identification Marks (ref. 14)
 Table 3—Properties of Wire For Masonry Reinforcing Bars
A minimum amount of masonry cover over reinforcing
Nominal Nominal Nominal bars is required to protect against steel corrosion. This
diameter 1, area, perimeter, masonry cover is measured from the nearest exterior
Wire size in. (mm) in.2 (mm2) in. (mm) masonry surface to the outermost surface of the rein-
W1.1 (11 gage, MW 7) 0.121 (3.1) 0.011 (7.1) 0.380 (9.6) forcement, and includes the thickness of masonry face
W1.7 (9 gage, MW 11) 0.148 (3.8) 0.017 (11) 0.465 (12) shells, mortar and grout. The following minimum cover
W2.1 (8 gage, MW 13) 0.162 (4.1) 0.020 (13) 0.509 (13) requirements apply:
W2.8 (3/16 in., MW 17) 0.187 (4.8) 0.027 (18) 0.587 (15) • masonry exposed to weather or earth
W4.9 (1/4 in., MW 32) 0.250 (6.4) 0.049 (32) 0.785 (20) bars larger than No. 5 (M#16) ............ 2 in. (51 mm)
No. 5 (M#16) bars or smaller...........11/2 in. (38 mm)
1
ASTM A 82 (ref. 15) permits variation of + 0.003 in. (0.08 mm) • masonry not exposed to weather or earth .. 11/2 in. (38 mm)
from diameter shown.
PLACEMENT
CORROSION PROTECTION
Installation requirements for reinforcement and ties help
Grout, mortar and masonry units usually provide ad- ensure that elements are placed as assumed in the design,
equate protection for embedded reinforcement provided and that structural performance is not compromised due to
that minimum cover and clearance requirements are met. mislocation. These requirements also help minimize corro-
Reinforcement with a moderate amount of rust, mill scale sion by providing for a minimum amount of masonry and
or a combination is allowed to be used without cleaning or grout cover around reinforcing bars, and providing sufficient
brushing, provided the dimensions and weights (including clearance for grout and mortar to surround reinforcement and
heights of deformations) of a cleaned sample are not less accessories so that stresses can be properly transferred.
than those required by the applicable ASTM standard. When
additional corrosion protection is needed, reinforcement can Reinforcing Bars
be galvanized or epoxy coated. Tolerances for placing reinforcing bars are:
• variation from d for walls and flexural elements:
Joint Reinforcement d < 8 in. (203 mm)..............................+1/2 in. (13 mm)
Carbon steel can be protected from corrosion by coating 8 in. (203 mm) < d < 24 in. (610 mm) +1 in. (25 mm)
the steel with zinc (galvanizing). The zinc protects in two d > 24 in. (610 mm) .......................... +11/4 in. (32 mm)
ways: first, as a barrier separating the steel from oxygen and • for vertical bars in walls ........... +2 in. (51 mm) from the
water, and second during the corrosion process, the zinc is specified location along the length of the wall.
sacrificed before the steel is attacked. Increasing the zinc
coating thickness improves the level of corrosion protec- In addition, a minimum clear distance between reinforcing
tion. bars and the adjacent (interior of cell) surface of a masonry
Required levels of corrosion protection increase with unit of 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) for fine grout or 1/2 in. (13 mm) for
the severity of exposure. When used in exterior walls or in coarse grout must be maintained so that grout can flow around
interior walls exposed to a mean relative humidity over 75%, the bars.
carbon steel joint reinforcement must be hot-dip galvanized
or epoxy-coated, or stainless steel joint reinforcement must DEVELOPMENT
be used. When used in interior walls exposed to a mean
relative humidity less than or equal to 75%, it can be mill Development length or anchorage is necessary to ad-
galvanized, hot-dip galvanized, or be stainless steel. The equately transfer stresses between the reinforcement and
corresponding minimum protection levels are: the grout in which it is embedded. Reinforcing bars can be
• Mill galvanized—ASTM A 641 (ref. 16) 0.1 oz/ft2 (0.031 anchored by embedment length, hook or mechanical device.
kg/m2) Reinforcing bars anchored by embedment length rely on
• Hot-dip galvanized—ASTM A 153 (ref. 17), Class B, 1.5 interlock at the bar deformations and on sufficient masonry
oz/ft2 (458 g/m2) cover to prevent splitting from the reinforcing bar to the free
• Epoxy-coated—ASTM A 884 (ref. 18) Class A, Type 1 surface. Detailed information and requirements for develop-
> 7 mils (175 µm) (ref. 3). Note that both the 2003 IBC ment, splice and standard hooks are contained in TEK 12-6,
and 2002 MSJC code incorrectly identify Class B, Type 2 Reinforcement Detailing Requirements for Concrete Masonry
epoxy coated joint reinforcement, which is not applicable (ref. 19).
for masonry construction.
In addition, joint reinforcement must be placed so that
longitudinal wires are embedded in mortar with a minimum
cover of 1/2 in. (13 mm) when not exposed to weather or earth,
and 5/8 in. (16 mm) when exposed to weather or earth.
REFERENCES
1. Post-Tensioned Concrete Masonry Wall Construction, TEK 3-14. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2002.
2. International Building Code 2003. International Code Council, 2003.
3. International Building Code 2006. International Code Council, 2006.
4. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, ACI 530-02/ASCE 5-02/TMS 402-02. Reported by the Masonry
Standards Joint Committee, 2002.
5. Specification for Masonry Structures, ACI 530.1-02/ASCE 6-02/TMS 602-02. Reported by the Masonry Standards Joint
Committee, 2002.
6. Standard Specification for Deformed and Plain Billet-Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement, ASTM A 615/A 615M-00.
ASTM International, Inc., 2000.
7. Standard Specification for Low-Alloy Steel Deformed and Plain Bars for Concrete Reinforcement, ASTM A 706/A 706M-
01. ASTM International, Inc., 2001.
8. Standard Specification for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement, A 767/A 767M-00b. ASTM
International, Inc., 2000.
9. Standard Specification for Epoxy-Coated Steel Reinforcing Bars, A 775/A 775M-01. ASTM International, Inc., 2001.
10. Standard Specification for Rail-Steel and Axle-Steel Deformed Bars for Concrete Reinforcement, A 996/996M-00. ASTM
International, Inc., 2000.
11. Standard Specification for Masonry Joint Reinforcement, ASTM A 951-00. ASTM International, Inc., 2000.
12. Standard Specification for Stainless and Heat-Resisting Steel Wire, ASTM A 580-98. ASTM International, Inc., 1998.
13. Standard Specification for Steel Wire, Deformed, for Concrete Reinforcement, A 496/A 496M-01. ASTM International, Inc.,
2001.
14. Manual of Standard Practice, MSP 1-01. Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute, 2001.
15. Standard Specification for Steel Wire, Plain, for Concrete Reinforcement, ASTM A 82-01. ASTM International, Inc.,
2001.
16. Standard Specification for Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Carbon Steel Wire, ASTM A 641-98. ASTM International, Inc.,
1998.
17. Standard Specification for Zinc Coating (Hot-Dip) on Iron and Steel Hardware, ASTM A 153-01a. ASTM International,
Inc., 2001.
18. Standard Specification for Epoxy-Coated Steel Wire and Welded Wire Fabric for Reinforcement, ASTM A 884/884M-99.
ASTM International, Inc., 1999.
19. Reinforcement Detailing Requirements for Concrete Masonry, TEK 12-6. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2007.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171 contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
www.ncma.org

National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology
FASTENERS FOR CONCRETE MASONRY
Keywords: fasteners, anchors, connectors, mechanical fas-
teners, power-actuated fasteners, powder-actuated fasteners,
corrosion protection, galvanic action, chemical fasteners,
adhesive fasteners, cast-in-place fasteners
INTRODUCTION
Buildings use a variety of connectors including anchors,
wall ties and fasteners. The distinction between the these
types of connectors can be confusing. The broad term
“connector” is defined as “a mechanical device for securing
two or more pieces, parts, or members together, including
anchors, wall ties, and fasteners” (refs. 1, 2). While the
terms are often used interchangeably even in technical
literature and codes, anchors, wall ties and fasteners each
have different purposes. Typical industry usage is:
• anchors secure masonry to its support. Examples are an
anchor bolt or a column flange strap anchor used to connect
a masonry wythe to a steel column.
• Ties, such as adjustable wire ties, are used to connect wythes
of masonry in a multiwythe wall.
• Fasteners connect nonmasonry materials or objects to
masonry. An example is a toggle bolt used to install a shelf.
This TEK discusses the use of fasteners in concrete masonry
assemblies. NCMA TEK 12-1A, Anchors and Ties for Masonry
(ref. 3) presents information on anchors and wall ties.
TYPES OF FASTENERS
Many fastener types are available. Fasteners for masonry
are typically designed to be inset into a mortar joint, penetrate
the face shell of a unit into its hollow core, or bore into a solid
unit or solidly grouted wall.
Mortared-In Fasteners
Mortared-in refers to bolts not used for structural purposes,
threaded rods and other fasteners that are placed in the
masonry mortar joints while the wall is being constructed. This
eliminates the need to drill or nail into the masonry, but
placement must be exact, as these fasteners cannot be moved
or adjusted after placement. Although most fasteners are post-
applied rather than mortared in, nailer blocks of pressure-
treated wood or metal can be installed during wall construction.
TEK 12-5 © 2005 National Concrete Masonry Association
NCMA TEK
TEK 12-5
Details (2005)
Post-Applied Fasteners
Post-applied fasteners fall into three broad categories:
hand-driven mechanical or expansion fasteners, power-actuated
fastening systems and chemical/adhesive fasteners.
Hand-Driven Mechanical or Expansion Fasteners
Probably the most familiar fasteners are the hand-driven,
mechanical or expansion varieties. These fasteners are offered
in several types of metal and, in some cases, plastic.
There are many fastener manufacturers and a large array
of mechanical and expansion fastener types (see Figure 1).
Some of the most common include:
Self-tapping screws (Figure 1a) that cut threads into the
concrete masonry unit or mortar joint through a predrilled
hole. Most manufacturers produce these in assorted small
diameters and in several lengths.
Toggle fasteners (Figure 1b) frequently called toggle
bolts come in several configurations but the most common
consists of a threaded bolt and a spring-loaded toggle. Once
inserted through a predrilled hole into the core of a hollow
concrete masonry unit, the toggle expands and bears against
the masonry, holding the bolt in place.
Sleeve fasteners (Figure 1c) consist of a threaded stud
with a flared cone-shaped end and an expander sleeve assembled
over the stud. A washer and nut are then attached to the end of
the stud. After insertion, the nut is tightened, drawing the cone-
shaped end into the expander sleeve forcing it to expand and
bear against the masonry.
Wedge fasteners (Figure 1d) use a nut, washer and a
tapered steel stud bolt. This is surrounded by a steel clip or
wedges. As the nut is tightened, the stud is drawn up into the
clip or wedge, lodging them against the side of the masonry.
Drop-in fasteners (Figure 1e) typically use steel expansion
shells and internal plugs which are forced into the shells,
causing them to expand against the substrate.
Strike, hit or split-drive fasteners (Figure 1f) rely on a
driving or hammering force on a pin, stud or nail to cause the
fastener to expand against the concrete masonry unit.
Power-Actuated Fastening Systems
These systems use means such as explosive powder, gas
combustion, compressed air or other gas or fuel to embed
fasteners into concrete masonry. Of these, powder-actuated
systems are most common. Powder-actuated systems use
explosive powder to embed the fastener using pressure similar
to that of a bullet being fired. The charges used can be more
powerful than those in hand guns, so training in the proper use
of the tools is critical and in many jurisdictions certification is
required. These fastener systems must be fully embedded in
masonry (i.e., they cannot extend into hollow areas), so
manufacturers recommend that when not used in solid or solid
grouted masonry, the concrete masonry face shell thickness be
at least 11/4 in. (32 mm) thick to accommodate the length of the
fastener and withstand the force of the fastener insertion.
When a powder-actuated fastener is driven into concrete
masonry, the material around the fastener shank is displaced.
This causes the displaced material to compress against the
fastener, creating a friction hold. The heat generated during
the firing process also causes a sintering, or welding, of the
concrete masonry to the fastener (see Figure 2).
There are several types of powder-actuated tools: some
shoot the fastener down a barrel while others use pistons to
drive the fastener into the wall. The tools are divided into
classes according to the velocity of the fastener. The charges
also come in a range of power levels.
The fasteners for powder-actuated tools are special heat-
treated steel, resulting in a very hard yet ductile fastener, which
can penetrate concrete masonry without breaking. The fastener
may be threaded or smooth and has a guide to align it in the tool
as it is being driven. Fasteners may be packaged in multi-
cartridge magazines for rapid repetitive fastening.
Chemical/Adhesive Fasteners
These fastener systems consist of smooth or deformed
steel bars or rods placed in a predrilled hole and set with
chemical bonding compounds such as epoxies, polyesters,
vinylesters or cementitious material (see Figure 3). Loads are
transferred from the fastener through the bonding compound
to the masonry. Surface-mounted adhesive fasteners are
available and are typically used for light-duty conditions such
as attaching mirrors and frames to a finished masonry surface.
Adhesive fasteners can have some advantages over
mechanical expansion fasteners, such as the potential for
a) Self tapping screw b) Toggle bolt c) Sleeve fastener
d) Wedge fastener e) Drop-in fastener f) Metal hit
(internal plug not shown) fastener
These are typical fasteners representative of the broad
category. Other fastener configurations are available.
Figure 1—Typical Hand-Driven Mechanical
or Expansion Fasteners
superior strength, especially pull-out. Adhesive systems may
also be more resistant to vibration than mechanical expansion
anchors, and the adhesive encapsulates the steel fastener
providing additional corrosion protection. Closer edge distances
may also be possible with adhesive systems.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS AND SELECTION
CRITERIA
Because of the variety of fasteners and their applications,
fastener design is not addressed in detail in building codes.
Structural Considerations
Structural considerations for fasteners are similar to those
for anchors, but the loads on fasteners are typically less.
Fastener tension and shear capacities should be considered
when selecting a fastener.
Tension is typically transferred from the fastener to the
masonry by friction (as for the screw or hit fasteners), keying
effects (toggle bolts or expansion systems), bonding (adhesive
and chemical systems), or a combination of these mechanisms.
Shear is primarily resisted by the fastener itself. As such, shear
strength depends on the fastener material and its cross section.
Failure modes for fasteners are also similar to those for
anchors and depend on the type of fastener, type of concrete
masonry unit, concrete masonry unit compressive strength,
depth of embedment, loading conditions, edge distance and
fastener load/spacing between fasteners. Typical tension failure
modes are fastener breakage, concrete masonry unit cone
failure, concrete masonry unit splitting, edge breakouts, pull-
out and, in the case of adhesive or chemical fasteners, bond
failure. Shear failures include fastener breakage and back pry-
out (especially with a group of fasteners or those attached into
hollow CMU through the face shell) and edge breakout.
Compression
zone
Sintering
zone
Figure 2—Friction Forces in Power-Actuated Fasteners
Adhesive capsule
Anchor rod assembly with
nut and washer
Internally threaded insert
Figure 3—Adhesive Anchor Systems
 Because fasteners are in most cases proprietary products,
it is important to consult the specific manufacturer’s technical
data for the fastener being used. Values for pull-out, shear
capacity, edge distance and embedment length criteria are
given, as well as acceptable substrates and the minimum
required concrete masonry unit face shell thickness.
Other Selection Criteria
In addition to the structural requirements, some other
basic considerations when selecting a fastener include:
• the size, especially weight, and configuration of the item
being connected to the masonry,
• whether the fastener will be subject to significant vibration,
• whether the fastener will be installed in solid or hollow
concrete masonry at the attachment point,
• the minimum edge distance to keep the concrete masonry
unit from splitting or spalling,
• the fastener exposure conditions,
• whether there is a need for repetitive fastener installation,
in which case power-actuated systems offer an advantage,
• installer qualifications to place adhesive systems or to use
powder-actuated fastener tools,
• restricted access to work areas,
• power or lighting availability,
• moisture content of masonry,
• local availability of fasteners and fastener tools, and
• other project-specific requirements or conditions.
Codes and Standards
Codes (refs. 1, 2) require that connectors be capable of
resisting applied loads and that all pertinent information be
included in the project documents. Manufacturer’s literature
should be consulted for data pertinent to the fastener and its
application. A partial list of national test methods and standards
applicable to fasteners includes references 4 through 8.
Corrosion Protection
Specification for Masonry Structures (ref. 9) requires that
all metal accessories be stored off the ground and protected
from permanent distortions. Since most fasteners include
some type of metal, corrosion protection is important. Stain-
less steel fasteners should conform to ASTM A 480, A 240 or
A 580 (refs. 10, 11, 12), as a minimum.
The most common form of corrosion protection for carbon
steel fasteners is zinc coating or galvanizing which can be
applied in several methods to achieve different coating
thicknesses. Table 1 lists minimum corrosion protection
requirements (ref. 9).
Table 1—Corrosion Protection Requirements for Connectors
Connector type: Type of coating:
Sheet metal ties and sheet Mill galvanized
metal anchors Hot-dip galvanized
Epoxy
Steel plates and bars (as applicable Hot-dip galvanized
to size and form indicated)
Wire ties and anchors Epoxy
Galvanic Action
Because fasteners connect nonmasonry items to masonry,
the potential for corrosion from galvanic action between the
fastener and the item being connected to the masonry must be
considered when selecting fasteners.
All metals have electrical potential relative to each other.
When metals with different potentials come into contact while
in the presence of moisture, the more “active” metal—the one
with the more negative potential—corrodes and the other
metal is galvanically protected. Table 2 presents the ranking of
metals based on their electrical potential from anodic (least
noble) to cathodic (most noble). The farther apart two metals
are in the table, the more severe and faster the galvanic attack.
The relative surface areas of the connecting metals also affect
the severity of the galvanic action.
To limit galvanic corrosion, use metals that are close in the
galvanic series (Table 2). If this is not possible, separate the
dissimilar metals with coatings, gaskets, plastic washers, etc.
The fastener should also be selected so that it is the most
noble, or protected, component. Drainage is also important
to ensure the fastener is not subjected to a continually
moist or wet condition.
INSTALLATION
Given the number of fastening options, no one
installation method fits all. It is therefore important to
follow the specific fastener manufacture's installation
procedures. Some general guidelines include:
• Place fasteners with proper edge distance and spacing
to prevent cracking and spalling of the concrete masonry.
• Drill holes for insertion anchors the exact diameter
specified and to the specified embedment depth.
• Remove dust from predrilled holes, especially for
chemical or adhesive fasteners.
• For adhesive fasteners, dispense the entire cartridge of
adhesive at one time with no interruption in flow.
• With power-actuated fasteners, use test fastenings to
determine the lowest power level that will insert the
fastener to the proper depth and position without
damaging the concrete masonry.
• Hold power-actuated tools perpendicular to the masonry
surface when firing to avoid ricocheting fasteners.
• Never fire powder-actuated fasteners into masonry head joints.
• Store powder loads in separate locked containers away
from heat sources. Store the tool unloaded in a locked case.
• Verify any required installer certification for operation of
powder-actuated tools. Sources of information on
installation methods include references 17 and 18.
• Follow all recommended safety procedures.
Minimum corrosion protection:
ASTM A 653 (ref. 13) coating designation G60
ASTM A 153 (ref. 14) Class B
20 mils (508 µm) per surface or manufacturer’s specification
ASTM A 123 (ref. 15) or ASTM A 153 Class B
ASTM A 899 (ref. 16) Class C, 20 mils (508 µm)
 Table 2—Galvanic Series of REFERENCES
Metals and Alloys 1. International Building Code 2003. International Code Council, 2003.
2. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, ACI 530-05/ASCE 5-05/TMS
Corroded end 402-05. Reported by the Masonry Standards Joint Committee, 2005.
(anodic, or least noble)
Magnesium 3. Anchors and Ties for Masonry, NCMA TEK 12-1A. National Concrete Masonry
Magnesium alloys Association, 2001.
Zinc 4. Acceptance Criteria for Fasteners Power-Driven into Concrete, Steel and Masonry
Aluminum 1100 Elements, ICC Engineering Services Report AC 70 – October 2004. International Code
Cadmium Council Engineering Services Evaluation Committee, Whittier, CA, 2004.
Aluminum 2024-T4
Steel or iron 5. Standard Test Method for Strength of Anchors in Concrete and Masonry Elements,
Cast iron ASTM E 488-96 (2003). ASTM International, 2003.
Chromium-iron (active) 6. Standard Test Method for Pullout Resistance of Ties and Anchors Embedded in
Ni-resist cast iron Masonry Mortar Joints, ASTM E 754-80 (2000)e1. ASTM International, 2000.
Type 304 stainless (active) 7. Standard Test Methods for Strength of Power-Actuated Fasteners Installed in Structural
Type 316 stainless (active)
Lead tin solders Members, ASTM E 1190-95 (2000)e1. ASTM International, 2000.
Lead 8. Standard Test Methods for Testing Bond Performance of Bonded Anchors, ASTM E
Tin 1512-01. ASTM International, 2001.
Nickel (active) 9. Specification for Masonry Structures, ACI 530.1-05/ASCE 6-05/TMS 602-05. Reported
Inconel nickel-chromium alloy by the Masonry Standards Joint Committee, 2005.
(active)
Hastelloy alloy C (active) 10. Standard Specification for General Requirements for Flat-Rolled Stainless and Heat-
Brasses Resisting Steel Plate, Sheet, and Strip. A 480/A 480M-05. ASTM International, 2005.
Bronzes 11. Standard Specification for Chromium and Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steel Plate,
Monel nickel-copper alloy Sheet, and Strip for Pressure Vessels and for General Applications. A 240/A 240M-
(active) 05a. ASTM International, 2005.
Copper
Copper-nickel alloys 12. Standard Specification for Stainless Steel Wire. A 580/A 580-98(2004). ASTM
Silver solder International, 2004.
Nickel (passive) 13. Standard Specification for Steel Sheet, Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) or Zinc-Iron Alloy-
Inconel nickel-chromium alloy Coated (Galvannealed) by the Hot-Dip Process, ASTM A 653/A 653M-05. ASTM
(passive) International, 2005.
Chromium-iron (passive)
Type 304 stainless (passive) 14. Standard Specification for Zinc Coating (Hot-Dip) on Iron and Steel Hardware,
Type 316 stainless (passive) ASTM A 153/A 153-05. ASTM International, 2005.
Hastelloy alloy C (passive) 15. Standard Specification for Zinc (Hot-Dip Galvanized) Coatings on Iron and Steel
Silver Products, ASTM A 123/A 123M-02. ASTM International, 2002.
Titanium 16. Standard Specification for Steel Wire, Epoxy-Coated, ASTM A 899-91(2002). ASTM
Platinum
Graphite International, 2002.
Gold 17. PATMI Basic Training Manual, Powder Actuated Tool Manufacturers’ Institute, 2005.
Protected end 18. Using Powder Activated (Ammunition) Tools – Study Materials for the Certificate of
(cathodic, or most noble) Fitness Exam for E-21. New York City Fire Department, 2001.

NCMA and the companies disseminating this technical information disclaim any and all responsibility and liability for the
accuracy and the application of the information contained in this publication.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171 contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
www.ncma.org
An information series from the national
SPLICES, DEVELOPMENT & STANDARD
HOOKS FOR CONCRETE MASONRY
BASED ON THE 2009 & 2012 IBC TEK 12-6A
INTRODUCTION
Building codes include requirements for minimum rein-
forcement development lengths and splice lengths, as well as
requirements for standard hooks, to ensure the adequate transfer
of stresses between the reinforcement and the masonry. This
TEK presents these requirements, based on the provisions of
both the 2012 and 2009 editions of the International Build-
ing Code (IBC) (refs. 1, 2). Masonry design in these codes is
primarily based on Building Code Requirements for Masonry
Structures (MSJC) (refs. 3, 4). Differences between the MSJC
and IBC are noted in the text when they occur.
There are two main differences between the 2008 and 2011
editions of the MSJC that impact reinforcement development
and splice lengths in the corresponding 2009 and 2012 editions
of the IBC:
1. under 2011 MSJC allowable stress design, the allowable
tensile stress, Fs, of Grade 60 steel was increased from
24,000 psi (166 MPa) to 32,000 psi (221 MPa), and
2. the 2011 MSJC includes new lap splice length provisions
for when confinement reinforcement is used at lap splices.
TEK 12-4D (ref. 5) includes basic material requirements,
corrosion protection and placement tolerances for reinforcement
used in concrete masonry construction. In addition, prestressing
steel is discussed in Post-Tensioned Concrete Masonry Wall
Construction, TEK 3-14 (ref. 6).
TEK 12-6, Splices, Development and Standard Hooks for
Concrete Masonry (ref. 7), covers these requirements based
on the 2003 and 2006 editions of the IBC.
Related TEK: Keywords: allowable stress design, building codes, confinement rein-
3-14, 12-4D, 12-6 forcement, development, embedment, joint reinforcement, reinforcing bars,
reinforcing steel, splices, standard hooks, strength design, working stress
NCMA TEK 12-6A 1
authority on concrete masonry technology
Reinforcement & Connectors (2013)
SPLICES AND DEVELOPMENT LENGTH
Minimum development lengths are necessary to adequately
transfer stresses between reinforcement and the grout or mor-
tar in which it is embedded. Splicing of reinforcement serves
a similar purpose: to adequately transfer stresses from one
reinforcing bar to another.
Reinforcement can be developed by embedment length,
hook, or mechanical anchoring device. The development of
the reinforcing bars relies on mechanical interlock of the bar
deformations, hook, and/or anchor along with sufficient ma-
sonry cover to prevent splitting of the masonry. Reinforcing
bars may be spliced by lapping the reinforcement, by proprietary
mechanical splices or by welding.
The required length of lap or development is determined
according to the design procedure used (allowable stress design
or strength design). In addition, these detailing requirements
have been frequently revised in recent years. As a result, the
minimum lap and development lengths can vary considerably
from one code to the next as well as from one design method
to another.
The following sections present the requirements for both
the 2009 IBC and 2012 IBC for both allowable stress and
strength design.
2009 IBC SPLICE & DEVELOPMENT
REQUIREMENTS
2009 IBC Allowable Stress Design
Development Length & Lap Splicing
While the 2008 MSJC includes an equation to determine
development and lap splice lengths, the 2009 IBC modifies
the MSJC lap splice length. In accordance with the 2009 IBC,
the minimum required lap length for spliced reinforcing bars
is determined using Equation 1 (see Table 1).
ld = 0.002db fs (SI: ld = 0.29db fs), (Eqn. 1)
but not less than 12 in. (305 mm) or 40db, whichever
is greater
Further, in regions of flexure where the design tensile
stresses in the reinforcement, fs, exceed 80% of the allowable
steel tensile stress, Fs, the IBC requires that the required length
of lap determined by Equation 1 must be increased by 50%.
Alternatively, equivalent means of stress transfer to accomplish
the same 50% increase is permitted. Where epoxy coated bars
are used, lap length is also required to be increased by 50%
but does not apply to the 12 in. (305 mm) minimum.
Development length requirements for allowable stress
design are determined in accordance with Equation 3 except
that there is no maximum length limit of 72db.
When noncontact lap splices are used, the bars must be
spaced no farther apart than one-fifth the required length of
lap nor more than 8 in. (203 mm).
When using the allowable stress design method, develop-
ment of wires in tension is determined using Equation 2 (see
Table 2). The development length of epoxy-coated wires is
increased 50% above the value determined using Equation 2
but does not apply to the 6 in. (152 mm) minimum.
ld = 0.0015db fs (SI: ld = 0.22db fs), (Eqn. 2)
but not less than 6 in. (152 mm)
Table 1—2009 IBC Allowable Stress Design
Lap Splice Lengths (ref. 2)
Minimum lap splice length , in.
C =ld
(mm), based on:
Bar size Allowable Stress Design A
fs < 80%Fs fs = Fs
No. 3 (M #10) 15 (381) 27 (686)
No. 4 (M#13) 20 (508) 36 (914)
No. 5 (M#16) 25 (635) 45 (1,143)
No. 6 (M#19) 30 (762) 54 (1,372)
No. 7 (M#22) 35 (889) 63 (1,600)
No. 8 (M#25) 40 (1,016) 72 (1,829)
No. 9 (M#29)B 46 (1,168) 82 (2,083)
A
See Equation 1. Lap splice length not less than 12
in. (305 mm) nor 40db. Minimum lap lengths may be
smaller in cases where fs < 0.8Fs.
B
Bars larger than No. 9 (M#29) are required to be
spliced by mechanical connectors.
C
Lap splice lengths are to be increased by 50% when
epoxy coated reinforcement is used.
D
Bar size not to exceed 1/8 nominal wall thickness nor
more than 1/4 the least dimension of the cell, course
or collar joint in which it is placed.
2 NCMA TEK 12-6A
Alternatives to Lap Splicing
Reinforcing bars can also be spliced by welding, mechanical
splicing and in some cases end-bearing splicing. Reinforcing
bars larger than No. 9 (M#29) are required to be spliced using
mechanical connectors.
Welded splices require the bars to be butted or shortly
lapped and welded to develop in tension at least 125% of the
specified yield strength of the bar. All welding is required to
conform to AWS D1.4 (ref. 8), and steel for welded splices
must conform to ASTM A706 (ref. 9). In practice, however,
welding tends to be an expensive splicing option.
Mechanical splicing of reinforcement typically employs
proprietary couplers specifically designed for this application.
Mechanical splices are required to have the bars connected to
develop in tension or compression, as required, at least 125%
of the specified yield strength of the bar.
Reinforcing bars can also be spliced using end-bearing
splices, but only in members containing closed ties, closed
stirrups or spirals for bars subject to compression only. End-
bearing splices rely on the transmission of compressive stress
by bearing of square-cut ends held in concentric contact by a
suitable device. The bar ends are required to terminate in flat
surfaces within 11/2 degrees of a right angle to the axis of the
bars and be fitted within 3 degrees of full bearing after assembly.
2009 IBC Strength Design
Development Length & Lap Splice Length
For development and lap splice length requirements, the
2009 IBC references the 2008 MSJC (see Equation 3 and Table
3), but adds a maximum length limit of 72db.
0.13db 2 f yγ  1.5db 2 f yγ 
=  SI: ld 
K f 'm  K f 'm  , (Eqn. 3)
 
but not less than 12 in. (305 mm) and not more than
72db
where K = the least of the masonry cover, 5db and
the clear spacing between adjacent reinforcement, in.
Table 2—2009 & 2012 IBC Allowable Stress
Design Development Lengths for Wire (refs. 1, 2)A
Minimum development
length, in. (mm):
Wire size
W1.1 (11 gage, MW 7) 6 (152)
W1.7 (9 gage, MW 11) 7 (178)
W2.1 (8 gage, MW 13) 8 (203)
W2.8 (3/16 in., MW 17) 9 (229)
W4.9 (1/4 in., MW 32) 12 (305)
A
See Equation 2. fs = 30,000 psi (207 MPa). Lap
splice length not less than 6 in. (152 mm). Increase
development lengths by 50% when epoxy coated
wire is used, but this increase does not apply to the
6 in. (152 mm) minimum..
 (mm) (note that under the 2011 MSJC/2012 IBC the
5db criteria is changed to 9db)
For Equation 3, the reinforcement size factor, γ, is taken
equal to 1.0 for No. 3 through No. 5 (M#10–M#16) reinforc-
ing bars; 1.3 for No. 6 and No. 7 (M#19, M#22) bars; and
1.5 for No. 8 and No. 9 (M#25, M#29) bars. When epoxy
coated bars are used, the development length determined
by Equation 3 is required to be increased by 50%.
Bars spliced by noncontact lap splices must be spaced no
farther apart than one-fifth the required length of lap and no
more than 8 in. (203 mm).
Alternatives to Lap Splicing
Mechanical splices are required to have the bars connected
to develop at least 125% of the specified yield strength of the
bar in tension or compression, as required.
The IBC further stipulates that mechanical splices be
classified as Type 1 or 2 according to Section 21.2.6.1 of ACI
318, Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete
and Commentary (ref. 10). Type 1 splices may not be used
within the plastic hinge zone nor within a beam-column joint
of intermediate or special reinforced masonry shear walls or
special moment frames. Type 2 are permitted at any location.
A Type 2 splice is defined as a full mechanical splice that
develops in tension or compression, as required, at least 1.25fy
of the bar. This requirement is intended to avoid a splice failure
when the reinforcement is subjected to expected stress levels
in yielding regions. Type 1 splices are not required to satisfy
the more stringent requirements for Type 2 splices, and so their
use is limited as noted above.
Welded splices must have the bars butted and welded to
develop at least 125% of the bar's specified yield strength in
tension or compression, as required. Welded splices must use
ASTM A706 (ref. 9) steel reinforcement. Welded splices are
not permitted to be used in plastic hinge zones of intermediate
or special reinforced walls nor in special moment frames of
masonry.
2012 IBC SPLICE & DEVELOPMENT
REQUIREMENTS
Regarding development and splice lengths, two significant
changes were incorporated into the 2011 MSJC, which are
included by reference in the 2012 IBC:
1. in the 2011 MSJC, the allowable tensile stress, Fs, of Grade
60 steel when using allowable stress design was increased
from 24,000 psi (166 MPa) to 32,000 psi (221 MPa), and
2. the 2011 MSJC includes new provisions for confinement
reinforcement, for both allowable stress and strength design
methods.
2012 IBC Allowable Stress Design
Equation 1 is still applicable for use in the 2012 IBC but
with the increase in Fs the splice lengths of fully stressed bars
will increase by 33%. Significant reductions of splice lengths
in low stress areas are achieved, however.  The minimums of
12 in. (305 mm) or 40db whichever is greater still apply as
well.
The 2012 IBC allows the MSJC development length
equation (Equation 3) to be used as an alternate to the IBC
equation (Equation 1). When using Equation 3 under the
2012 IBC, however, the value of K is defined as the least
of the masonry cover, 9db (vs. 5db in the 2009 IBC) and the
clear spacing between adjacent reinforcement.
Tabulated values are presented in Tables 4a through 4d.
Note, however, that there is no maximum length limit of 72db

Table 3—2009 IBC Strength Design Lap Splice Lengths (ref. 2)A
Minimum lap splice length, in. (mm), based on:
Bar in center of: K=
Bar size
6-in. CMU 8-in. CMU 10-in. CMU 12-in. CMU 11/2 in. (38 mm) 2 in. (51 mm)
No. 3 (M #10) 16 (406) 16 (406) 16 (406) 16 (406) 19 (483) 15 (381)
No. 4 (M#13) 21 (533) 21 (533) 21 (533) 21 (533) 34 (864) 26 (660)
No. 5 (M#16) 32 (813)D 26 (660) 26 (660) 26 (660) 45 (1,143) 40 (1,016)
No. 6 (M#19) 54 (1,372)D 43 (1,092) 40 (1.016) 40 (1,016) 54 (1,372) 54 (1,372)
No. 7 (M#22) NPB 60 (1,524) 46 (1,164) 46 (1,164) 63 (1,600) 63 (1,600)
No. 8 (M#25) NPB 72 (1,829) 71 (1,803) 61 (1,549) 72 (1,829) 72 (1,829)
No. 9 (M#29)C NPB NPB 82 (2,083) 74 (1,880) 82 (2,083) 82 (2,083)
A
See Equation 3. Based on fy = 60,000 psi (414 MPa) for Grade 60 steel and f'm = 1,500 psi (10.3 MPa).
B
Bar is too large for this wall; db exceeds 1/4 of the least clear dimension of the cell to be grouted, 1/8 of the nominal unit
thickness, or 4% of the cell area to be grouted. Dimensions are based on specified minimum dimensions for a two-core,
square core unit and take into account a cell taper of 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) and mortar protrusions not exceeding 1/2 in. (13 mm).
C
Strength design provisions do not permit the use of reinforcing bars larger than No. 9 (M#29).
D
Permitted only if all mortar fins are removed from the cell to be grouted. Not permitted if all mortar fins are not removed.

NCMA TEK 12-6A 3

for allowable stress design.
Tables 4a and 4b present minimum lap splice lengths for
reinforcement placed in the center of the wall, for f'm= 1,500
and 2,000 psi (10.3 and 13.7 MPa), respectively.
Tables 4c and 4d present minimum lap splice lengths for
reinforcement offset in the wall, for f'm= 1,500 and 2,000 psi
(10.3 and 13.7 MPa), respectively.
Other requirements for lap, mechanical, welded and end-
bearing splices are identical to those under the 2009 IBC, with
the exception of the new provisions for confinement reinforce-
ment, presented below.
2012 IBC Strength Design
Requirements for development length as well as lap, me-
chanical and welded splices are identical to those for allowable
stress design, and are presented in Tables 4a through 4d.
2012 IBC Lap Splices With Confinement
Reinforcement
The 2012 IBC, by reference to the 2011 MSJC, includes
new lap splice criteria where confinement reinforcement is
placed. The criteria are the same for both allowable stress
design and strength design.
The confinement reinforcement criteria allow a reduced
lap splice length when reinforcement is provided transverse
to lapped bars. Research has found that the transverse, or
confinement, reinforcement increases the lap performance
significantly, as long as there is at least one No. 3 (M#10) or
larger transverse bar placed within the last 8 in. (203 mm)
of each end of the lap (see Figure 1). Because of this effect,
calculated lap splice lengths are permitted to be reduced by a
confinement factor, ξ, determined using Equation 4:
ξ = 1 - 2.3Asc (SI: ξ = 1 - 11.59Asc ) (Eqn. 4)
db2.5 db2.5
where:
2.3Asc
≤ 1, and
db2.5
Asc < 0.35 in.2 (226 mm2) and
db is the bar diameter of the vertical reinforcement
The reduced lap splice length is not permitted to be less
than 36db. The clear space between the transverse bars and the
lapped bars may not exceed 1.5 in. (38 mm), and the transverse
bars must be fully developed in grouted masonry at the point
where they cross the lapped reinforcement (see Figure 1).
These provisions are included in Tables 4a through 4d.
STANDARD HOOKS
Figure 2 illustrates the requirements for standard hooks,
when reinforcing bars are anchored by hooks or by a combi-
4 NCMA TEK 12-6A
nation of hooks and development length. These requirements
apply to both the 2009 and 2012 IBC, for both allowable stress
and strength design. Table 5 lists minimum dimensions and
equivalent embedment lengths for standard hooks of various
sizes. A combination of hook and development length must be
used when the equivalent embedment length of the hook, le, is
less than the required minimum development length, ld. In this
case, development length equal to (ld - le) must be provided
in addition to the hook. This additional development length is
measured from the start of the hook (point of tangency with
the main portion of the bar).
JOINT REINFORCEMENT SPLICES
Joint reinforcement must have a minimum splice length of
6 in. (152 mm) to transfer shrinkage stresses. Slippage of the
deformed side wires is resisted by surface bond as well as by
mechanical anchorage of the embedded portions of the cross
wires.
Grouted cells
8 in. (203 mm)
max. (typ.)
t (typ.)
22 in.
Footer
(559 mm)
clear
19 in.
(482.6 mm)
t
If continuous horizontal reinforcement is not
otherwise provided within the end 8 in. (203 mm) of
If continuous horizontal reinforcement is not otherwise
each end of the splice, confined requirements may be
provided within the end 8 in. (203 mm) of each end of the
satisfied by providing hooked reinforcement as detailed
splice, confinement requirements may be satisfied by pro-
here. See Table 3 for lt minimum length requirements.
viding hooked reinforcement as detailed here. See Tables
Hook extensions are permitted to overlap.
4a through 4d for lt minimum length requirements. Hook
extensions are permitted to overlap.
Figure 1—Confinement Reinforcement
at Lap Splice
 Table 4a—2012 IBC Lap Splice Lengths, f’m = 1,500 psi (10.3 MPa),
Reinforcement in Center of Wall (ref. 1)A
Minimum lap splice length, in. (mm), for:
6-in. CMU 8-in. CMU 10-in. CMU 12-in. CMU
Longitudinal
Unconfined Con- Unconfined Confined Unconfined Confined Uncon- Confined
bar size
fined fined
No. 3 (M #10) 12 (305)B — 12 (305)B — 12 (305)B — 12 (305)B —
No. 4 (M#13) 20 (508) — 15 (381) — 12 (305) B
— 12 (305)B —
No. 5 (M#16) 32 (813) F, 6
— 23 (584) — 18 (457) — 15 (381) —
No. 6 (M#19) 54 (1,372) D, F, 7
29 (737) 1
43 (1.092) 7
27 (686) 2
34 (864) 27 (686) 3
28 (711) —
No. 7 (M#22) NP C
— 60 (1,524) 8
32 (813) 2
46 (1,164) 8
32 (813) 3
38 (965) 32 (813)3
No. 8 (M#25) NPC — 72 (1,829)D, 9 50 (1,270)2 71 (1,803)9 36 (914)3 57 (1,448)9 36 (914)3
No. 9 (M#29)E NPC — NPC — 82 (2,083)D, 10 41 (1,041)3 74 (1,880)10 48 (1,219)3
Footnotes common to Tables 4a through 4d:
A
See Equation 3. Based on fy = 60,000 psi (414 MPa) for Grade 60 steel. Applies to both allowable stress design and
strength design.
B
12 in. (305 mm) minimum governs.
C
Bar is too large for this wall; db exceeds 1/4 of the least clear dimension of the cell to be grouted, 1/8 of the nominal unit
thickness, or 4% of the cell area to be grouted. Dimensions are based on specified minimum dimensions for a two-core,
square core unit and take into account a cell taper of 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) and mortar protrusions not exceeding 1/2 in. (13
mm).
D
Maximum splice length of 72db governs.
E
Allowable stress design requires bars larger than No. 9 (M#29) to be spliced by mechanical connectors. Strength design
provisions do not permit the use of reinforcing bars larger than No. 9 (M#29).
F
Permitted only if all mortar fins are removed from the cell to be grouted. Not permitted if all mortar fins are not re-
moved.
4
Per 2012 IBC and 2011 MSJC, splice length may be reduced to amount shown if confinement reinforcement is provided
within the last 8 in. (203 mm) of each end of the longitudinal bar lap. Confinement reinforcement may be provided by
continuous horizontal reinforcement of the size indicated or greater. Alternatively, a hooked bar with min. lt indicated
in footnote and extending into adjacent cells as shown in Figure 1 may be used.
For Allowable Stress Design, reduce to the length indicated below when limiting to fs < 80% Fs (25,600 psi, 177 MPa):
5
26 in. (660 mm)
6
32 in. (813 mm)
7
39 in. (991 mm)
8
45 in. (1,143 mm)
9
52 in. (1,321 mm)
10
58 in. (1,473 mm)
Footnotes unique to Table 4a:
1
No. 3 (M#10) confinement bar with lt = 6 in. (152 mm) min., see Figure 1.
2
No. 4 (M#13) confinement bar with lt = 13 in. (330 mm) min., see Figure 1.
3
No. 4 (M#13) confinement bar with lt = 9 in. (229 mm) min., see Figure 1.

NCMA TEK 12-6A 5

 Table 4b—2012 IBC Lap Splice Lengths, f’m = 2,000 psi (13.7 MPa),
Reinforcement in Center of Wall (ref. 1)A
Minimum lap splice length, in. (mm), for:
6-in. CMU 8-in. CMU 10-in. CMU 12-in. CMU
Longitudinal
Unconfined Con- Unconfined Confined Unconfined Confined Uncon- Confined
bar size
fined fined
No. 3 (M #10) 12 (305)B — 12 (305)B — 12 (305)B — 12 (305)B —
No. 4 (M#13) 17 (432) — 13 (330) — 12 (305)B — 12 (305)B —
No. 5 (M#16) 27 (686) F
— 20 (508) — 15 (381) — 13 (330) —
No. 6 (M#19) 53 (1,346)D, F, 7
29 (737) 1
37 (940) 7
27 (686) 2
29 (737) 27 (686)3 24 (610) —
No. 7 (M#22) NP C
— 52 (1,321) 8
32 (813) 2
40 (1,016)8 32 (813)3 33 (838) 32 (813)3
No. 8 (M#25) NP C
— 72 (1,829)D, 9
50 (1,270) 2
61 (1,549)9 36 (914)3 50 (1,270) 9
36 (914)3
No. 9 (M#29)E NPC — NPC — 73 (1,854)D, 10 41 (1,041)3 64 (1,626)10 48 (1,219)3

Footnotes unique to Table 4b (for footnotes common to Tables 4a through 4d, see Table 4a):
1
No. 3 (M#10) confinement bar with lt = 6 in. (152 mm) min., see Figure 1.
2
No. 4 (M#13) confinement bar with lt = 11 in. (279 mm) min., see Figure 1.
3
No. 4 (M#13) confinement bar with lt = 8 in. (203 mm) min., see Figure 1.

Table 4c—2012 IBC Lap Splice Lengths, f’m = 1,500 psi (10.3
MPa), Reinforcement Off-Center (ref. 1)A
Footnotes unique to Table 4c (for foot-
Minimum lap splice length, in. (mm), based on off-
notes common to Tables 4a through 4d,
center reinforcement with masonry cover of:
see Table 4a):
Longitudinal 11/2-in. (38 mm) 2 in. (51 mm) 1
No. 4 (M#13) confinement bar with lt =
bar size
Unconfined Confined 4
Unconfined Confined4 18 in. (457 mm) min., see Figure 1.
No. 3 (M #10) 19 (483) — 15 (381) —
2
No. 5 (M#16) confinement bar with lt =
28 in. (711 mm) min., see Figure 1.
No. 4 (M#13) 34 (864) 5
— 26 (660) 5
— 3
No. 4 (M#13) confinement bar with lt =
No. 5 (M#16) 45 (1,143) D, 6
23 (584) 1
40 (1,016) 6
23 (584)3 14 in. (356 mm) min., see Figure 1.
No. 6 (M#19) 54 (1,372)D, 7 27 (686)1 54 (1,372)D, 7 27 (686)3
No. 7 (M#22) 63 (1,600)D, 8 48 (1,219)1 63 (1,600)D, 8 36 (914)3
No. 8 (M#25) 72 (1,829) D, 9
58 (2,057) 2
72 (1,829)D, 9
82 (2,083)3
No. 9 (M#29)E 82 (2,083)D, 10 — 82 (2,083)D, 10 —

Table 4d—2012 IBC Lap Splice Lengths, f’m = 2,000 psi (13.7
MPa), Reinforcement Off-Center (ref. 1)A
Minimum lap splice length, in. (mm), based on off- Footnotes unique to Table 4d (for foot-
center reinforcement with masonry cover of: notes common to Tables 4a through 4d,
Longitudinal see Table 4a):
11/2-in. (38 mm) 2 in. (51 mm)
bar size
1
No. 4 (M#13) confinement bar with lt =
Unconfined Confined 4
Unconfined Confined4 16 in. (406 mm) min., see Figure 1.
No. 3 (M #10) 17 (432) — 13 (330) — 2
No. 5 (M#16) confinement bar with lt =
No. 4 (M#13) 30 (762)5 — 22 (559)5 — 22 in. (559 mm) min., see Figure 1.
3
No. 4 (M#13) confinement bar with lt =
No. 5 (M#16) 45 (1,143) D, 6
23 (584) 1
34 (864) 23 (584)3
11 in. (356 mm) min., see Figure 1.
No. 6 (M#19) 54 (1,372)D, 7 27 (686)1 54 (1,372)D, 7 27 (686)3 11
No. 5 (M#16) confinement bar with lt =
No. 7 (M#22) 63 (1,600)D, 8 42 (1,067)1 63 (1,600)D, 8 32 (813)3 18 in. (457 mm) min., see Figure 1.
No. 8 (M#25) 72 (1,829) D, 9
50 (1,270) 2
72 (1,829)D, 9
38 (965)11
No. 9 (M#29)E 82 (2,083)D, 10 — 82 (2,083)D, 10 —

6 NCMA TEK 12-6A

 d e
db

Di
Standard 180° hook

At least 4d b but not less

d e
db than 2 1 2 in. (64 mm)

Di
Standard 90° hook
12db
d e
db

5d b
90° stirrup or tie 6db , but not less than
for No. 5 (M#16) bar
2 1 2 in. (64 mm)
or smaller
d e
db

5db
135° stirrup or tie
for No. 5 (M#16) bar 6db , but not less than
or smaller 2 1 2 in. (64 mm)

Figure 2—Standard Hooks

Table 5—Standard Hooks—Dimensions and Equivalent Embedment Lengths

Bar size Bar Minimum 180o hook. Stirrups & 90o hook. 12db Equivalent
diameter, inside 4db tiesC, 6db extension, in. embedment length,
db, in. (mm) diameter of extension, extension, (mm) le, 13db, in. (mm)
bend, Di, in. in. (mm) in. (mm)
(mm)
No. 3 (M #10) 0.375 (9.5) 2.3 (57) 2.5B (64) 2.5C (64) 4.5 (114) 4.8 (122)
No. 4 (M#13) 0.500 (13) 3.0 (76) 2.5B (64) 3.0 (76) 6.0 (152) 6.5 (165)
No. 5 (M#16) 0.625 (16) 3.8 (95) 2.5 (64) 3.8 (95) 7.5 (191) 8.1 (206)
No. 6 (M#19) 0.750 (19) 4.5 (114) 3.0 (76) NP C 9.0 (229) 9.7 (246)
No. 7 (M#22) 0.875 (22) 5.3 (133) 3.5 (89) NP C 10.5 (267) 11.3 (287)
No. 8 (M#25) 1.000 (25) 6.0 (152) 4.0 (102) NP C 12.0 (305) 13.0 (330)
No. 9 (M#29) 1.128 (29) 9.0 (229) 4.5 (115) NP C 13.5 (343) 14.6 (371)
No. 10 (M#32) 1.270 (32) 10.2 (259) 5.1 (130) NP C 15.2 (386) 16.5 (404) D
No. 11 (M#36) 1.410 (36) 11.3 (287) 5.6 (142) NP C 16.9 (429) 18.3 (449) D
A
Based on Grade 60 reinforcing bars as follows: Di must equal or exceed 6db for bar sizes No. 3 through 8 (M#10–M#25);
8db for No. 9–11 (M #29–M#36) bars. Diameters of bend may be decreased to 5db for stirrups and for Grade 40, No. 3–7
(M#10–M#22).
B
For 180o standard hooks, bar extensions may not be less than 21/2 in. (64 mm).
C
For stirrups and ties that terminate in a 90o or 135o standard hook, bar size is limited to No. 5 (M#16) and smaller, and
extensions may not be less than 21/2 in. (64 mm).
D
Not permitted when using strength design, as the maximum reinforcing bar size is No. 9 (M#29)

NCMA TEK 12-6A 7

NOTATIONS:
Asc = area of the transverse bars at each end of the lap splice, in.2 (mm2)
Di = min. inside diameter of bend for standard hooks, in. (mm)
db = nominal diameter of reinforcement, in. (mm)
K = the least of the masonry cover, 9db for the 2012 IBC (5db for the 2009 IBC) and the clear spacing between adjacent reinforce-
ment, in. (mm)
Fs = allowable tensile stress in reinforcement, psi (MPa)
f'm = specified compressive strength of masonry, psi (MPa)
fs = calculated tensile or compressive stress in steel, psi (MPa)
fy = specified yield strength of steel, psi (MPa)
ld = embedment length or lap splice length of straight reinforcement, in. (mm)
le = equivalent embedment length provided by standard hooks measured from the start of the hook (point of tangency), in. (mm)
lt = length of bar extension of hooked confinement reinforcement, in. (mm)
γ = reinforcement size factor
ξ = lap splice confinement reinforcement factor

REFERENCES
1. International Building Code 2012. International Code Council, 2012.
2. International Building Code 2009. International Code Council, 2009.
3. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, TMS 402-11 /ACI 530-11/ASCE 5-11. Reported by the Masonry Standards
Joint Committee, 2011.
4. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, TMS 402-08 /ACI 530-08/ASCE 5-08. Reported by the Masonry Standards
Joint Committee, 2008.
5. Steel Reinforcement for Concrete Masonry, TEK 12-4D. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2007.
6. Post-Tensioned Concrete Masonry Wall Construction, TEK 3-14. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2002.
7. TEK 12-6, Splices, Development and Standard Hooks for Concrete Masonry. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2007.
8. Structural Welding Code—Reinforcing Steel, AWS D 1.4-05. American Welding Society, 2005.
9. Standard Specification for Low-Alloy Steel Deformed and Plain Bars for Concrete Reinforcement, ASTM A706/A706M-09b.
ASTM International, Inc., 2009.
10. Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and Commentary, ACI 318-11. American Concrete Institute, 2011.

NCMA and the companies disseminating this technical information disclaim any and all responsibility and liability for the accuracy
and the application of the information contained in this publication.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION

13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171
www.ncma.org

To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index, contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900

8 NCMA TEK 12-6A

 NCMA TEK
National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology

SECTION PROPERTIES OF TEK 14-1B

Structural (2007)
CONCRETE MASONRY WALLS

Keywords: concrete masonry walls, engineered 3

15 5 8 in.
in.
4 15 5 8 in. 3 5 8 in. (397 mm)
1 in.
design, gross area, moment of inertia, net area, (19 mm) (397 mm) (92 mm) (25 mm) 5 5 8 in.
radius of gyration, reinforced concrete masonry, 1 in. (143 mm)
reinforced properties, section modulus, section (25 mm)
3
4 in. 3
properties, structural properties (19 mm) 4 in. (19 mm) 1 in. (25 mm)
LQPPEORFN LQPPEORFN
INTRODUCTION 15 5 8 in. 15 5 8 in.
(397 mm) (397 mm)

Engineereddesignofconcretemasonryusessection 1 1 4 in. 7 5 8 in. 11 4 in. 9 5 8 in.

32 mm) (194 mm) (32 mm) (244 mm)
SURSHUWLHVWRGHWHUPLQHVWUHQJWKVWLIIQHVVDQGGHÀHFWLRQ
characteristics. These design philosophies are summa-
rized in Allowable Stress Design of Concrete Masonry, 1 in. (25 mm) 11 8 in. (29 mm)
Strength Design of Concrete Masonry andPost-Tensioned LQPPEORFN LQPPEORFN
Concrete Masonry Wall Design (refs. 1, 2, 3). 15 5 8 in. 15 5 8 in.
(397 mm) (397 mm)

SECTION PROPERTIES 11 4 in.

1 1 4 in. (32 mm) 13 5 8 in.
5
(32 mm) 11 8 in. (346 mm)
Tables 1 through 13 summarize section properties (295 mm)
of grouted and ungrouted 4-, 6-, 8-, 10-, 12-, 14- and
16-in. (102-, 152-, 203-, 254-, 305-, 356- and 406- 118 in. (29 mm) 118 in. (29 mm)
mm) wide concrete masonry walls, based on: LQPPEORFN LQPPEORFN
x standard unit dimensions are based on the mini- 15 5 8 in.
(397 mm)
mum face shell and web thickness requirements of
6WDQGDUG6SHFL¿FDWLRQIRU/RDGEHDULQJ&RQFUHWH
Masonry Units, ASTM C 90-06 (ref. 4) as shown 1 1 4 in. 15 5 8 in.
in Figure 1, except as noted in Tables 8 through 13. (32 mm) (397 mm)
Note that prior to ASTM C 90-06, two minimum
face shell thicknesses for units 10-in. (254-mm)
DQG ZLGHU ZHUH VSHFL¿HG :LWK WKH LQWURGXFWLRQ 118 in. (29 mm)
of ASTM C 90-06, the two face shell thicknesses LQPPEORFN
were replaced with one minimum thickness require-
ment (11/4 in. (32 mm)). See Reference 5 for further )LJXUH²6SHFL¿HG%ORFN'LPHQVLRQVDQG0LQLPXP
information. Tables 10 through 13 can be used for )DFH6KHOODQG:HE7KLFNQHVVHVUHI
section properties of units complying with previous
editions of ASTM C 90.
x the nominal face dimensions of all units are 16 in.
long by 8 in. high (406 by 203 mm),
x all mortar joints are 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) thick,
x all mortar joints are the same depth as the thickness
of the face shell or web on which they are placed,
x for ungrouted and partially grouted masonry, all
units have a symmetrical cross-section, square ends  6LQJOHRSHQHQGRU 'RXEOHRSHQHQGRU
and two cores (with the exception of architectural  $EORFN +EORFN
features such as scores, ribs and split surfaces). )LJXUH²2SHQ(QG8QLWV
Note that the section properties listed can be con-
TEK 14-1B © 2007 National Concrete Masonry Association (replaces TEK 14-1A)
 servatively applied to open-end units (see Figure 2) that are
either partially grouted or solid grouted, since by code the
cells with the open end must be grouted.
The tables include both net and average properties. Net
section properties (An, In and Sn) are calculated based on the
minimum net cross-sectional area of an assemblage. These
values are related to the critical section when determining
stresses due to an applied load (refs. 6, 7). Average section
properties (Aavg, Iavg, Savg and ravg) correspond to an average
cross-sectional area of an assemblage, and are used to determine
are calculated along a vertical axis parallel to the plane of the
masonry (axis Y-Y in Figure 3).
In addition to section properties based on the standard
unit dimensions shown in Figure 1, Tables 8 and 9 list section
properties of walls constructed using 8-in. (203-mm) units with
WKLFNHQHGIDFHVKHOOV7KHVHXQLWVDUHRIWHQVSHFL¿HGWRDFKLHYH
KLJKHU¿UHUDWLQJV7DEOHOLVWVVHFWLRQSURSHUWLHVRIZDOOV
constructed using 10-in. (254-mm) units with 13/8 in. (35 mm)
face shells, the minimum required prior to ASTM C-90-06.
Similarly, Tables 11, 12 and 13 list section properties of walls
VWLIIQHVVRUGHÀHFWLRQGXHWRDSSOLHGORDGLQJUHIV constructed using 12-, 14- and 16-in. (305-, 356- and 406-mm)
The net and average horizontal section properties are units, respectively, with 11/2 in. (38 mm) face shells.
listed in Tables 1a, 2a, etc., while vertical section properties
are listed in Tables 1b, 2b, etc. For vertically spanning walls,
METRIC in. x 25.4 = mm
horizontal section properties are calculated along a horizontal &219(56,216 in.2/ft x 2,117 = mm2/m
axis parallel to the plane of the masonry (axis X-X in Figure in.3/ft x 53,763 = mm3/m
3). For horizontally spanning walls, vertical section properties in.4/ft x 1,365,588 = mm4/m

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D+RUL]RQWDO6HFWLRQ3URSHUWLHV0DVRQU\6SDQQLQJ9HUWLFDOO\
Grout Mortar Net cross-sectional propertiesA Average cross-sectional propertiesB
Unit spacing (in.) bedding An (in. /ft) In (in. /ft) Sn (in. /ft) Aavg (in.2/ft) Iavg (in.4/ft) Savg (in.3/ft) ravg (in.)
2 4 3

Hollow No grout Face shell 18.0 38.0 21.0 21.6 39.4 21.7 1.35
Hollow No grout Full 21.6 39.4 21.7 21.6 39.4 21.7 1.35
100% solid/solidly grouted Full 43.5 47.6 26.3 43.5 47.6 26.3 1.05
E9HUWLFDO6HFWLRQ3URSHUWLHV0DVRQU\6SDQQLQJ+RUL]RQWDOO\
Hollow No grout Face shell 18.0 38.0 21.0 21.2 39.1 21.6 1.36
Hollow No grout Full 18.0 38.0 21.0 21.6 39.4 21.7 1.35
100% solid/solidly grouted Full 43.5 47.6 26.3 43.5 47.6 26.3 1.05

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D+RUL]RQWDO6HFWLRQ3URSHUWLHV0DVRQU\6SDQQLQJ9HUWLFDOO\
Grout Mortar Net cross-sectional propertiesA Average cross-sectional propertiesB
Unit spacing (in.) bedding An (in. /ft) In (in. /ft) Sn (in. /ft) Aavg (in.2/ft) Iavg (in.4/ft) Savg (in.3/ft) ravg (in.)
2 4 3

Hollow No grout Face shell 24.0 130.3 46.3 32.2 139.3 49.5 2.08
Hollow No grout Full 32.2 139.3 49.5 32.2 139.3 49.5 2.08
100% solid/solidly grouted Full 67.5 178.0 63.3 67.5 178.0 63.3 1.62
Hollow 16 Face shell 46.6 155.1 55.1 49.3 158.1 56.2 1.79
Hollow 24 Face shell 39.1 146.8 52.2 43.6 151.8 54.0 1.87
Hollow 32 Face shell 35.3 142.7 50.7 40.7 148.7 52.9 1.91
Hollow 40 Face shell 33.0 140.2 49.9 39.0 146.8 52.2 1.94
Hollow 48 Face shell 31.5 138.6 49.3 37.9 145.5 51.7 1.96
Hollow 72 Face shell 29.0 135.8 48.3 36.0 143.5 51.0 2.00
Hollow 96 Face shell 27.8 134.5 47.8 35.0 142.4 50.6 2.02
Hollow 120 Face shell 27.0 133.6 47.5 34.4 141.8 50.4 2.03
E9HUWLFDO6HFWLRQ3URSHUWLHV0DVRQU\6SDQQLQJ+RUL]RQWDOO\
Hollow No grout Face shell 24.0 130.3 46.3 31.4 137.7 49.0 2.09
Hollow No grout Full 24.0 130.3 46.3 32.2 139.3 49.5 2.08
100% solid/solidly grouted Full 67.5 178.0 63.3 67.5 178.0 63.3 1.62
Hollow 16 Face shell 45.8 154.2 54.8 53.1 161.5 57.4 1.74
Hollow 24 Face shell 38.5 146.2 52.0 45.9 153.6 54.6 1.83
Hollow 32 Face shell 34.9 142.3 50.6 42.3 149.6 53.2 1.88
Hollow 40 Face shell 32.7 139.9 49.7 40.1 147.2 52.4 1.92
Hollow 48 Face shell 31.3 138.3 49.2 38.6 145.7 51.8 1.94
Hollow 96 Face shell 27.6 134.3 47.8 35.0 141.7 50.4 2.01
Hollow 120 Face shell 26.9 133.5 47.5 34.3 140.9 50.1 2.03
 7DEOH²LQFKPP6LQJOH:\WKH:DOOV1/4LQPP)DFH6KHOOVVWDQGDUG
D+RUL]RQWDO6HFWLRQ3URSHUWLHV0DVRQU\6SDQQLQJ9HUWLFDOO\
Grout Mortar Net cross-sectional propertiesA Average cross-sectional propertiesB
Unit spacing (in.) bedding An (in. /ft) In (in. /ft) Sn (in. /ft) Aavg (in.2/ft) Iavg (in.4/ft) Savg (in.3/ft) ravg (in.)
2 4 3

Hollow No grout Face shell 30.0 308.7 81.0 41.5 334.0 87.6 2.84
Hollow No grout Full 41.5 334.0 87.6 41.5 334.0 87.6 2.84
100% solid/solidly grouted Full 91.5 443.3 116.3 91.5 443.3 116.3 2.20
Hollow 16 Face shell 62.0 378.6 99.3 65.8 387.1 101.5 2.43
Hollow 24 Face shell 51.3 355.3 93.2 57.7 369.4 96.9 2.53
Hollow 32 Face shell 46.0 343.7 90.1 53.7 360.5 94.6 2.59
Hollow 40 Face shell 42.8 336.7 88.3 51.2 355.2 93.2 2.63
Hollow 48 Face shell 40.7 332.0 87.1 49.6 351.7 92.2 2.66
Hollow 72 Face shell 37.1 324.3 85.0 46.9 345.8 90.7 2.71
Hollow 96 Face shell 35.3 320.4 84.0 45.6 342.8 89.9 2.74
Hollow 120 Face shell 34.3 318.0 83.4 44.8 341.0 89.5 2.76
E9HUWLFDO6HFWLRQ3URSHUWLHV0DVRQU\6SDQQLQJ+RUL]RQWDOO\
Hollow No grout Face shell 30.0 308.7 81.0 40.5 330.1 86.6 2.86
Hollow No grout Full 30.0 308.7 81.0 41.5 334.0 87.6 2.84
100% solid/solidly grouted Full 91.5 443.3 116.3 91.5 443.3 116.3 2.20
Hollow 16 Face shell 60.8 376.0 98.6 71.2 397.4 104.2 2.36
Hollow 24 Face shell 50.5 353.6 92.7 61.0 374.9 98.3 2.48
Hollow 32 Face shell 45.4 342.4 89.8 55.8 363.7 95.4 2.55
Hollow 40 Face shell 42.3 335.6 88.0 52.8 357.0 93.6 2.60
Hollow 48 Face shell 40.3 331.1 86.9 50.7 352.5 92.5 2.64
Hollow 96 Face shell 35.1 319.9 83.9 45.6 341.3 89.5 2.74
Hollow 120 Face shell 34.1 317.7 83.3 44.6 339.0 88.9 2.76

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Grout Mortar Net cross-sectional propertiesA Average cross-sectional propertiesB
Unit spacing (in.) bedding An (in.2/ft) In (in.4/ft) Sn (in.3/ft) Aavg (in.2/ft) Iavg (in.4/ft) Savg (in.3/ft) ravg (in.)
Hollow No grout Face shell 30.0 530.0 110.1 48.0 606.3 126.0 3.55
Hollow No grout Full 48.0 606.3 126.0 48.0 606.3 126.0 3.55
100% solid/solidly grouted Full 115.5 891.7 185.3 115.5 891.7 185.3 2.78
Hollow 16 Face shell 74.8 719.3 149.5 80.8 744.7 154.7 3.04
Hollow 24 Face shell 59.8 656.2 136.3 69.9 698.6 145.2 3.16
Hollow 32 Face shell 52.4 624.6 129.8 64.4 675.5 140.4 3.24
Hollow 40 Face shell 47.9 605.7 125.9 61.1 661.6 137.5 3.29
Hollow 48 Face shell 44.9 593.1 123.2 58.9 652.4 135.6 3.33
Hollow 72 Face shell 39.9 572.0 118.9 55.3 637.0 132.4 3.39
Hollow 96 Face shell 37.5 561.5 116.7 53.5 629.3 130.8 3.43
Hollow 120 Face shell 36.0 555.2 115.4 52.4 624.7 129.8 3.45
E9HUWLFDO6HFWLRQ3URSHUWLHV0DVRQU\6SDQQLQJ+RUL]RQWDOO\
Hollow No grout Face shell 30.0 530.0 110.1 46.3 597.4 124.1 3.59
Hollow No grout Full 30.0 530.0 110.1 48.0 606.3 126.0 3.55
100% solid/solidly grouted Full 115.5 891.7 185.3 115.5 891.7 185.3 2.78
Hollow 16 Face shell 72.8 710.8 147.7 89.1 778.3 161.7 2.96
Hollow 24 Face shell 58.5 650.5 135.2 74.8 718.0 149.2 3.10
Hollow 32 Face shell 51.4 620.4 128.9 67.7 687.9 142.9 3.19
Hollow 40 Face shell 47.1 602.3 125.2 63.4 669.8 139.2 3.25
Hollow 48 Face shell 44.3 590.2 122.6 60.6 657.7 136.7 3.29
Hollow 96 Face shell 37.1 560.1 116.4 53.5 627.6 130.4 3.43
Hollow 120 Face shell 35.7 554.1 115.1 52.0 621.6 129.2 3.46

FOOTNOTES:
A
Net cross-sectional properties determined from a vertical plane that coincides with the face shells of the units. Net cross-
sectional properties are to be used for determining stress and strain resulting from the application of load.
B
Average cross-sectional properties determined from two vertical planes calculated as the average of the net and solid proper-
WLHV$YHUDJHFURVVVHFWLRQDOSURSHUWLHVDUHWREHXVHGIRUGHWHUPLQLQJVWLIIQHVVDQGGHÀHFWLRQRIDQHOHPHQW
C
 %HFDXVHRIWKHVPDOOFRUHVL]HDQGUHVXOWLQJGLI¿FXOW\FRQVROLGDWLQJJURXWLQPPXQLWVDUHUDUHO\JURXWHG
 7DEOH²LQFKPP6LQJOH:\WKH:DOOV1/4LQPP)DFH6KHOOVVWDQGDUG
D+RUL]RQWDO6HFWLRQ3URSHUWLHV0DVRQU\6SDQQLQJ9HUWLFDOO\
Grout Mortar Net cross-sectional propertiesA Average cross-sectional propertiesB
Unit spacing (in.) bedding An (in. /ft) In (in. /ft) Sn (in. /ft) Aavg (in.2/ft) Iavg (in.4/ft) Savg (in.3/ft) ravg (in.)
2 4 3

Hollow No grout Face shell 30.0 811.2 139.6 53.1 971.5 167.1 4.28
Hollow No grout Full 53.1 971.5 167.1 53.1 971.5 167.1 4.28
100% solid/solidly grouted Full 139.5 1,571.0 270.3 139.5 1,571.0 270.3 3.36
Hollow 16 Face shell 87.3 1,208.9 208.0 95.0 1,262.3 217.2 3.64
Hollow 24 Face shell 68.2 1,076.3 185.2 81.0 1,165.4 200.5 3.79
Hollow 32 Face shell 58.7 1,010.1 173.8 74.1 1,116.9 192.2 3.88
Hollow 40 Face shell 52.9 970.3 166.9 69.9 1,087.8 187.2 3.95
Hollow 48 Face shell 49.1 943.8 162.4 67.1 1,068.4 183.8 3.99
Hollow 72 Face shell 42.7 899.6 154.8 62.4 1,036.1 178.3 4.07
Hollow 96 Face shell 39.6 877.5 151.0 60.1 1,020.0 175.5 4.12
Hollow 120 Face shell 37.6 864.2 148.7 58.7 1,010.3 173.8 4.15
E9HUWLFDO6HFWLRQ3URSHUWLHV0DVRQU\6SDQQLQJ+RUL]RQWDOO\
Hollow No grout Face shell 30.0 811.2 139.6 50.9 955.9 164.5 4.33
Hollow No grout Full 30.0 811.2 139.6 53.1 971.5 167.1 4.28
100% solid/solidly grouted Full 139.5 1,571.0 270.3 139.5 1,571.0 270.3 3.36
Hollow 16 Face shell 84.8 1,191.1 204.9 105.7 1,335.8 229.8 3.56
Hollow 24 Face shell 66.5 1,064.5 183.1 87.4 1,209.2 208.0 3.72
Hollow 32 Face shell 57.4 1,001.2 172.2 78.3 1,145.9 197.1 3.83
Hollow 40 Face shell 51.9 963.2 165.7 72.8 1,107.9 190.6 3.90
Hollow 48 Face shell 48.3 937.8 161.3 69.2 1,082.6 186.3 3.96
Hollow 96 Face shell 39.1 874.5 150.5 60.1 1,019.3 175.4 4.12
Hollow 120 Face shell 37.3 861.9 148.3 58.2 1,006.6 173.2 4.16

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Grout Mortar Net cross-sectional propertiesA Average cross-sectional propertiesB
Unit spacing (in.) bedding An (in.2/ft) In (in.4/ft) Sn (in.3/ft) Aavg (in.2/ft) Iavg (in.4/ft) Savg (in.3/ft) ravg (in.)
Hollow No grout Face shell 30.0 1,152.5 169.2 58.2 1,442.9 211.8 4.98
Hollow No grout Full 58.2 1,442.9 211.8 58.2 1,442.9 211.8 4.98
100% solid/solidly grouted Full 163.5 2,529.4 371.3 163.5 2,529.4 371.3 3.93
Hollow 16 Face shell 99.9 1,873.2 275.0 109.3 1,970.0 289.2 4.25
Hollow 24 Face shell 76.6 1,632.9 239.7 92.2 1,794.3 263.4 4.41
Hollow 32 Face shell 64.9 1,512.8 222.1 83.7 1,706.4 250.5 4.51
Hollow 40 Face shell 58.0 1,440.7 211.5 78.6 1,653.7 242.8 4.59
Hollow 48 Face shell 53.3 1,392.7 204.4 75.2 1,618.6 237.6 4.64
Hollow 72 Face shell 45.5 1,312.6 192.7 69.5 1,560.0 229.0 4.74
Hollow 96 Face shell 41.6 1,272.6 186.8 66.7 1,530.7 224.7 4.79
Hollow 120 Face shell 39.3 1,248.6 183.3 65.0 1,513.2 222.1 4.83
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Hollow No grout Face shell 30.0 1,152.5 169.2 55.5 1,417.9 208.1 5.05
Hollow No grout Full 30.0 1,152.5 169.2 58.2 1,442.9 211.8 4.98
100% solid/solidly grouted Full 163.5 2,529.4 371.3 163.5 2,529.4 371.3 3.93
Hollow 16 Face shell 96.8 1,840.9 270.2 122.3 2,106.3 309.2 4.15
Hollow 24 Face shell 74.5 1,611.4 236.5 100.0 1,876.9 275.5 4.33
Hollow 32 Face shell 63.4 1,496.7 219.7 88.9 1,762.1 258.7 4.45
Hollow 40 Face shell 56.7 1,427.8 209.6 82.2 1,693.3 248.6 4.54
Hollow 48 Face shell 52.3 1,381.9 202.9 77.8 1,647.4 241.8 4.60
Hollow 96 Face shell 41.1 1,267.2 186.0 66.6 1,532.6 225.0 4.80
Hollow 120 Face shell 38.9 1,244.3 182.6 64.4 1,509.7 221.6 4.84
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Grout Mortar Net cross-sectional propertiesA Average cross-sectional propertiesB
Unit spacing (in.) bedding An (in. /ft) In (in. /ft) Sn (in. /ft) Aavg (in.2/ft) Iavg (in.4/ft) Savg (in.3/ft) ravg (in.)
2 4 3

Hollow No grout Face shell 30.0 1,553.7 198.9 63.2 2,030.6 259.9 5.67
Hollow No grout Full 63.2 2,030.6 259.9 63.2 2,030.6 259.9 5.67
100% solid/solidly grouted Full 187.5 3,814.7 488.3 187.5 3,814.7 488.3 4.51
Hollow 16 Face shell 112.4 2,737.2 350.4 123.5 2,896.2 370.7 4.84
Hollow 24 Face shell 85.0 2,342.7 299.9 103.4 2,607.7 333.8 5.02
Hollow 32 Face shell 71.2 2,145.5 274.6 93.4 2,463.4 315.3 5.14
Hollow 40 Face shell 63.0 2,027.1 259.5 87.3 2,376.9 304.2 5.22
Hollow 48 Face shell 57.5 1,948.2 249.4 83.3 2,319.1 296.9 5.28
Hollow 72 Face shell 48.3 1,816.7 232.5 76.6 2,223.0 284.5 5.39
Hollow 96 Face shell 43.7 1,751.0 224.1 73.3 2,174.9 278.4 5.45
Hollow 120 Face shell 41.0 1,711.5 219.1 71.3 2,146.0 274.7 5.49
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Hollow No grout Face shell 30.0 1,553.7 198.9 60.1 1,992.9 255.1 5.76
Hollow No grout Full 30.0 1,553.7 198.9 63.2 2,030.6 259.9 5.67
100% solid/solidly grouted Full 187.5 3,814.7 488.3 187.5 3,814.7 488.3 4.51
Hollow 16 Face shell 108.8 2,684.2 343.6 138.9 3,123.4 399.8 4.74
Hollow 24 Face shell 82.5 2,307.4 295.3 112.6 2,746.6 351.6 4.94
Hollow 32 Face shell 69.4 2,119.0 271.2 99.5 2,558.2 327.4 5.07
Hollow 40 Face shell 61.5 2,005.9 256.8 91.6 2,445.1 313.0 5.17
Hollow 48 Face shell 56.3 1,930.5 247.1 86.4 2,369.8 303.3 5.24
Hollow 96 Face shell 43.1 1,742.1 223.0 73.2 2,181.3 279.2 5.46
Hollow 120 Face shell 40.5 1,704.4 218.2 70.6 2,143.7 274.4 5.51

Y Faceshell bedding, no grout

Full bedding, no grout

X
Faceshell bedding, partial grout

Solid grout

100% solid units

X Y
100% Solid Partial No
solid grout grout with grout
units bond beams
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NOTATION:
Aavg = average cross-sectional area of masonry, in.2 (mm2).
An = net cross-sectional area of masonry, in.2 (mm2).
Iavg = moment of inertia of average cross-sectional area of
masonry, in.4 (mm4).
In = moment of inertia of net cross-sectional area of masonry,
in.4 (mm4).
ravg= radius of gyration of the average cross-sectional area
of masonry, in. (mm).
Savg = section modulus of the average cross-sectional area of
masonry, in.3 (mm3).
Sn = section modulus of the net cross-sectional area of ma-
sonry, in.3 (mm3).
REFERENCES
1. Allowable Stress Design of Concrete Masonry,TEK 14-7A.
National Concrete Masonry Association, 2004.
2. Strength Design of Concrete Masonry,TEK 14-4A. National
Concrete Masonry Association, 2002.
3. Post-Tensioned Concrete Masonry Wall Design, TEK 14-
20A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2002.
4. 6WDQGDUG6SHFL¿FDWLRQIRU/RDGEHDULQJ&RQFUHWH0DVRQU\
Units, ASTM C 90-06. ASTM International, 2006.
 $6706SHFL¿FDWLRQVIRU&RQFUHWH0DVRQU\8QLWV7(.
1-1E. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2007.
6. International Building Code 2003. International Code
Council, 2003.
7. International Building Code 2006. International Code
Council, 2006.
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Grout Mortar Net cross-sectional propertiesA Average cross-sectional propertiesB
Unit spacing (in.) bedding An (in. /ft) In (in. /ft) Sn (in. /ft) Aavg (in.2/ft) Iavg (in.4/ft) Savg (in.3/ft) ravg (in.)
2 4 3

Hollow No grout Face shell 48.0 395.7 103.8 56.2 404.6 106.1 2.68
Hollow No grout Full 56.2 404.6 106.1 56.2 404.6 106.1 2.68
100% solid/solidly grouted Full 91.5 443.3 116.3 91.5 443.3 116.3 2.20
Hollow 16 Face shell 70.6 420.4 110.3 73.3 423.4 111.1 2.40
Hollow 24 Face shell 63.1 412.2 108.1 67.6 417.1 109.4 2.48
Hollow 32 Face shell 59.3 408.1 107.0 64.7 414.0 108.6 2.53
Hollow 40 Face shell 57.0 405.6 106.4 63.0 412.1 108.1 2.56
Hollow 48 Face shell 55.5 403.9 106.0 61.9 410.9 107.8 2.58
Hollow 72 Face shell 53.0 401.2 105.2 60.0 408.8 107.2 2.61
Hollow 96 Face shell 51.8 399.8 104.9 59.0 407.8 107.0 2.63
Hollow 120 Face shell 51.0 399.0 104.7 58.4 407.1 106.8 2.64
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Hollow No grout Face shell 48.0 395.7 103.8 55.4 400.7 105.1 2.69
Hollow No grout Full 48.0 395.7 103.8 56.2 404.6 106.1 2.68
100% solid/solidly grouted Full 91.5 443.3 116.3 91.5 443.3 116.3 2.20
Hollow 16 Face shell 69.8 419.5 110.0 77.1 424.5 111.4 2.35
Hollow 24 Face shell 62.5 411.6 108.0 69.9 416.6 109.3 2.44
Hollow 32 Face shell 58.9 407.6 106.9 66.3 412.6 108.2 2.50
Hollow 40 Face shell 56.7 405.2 106.3 64.1 410.2 107.6 2.53
Hollow 48 Face shell 55.3 403.6 105.9 62.6 408.7 107.2 2.55
Hollow 96 Face shell 51.6 399.7 104.8 59.0 404.7 106.1 2.62
Hollow 120 Face shell 50.9 398.9 104.6 58.3 403.9 105.9 2.63

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Grout Mortar Net cross-sectional propertiesA Average cross-sectional propertiesB
Unit spacing (in.) bedding An (in. /ft) In (in. /ft) Sn (in. /ft) Aavg (in.2/ft) Iavg (in.4/ft) Savg (in.3/ft) ravg (in.)
2 4 3

Hollow No grout Face shell 33.0 327.5 85.9 44.0 349.2 91.6 2.82
Hollow No grout Full 44.0 349.2 91.6 44.0 349.2 91.6 2.82
100% solid/solidly grouted Full 91.5 443.3 116.3 91.5 443.3 116.3 2.20
Hollow 16 Face shell 63.4 387.7 101.7 67.0 394.9 103.6 2.43
Hollow 24 Face shell 53.3 367.6 96.4 59.4 379.7 99.6 2.53
Hollow 32 Face shell 48.2 357.6 93.8 55.5 372.0 97.6 2.59
Hollow 40 Face shell 45.2 351.5 92.2 53.2 367.5 96.4 2.63
Hollow 48 Face shell 43.1 347.5 91.2 51.7 364.4 95.6 2.66
Hollow 72 Face shell 39.8 340.8 89.4 49.1 359.3 94.3 2.71
Hollow 96 Face shell 38.1 337.5 88.5 47.8 356.8 93.6 2.73
Hollow 120 Face shell 37.1 335.5 88.0 47.0 355.3 93.2 2.75
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Hollow No grout Face shell 33.0 327.5 85.9 42.9 345.3 90.6 2.84
Hollow No grout Full 33.0 327.5 85.9 44.0 349.2 91.6 2.82
100% solid/solidly grouted Full 91.5 443.3 116.3 91.5 443.3 116.3 2.20
Hollow 16 Face shell 62.3 385.4 101.1 72.2 403.2 105.8 2.36
Hollow 24 Face shell 52.5 366.1 96.0 62.4 383.9 100.7 2.48
Hollow 32 Face shell 47.6 356.4 93.5 57.6 374.3 98.2 2.55
Hollow 40 Face shell 44.7 350.6 92.0 54.6 368.5 96.6 2.60
Hollow 48 Face shell 42.8 346.8 91.0 52.7 364.6 95.6 2.63
Hollow 96 Face shell 37.9 337.1 88.4 47.8 354.9 93.1 2.72
Hollow 120 Face shell 36.9 335.2 87.9 46.8 353.0 92.6 2.75
 7DEOH²LQFKPP6LQJOH:\WKH:DOOV/8LQPP)DFH6KHOOVQRQVWDQGDUG
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Grout Mortar Net cross-sectional propertiesA Average cross-sectional propertiesB
Unit spacing (in.) bedding An (in. /ft) In (in. /ft) Sn (in. /ft) Aavg (in.2/ft) Iavg (in.4/ft) Savg (in.3/ft) ravg (in.)
2 4 3

Hollow No grout Face shell 33.0 566.7 117.8 50.4 635.3 132.0 3.55
Hollow No grout Full 50.4 635.3 132.0 50.4 635.3 132.0 3.55
100% solid/solidly grouted Full 115.5 891.7 185.3 115.5 891.7 185.3 2.78
Hollow 16 Face shell 76.2 736.8 153.1 82.0 759.7 157.9 3.04
Hollow 24 Face shell 61.8 680.1 141.3 71.5 718.2 149.2 3.17
Hollow 32 Face shell 54.6 651.8 135.4 66.2 697.5 144.9 3.25
Hollow 40 Face shell 50.3 634.8 131.9 63.0 685.0 142.3 3.30
Hollow 48 Face shell 47.4 623.4 129.5 60.9 676.7 140.6 3.33
Hollow 72 Face shell 42.6 604.5 125.6 57.4 662.9 137.7 3.40
Hollow 96 Face shell 40.2 595.1 123.6 55.7 656.0 136.3 3.43
Hollow 120 Face shell 38.8 589.4 122.5 54.6 651.8 135.4 3.45
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Hollow No grout Face shell 33.0 566.7 117.8 48.8 626.4 130.2 3.58
Hollow No grout Full 33.0 566.7 117.8 50.4 635.3 132.0 3.55
100% solid/solidly grouted Full 115.5 891.7 185.3 115.5 891.7 185.3 2.78
Hollow 16 Face shell 74.3 729.2 151.5 90.0 788.9 163.9 2.96
Hollow 24 Face shell 60.5 675.0 140.3 76.3 734.8 152.7 3.10
Hollow 32 Face shell 53.6 648.0 134.6 69.4 707.7 147.1 3.19
Hollow 40 Face shell 49.5 631.7 131.3 65.3 691.4 143.7 3.25
Hollow 48 Face shell 46.8 620.9 129.0 62.5 680.6 141.4 3.30
Hollow 96 Face shell 39.9 593.8 123.4 55.6 653.5 135.8 3.43
Hollow 120 Face shell 38.5 588.4 122.3 54.3 648.1 134.7 3.46

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Grout Mortar Net cross-sectional propertiesA Average cross-sectional propertiesB
Unit spacing (in.) bedding An (in. /ft) In (in. /ft) Sn (in. /ft) Aavg (in.2/ft) Iavg (in.4/ft) Savg (in.3/ft) ravg (in.)
2 4 3

Hollow No grout Face shell 36.0 929.4 159.9 57.8 1,064.7 183.2 4.29
Hollow No grout Full 57.8 1,064.7 183.2 57.8 1,064.7 183.2 4.29
100% solid/solidly grouted Full 139.5 1,571.0 270.3 139.5 1,571.0 270.3 3.36
Hollow 16 Face shell 90.2 1,265.2 217.7 97.5 1,310.4 225.4 3.67
Hollow 24 Face shell 72.1 1,153.3 198.4 84.2 1,228.5 211.4 3.82
Hollow 32 Face shell 63.1 1,097.3 188.8 77.6 1,187.5 204.3 3.91
Hollow 40 Face shell 57.7 1,063.7 183.0 73.7 1,163.0 200.1 3.97
Hollow 48 Face shell 54.1 1,041.3 179.2 71.0 1,146.6 197.3 4.02
Hollow 72 Face shell 48.0 1,004.0 172.7 66.6 1,119.3 192.6 4.10
Hollow 96 Face shell 45.0 985.4 169.5 64.4 1,105.7 190.2 4.14
Hollow 120 Face shell 43.2 974.2 167.6 63.1 1,097.5 188.8 4.17
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Hollow No grout Face shell 36.0 929.4 159.9 55.8 1,049.2 180.5 4.34
Hollow No grout Full 36.0 929.4 159.9 57.8 1,064.7 183.2 4.29
100% solid/solidly grouted Full 139.5 1,571.0 270.3 139.5 1,571.0 270.3 3.36
Hollow 16 Face shell 87.8 1,250.2 215.1 107.5 1,370.0 235.7 3.57
Hollow 24 Face shell 70.5 1,143.3 196.7 90.3 1,263.1 217.3 3.74
Hollow 32 Face shell 61.9 1,089.8 187.5 81.7 1,209.6 208.1 3.85
Hollow 40 Face shell 56.7 1,057.7 182.0 76.5 1,177.5 202.6 3.92
Hollow 48 Face shell 53.3 1,036.3 178.3 73.0 1,156.1 198.9 3.98
Hollow 96 Face shell 44.6 982.9 169.1 64.4 1,102.7 189.7 4.14
Hollow 120 Face shell 42.9 972.2 167.3 62.7 1,092.0 187.9 4.17
 7DEOH²LQFKPP6LQJOH:\WKH:DOOV1/LQPP)DFH6KHOOVQRQVWDQGDUG
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Grout Mortar Net cross-sectional propertiesA Average cross-sectional propertiesB
Unit spacing (in.) bedding An (in. /ft) In (in. /ft) Sn (in. /ft) Aavg (in.2/ft) Iavg (in.4/ft) Savg (in.3/ft) ravg (in.)
2 4 3

Hollow No grout Face shell 36.0 1,329.9 195.2 62.9 1,582.9 232.4 5.02
Hollow No grout Full 62.9 1,582.9 232.4 62.9 1,582.9 232.4 5.02
100% solid/solidly grouted Full 163.5 2,529.4 371.3 163.5 2,529.4 371.3 3.93
Hollow 16 Face shell 102.7 1,957.7 287.4 111.7 2,042.1 299.8 4.28
Hollow 24 Face shell 80.5 1,748.5 256.7 95.4 1,889.0 277.3 4.45
Hollow 32 Face shell 69.4 1,643.8 241.3 87.3 1,812.5 266.1 4.56
Hollow 40 Face shell 62.7 1,581.0 232.1 82.4 1,766.6 259.3 4.63
Hollow 48 Face shell 58.2 1,539.2 225.9 79.2 1,736.0 254.8 4.68
Hollow 72 Face shell 50.8 1,469.4 215.7 73.7 1,684.9 247.3 4.78
Hollow 96 Face shell 47.1 1,434.5 210.6 71.0 1,659.4 243.6 4.83
Hollow 120 Face shell 44.9 1,413.6 207.5 69.4 1,644.1 241.3 4.87
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Hollow No grout Face shell 36.0 1,329.9 195.2 60.4 1,557.9 228.7 5.08
Hollow No grout Full 36.0 1,329.9 195.2 62.9 1,582.9 232.4 5.02
100% solid/solidly grouted Full 163.5 2,529.4 371.3 163.5 2,529.4 371.3 3.93
Hollow 16 Face shell 99.8 1,929.6 283.2 124.1 2,157.6 316.7 4.17
Hollow 24 Face shell 78.5 1,729.7 253.9 102.9 1,957.7 287.4 4.36
Hollow 32 Face shell 67.9 1,629.8 239.2 92.2 1,857.8 272.7 4.49
Hollow 40 Face shell 61.5 1,569.8 230.4 85.9 1,797.8 263.9 4.58
Hollow 48 Face shell 57.3 1,529.8 224.6 81.6 1,757.8 258.0 4.64
Hollow 96 Face shell 46.6 1,429.8 209.9 71.0 1,657.8 243.4 4.83
Hollow 120 Face shell 44.5 1,409.9 207.0 68.9 1,637.9 240.4 4.88

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Grout Mortar Net cross-sectional propertiesA Average cross-sectional propertiesB
Unit spacing (in.) bedding An (in.2/ft) In (in.4/ft) Sn (in.3/ft) Aavg (in.2/ft) Iavg (in.4/ft) Savg (in.3/ft) ravg (in.)
Hollow No grout Face shell 36.0 1,802.4 230.7 68.0 2,226.9 285.0 5.72
Hollow No grout Full 68.0 2,226.9 285.0 68.0 2,226.9 285.0 5.72
100% solid/solidly grouted Full 187.5 3,814.7 488.3 187.5 3,814.7 488.3 4.51
Hollow 16 Face shell 115.3 2,855.7 365.5 126.0 2,997.2 383.6 4.88
Hollow 24 Face shell 88.9 2,504.6 320.6 106.6 2,740.4 350.8 5.07
Hollow 32 Face shell 75.7 2,329.0 298.1 97.0 2,612.0 334.3 5.19
Hollow 40 Face shell 67.7 2,223.7 284.6 91.2 2,535.0 324.5 5.27
Hollow 48 Face shell 62.4 2,153.5 275.6 87.3 2,483.6 317.9 5.33
Hollow 72 Face shell 53.6 2,036.5 260.7 80.8 2,398.0 307.0 5.45
Hollow 96 Face shell 49.2 1,977.9 253.2 77.6 2,355.3 301.5 5.51
Hollow 120 Face shell 46.6 1,942.8 248.7 75.7 2,329.6 298.2 5.55
E9HUWLFDO6HFWLRQ3URSHUWLHV0DVRQU\6SDQQLQJ+RUL]RQWDOO\
Hollow No grout Face shell 36.0 1,802.4 230.7 65.0 2,189.1 280.2 5.81
Hollow No grout Full 36.0 1,802.4 230.7 68.0 2,226.9 285.0 5.72
100% solid/solidly grouted Full 187.5 3,814.7 488.3 187.5 3,814.7 488.3 4.51
Hollow 16 Face shell 111.8 2,808.5 359.5 140.7 3,195.3 409.0 4.77
Hollow 24 Face shell 86.5 2,473.2 316.6 115.5 2,859.9 366.1 4.98
Hollow 32 Face shell 73.9 2,305.5 295.1 102.8 2,692.2 344.6 5.12
Hollow 40 Face shell 66.3 2,204.9 282.2 95.3 2,591.6 331.7 5.22
Hollow 48 Face shell 61.3 2,137.8 273.6 90.2 2,524.5 323.1 5.29
Hollow 96 Face shell 48.6 1,970.1 252.2 77.6 2,356.8 301.7 5.51
Hollow 120 Face shell 46.1 1,936.5 247.9 75.1 2,323.3 297.4 5.56

NCMA and the companies disseminating this technical information disclaim any and all responsibility and liability for the
accuracy and the application of the information contained in this publication.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171 contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
www.ncma.org

National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology
DESIGNING CONCRETE MASONRY
WALLS FOR WIND LOADS
Keywords: allowable stress design, allowable stresses,
design examples, lateral loads, plain concrete masonry,
reinforced concrete masonry, unreinforced concrete ma-
sonry, wind loads
INTRODUCTION
Traditionally, empirical requirements have been used for
the selection of masonry wall dimensions and lateral support
spacing for resistance to wind pressures. These empirical
requirements provide satisfactory results for buildings less
than 35 ft (11 m) in height where the basic wind pressure does
not exceed 25 psf (1197 Pa). This TEK addresses those cases
where it is necessary or desirable to undertake a more
thorough structural analysis of the lateral wind resistance
of a concrete masonry wall or wall-pilaster combination.
Such analysis involves a knowledge of the magnitude
and distribution of the wind force to various elements of a
masonry structure and the flexural and shear strength of these
elements. The information in this TEK provides guidelines
for the design of masonry walls supported in both the vertical
and horizontal directions.
WALLS
The need to investigate the lateral wind resistance capac-
ity of a wall is usually greater in the case of plain (unrein-
forced) nonbearing or lightly loaded masonry walls because
the vertical load on the wall may be insufficient to completely
offset the development of flexural tension. Analysis of
masonry walls is often based on the assumption that lateral
loads are transmitted in the vertical direction with no end
fixity at the lateral supports. Although this approach is
straightforward, it may be overly conservative when the ratio
of horizontal to vertical distances between lateral supports is
relatively small and end fixity is developed. In such cases, end
fixity and two-way bending can be utilized.
When wind loads are applied normal to a masonry wall
TEK 14-3A © 1995 National Concrete Masonry Association
NCMA TEK
TEK 14-3A
Structural (1995)
surface, the loads are transmitted to horizontal supports
(floors, roofs, beams) and/or vertical supports (cross walls,
pilasters). Wall panels are usually assumed to function struc-
turally as thin plates or slabs. For simplicity, walls are often
designed to span horizontally between vertical supports or to
span vertically between horizontal supports. However, walls
can be designed assuming two-way bending using pilasters or
cross walls as well as the roof structure and footing as
supports. Assuming that the flexural resistance and rigidity of
the walls in both the vertical and horizontal spans are known,
the lateral load capacity and the proportion of the lateral load
transmitted vertically and horizontally to the edge supports
will depend on the restraint developed at the edges, the
horizontal to vertical span ratio of the panel, and the distribu-
tion of the loads applied to the wall panels.
The curves in Figure 1 can be used to approximate the
proportion of wind load transmitted in the vertical and
horizontal directions. These curves are based on the assump-
tion that the moment of inertia and modulii of elasticity of the
walls will be the same in both the horizontal and vertical
directions. The curves were derived by equating the theoreti-
cal formulas for calculating the maximum deflection for a
strip of wall in both directions. It was further assumed that the
walls either have no openings, or that any wall openings are
located so that their effect on the stiffness of the wall panel is
the same in both directions, and that the wall panels on each
side of the support are similar in length and height.
When calculating the wind load to be carried by a vertical
support, such as a pilaster, a value for K corresponding to the
assumed support conditions at the edges of the wall panels
and the appropriate wall panel length-to-height ratio is
selected from the curves. Then, the value of wp is determined
from the formula given at the top of Figure 1. This value, wp,
represents the load which, when applied as a uniformly
distributed load over the height of the pilaster, will approxi-
mate the actual wind load transmitted to the pilaster by the
walls under the design conditions.
Design Example
To illustrate the use of the curves and formula given in
Figure 1, assume a building with exterior walls spanning 12
ft (3.7 m) vertically between the floor and the roof is designed
to resist a wind pressure of 20 psf (958 Pa). The walls are also
supported horizontally at 18 ft (5.5 m) by pilasters which are
built integrally with the wall. The roof loads will be carried
by trusses simply supported on the pilasters, so the walls will
be considered free at the top and fixed at the bottom and at the
pilasters.
Selecting the appropriate value for K from the curve
given for Case 1-A and a wall length-to-height ratio of 18/12
or 1.50, the wind load per foot of height to be carried by the
pilasters, wp, may be calculated as follows:
wp = Kwd X
wp = (0.91) (20 psf) (18 ft)
= 328 lb/ft (4787 N/m)
The value of 328 lb/ft (4787 N/m) represents the uni-
formly distributed load which, when considered to be applied
over the full height of the pilaster, will approximate the actual
load transmitted to the pilasters by the adjacent walls under
the design conditions. The moment and shear developed in
the pilasters as a result of this load will depend on the
assumed top and bottom support conditions for the pilaster.
The wall construction consists of 12 in. (305 mm) hollow
concrete masonry units laid in running bond with face shell
mortar bedding, using Type N portland cement lime mortar.
Additional design information includes:
Section modulus, S = 159.9 in.3/ft (0.009 m3/m)
Net area, An = 36 in.2/ft (0.08 m2/m)
Allowable tensile stress parallel to bed joints =
1.33 x 38 psi = 50.5 psi (0.35 MPa) (ref. 1)
Allowable tensile stress normal to bed joints =
1.33 x 19 psi = 25.3 psi (0.17 MPa) (ref. 1)

Calculate the approximate wind load on pilasters using the follow-

ing formula:
wp = Kwd X

where:
K = coefficient describing the proportion of wind load transmitted
horizontally to pilasters or cross walls, determined from the
curves below
wd =design wind load on wall, psf (Pa)
wp =approximate wind load on pilasters, lb/ft of height (N/m)
X = horizontal span, center to center, ft (m)

CASE 1: WALLS FIXED AT

PILASTERS OR CROSS WALLS
A. fixed at bottom, free at top
B. supported top and bottom
C. fixed at bottom, supported at top
See the following
CASE 2: WALLS SUPPORTED page for the graph
AT PILASTERS OR figure to be placed
CROSS WALLS here
A. fixed at bottom, free at top
B. supported top and bottom
C. fixed at bottom, supported at top

CASE 3: WALLS FIXED AT ONE

END, SUPPORTED AT OTHER
A. fixed at bottom, free at top
B. supported top and bottom
C. fixed at bottom, supported at top

Figure 1—Approximate Horizontal and Vertical Wind Load Distribution

Insert for Figure 1
 As already determined, the horizontal span carries 91%
of the wind load. With the wall fixed at the ends, the
maximum moment, M, in the horizontal span (from Figure 2)
is:
wH 2 0. 91( 20 psf )(18 ft 2 )
M= = × 12 in. /ft
12 12
= 5897 in. − lb / ft (2186 N • m / m)
The flexural tensile stress in the horizontal span, ft, is:
( )
M 5897 in. − lb / ft
ft = = = 37 psi (0.26 MPa)
S 159.9 in.3 /ft
The allowable tensile stress for hollow units, Type N
mortar, tension parallel to bed joints, was determined to be
50.5 psi (0.35 MPa). Since the calculated tensile stress is less
than the allowable, the design meets the code criteria.
In the vertical span, the wall described above carries 9%
(1 - 0.91) of the wind load. Since the wall is free at the top and
fixed at the base, the maximum moment is:
wH 2 0. 09( 20 psf )(12 ft 2 )
M= = × 12 in. /ft
2 2
= 1560 in. − lb / ft (578 N • m / m)
The flexural tensile stress in the vertical span is:
M 1560 in. − lb / ft
ft = = = 10 psi (0. 07 MPa)
S 159.9 in.3 /ft
This value can be reduced by the dead load stress on the
wall at the point of maximum moment. Assuming that the
wall weighs 50 lb/ft2 (2394 N/m2):
50 lb / ft 2 (12 ft )
= 17 psi compression (0.12 MPa)
36 in.2 /ft
This results in a net axial compressive stress of 7 psi (48.3 Pa).
PILASTERS
A pilaster is a thickened wall section or vertical support
built contiguous with and forming a part of the masonry wall.
Pilasters are often used to stiffen masonry walls and to provide
all or part of the lateral support. They may be built of hollow
or solid units (manufactured in one or two pieces), grouted
hollow units or reinforced hollow units. Pilasters function
primarily as flexural members when used only for lateral
support although they can also be used to support vertical
compressive loads.
When designing pilasters, the lateral loads transmitted
to the pilasters by the adjacent wall panels must be deter-
mined. Figure 1 can be used to approximate the proportion
of wind load which is transmitted horizontally to pilasters and
to calculate the approximate wind load carried by a pilaster.
The formulas given in Figure 2 can be used to calculate
the maximum moment and shear on a pilaster after wp and the
support conditions for the pilaster have been determined.
Consider the design described in the previous design
example. From Figure 1, it was determined that for Case
1-A with span ratio of 1.5, approximately 91% of the wind
load is transmitted in the horizontal span. If the pilasters in
the above example are assumed to be fixed at the bottom and
simply supported at the top, the maximum moment and shear
values are as follows:
wp H 2 (328 lb / ft )(12 ft )2
Mmax = =
8 8
= 5900 ft − lb = 70. 8 in. − kip (8 kN • m )
5w p H 5(328)(12 )
Vmax = = = 2460 lb (10.9 kN)
8 8
The pilaster, therefore, should be designed to provide an
allowable moment and shear resistance equal to or greater
than the above values.
NOTATION:
An = net cross-sectional area of masonry, in.2/ft (m2/m)
ft = flexural tension in masonry, psi (MPa)
H = height of wall, ft (m)
K = proportion of wind load transmitted horizontally to
pilasters or cross walls
M = moment, in.-lb/ft (N•m/m)
S = section modulus, in.3/ft (m3/m)
Vmax = maximum shear, lb/ft (N/m)
w = uniformly distributed wind load, psf (Pa)
wd = design wind load on wall, psf (Pa)
wp = uniform lateral load which approximates the actual
wind load transmitted by the walls to the pilasters or
cross walls, lb/ft of height (N/m)
X = horizontal span of wall, from center to center of
pilasters or cross walls, ft (m)
REFERENCES
1. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, ACI
530-92/ASCE 5-92/TMS 402-92. Reported by the Masonry
Standards Joint Committee, 1992.
 Deflection Shear Mo- Deflection Shear Moment
ment
Vmax = wH Mmax = wH2/2 (12 in./ft) Vmax = wH/2 Mmax = wH2/12 (12 in./

A. Free at top, fixed at bottom ft)

B. Fixed at top and bottom

Deflection Shear Moment Deflection Shear Mo-

ment

Vmax = 5wH/8 Mmax = wH2/8 (12 in./ft) Vmax = wH/2 Mmax = wH2/8 (12 in./ft)

C. Simply supported at top, fixed at bottom D. Simply supported at top and bottom
Figure 2—Formulas For Maximum Moment and Shear on Walls and Pilasters
Subjected To Uniform Lateral Loads

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
2302 Horse Pen Road, Herndon, Virginia 22071-3499 contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
 NCMA TEK
National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology

STRENGTH DESIGN PROVISIONS TEK 14-4B

Structural (2008)
FOR CONCRETE MASONRY
Keywords: axial strength, building code provisions, design masonry act compositely to resist applied loads.
strength, flexural strength, nominal strength, reinforced • The nominal strength of masonry cross-sections for com-
concrete masonry, shear strength, strength design, strength bined flexure and axial load is based on applicable conditions
reduction factor, structural design, unreinforced concrete of equilibrium.
masonry • The maximum masonry compressive stress is 0.80f'm for
both reinforced and unreinforced masonry.
INTRODUCTION • The maximum usable strain, εmu, at the extreme compression
fiber of concrete masonry is 0.0025.
Concrete masonry elements can be designed using one of • For reinforced masonry, compression and tension stresses
several methods in accordance with Building Code Require- in the reinforcement below the specified yield strength, fy,
ments for Masonry Structures (ref. 1): empirical design, strength are taken equal to the modulus of elasticity of the reinforce-
design or allowable stress design. This TEK provides a basic ment, Es, times the steel strain εs. For strains greater than the
overview of design criteria and requirements for concrete yield strain corresponding to fy, stress in the reinforcement
masonry structures designed using the strength design provi- is taken equal to fy.
sions contained in Chapter 3 of the 2002 edition of Building • For reinforced masonry, the compressive stress is rectangular
Code Requirements for Masonry Structures (also referred and uniformly distributed over an equivalent compression
to as the MSJC Code) (ref. 1) as referenced and modified in zone, bounded by the compression face of the masonry with
Section 2108 of the 2003 International Building Code (IBC) a depth of a = 0.80c.
(ref. 2). In addition, changes to the strength design method Based on the prescribed design model outlined above,
incorporated into the 2005 edition of the MSJC Code (ref. 3) the internal distribution of stresses and strains is illustrated in
through Section 2108 of the 2006 International Building Code Figure 1 for a reinforced masonry element. A more compre-
(ref. 4) are also reviewed, as are modifications included in the hensive review of the design model is provided in Masonry
2008 MSJC Code (ref. 5). Structures, Behavior and Design (ref. 8).
For empirical and allowable stress design requirements, the
user is referred to TEK 14-8A, Empirical Design of Concrete
Masonry Walls (ref. 6), and TEK 14-7A, Allowable Stress ε mu = 0.0025 Strain
Design of Concrete Masonry (ref. 7), respectively. Tables, εy distribution
charts, and additional design aids specific to the design of c
various concrete masonry elements can be found in other C = 0.64f ' bc
a = 0.8c m
related TEK. Stress
Strength design is based on the following design assumptions distribution
0.8 f ' T = As f y
m
in conjunction with basic principles of engineering mechanics
(refs. 1, 3, 5), as shown in Figure 1 for a reinforced element:
• Plane sections before bending remain plane after bending.
Therefore, strain in the masonry and in reinforcement, if
present, is directly proportional to the distance from the
neutral axis.
• For unreinforced masonry, the flexural stresses in the ma- Masonry cover
sonry are assumed to be directly proportional to strain. For Bar diameter
reinforced masonry, the tensile strength of the masonry is Wall
neglected when calculating flexural strength, but considered width
when calculating deflection. Figure 1—Stress and Strain Distribution for Strength
• The units, mortar, grout and reinforcement for reinforced Design of Reinforced Masonry

TEK 14-4B © 2008 National Concrete Masonry Association (replaces TEK 14-4A)
2003 IBC STRENGTH DESIGN MODIFICATIONS
The 2003 IBC adopts the 2002 MSJC Code with two
modifications specific to the strength design procedure in IBC
Section 2108. The two modifications are as follows.
• Section 2108.2 introduces a maximum effective compres-
sion width for out-of-plane bending of six times the nominal
wall thickness, not to exceed the reinforcement spacing.
This is similar to limits historically used by the allowable
stress design provisions in the MSJC Code as well as those
adopted into the 2005 MSJC Code for strength design, as
reviewed below.
• Welded and mechanical splices incorporated into masonry
elements designed by the strength design method must also
comply with Section 2108.3 of the 2003 IBC. For welded
splices, the reinforcement to be welded must comply with
ASTM A 706 (ref. 9). Splicing by mechanical connectors
is classified as either Type 1 or Type 2 mechanical splices in
accordance with ACI 318, Building Code Requirements for
Structural Concrete (ref. 10). Type 1 mechanical splices are
only required to develop 125 percent of the nominal yield
strength of the reinforcement being spliced. Type 2 mechani-
cal splices, conversely, must develop the full specified tensile
strength of the reinforcement. Welded and Type 1 mechanical
splices are not permitted to be used in the plastic hinge region
of intermediate or special reinforced masonry shear walls.
2002 MSJC CODE STRENGTH DESIGN CRITERIA
Using strength design, the design strength of a masonry
element is compared to the required (or factored) strength
(indicated by the subscript u), which includes load factors to
account for the uncertainty in predicting design loads and the
probability of more than one design load acting simultane-
ously. The required strength is based on the strength design
load combinations as required by Section 1605 of the IBC. At
the option of the designer, or when the MSJC Code is used in
conjunction with another building code that does not contain
load combinations, masonry structures are designed to resist
the load combination specified in ASCE 7, Minimum Design
Loads for Buildings and Other Structures (ref. 11). For strength
design, these load combinations are effectively the same.
The design strength of masonry is the nominal strength (in-
dicated by the subscript n) multiplied by an appropriate strength
reduction factor, φ. The design is acceptable when the design
strength equals or exceeds the factored strength (i.e., when φMn
> Mu) for all prescribed load combinations. The following sec-
tions cover the general strength design requirements applicable
to both unreinforced and reinforced masonry assemblies, with
the exception of design requirements for anchor bolts and lap
splices. For these topics, the user is referred to TEK 12-3A,
Design of Anchor Bolts Embedded in Concrete Masonry (ref.
12) and TEK 12-6, Splices, Development and Standard Hooks
for Concrete Masonry (ref. 13), respectively.
Strength Reduction Factors
To account for uncertainties in construction, material
properties, calculated versus actual strengths and anticipated
failure modes, the nominal strength of a masonry element
is multiplied by an appropriate strength reduction factor, φ.
Strength reduction factors are used in conjunction with the load
factors applied to the design loads. The values of the strength
reduction factors for various types of loading conditions are:
• for reinforced masonry elements subjected to flexure or axial
loads; φ = 0.90;
• for unreinforced masonry elements subjected to flexure or
axial loads; φ = 0.60;
• for masonry elements subjected to shear loads; φ = 0.80;
• for bearing on masonry elements; φ = 0.60.
Drift and Deflection
When designing for earthquakes, the story drift (the rela-
tive displacement of adjacent stories) must be checked against
the IBC prescribed allowable story drifts. When the MSJC
Code is used in conjunction with a building code that does
not contain allowable story drifts, the provisions of ASCE
7 are used. For masonry buildings with cantilevered shear
walls, the IBC limits the story drift to 0.01hsx, where hsx is the
height of the story below the level for which the drift is being
calculated. For other types of masonry shear wall buildings,
except masonry frames, the allowable story drift is limited to
0.007hsx. While the IBC includes story drift limits for masonry
frame wall buildings, such structural configurations are rarely
used. When calculating story drift, the calculated elastic deflec-
tion is multiplied by the deflection amplification factor, Cd, as
prescribed in the IBC for the type of structural system being
designed. The deflection amplification factor approximates the
additional deflection due to inelastic response (if applicable)
of the system during an earthquake. Due to the inherent in-
plane stiffness of masonry assemblies, in-plane deflection and
story drift are rarely a controlling limit unless a relatively large
number of openings is incorporated that reduces the strength
and stiffness along a line of lateral resistance.
Unlike allowable stress design, which permits deflec-
tions to be calculated assuming uncracked sections for both
reinforced and unreinforced masonry, strength design requires
that deflections of reinforced masonry elements be based on
cracked section properties, which are limited to one-half of
the gross section properties unless a rigorous cracked sec-
tion analysis is performed. The deflection of unreinforced
masonry elements, which are required to remain uncracked,
use uncracked section properties.
Because unreinforced masonry elements must be designed
to remain uncracked, deflection is rarely a controlling design
limit for these systems. Reinforced masonry elements, however,
particularly tall, slender walls bending in the out-of-plane direc-
tion, may exhibit excessive deflection even at relatively low
applied loads. As such, the MSJC Code limits the mid-height
deflection, δs, of reinforced masonry elements bending in the
out-of-plane direction due to service level lateral and axial loads
to 0.007h. Second order effects due to P-delta contributions
must also be taken into account, which is usually accomplished
through iteration until convergence is achieved.
When the applied moment, Mser, is less than the moment
required to cause cracking, Mcr, (Mser < Mcr) then the mid-height
deflection of a masonry element subjected to a uniform out-
of-plane load can be determined using Equation 1.
5M ser h 2
δs = Eqn. 1
48 Em I g
 Conversely, when the applied moment, Mser, is greater than
the moment required to cause cracking, Mcr, but less than the
nominal moment strength of the assembly (Mcr < Mser < Mn) the
mid-height deflection of a masonry element subjected to a uniform
out-of-plane load can be determined using Equation 2.
5M cr h 2 5( M ser − M cr )h 2
δs = + Eqn. 2
48 Em I g 48 Em I cr
The MSJC does not prescribe a method of determining the
cracked moment of inertia, Icr. As such, any rational method
of determining cracked section properties is permitted. TEK
14-1B, Section Properties of Concrete Masonry Walls (ref. 14),
provides typical section properties for various uncracked wall
sections. For use in Equations 1 and 2, the cracking moment
can be taken as:
Mcr = Sn fr Eqn. 3
Where the modulus of rupture, fr, is obtained from Table 1
for the type of mortar and construction under consideration.
Material Properties
Due to the lack of available research data substantiating its
use, the specified compressive strength of concrete masonry,
f'm, designed by the strength design method is required to be
at least 1,500 psi (10.34 MPa), but not larger than 4,000 psi
(27.58 MPa). In addition, when used in a structural role, the
specified compressive strength of grout is required to be at
least equal to the specified compressive strength of concrete
masonry, but not greater than 5,000 psi (34.47 MPa). For each
of these upper limits on masonry assembly or grout compres-
sive strength, the actual tested strength is permitted to exceed
these values: the restriction applies only to specified strengths
upon which the design is based. Note that these provisions are
included in the 2005 MSJC Code as well.
Strength design of reinforced masonry is based on the
specified yield strength of reinforcement, fy, which is limited
to 60,000 psi (413.7 MPa). The actual yield strength of
the reinforcement is limited to 1.3 times the specified yield
strength. The combination of these requirements effectively
precludes the use of bed joint reinforcement to be used as
primary structural steel in masonry designed by the strength
design method, because the nominal yield strength of bed
joint reinforcement exceeds these limits. The compressive
resistance of steel reinforcement is not permitted to be used
unless lateral reinforcement is provided in compliance with
Chapter 2 of the MSJC Code, except as permitted when check-
ing the maximum reinforcement limits as described later.
Unreinforced Masonry
For unreinforced masonry, the masonry assembly (units,
mortar and grout, if used) is designed to carry all applied
stresses. The additional capacity from the inclusion of rein-
forcing steel, if present (such as reinforcement added to control
shrinkage cracking or prescriptively required by the code), is
neglected when designing unreinforced masonry elements.
Because the masonry resists both tension and compression
stresses resulting from applied loads, the masonry must be
designed to remain uncracked.
Unreinforced Nominal Flexural Strength
The nominal flexural tensile strength of unreinforced con-
crete masonry is given by the modulus of rupture as prescribed
in the MSJC Code, which varies with the direction of span,
mortar type, bond pattern and percentage of grouting as shown in
Table 1. These values apply to masonry subject to out-of-plane
bending. For walls spanning horizontally between supports,
the code conservatively assumes that stack bond masonry has
no flexural bond strength across the mortared head joints, thus
only the grout area (for horizontally grouted sections) is used.
For this case, the modulus of rupture of the grout is taken equal
to 250 psi (1720 kPa). Likewise, for masonry subjected to
in-plane bending, the modulus of rupture normal and parallel
to the bed joints is taken as 250 psi (1720 kPa).
For masonry elements subjected to a factored bending
moment, Mu, and a compressive axial force, Pu, the resulting
flexural bending stress is determined using Equation 4.
M t P
Fu = u − u Eqn. 4
2 I n An
If the resulting value of Fu is positive, then the masonry
section is controlled by tension and the modulus of rupture
values of Table 1, reduced by the appropriate strength reduc-
tion factor (φ = 0.60), must be satisfied. Conversely, if Fu as
given by Equation 4 is negative, the masonry section is in
compression and the design compressive stress of 0.80f'm ap-
plies. When using axial load to offset flexural bending stresses
as described above, only dead loads or other permanent loads
should be included in Pu.
Unreinforced Nominal Axial Strength
When unreinforced masonry walls are subjected to
compressive axial loads only, the nominal axial compressive
strength, Pn, is determined using equation 5 or 6, as appropri-
ate. Unreinforced masonry is not permitted to carry net axial
tension forces.
For elements with h/r not greater than 99:
⎡ ⎛ ⎛ h ⎞2 ⎞ ⎤
Pn = 0.8 ⎢0.8 An f m′ ⎜1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟ ⎥ Eqn. 5
⎜
⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎝ 140r ⎠ ⎠ ⎥⎦
For elements with h/r greater than 99:
⎡ ⎛ ⎛ 70r ⎞ 2 ⎞ ⎤
Pn = 0.8 ⎢0.8 An f m′ ⎜1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟ ⎥ Eqn. 6
⎜
⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎝ h ⎠ ⎠ ⎥⎦
Unreinforced Nominal Shear Strength
Shear stresses on unreinforced masonry elements are cal-
culated using the net cross-sectional properties of the masonry
in the direction of the applied shear force using:
VQ
Fvu = u n Eqn. 7
I nb
Equation 7 is applicable to determining both in-plane and
out-of-plane shear stresses. Because unreinforced masonry is
designed to remain uncracked, it is not necessary to perform a
cracked section analysis to determine the net section properties.
In turn, the applied shear stresses (factored accordingly for the
appropriate load combination) are compared to the nominal
shear strength, Vn, of an unreinforced masonry section, which
is the least of:
1. 3.8 An f m′ psi (3.8 An f m′ MPa)
2. 300An psi (0.83An MPa)
3. a. For running bond not solidly grouted and for stack bond
masonry with open end units and grouted solid,
 56An + 0.45Nv psi (0.26An + 0.3Nv MPa) ⎛ ε mu ⎞ P
b. For solidly grouted running bond masonry, 0.64 f m′ ⎜ ⎟⎟ −
⎜ ε + αε
90An + 0.45Nv psi (0.414An + 0.3Nv MPa) ρ max = ⎝ mu y ⎠ bd Eqn. 8
c. For stack bond masonry with other than open end units 1.25 f y
grouted solid,
⎛ ε mu ⎞⎛ b ⎞ ⎛ b − bw ⎞ P
23An psi (0.103An MPa) 0.64 f m′ ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ w ⎟ + 0.80 f m′t fs ⎜ ⎟−
⎜ ε + αε ⎝ b ⎠ ⎝ bd ⎠ bd
ρ max = ⎝ mu y ⎠ Eqn. 9
Reinforced Masonry 1.25 f y
The design of reinforced masonry in accordance with the
The tension reinforcement yield strain factor, α, varies
MSJC Code neglects the tensile resistance provided by the
with the seismic response modification factor, R, masonry
masonry units, mortar and grout in determining the strength
element, and type of loading as follows:
of the masonry assemblage. (The tensile strength of the units,
(a) α = 1.3 for walls subjected to out-of-plane forces and
mortar, and grout is considered, however, in determining the
designed using an R value greater than 1.5,
stiffness and deflection of a reinforced masonry element.)
(b) α = 5.0 for walls subjected to in-plane forces, for columns
Thus, for design purposes, the portion of masonry subject to
and for beams designed using an R > 1.5,
net tensile stress is assumed to have cracked, transferring all
(c) α = 2.0 for masonry structures designed using an R < 1.5.
tensile forces to the reinforcement.
In the above set of requirements, α is larger for out-of-plane
Using strength design, reinforcing bars used in masonry
loads when R is less than or equal to 1.5, which is contrary
may not be larger than No. 9 (M #29) and bars may not be
to the underlying intent of providing increased ductility for
bundled. Further, the nominal bar diameter is not permitted
systems and elements whose ductility demand may be rela-
to exceed one-eighth of the nominal member thickness or
tively high. Several updates and revisions to the maximum
one-quarter of the least clear dimension of the cell, course or
have been incorporated into subsequent editions to the 2002
collar joint in which it is placed. The total area of reinforc-
MSJC Code as reviewed below.
ing bars placed in a single cell or in a course of hollow unit
construction may not exceed 4% of the cell area. Note that
Reinforced Nominal Axial Strength
this limit does not apply at sections where lap splices occur. At
The nominal axial strength, Pu, of masonry walls, piers and
lap splices, the maximum reinforcing bar area is increased to
columns, modified to account for the effects of slenderness,
8%, in both the 2002 and 2005 editions of the MSJC Code.
is determined using equation 10 or 11, as appropriate. The
MSJC Code also limits the factored axial stress to 0.20f'm.
Maximum Flexural Reinforcement Ratio
For elements with h/r not greater than 99:
To provide for a prescribed level of reinforced masonry
⎛ ⎡ ⎛ h ⎞2 ⎤ ⎞
ductility in the event of failure, the maximum reinforcement Pn = 0.80 ⎜ 0.80 f m′ ( An − As ) + f y As ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ⎟⎟ Eqn. 10
⎜
ratio, ρmax, is limited in accordance with Equation 8 or 9, as ⎝ ⎣⎢ ⎝ 140r ⎠ ⎦⎥ ⎠
appropriate. Equation 8 applies to masonry cross sections
For elements with h/r greater than 99:
that are fully grouted or where the neutral axis falls within the
⎛ ⎛ 70r ⎞ ⎞
2
face shell of the masonry units in partially grouted construc- Pn = 0.80 ⎜ 0.80 f m′ ( An − As ) + f y As ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ Eqn. 11
⎜ ⎝ h ⎠ ⎟⎠
tion. When the neutral axis falls within the cores of partially ⎝
grouted construction, Equation 9 is used. Note that the reinforcing steel area, As, is included in the
nominal axial strength calculation only if it is laterally confined
in accordance with Chapter 2 of the MSJC Code.

Table 1—Modulus of Rupture Values, psi (kPa)

Direction of flexural Portland cement/lime or Masonry cement or air-entrained

tensile stress and mortar cement mortar portland cement/lime mortar
masonry type M or S N M or S N
Normal to bed joints
Solid units 100 (689) 75 (517) 60 (413) 38 (262)
Hollow units A
Ungrouted 63 (431) 48 (331) 38 (262) 23 (158)
Fully grouted B 170 (1,172) 145 (999) 103 (710) 73 (503)
Parallel to bed joints in running bond
Solid units 200 (1,379) 150 (1,033) 120 (827) 75 (517)
Hollow units
Ungrouted and partially grouted 125 (862) 95 (655) 75 (517) 48 (331)
Fully grouted 200 (1,379) 150 (1,033) 120 (827) 75 (517)
Parallel to bed joints in stack bond 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0)
A
For partially grouted masonry, allowable stresses shall be determined on the basis of linear interpolation between fully
grouted hollow units and ungrouted hollow units based on amount (percentage) of grouting.
B
These values have been modified in the 2005 MSJC: see Table 2.
Reinforced Nominal Flexural Strength To account for deflection resulting from out-of-plane loads
The nominal flexural strength, Mn, of a reinforced ma- and the additional bending moment due to eccentrically applied
sonry element is determined as outlined below. In addition, axial loads, the factored bending moment at the mid-height of
the nominal flexural strength at any section along a member a simply supported wall under uniform loading is required to
must be at least one-fourth of the maximum nominal flexural be determined by Equation 17.
strength at the critical section. w h2 e
M u = u + Puf u + Puδ u Eqn. 17
When there are no axial loads, or when axial loads are 8 2
conservatively neglected as may be appropriate in some cases, where: Pu = Puw + Puf Eqn. 18
there are several circumstances to consider when determining
the nominal flexural strength of reinforced masonry walls. For Multiple iterations may be necessary to determine the
a fully grouted element, the internal moment arm between the converging value of the resulting deflection.
resulting compressive and tensile forces is resolved to determine
the resisting capacity of the section. Partially grouted walls Reinforced Nominal Shear Strength
are analyzed in the same way, but with the additional consid- Shear acting on reinforced masonry members is resisted
eration of the possible influence of the ungrouted cores on the by the masonry and shear reinforcement, if provided, in ac-
strength of the section. For partially grouted masonry bending cordance with the following:
out-of-plane, there are two types of behavior to consider. Vn = Vm + Vs Eqn. 19
1. In the first case, when the neutral axis (the location of zero Where Vn may not exceed the values given by Equations
stress) lies within the compression face shell, the wall is 20 or 21, as appropriate.
analyzed and designed using the procedures for a fully Where M/Vdv is less than or equal to 0.25:
grouted wall. Vn ≤ 6 An f m′ Eqn. 20
2. In the second case, when the neutral axis lies within the core Where M/Vdv is greater than 1.00:
area, the portion of the ungrouted cells must be deducted Vn ≤ 4 An f m′ Eqn. 21
from the area of masonry capable of carrying compression
stresses. For values of M/Vdv between 0.25 and 1.00, the maximum
The neutral axis location depends on the reinforcement spac- value of Vn may be linearly interpolated.
ing as well as the reinforcement ratio, ρ, and the distance between The nominal shear strength provided by the masonry is
the reinforcement and the extreme compression fiber, d. determined in accordance with the following.
When analyzing partially grouted walls, it is typically ⎡ ⎛ M ⎞⎤
initially assumed that the neutral axis lies within the compres-
Vm = ⎢ 4.0 − 1.75 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ An f m′ + 0.25 P Eqn. 22
⎣ ⎝ Vd v ⎠ ⎦
sion face shell, as the analysis is more straightforward. The
value of c is then calculated based on this assumption. If it is ⎛ ⎡ ⎛ M ⎞⎤ ⎞
⎜ Vm = 0.83 ⎢ 4.0 − 1.75 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ An f m′ + 0.25 P ⎟
determined that the neutral axis lies outside the compression ⎜ ⎝ Vd v ⎠ ⎦ ⎟
⎝ ⎣ ⎠
face shell, the more rigorous tee beam analysis is performed.
Where the value of M/Vdv need not be taken greater than 1.0.
Otherwise, the rectangular beam analysis is carried out.
When shear reinforcement is incorporated into reinforced
masonry construction, the shear strength provided by the re-
Rectangular Beam Analysis
inforcement is calculated in accordance with the following.
For fully grouted masonry elements and for partially
⎛A ⎞
grouted masonry walls with the neutral axis in the compres- Vs = 0.5 ⎜ v ⎟ f y d v Eqn. 23
sion face shell, the nominal flexural strength, Mn, is calculated ⎝ s ⎠
using equations 12 and 13 as follows:
⎛ a⎞ 2006 IBC REQUIREMENTS
M n = ( As f y + Pu ) ⎜ d − ⎟ Eqn. 12
⎝ 2⎠
P + As f y The following is a brief summary of the changes and modi-
where: a = u Eqn.13 fications adopted into the 2005 MSJC Code as referenced in the
0.80 f m′b 2006 IBC. The majority of the basic design provisions remain
unchanged, with several notable exceptions as reviewed below.
Tee Beam Analysis
For partially grouted masonry walls where the neutral 2006 IBC Strength Design Modifications
axis is located within the cores, the nominal flexural strength, The same modifications for welded and mechanical
Mn, is calculated using equations 14, 15, and 16 as follows: splices previously discussed in the 2003 IBC Strength Design
M n = ( As f y + Pu )(d − X ) Eqn. 14 Modifications section remain in the 2006 IBC. In addition,
Section 2108 of the 2006 IBC has incorporated a limit of 72db
b(t fs 2 ) ⎛ a − t fs ⎞
+ bw (a − t fs ) ⎜ t fs + ⎟ on the maximum required length of lap splices used in masonry
X=
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
Eqn. 15 designed by the strength design method as determined by the
bt fs + bw (a − t fs ) 2005 MSJC lap splice provisions. While this limit is typically
not triggered for relatively small bar diameters, it can reduce
Pu + As f y ⎛ b ⎞
a= − t fs ⎜ − 1⎟ Eqn. 16 the required lap length of large diameter reinforcing bars or
0.80 f m′bw ⎝ w ⎠
b in cases where small cover distances are used. Refer to TEK
12-6 (ref. 13) for detailed splice length requirements.
 Other changes to Section 2108 of the 2006 IBC reflect
updates and modifications to the 2005 MSJC Code to remove
redundant or conflicting requirements.
2005 MSJC Code Strength Design Criteria
Bearing Strength
Due primarily to oversight, the 2002 MSJC Code did not
include explicit provisions for determining the bearing strength
of masonry subjected to concentrated loads. The bearing strength
requirements adopted into the 2005 MSJC Code are similar to
those used for allowable stress design, modified as necessary
for use in strength design. The nominal bearing strength of
masonry is taken as the greater of Equations 24 and 25:
Cn = 0.6 f m′ A1 Eqn. 24
A2
Cn = 0.6 f m′ A1 Eqn. 25
A1
The value of 0.6 in Equations 24 and 25 is a design coef-
ficient, not the strength reduction factor, φ, which also happens
to be equal to 0.6 for determining the design bearing strength.
For use in Equation 25, the following expression must also
be satisfied:
A • The axial load, P, for use in Equations 26 and 27, is the
A1 2 ≤ 2 A1
A1
Where A1 is the actual bearing area directly under the bearing
plate and A2 is the effective bearing area, defined as a right
pyramid having A1 as a top plane and sloping at 45o. For walls
laid in stack bond, the area defined by A2 is terminated at
head joints unless a bond beam or other means of distributing
stresses is used. The concentrated stresses are distributed over
a length equal to the width of the bearing area plus four times
the thickness of the supporting element, but not to exceed the
center-to-center distance between the concentrated loads.
Modulus of Rupture
The 2005 MSJC Code incorporated a few modifications
to the modulus of rupture values presented in Table 1 for flex-
ural tension stresses normal to the bed joints of hollow, fully
grouted assemblies, as shown in Table 2. These modifications
recognize that the type of mortar has less of an influence on
the modulus of rupture when the element is fully grouted.
In addition, instead of prescribing a single value of 250
psi (1.72 MPa) for masonry subjected to in-plane bending as
in the 2002 MSJC Code, the 2005 MSJC Code requires the
use of Table 1, as modified by Table 2, for all cases of in-plane
and out-of-plane bending.
Maximum Flexural Reinforcement Limits
The maximum flexural reinforcement requirements in
the 2005 MSJC employ the same strain gradient approach as
reviewed above, with several notable revisions.
• Reinforcement is permitted to carry compression stresses,
with or without lateral confining reinforcement. Further, the
1.25 factor on the nominal yield stress of the reinforcement
as been removed. The resulting equations for the maximum
flexural reinforcement limits are given by Equation 26 for
fully grouted members or members subjected to in-plane
loads, and Equation 27 for partially grouted masonry as-
semblies subjected to out-of-plane loads where the neutral
axis falls in an open cell.
⎛ ε mu ⎞ P
0.64 f m′ ⎜ ⎟⎟ −
⎜ ε + αε
ρ max = ⎝ mu y ⎠ bd Eqn. 26
f y − ε Es
⎡ d′ ⎤
where ε = the minimum of ε y and ⎢ε mu − (ε mu + αε y )⎥
⎣ d ⎦
⎛ ε mu ⎞ ⎛ bw ⎞ ⎛ b − bw ⎞ P
0.64 f m′ ⎜ + 0.80 f m′t fs ⎜ ⎟−
⎜ ε + αε ⎟⎟ ⎜⎝ b ⎟⎠ ⎝ bd ⎠ bd
ρ max = ⎝ mu y ⎠ Eqn. 27
fy
• The tension reinforcement yield strain factor, α, is taken
equal to the following values when Mu/Vudv > 1.0 (indicat-
ing performance is dominated by flexure):
• for intermediate reinforced masonry shear walls sub-
jected to in-plane loads: α = 3.0,
• for special reinforced masonry shear walls subjected to
in-plane loads: α = 4.0,
• for other masonry elements and loading conditions: α= 1.5.
• For cases where Mu/Vudv < 1.0 (indicating shear dominated
performance) and R > 1.5: α = 1.5.
• For masonry members where Mu/Vudv < 1.0 and R < 1.5, there
is no limit on the amount of reinforcement permitted.
gravity axial load component determined from the following
load combination: D + 0.75L + 0.525QE.
Effective Compression Width per Reinforcing Bar
Section 2108 of the 2003 IBC included limits on the
effective compression width per reinforcing bar, which were
subsequently removed from the 2006 IBC, as similar provisions
were incorporated into the 2005 MSJC Code. For masonry
construction in running bond, and for masonry in stack bond
construction with bond beams space no further than 48 in.
(1,219 mm) on center, the maximum width of the compression
area used is limited to the least of:
• the center-to-center spacing of the reinforcement;
• six times the nominal thickness of the element; or
• 72 in. (1,829 mm).
Boundary Elements
New to the 2005 MSJC Code are design provisions for
boundary elements incorporated into the end zones of masonry
shear walls. Because the MSJC does not include minimum
prescriptive reinforcement detailing requirements for bound-
ary elements, it requires that when used, their performance be
verified by testing. In addition, when meeting the requirements
for geometrical symmetry, axial load and flexural performance,
the MSJC Code permits the maximum reinforcement limits
as reviewed above to be waived. This exception may or may
not require the incorporation of special boundary elements,
depending on the design circumstances.
2008 MSJC STRENGTH DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
At the time of publication, the 2008 edition of the MSJC
Code had been finalized, but the 2009 edition of the IBC
had not. In anticipation of the 2009 IBC adopting the 2008
MSJC by reference, following is a brief overview of changes
to the strength design provisions of the 2008 MSJC Code. In
addition to some reorganization, substantive revisions to the
strength design method include:

Table 2—Modifications to Modulus of Rupture Values in Table 1, as
Included in the 2005 MSJC Code, psi (kPa)
Direction of flexural Portland cement/lime or Masonry cement or air-entrained eu = eccentricity of Puf in. (mm)
tensile stress and mortar cement mortar portland cement/lime mortar
masonry type M or S N M or S
Normal to bed joints
Fully grouted 163 (1,124) 158 (1,089) 153 (1,055)
• The shear strength check to help preclude brittle failure of a
masonry element during an earthquake was revised to apply
only to special reinforced masonry shear walls. Previously,
this check applied to both reinforced and unreinforced
masonry elements regardless of seismic considerations.
• The requirement to provide at least 80 percent of the lateral
stiffness through shear walls was revised to apply only to
Seismic Design Categories C and higher.
• Instead of requiring that the deflection of all reinforced
masonry elements be calculated on cracked section proper-
ties, the 2008 MSJC Code simply requires that the design
“consider the effects of cracking and reinforcement on
member stiffness,” thereby permitting more flexibility in
design application.
• A moment magnifier approach was incorporated for unrein-
forced masonry design in determining the influence of P-delta
effects. The magnified moment, Mc, is determined either
through a second-order analysis, or by the following:
Mc = δ Mu Eqn. 28
1 P
where: δ = Eqn. 29
Pu
1− 2
⎛ 70r ⎞
An f m′ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ h ⎠
For members with h/r < 45, it is permitted to take δ = 1.0.
For members with 45 < h/r < 60, it is permitted to take δ
= 1.0 provided that the maximum factored axial stress on
the element does not exceed 0.72f'm.
NOTATIONS
An = net cross-sectional area of masonry, in.2 (mm2)
As = effective cross-sectional area of reinforcement, in.2 (mm2)
Av = cross-sectional area of shear reinforcement, in.2 (mm2)
A1 = bearing area under bearing plate, in.2 (mm2)
A2 = effective bearing area, in.2 (mm2)
a = depth of an equivalent compression zone at nominal strength,
in. (mm)
b = width of section, in. (mm)
bw = for partially grouted walls, width of grouted cell plus each web
thickness within the compression zone, in. (mm)
C = resultant compressive force, lb (N)
c = distance from the fiber of maximum compressive strain to the
neutral axis, in. (mm)
Cd = seismic deflection amplification factor
Cn = nominal bearing strength, lb (N)
D = dead load, lb (N)
d = distance from the extreme compression fiber to centroid of
tension reinforcement, in. (mm)
db = nominal diameter of reinforcement, in. (mm)
dv = actual depth of masonry in direction of shear considered, in.
(mm)
d' = distance from the extreme tension fiber to centroid of com-
pression reinforcement, in. (mm)
Em = modulus of elasticity of masonry, psi
(MPa)
Es = modulus of elasticity of reinforcement,
psi (MPa)
Fu = net flexural bending stress due to fac-
N tored loads, psi (MPa)
Fvu = shear stress on unreinforced masonry
145 (999) elements, psi (MPa)
f 'm = specified compressive strength of
masonry, psi (MPa)
fr = modulus of rupture, psi (MPa)
fy = specifi ed yield strength of reinforcement, psi (MPa)
h = effective height of masonry element, in. (mm)
hsx = effective height of masonry element below level x, in. (mm)
Icr = moment of inertia of cracked cross-sectional area of a member,
in.4 (mm4)
Ig = moment of inertia of gross cross-sectional area of a member,
in.4 (mm4)
I n = moment of inertia of net cross-sectional area of a member,
4 4
in. (mm )
L = live load, lb (N)
M = unfactored maximum calculated bending moment at the
section under consideration, in.-lb (N-mm)
Mc = factored moment magnified for the effects of member cur-
vature, in.-lb (N-mm)
Mcr = cracking bending moment, in.-lb (N-mm)
Mn = nominal moment strength, in.-lb (N-mm)
Mser = applied bending moment, in.-lb (N-mm)
Mu = factored moment, in.-lb (N-mm)
Nv = compressive force acting normal to the shear surface, lb (N)
= unfactored axial load, lb (N)
Pn = nominal axial strength, lb (N)
Pu = factored axial load, lb (N)
Puf = factored load from tributary floor or roof areas, lb (N)
Puw = factored weight of wall area tributary to wall section under
consideration, lb (N)
QE = the effect of horizontal seismic forces, lb (N)
Qn = first moment about the neutral axis of a section of that por-
tion of the net cross section lying between the neutral axis
and extreme fiber, in.3 (mm3)
R = seismic response modification factor
r = radius of gyration, in. (mm)
Sn = section modulus of cross-section, in.3 (mm3)
s = spacing of shear reinforcement, in. (mm)
T = tension in reinforcement, lb (N)
t = specified thickness of masonry element, in. (mm)
tfs = concrete masonry face shell thickness, in. (mm)
V = unfactored shear force, lb (N)
Vm = shear strength provided by masonry, lb (N)
Vn = nominal shear strength, lb (N)
Vs = shear strength provided by shear reinforcement, lb (N)
Vu = factored shear, lb (N)
wu = out-of-plane factored uniformly distributed load, lb/in.
(N/mm)
X = for partially grouted masonry, distance from extreme compres-
sion fiber to centroid of the compression resultant, in. (mm)
α = tension reinforcement yield strain factor
δ = moment magnification factor
δs = deflection due to service loads, in. (mm)
δu = deflection due to factored loads, in. (mm)
εmu = maximum usable compressive strain of masonry
εs = steel strain
εy = yield strain of reinforcement
ρ = reinforcement ratio
ρmax = maximum reinforcement ratio
φ = strength reduction factor
REFERENCES
1. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, ACI 530-02/ASCE 5-02/TMS 402-02. Reported by the Masonry
Standards Joint Committee, 2002.
2. 2003 International Building Code. International Code Council, 2003.
3. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, ACI 530-05/ASCE 5-05/TMS 402-05. Reported by the Masonry
Standards Joint Committee, 2005.
4. 2006 International Building Code. International Code Council, 2006.
5. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, ACI 530-08/ASCE 5-08/TMS 402-08. Reported by the Masonry
Standards Joint Committee, 2008.
6. Empirical Design of Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 14-8A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2001.
7. Allowable Stress Design of Concrete Masonry, TEK 14-7A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2004.
8. Drysdale, R. G., Hamid, A. A. and Baker L. R., Masonry Structures, Behavior and Design, Second Edition. The Masonry
Society, 1999.
9. Standard Specification for Low-Alloy Steel Deformed and Plain Bars for Concrete Reinforcement, ASTM A 706/A 706M-01.
ASTM International, 2001.
10. Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete, ACI 318-02. American Concrete Institute, 2002.
11. Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE 7-02. Structural Engineering Institute of the American
Society of Civil Engineers, 2002.
12. Design of Anchor Bolts Embedded in Concrete Masonry, TEK 12-3A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2004.
13. Splices, Development and Standard Hooks for Concrete Masonry, TEK 12-6. National Concrete Masonry Association,
2007.
14. Section Properties of Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 14-1B. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2007.

NCMA and the companies disseminating this technical information disclaim any and all responsibility and liability for the
accuracy and the application of the information contained in this publication.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171 contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
www.ncma.org
 NCMA TEK
National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology

LOADBEARING CONCRETE TEK 14-5A

Structural (2006)
MASONRY WALL DESIGN
Keywords: allowable stress design, design example, lateral
loads, load combinations, loadbearing walls, reinforced concrete

INTRODUCTION

Structural design of buildings requires a

variety of structural loads to be accounted for:
dead and live loads, those from wind, earth-
quake, lateral soil pressure, lateral fluid pres-
sure, as well as forces induced by temperature
movements, creep, shrinkage, and differential
movements. Because any load can act simul-
taneously with another, the designer must
consider how these various loads interact on
the wall. For example, an axial load can offset
tension due to lateral load, thereby increasing
flexural capacity, and, if acting eccentrically,
can also increase the moment on the wall.
Building codes dictate which load combina-
tions must be considered, and require that the
structure be designed to resist the most severe
load combination.
The design aids in this TEK cover com-
bined axial compression or axial tension and
flexure, as determined using the allowable
stress design provisions of Building Code
Requirements for Masonry Structures (ref. 1).
The data in this TEK applies to 8 in. (203 mm)
thick reinforced concrete masonry walls with
a specified compressive strength, f’m, of 1500
psi (10.3 MPa), and a maximum wall height
of 20 ft (6.1 m) (taller walls can be evaluated
using the NCMA computer software (ref. 3)
or other design tools). Reinforcing bars are
assumed to be located at the center of the wall,
and bar sizes 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 are included.

Axial Load-bending moment

interaction diagrams

Several design approaches are available Figure 1—Full Axial Load-Bending Moment Interaction Diagram (Ref.
for combined axial compression and flexure, 2), Dashed Box Indicates Region Displayed In Figures 3 Through 7

TEK 14-5A © 2006 National Concrete Masonry Association (replaces TEK 14-5)
most commonly using computer programs to perform the
necessary iterative calculations, or using interaction diagrams
to graphically determine required reinforcement for the given
conditions. Axial load–bending moment interaction diagrams
account for the interaction between moment and axial load on
the design capacity of a reinforced (or unreinforced) masonry
wall.
Regions of the Interaction Diagram
The various interaction diagram regions are discussed
below. Figure 2 shows a typical interaction diagram for a
reinforced masonry wall subjected to combined axial load
and bending moment. Three distinct regions (I, II and III)
can be identified, each with very different characteristics and
behavior.
Region I represents the range of conditions correspond-
ing to an uncracked section. That is, there is no tendency for
the wall to go into tension, hence the design is governed by
masonry compressive strength. Because the Building Code
Requirements for Masonry Structures (ref. 1) only permits
reinforcing steel to carry an allowable compression stress if
it is laterally tied, and since it is generally not practical to do
so, the reinforcing steel is simply neglected.
Region II is characterized by cracking in the section, but
the reinforcing steel remains subject to compression strain.
Hence in Region II, as in Region I, the reinforcing steel is
ignored – i.e., the size and location of reinforcing steel are
irrelevant. Since the section is cracked, the properties of the
cross-section change as the eccentricity changes.
Region III corresponds to values of 0 < k < 1 (tension
governs the design). This is the only region where the rein-
forcing steel affects the capacity of the section.
The load capacity can also be limited by wall slenderness
if the eccentricity is sufficiently small and the slenderness
sufficiently large. The horizontal line shown in Figure 2 in
Region I illustrates the effect of this upper limit on the interac-
tion diagram.
A complete discussion of interaction diagrams, including
the governing equations for the various regions, is included
in Concrete Masonry Design Tables (ref. 2).
Figures 3 Through 7
Figures 3 through 7 are axial load-bending moment
interaction diagrams for reinforcing bar sizes No. 4, 5, 6, 7
and 8, respectively, which can be used to aid in the design of
both fully and partially grouted 8 in. (203 mm) single wythe
concrete masonry walls. Rather than the full interaction dia-
gram, only the portion outlined by the dashed box in Figure
1 is shown. With reinforcing steel located in the center of the
wall, wall strength will be the same under either a positive or
negative moment of the same magnitude. Therefore, although
negative moments are not shown, the figures may be used for
these conditions.
This area of the interaction diagram covers the majority
of design applications. Conditions outside of this area may
be determined using Concrete Masonry Design Tables (ref.
2). Each line on the diagram represents a different reinforcing
bar spacing, included at 8 in. (203 mm) increments.
Po
Code Eq. 2-17 or 2-18 Controls
Region I
Region II
Region III
Bending moment, M
Balanced Point, Pb
Figure 2—Interaction Diagram of Fully Grouted
Reinforced Wall Showing Three Regions
Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures
(ref. 1) permits a 1/3 increase in allowable stresses when load
combinations include wind or seismic loads. Figures 3 through
7 represent load combinations excluding wind or seismic (i.e.,
no increase in allowable stresses is included). However, these
diagrams can be used for load combinations including wind
or seismic by multiplying the total applied axial load and
moment by 0.75 (see Design Example section).
These interaction diagrams also conform to the Inter-
national Building Code (ref. 4) basic load combinations for
allowable stress design (not including 1/3 stress increase for
for wind or seismic). A stress increase is allowed under the
IBC alternative basic load combinations but is applied in a
different manner than in MSJC. Therefore, the IBC 1/3 stress
increase cannot be used in conjunction with these tables.
Design example – loadbearing wall
A 20 ft (6.1 m) high reinforced concrete masonry wall
is to be designed to resist wind load as well as eccentrically
applied axial live and dead loads as depicted in Figure 8. The
designer must determine the reinforcement size and spacing
required to resist the applied loads, listed below.
D = 520 lb/ft (7.6 kN/m), at e = 0.75 in. (19 mm)
L = 250 lb/ft (3.6 kN/m), at e = 0.75 in. (19 mm)
W = 20 psf (1.0 kPa)
The maximum moment due to the wind load is determined
as follows.
Mmax = WH2/8 ft-lb/ft
= (20 psf)(20 ft)2/8
= 1000 ft-lb/ft (4.4 kN.m/m),
which acts at y = H/2 = 10 ft (3.1 m)
The axial load used for design is the axial load at the
location of maximum moment. This combination may not
necessarily be the most critical section for combined axial load
 3,000
f'm = 1,500
2,500 psi
fy = 60,000
2,000 psi
tnom = 8
1,500 inches
No. 4 Bar
Axial Load (lb/ft)

1,000

500
0
0 12
s=
-500

-1,000 32

8
s= 24 16

s=
s= s=
-1,500

-2,000
0 250 500 750 1,000 1,250 1,500 1,750 2,000
Bending Moment (ft-lb/ft)
Figure 3—Interaction Diagram of 8 in. (203 mm) Concrete Masonry Wall With No. 4 Reinforcing Bars

3,000
f'm = 1,500 psi
2,500 fy = 60,000 psi
tnom = 8 inches
2,000 No. 5 Bar
d = 3.81 inches
1,500 H = 20 feet
Axial Load (lb/ft)

1,000

500

0
0 12
s=
-500

-1,000
40
32
16

s=
8

24
s=
-1,500
s=

s=
s=

-2,000
0 250 500 750 1,000 1,250 1,500 1,750 2,000
Bending Moment (ft-lb/ft)

Figure 4—Interaction Diagram of 8 in. (203 mm) Concrete Masonry Wall With No. 5 Reinforcing Bars
 3,000

2,500 f'm = 1,500 psi

fy = 60,000 psi
tnom = 8 inches
2,000 No. 6 Bar
d = 3.81 inches
H = 20 feet
1,500

1,000
Axial Load (lb/ft)

500

0
-500 12
s=

24
-1,000

6
48 40 32

s=1

s=8
s=
= s= =
s s
-1,500

-2,000
0 250 500 750 1,000 1,250 1,500 1,750 2,000
Bending Moment (ft-lb/ft)

Figure 5—Interaction Diagram of 8 in. (203 mm) Concrete Masonry Wall With No. 6 Reinforcing Bars

3,000

2,500 f'm = 1,500 psi

fy = 60,000 psi
tnom = 8 inches
2,000 No. 7 Bar
d = 3.81 inches
H = 20 feet
1,500

1,000
Axial Load (lb/ft)

500

0
12
-500

s
= 48
56 =
40
6

= s
32

-1,000
s=1
4

s=8

s
s=
s=2
s=

-1,500

-2,000
0 250 500 750 1,000 1,250 1,500 1,750 2,000
Bending Moment (ft-lb/ft)

Figure 6—Interaction Diagram of 8 in. (203 mm) Concrete Masonry Wall With No. 7 Reinforcing Bars
 3,000
f'm = 1,500 psi
2,500 fy = 60,000 psi
tnom = 8 inches
2,000 No. 8 Bar
d = 3.81 inches
1,500 H = 20 feet
Axial Load (lb/ft)

1,000

500

120

56

48
64
72

s=
s=

s=
0
s=

s=
-500

-1,000

24

16
32
40

8
-1,500

s=

s=
s=
s=

s=
-2,000
0 250 500 750 1,000 1,250 1,500 1,750 2,000
Bending Moment (ft-lb/ft)

Figure 7—Interaction Diagram of 8 in. (203 mm) Concrete Masonry Wall With No. 8 Reinforcing Bars

P (Dead & Live)
e = 3/4 in.
20 FT
W = 20 psf
Figure 8—Wall Section for Loadbearing Wall
Design Example
and flexure, but should be close to the critical location. The
wall weight is estimated to be halfway between fully grouted
and hollow (82 and 38.7 psf (400 and 189 kg/m2), respectively,
for 115 pcf (1842 kg/m3) unit concrete density).
Ptotal @ 10' = PD + PL + Pwall
= 520 lb/ft + 250 lb/ft + (60.4 lb/ft2)(10 ft)
= 1,374 lb/ft (20 kN/m)
The eccentricity of the axial loads also induces bending in
the wall and should be included in the applied moment. The
magnitude of the moment due to the eccentric axial load must
be found at the same location as the maximum moment.
MPD = PDe(y/H)
= (520 lb/ft)(0.75 in.)(10/20 ft)
= 195 in.-lb/ft = 16.3 ft-lb/ft (72.5 N.m/m)
MPL = PLe(y/H)
= (250 lb/ft)(0.75 in.) (10/20 ft)
= 93.8 in.-lb/ft = 7.8 ft-lb/ft (34.7 N.m/m)
The induced bending moments due to the eccentric axial
loads are insignificant compared to that due to wind. However,
these will be taken into account where appropriate for specific
load combinations.
The applicable load combinations (ref. 1) for this example
are:
D+L
D+L+W
D+W
During design, all three load combinations should be
checked, with the controlling load case used for design. For
brevity, only the third combination (D + W) will be evaluated
here, since the axial load actually increases the flexural capacity
for the first two combinations by offsetting tension in the wall
due to the lateral load. Because the interaction diagrams in this
TEK are for load combinations excluding wind or seismic, the
total moment, shear and axial loads the wall must resist (listed
below) are multiplied by 0.75 to account for the 1/3 increase in
allowable stresses permitted by section 2.1.1.1.3 in Building
Code Requirements for Masonry Structures (ref. 1).
Mmax = 0.75(1,000 + 16.3) ft-lb/ft
= 762 ft-lb/ft (3.4 kN.m/m)
P10’ = 0.75(PD + Pwall)
= 0.75[520 lb/ft + (60.4 lb/ft2)(10 ft)]
= 843 lb/ft (12.3 kN/m)
To determine the required reinforcement size and spacing
to resist these loads, P10’ and Mmax are plotted on the appropriate
interaction diagram(s) until a satisfactory design is found.
Figure 3 shows that No. 4 bars at 32 in. (813 mm) on
center are adequate. If a larger bar spacing is desired, No. 5
bars at 48 in. (1219 mm) on center will also meet the design
requirements (see Figure 4). Although wall design is seldom
governed by out-of-plane shear, the shear capacity should be
checked. In addition, the axial load should be recalculated based
on the actual wall weight (based on grout spacing chosen),
then the resulting required capacity should be recalculated
and plotted on the interaction diagram to check adequacy.
nomenclature
An net cross sectional area of masonry, in.2/ft (mm2/m)
D dead load, lb/ft (kN/m)
d distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of
tension reinforcement, in. (mm)
e eccentricity of axial load - measured from centroid of
masonry unit, in. (mm)
Fa allowable compressive stress due to axial load only, psi
(MPa)
Fb allowable masonry compressive stress due to flexure only,
psi (MPa)
Fs allowable steel tensile stress, psi (MPa)
fy yield stress of steel, psi (MPa)
f’m specified masonry compressive strength, psi (MPa)
H height of wall, ft (m)
k ratio of the distance between compression face of wall
and neutral axis to the effective depth, d
L live load, lb/ft (kN/m)
M moment acting on section, in.-lb/ft or ft-lb/ft (kN.m/m)
P axial force or concentrated load, lb/ft (kN/m)
Pb axial force corresponding to balanced condition, lb
(kN)
Po maximum axial force ordinate on interaction diagram, lb
(kN)
s reinforcement spacing, in. (mm)
t thickness of masonry, in. (mm)
tnom nominal wall thickness, in. (mm)
V shear acting at a section, lb/ft (kN/m)
W wind load, psf (kN/m2)
y distance measured from top of wall, ft (m)
metric conversions
To convert: To metric units: Multiply English units by:
ft m 0.3048
ft-lb/ft N.m/m 4.44822
in. mm 25.4
lb/ft N/m 14.5939
psi MPa 0.00689476
REFERENCES
1. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures,
ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402. Reported by the Masonry
Standards Joint Committee, 1999/2002/2005.
2. Concrete Masonry Design Tables, TR121A. National
Concrete Masonry Association, 2000.
3. Structural Masonry Design System Software, CMS10.
National Concrete Masonry Association, 2006.
4. International Building Code. International Codes Coun-
cil, Falls Church, VA, 2000/2003/2006.

Disclaimer: Although care has been taken to ensure the enclosed information is as accurate and complete as possible, NCMA
does not assume responsibility for errors or omissions resulting from the use of this TEK.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171 contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
www.ncma.org
 NCMA TEK
National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology

CONCRETE MASONRY TEK 14-6

Structural (2004)
BOND PATTERNS
Keywords: bond patterns, compressive strength, stack
bond construction, tensile strength, testing

INTRODUCTION

Varying the bond or joint pattern of a concrete concentrated loads.

masonry wall can create a wide variety of interesting and The flexural strength of stack bond walls spanning
attractive appearances using standard units as well as horizontally can be increased significantly by the use of
sculptured-face and other architectural units. Because bond beams or joint reinforcement. The value of joint
concrete masonry is often used as the finished wall reinforcement as a means of strengthening concrete
surface, the use of bond patterns other than the traditional masonry in the horizontal span is indicated in Figure 4
running bond has steadily increased for both loadbearing which shows the relative flexural strength with and
and nonloadbearing walls. without joint reinforcement. From this it can be seen that
Building code allowable design stresses, lateral properly reinforced stack bond masonry can be designed
support, and minimum thickness requirements for to be as strong as running bond construction.
concrete masonry are based primarily on structural
testing and research on wall panels laid in running bond
construction. When a different bond pattern is used it is
advisable to consider its influence on the compressive
and flexural strength of a block wall. Some building
codes provide for variations in bond pattern to some
extent by requiring the use of horizontal reinforcement,
for example, when walls are laid in stack bond.

STACK BOND CONSTRUCTION Typical Running Bond

Excluding running bond construction, the most

popular and widely used bond pattern with concrete
masonry units is stack bond. Compressive strength is
similar for stack and running bond construction. In stack
bond masonry, heavy concentrated loads will be carried
down to the support by the particular vertical tier or Unit
“column” of masonry under the load, with little length
Less than 1 4 unit
distribution to adjacent masonry. Stability will not be overlap
jeopardized if allowable stresses are not exceeded, but the
Stack Bond
use of reinforced bond beams will aid in distributing
concentrated loads. The use of pilasters or grouted cells
Figure 1—Definition of Stack Bond Masonry
will also be effective in increasing the resistance to

TEK 14-6 © 2004 National Concrete Masonry Association

 for a nominal 4 in. (102 mm)
wythe.
When stack bond construc-
tion may be subjected to seismic
loads or winds of hurricane
velocity, consideration must be
given to additional requirements
and restrictions as may be
consistent with local codes,
Running bond Horizontal stack Vertical stack local experience, and engineer-
ing practice. For example, Build-
ing Code Requirements for
Masonry Structures requires
stack bond masonry in Seismic
Design Category D and higher to
be solidly grouted hollow open-
end units, fully grouted hollow
units with full head joints, or
solid units with a maximum
Diagonal basket Diagonal bond Basket weave A spacing of 24 in. (610 mm) for
weave
the reinforcement. Seismic
Design Category E & F have an
additional requirement that the
horizontal reinforcement be at
least 0.0015 the gross cross-
sectional area of walls that are
not part of the lateral-force
resisting system. For walls that
Running bond 4 in. are part of the lateral force
Coursed ashlar Basket weave B
(102 mm) high units resisting system in SDC E & F,
the minimum horizontal rein-
Figure 2—Concrete Masonry Patterns for Structural Tests
forcement requirement is in-
creased to 0.0025 times the
CODE REQUIREMENTS gross cross-sectional area with a maximum spacing of 16
in. (406 mm). These elements also must be solidly grouted
Building Code Requirements for Masonry Struc- hollow open end units or two wythes of solid units.
tures (ref. 1) includes criteria for walls laid in stack bond.
Although stack bond typically refers to masonry TESTING PROGRAM
constructed such that the head joints are vertically
aligned, the Code defines stack bond as masonry laid such To assist in evaluating the structural performance of
that the head joints in successive courses are horizontally walls laid with various bond patterns, a large number of
offset less than one quarter the unit length, as illustrated concrete masonry panels were tested for compressive
in Figure 1. and flexural strength (ref. 2). The nine bond patterns
All stack bond construction is required to have a shown in Figure 2 were employed in constructing the test
minimum area of horizontal reinforcement equal to panels. Panels were composed of 8 in. (203 mm) hollow
0.00028 times the gross vertical cross-sectional area of units laid up with Types M and S mortar with face shell
the wall. This requirement can be met using either bond bedding. Panels were 4 ft wide by 8 ft high (1.2 by 2.4 m);
beams spaced not more than 48 in. (1219 mm) on center those for flexural strength tests with the wall spanning
or using joint reinforcement. Anchored masonry veneer horizontally between supports were 8 ft wide by 4 ft high
must have horizontal joint reinforcement, of at least one (2.4 by 1.2 m). For compressive strength tests, loading
wire size W1.7 (9 gauge) (MW11) or larger, spaced at a was applied at an eccentricity of one-sixth of the wall
maximum of 18 in. (457 mm) on center vertically. This is thickness. Lateral tests used uniformly distributed
equivalent to the minimum reinforcement stated above loading from a plastic bag filled with air. Test methods
 and details followed those speci-
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 fied in Standard Methods of
Conducting Strength Tests of
Running C - compressive Panels for Building Construc-
bond Tv - transverse-vertical
Th - transverse-horizontal span tion, ASTM E 72 (ref. 3)
Relative strengths of the
4 in. (102 mm) C
wall panels are compared by
nominal Tv bond pattern in Figure 3 using 8
running bond Th in. (203 mm) high units laid in
running bond as the standard.
Horizontal C
stack Tv
bond Th Compressive Strengths
From Figure 3 it is evident
Vertical
that where hollow units are laid
C
stack bond Tv in the horizontal position there is
no decrease in wall compressive
Diagonal strength for the different bond-
C
basket Tv ing patterns. Units laid in the
weave Th vertical or diagonal position
generally produce wall strengths
Diagonal C approximately 75% of that ob-
running bond Tv tained from the running bond
pattern. The reduction in strength
Basket C for vertical stack bond is directly
weave A Tv
related to the decrease in net
block area in compression. In the
Basket C
weave B
vertical position, the end webs
Tv
and interior webs are so oriented
Coursed
with respect to the direction of
C
ashlar Tv stress that they do not contribute
to the strength of the wall except
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 as ties between the face shells.
When blocks are laid in the
Note: All walls 8 in. (203 mm) nominal unless otherwise noted.
horizontal position, the end and
Figure 3—Relative Strengths of Walls Laid in Different Bond Patterns middle webs are parallel to the
direction of stress and contrib-
ute to the strength of the wall.
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Vertical Span Flexural
Stack bond, Strength
A
no reinforcement Where walls span verti-
cally between lateral supports,
8 in. (203 mm)
running bond,
failure from transverse loading
B
no reinforcement occurs as a bond failure between
block and mortar. Only three of
A or B with joint
reinforcement at 16 C the bond patterns tested showed
in. (406 mm) o.c. a decrease in flexural strength
A or B with joint when compared to the standard:
reinforcement at 8 D vertical stack, basket weave “B”,
in. (203 mm) o.c. and coursed ashlar. In two of
these patterns the continuous
Figure 4—Relative Flexural Strength in Horizontal Span of Concrete horizontal joints are farther
Masonry Walls With and Without Joint Reinforcement apart than the standard running
bond pattern. Horizontal stack bond construction was
30% stronger in vertical span flexure, and walls built with
units laid in a diagonal position were more than 50%
stronger because more mortar bond area is included in the
“saw-tooth” line across the wall width.
Horizontal Span Flexural Strength
For unreinforced concrete masonry laid in running
bond and spanning horizontally between lateral supports,
flexural resistance depends on the strength and design of
the block. Under increasing lateral load the units will
rupture in tension rather than failing by mortar bond. For
this reason, walls are generally at least twice as strong in
flexure when spanning horizontally. This does not apply
to walls laid in stack bond, which have approximately the
NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION
13750 Sunrise Valley Drive , Herndon, Virginia 20171-4662
www.ncma.org
same strength in both directions. Test results shown in
Figure 4 indicate that the relative strength of stack bond
walls in the horizontal span is about 30% of running bond
construction.
REFERENCES
1. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Struc-
tures, ACI 530-02/ASCE 5-02/TMS 402-02. Re-
ported by the Masonry Standards Joint Committee,
1999.
2. Load Tests of Patterned Concrete Masonry Walls.
Portland Cement Association, 1961.
3. Standard Methods of Conducting Strength Tests of
Panels for Building Construction, ASTM E 72. ASTM
International.
To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
An information series from the national
ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN
OF CONCRETE MASONRY
INTRODUCTION
Concrete masonry elements can be designed by using
one of several methods in accordance with Building Code
Requirements for Masonry Structures (ref. 1): empirical
design, strength design, or allowable stress design. This
TEK provides a basic overview of design criteria and
requirements for concrete masonry assemblies designed
using the allowable stress design provisions contained in
Chapter 2 of the Building Code Requirements for Ma-
sonry Structures. For masonry design in accordance with
the empirical or strength design provisions, the reader
is referred to TEK 14-8B Empirical Design of Concrete
Masonry Walls (ref. 4) and TEK 14-4B Strength Design
Provisions for Concrete Masonry (ref. 5), respectively.
The content presented is based upon the require-
ments of the 2006 International Building Code (ref. 2a)
and 2009 International Building Code (ref. 2b), which in
turn reference the 2005 and 2008 editions of the Building
Code Requirements for Masonry Structures (ref. 1a and
1b), respectively. Where design assumptions or model-
ing conditions differ between cited references, they are
identified accordingly here. Otherwise, the allowable
stress design provisions between the 2005 and 2008
Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures
are the same. This TEK is intended only to provide a
general review of the pertinent allowable stress design
criteria. Tables, charts, design examples and additional
aids specific to the allowable stress design of concrete
masonry elements can be found in the TEK listed in the
related TEK box, below.
Allowable stress design is based on the following
design principles and assumptions:
• Within the range of allowable stresses, masonry ele-
ments satisfy applicable conditions of equilibrium and
Related TEK: Keywords: allowable loads, allowable stress, allowable stress design,
14-3A, 14-5A, 14-15B, axial strength, building code provisions, flexural strength, reinforced
14-19A, 14-20A, 14-22 concrete masonry, shear strength, structural design, unreinforced con-
crete masonry
NCMA TEK (replaces TEK) 1
authority on concrete masonry technology
TEK 14-7B
Structural (2009)
compatibility of strains.
• Plane sections before bending remain plane after bend-
ing. Therefore, masonry strain is directly proportional
to the distance from the neutral axis.
• Stress is linearly proportional to strain within the al-
lowable stress range.
• For reinforced masonry design, all tensile stresses are
resisted by the steel reinforcement. The contribution
of the masonry to the tensile strength of the element
is ignored.
• The units, mortar, grout, and reinforcement, if present,
act compositely to resist applied loads.
Based on this assumed design model, the internal
distribution of stresses and resulting equilibrium is il-
lustrated in Figure 1 for unreinforced masonry and Figure
3 for reinforced masonry.
DESIGN LOADS
Utilizing allowable stress design, masonry elements
are sized and proportioned such that the anticipated service
level loads can be safely and economically resisted using
the specified material strengths. The specified strength of
masonry and reinforcement are in turn reduced by appro-
priate safety factors. Minimum design loads for allowable
stress design are included in Minimum Design Loads for
Buildings and Other Structures (ref. 3) or obtained from
the International Building Code (IBC) (ref. 2). For load
combinations that include wind or earthquake loads, the
code-prescribed allowable stresses are permitted to be
increased by one-third when using the alternative basic
load combinations of the IBC.
Using allowable stress design, the calculated design
stresses on a masonry member (indicated by lowercase
f) are compared to code-prescribed maximum allowable
stresses (indicated by a capital F). The design is accept-
able when the calculated applied stresses are less than or
equal to the allowable stresses (f < F).
UNREINFORCED MASONRY
For unreinforced masonry, the masonry assembly
(units, mortar, and grout if used) is designed to carry
all applied stresses (see Figure 1). The additional ca-
pacity from the inclusion of reinforcing steel, such as
reinforcement added for the control of shrinkage crack-
ing or prescriptively required by the code, is neglected.
Because the masonry is intended to resist both tension
and compression stresses resulting from applied loads,
the masonry must be designed to remain uncracked.
Unreinforced Out-of-Plane Flexure
Allowable flexural tension values as prescribed
in Building Code Requirements for Masonry Struc-
tures, vary with the direction of span, mortar type,
bond pattern, and percentage of grouting as shown
in Table 1. For assemblies spanning horizontally
between supports, the code conservatively assumes
that masonry constructed in stack bond cannot reli-
ably transfer flexural tension stresses across the head
joints. As such, the allowable flexural tension values
parallel to the bed joints (perpendicular to the head
joints) for stack bond construction are assumed to be
zero for design purposes unless a continuous section
of grout crosses the head joint, such as would occur
with the use of open-ended units or bond beam units
with recessed webs.
Because the compressive strength of masonry is
much larger than its corresponding tensile strength,
the capacity of unreinforced masonry subjected to
net flexural stresses is almost always controlled by
the flexural tension values of Table 1. For masonry
elements subjected to a bending moment, M, and
a compressive axial force, P, the resulting flexural
bending stress is determined using Equation 1.
Mt P
fb
= −
2I n An Eqn. 1
TEK 14-1B, Section Properties of Concrete Ma-
sonry Walls (ref. 6) provides typical values for the
net moment of inertia, In, and cross-sectional area, An,
for various wall sections. If the value of the bending
stress, fb, given by Equation 1 is positive, the masonry
section is controlled by tension and the limiting val-
ues of Table 1 must be satisfied. Conversely, if fb as
2 NCMA TEK
given by Equation 1 is negative, the masonry section is
in compression and the compressive stress limitation of
Equation 2 must be met.
1
fb ≤ Fb =f m′ Eqn. 2
3
Unreinforced Axial Compression and
Flexure
While unreinforced masonry can resist flexural ten-
sion stresses due to applied loads, unreinforced masonry
may not be subjected to net axial tension, such as that due
to wind uplift on a roof connected to a masonry wall or
the overturning effects of lateral loads. While compres-
Table 1—Allowable Flexural Tensile
Stresses, psi (kPa)
Mortar types:
Direction Masonry cement
of flexural Portland cement/ or air-entrained
tensile lime or portland cement/
stress and mortar cement lime
masonry type M or S N M or S N
Normal to bed joints:
Solid units 40 (276) 30 (207) 24 (166) 15 (103)
Hollow units
A
Ungrouted 25 (172) 19 (131) 15 (103) 9 (62)
Fully grouted 65 (448) 63 (434) 61 (420) 58 (400)
Parallel to bed joints in running bond:
Solid units 80 (552) 60 (414) 48 (331) 30 (207)
Hollow units
Ungrouted &
partially grouted 50 (345) 38 (262) 30 (207) 19 (131)
Fully grouted 80 (552) 60 (414) 48 (331) 30 (207)
Parallel to bed joints in stack bond:
Continuous grout section parallel to bed jointsB
100 (690) 100 (690) 100 (690) 100 (690)
Other 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0)
A
For partially grouted masonry, allowable stresses shall be
determined on the basis of linear interpolation between fully
grouted hollow units and ungrouted hollow units based on
amount (percentage) of grouting.
B
The 2005 edition of Building Code Requirements for Ma-
sonry Structures (ref. 1a) does not directly provide for allowable
flexural tension stresses parallel to bed joints with continuous
grout sections. These design stresses have been clarified in the
2008 edition (ref. 1b).
 able stresses to the applied loads per Equation 6. This
fb check ensures that the critical sections remain uncracked
under design loads.
f a fb
+ ≤1
Fa Fb Eqn. 6

Unreinforced Shear
Shear stresses on unreinforced masonry elements are
calculated using the net cross-sectional properties of the
masonry in the direction of the applied shear force using
the following relation:
VQ
fv =
I nb Eqn. 7
Equation 7 is applicable to determining both in-plane
Wall width and out-of-plane shear stresses. Because unreinforced
masonry is designed to remain uncracked, it is not neces-
Figure 1—Unreinforced Masonry Stress sary to perform a cracked section analysis to determine
Distribution the net cross-sectional area of the masonry.
The theoretical distribution of shear stress, fv, along
sive stresses from dead loads can be used to offset tensile the length of the shear wall (Figure 2) for in-plane loads,
stresses, reinforcement must be incorporated to resist the or perpendicular to any wall for out-of-plane loads, is
resulting tensile forces when the element is subject to a parabolic in shape for a rectangular cross-section. The
net axial tension. calculated shear stress due to applied loads, fv, as given
When masonry elements are subjected to compres- by Equation 7 cannot exceed any of the code-prescribed
sive axial loads only, the calculated compressive stress allowable shear stresses, Fv, as follows:
due to applied load, fa, must not exceed the allowable a) 1.5 f m′ psi (0.125 f m′ MPa)
compressive stress, Fa, as given by Equations 3 or 4, as b) 120 psi (827 kPa)
appropriate. c) For running bond masonry not grouted solid:
For elements having h/r < 99: 37 psi + 0.45Nv An (255 + 0.45Nv /An kPa)
1   h  
2
d) For stack bond masonry with open end units and
fa ≤ F
= a f m′ 1 −    P
4   140r  
Eqn. 3 M
For elements having h/r > 99: P V Compressive
2 stress, fb
1  70r 
f a ≤ Fa =f m′   M
4  h  Eqn. 4 Compressive
A further check for stability against an eccentrically stress, fb
applied axial load is included with Equation 5, whereby
the axial compressive load, P, is limited to one-fourth
the buckling load, Pe. With Equation 5, the actual ec- V Shear
centricity of the applied load, e, is used to determine Pe. stress, fv
Moments on the assembly due to loads other than the
eccentric load are not considered in Equation 5. b V
3
1 1  π 2 Em I n   e
P ≤ Pe
=  2 1 − 0.577  b
4 4 h  r
Eqn. 5
When unreinforced masonry elements are subjected
to a combination of axial load and flexural bending, a Figure 2—Unreinforced Masonry
unity equation is used to proportion the available allow- Shear Walls

NCMA TEK 3
grouted solid:
37 psi + 0.45Nv /An (255 + 0.45Nv/ An kPa)
e) For running bond masonry grouted solid:
60 psi + 0.45Nv /An (414 + 0.45Nv/An kPa)
f) For stack bond masonry other than open end units
grouted solid: 15 psi (103 kPa)
Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures
defines the above allowable shear stresses as being ap-
plicable to in-plane shear stresses only: allowable shear
stresses for out-of-plane loads are not provided. In light
of this absence, Commentary on Building Code Require-
ments for Masonry Structures suggests using these same
values for out-of-plane shear design.
REINFORCED MASONRY
Reinforced masonry design in accordance with
Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures
neglects the tensile resistance provided by the masonry
units, mortar and grout in determining the strength of
the masonry assemblage. Thus, for design purposes, the
portion of masonry subjected to net tensile stresses is
assumed to have cracked, transferring all tensile forces
to the reinforcement. (While the determination of the
reinforced masonry element strength conservatively
assumes the portion of the masonry subjected to net
tensile stresses has cracked, this should be verified when
calculating the stiffness and deflection of a reinforced
masonry element.)
Reinforcement
The tensile stress in the reinforcement due to applied
load, fs, is calculated as the product of the
strain in the steel (which increases linearly
in proportion to the distance from the neu-
tral axis) and its modulus of elasticity, Es. kd
1 kd
The modulus of elasticity, Es, of mild steel 3 3
fb
reinforcement is assumed to be 29,000,000
psi (200 GPa). The code-prescribed allow- C C
able steel stresses are as follows (ref. 1):
For Grade 60 reinforcement in tension:
Fs = 24,000 psi (165.5 MPa)
For Grade 40 and 50 reinforcement in ten-
sion: Fs = 20,000 psi
(137.9 MPa)
For wire reinforcement in tension:
Fs = 30,000 psi
(206.9 MPa)
For all reinforcement in compression: Bar diameter
Fs = 24,000 psi (165.5 MPa) or 0.4fy,
whichever is less.
Unless ties or stirrups laterally confine
the reinforcement as required by Building
Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, Figure 3—Reinforced Masonry Stress Distribution
4 NCMA TEK
the reinforcement is assumed not to contribute compres-
sive resistance to axially loaded elements. Additional
information on mild reinforcing steel can be found in
TEK 12-4D, Steel Reinforcement for Concrete Masonry
(ref. 7).
Reinforced Out-of-Plane Flexure
As with unreinforced masonry, the allowable com-
pressive stress in masonry, Fb, due to flexure or due to
a combination of flexure and axial load is limited by
Equation 2. When axial loads are not present, or are
conservatively neglected as may be appropriate in some
cases, there are several circumstances to consider in
determining the flexural capacity of reinforced masonry
assemblies.
For a fully grouted element, a cracked transformed
section approach is used, wherein the reinforcement area
is transformed to an equivalent area of concrete masonry
using the modular ratio.
Partially grouted assemblies are analyzed in the
same way, but with the additional consideration of the
ungrouted cores. For partially grouted masonry there
are two types of behavior to consider.
1. The first case applies when the neutral axis (the loca-
tion of zero stress) lies within the compression face
shell, as shown in Figure 3A. In this case, the masonry
is analyzed and designed using the procedures for a
fully grouted assembly.
2. The second type of analysis occurs when the neutral
axis lies within the core area rather than the compres-
sion face shell, as shown in Figure 3B. For this case,
the portion of the ungrouted cells must be deducted
d d
jd jd
T kd T
1 kd
fb
Masonry cover Masonry cover
Bar diameter
Wall width Wall width
3A 3B
 from the area of masonry capable of carrying com- use of Equation 10 results in kd occurring outside of the
pression stresses. compression face shell), the resisting flexural capacity,
The neutral axis location depends on the relative Mr, is calculated using the neutral axis coefficient k given
moduli of elasticity of the masonry and steel, n, as well by Equation 14 and either Case A or Case B as follows:
as the reinforcement ratio, ρ, and the distance between −t fs (b − bw ) − As n
the reinforcement and extreme compression fiber,= d. k +
dbw
When analyzing partially grouted assemblies, it is
typically assumed that the neutral axis lies within the (t fs (b − bw ) + As n) 2 + bw (t fs 2 (b − bw ) + 2As nd )
compression face shell, as the analysis is more straight- dbw
forward. Based on this assumption, the resulting value of
k and the location of the neutral axis (kd) is calculated. If Eqn. 14
it is determined that the neutral axis lies outside the com-
pression face shell, the more rigorous tee beam analysis (A) For cases where the masonry strength controls the
is performed. Otherwise, the rectangular beam analysis design capacity:
is carried out. A complete discussion and derivation of  1− k 
this procedure is contained in Concrete Masonry Design f s = nFb  
Tables (ref. 8).  k  Eqn. 15
For design purposes, the effective width of the com- If fs as determined using Equation 15 is greater than
pression zone per bar is limited to the smallest of: the allowable steel stress, F s , then the steel controls the
• six times the wall thickness, strength and the design is carried out using procedure
• the center-to-center spacing of the reinforcement, or (B) below. Otherwise, the internal compression force,
• 72 in. (1,829 mm). C, and moment capacity are computed as follows:
This requirement applies to masonry constructed in 1
C = Fb bk d
running bond and to masonry constructed in stack bond 2 Eqn. 16
containing bond beams spaced no farther than 48 in.
Mr = C j d Eqn. 17
(1,219 mm) on center. Where the center-to-center spac-
ing of the reinforcement does not control the effective
(B) For cases where the steel strength controls:
width of the compression zone, the resulting resisting
T = As Fs Eqn. 18
moment or resisting shear is proportioned over the width
Mr = T j d Eqn. 19
corresponding to the effective width of the compression
zone as determined above.
(C) The shear capacity in both cases is calculated as
follows:
Rectangular Beam Analysis
Vr = Fv b d Eqn. 21
For fully grouted masonry elements and for partially
grouted masonry elements with the neutral axis in the
Reinforced Axial Compression
compression face shell, the resisting flexural capacity,
Axial loads acting through the axis of a member are
Mr, is calculated as follows:
distributed over the net cross-sectional area of the ef-
n = Es /Em Eqn. 8
fective compression zone, or, for concentrated loads, 4t
As plus the bearing width. The allowable axial compressive
ρ=
bd Eqn. 9 force is based on the compressive strength of masonry
and the slenderness ratio of the element in accordance
k = 2ρ n + (ρ n) − ρ n
2
Eqn. 10 with the following:
j = 1 - k/3 Eqn. 11 For elements having h/r < 99, the allowable compressive
1 2 force, Pa, is determined as follows:
M m = Fb k jbd
2 Eqn. 12   h 2 
Ms = As Fs jd Pa =(0.25 f m′ An + 0.65 As Fs ) 1 −   
Eqn. 13   140r   Eqn. 23
Where the resisting flexural capacity, Mr, is taken as the
For elements having h/r >n 99, the allowable compres-
lesser of Mm and Ms.
sive force, Pa, is determined as follows:
2
Tee Beam Analysis ′  70r 
= Pa (0.25 f m An + 0.65 As Fs )  
For partially grouted masonry assemblies where the  h  Eqn. 24
neutral axis is located within the cores (i.e., when the Note that compression reinforcement requires ties or

NCMA TEK 5
stirrups to laterally confine the reinforcement. lowing:
For flexural members:
Reinforced Axial Compression and Flexure =Fv 3 f m′ ≤ 150 psi (1,034 kPa) Eqn. 30
Often, loading conditions result in both axial load and
For shear walls:
flexure on a masonry element. Superimposing the stresses
Where M/Vd is < 1:
resulting from axial compression and flexural compression
produces the combined stress. Members are proportioned
1   M  M 
Fv = 4−  f m′ ≤ 120 - 45  
so that this maximum combined stress does not exceed the 2   Vd    Vd 
allowable stress limitation imposed by Equation 2, 5, 6, and Eqn. 31
either Equation 23 or 24, as appropriate. In cases where Where M/Vd is > 1:
the combined compressive stresses are relatively large, =Fv 1.5 f m′ ≤ 75 psi (517 kPa)
design economy may be realized by increasing the specified Eqn. 32
masonry compressive strength, f’m, which in turn can result For Equations 27, 28, 31 and 32, the ratio M/Vd is
in thinner wall cross-sections, reduced material usage, and required to be taken as a positive value.
increased construction productivity. Several design ap- Providing shear reinforcement in accordance with
proaches are available for combined axial compression and Equations 29 through 32, must also comply with the
flexure, most commonly using either computer programs following:
to perform the necessary iterative calculations or using • Shear reinforcement is oriented parallel to the direction
interaction diagrams to graphically determine the required of the shear force.
reinforcement for a given condition (refs. 8, 9, 10). • Shear reinforcement spacing must not exceed the lesser
of d/2 or 48 in. (1,219 mm).
• Reinforcement must also be provided perpendicular to
Reinforced Shear
the shear reinforcement. This prescriptive reinforcement
Shear acting on masonry flexural members and shear
must have an area of at least one-third Av as given by
walls is resisted either by the masonry (units, mortar and
Equation 29 and may not be spaced farther apart than
grout) or by shear reinforcement. For masonry members 8 ft (2,438 mm).
not subjected to flexural tension, the allowable shear NOTATION
stresses provided earlier for unreinforced masonry apply. An = net cross-sectional area of masonry, in.2 (mm2)
For masonry elements that are subjected to flexural ten- As = effective cross-sectional area of reinforcement, in.2
sion, the applied shear stress is calculated as follows: (mm2)
V Av = effective cross-sectional area of shear reinforce-
fv =
bd Eqn. 25 ment, in.2 (mm2)
Where reinforcement is not provided to resist the b = width of section, in. (mm)
entire calculated shear stress, fv, the allowable shear stress, bw = for partially grouted walls, width of grouted cell
Fv, is required to be determined in accordance with the plus each web thickness within the compression zone,
following: in. (mm)
For flexural members: C = resultant compressive force, lb (N)
Fv
= f m′ ≤ 50 psi (345 kPa) d = distance from the extreme compression fiber to the
Eqn. 26
centroid of the tension reinforcement, in. (mm)
For shear walls:
Em = modulus of elasticity of masonry, psi (MPa)
Where M/Vd is < 1:
Es = modulus of elasticity of reinforcement, psi (MPa)
1   M  M 
Fv = 4−  f m′ ≤ 80 - 45   e = eccentricity of applied load, lb (N)
3   Vd    Vd  Fa = allowable compressive stress due to axial load, psi
Eqn. 27
Where M/Vd is > 1: (MPa)
=Fv f m′ ≤ 35 psi (241 kPa) fa = calculated compressive stress due to axial load, psi
Eqn. 28 (MPa)
When shear reinforcement is provided to resist the entire Fb = allowable bending stress due to flexure, psi (MPa)
shear force, the minimum amount of shear reinforcement fb = calculated bending stress due to flexure, psi (MPa)
is determined by Equation 29. f’m = specified compressive strength of masonry, psi
Vs (MPa)
Av =
Fs d Fs = allowable tensile or compressive stress in reinforce-
Eqn. 29
ment, psi (MPa)
Where reinforcement is provided to resist the entire
fs = calculated tensile or compressive stress in reinforce-
calculated shear stress, fv, the allowable shear stress, Fv, ment, psi (MPa)
is required to be determined in accordance with the fol-

6 NCMA TEK
Fv = allowable shear stress, psi (MPa)
fv = calculated shear stress, psi (MPa)
fy = specified yield strength of reinforcement, psi (MPa)
h = effective height of masonry element, in. (mm)
In = moment of inertia of net cross-sectional area of a
masonry element, in.4 (mm4)
j = ratio of distance between centroid of flexural com-
pressive forces and centroid of tensile forces to depth d
k = ratio of distance between compression face of element
and neutral axis to the effective depth d
M = maximum calculated bending moment at section
under consideration, in.-lb, (N-mm)
Mm = flexural strength (resisting moment) when masonry
controls, in.-lb (N-mm)
Mr = flexural strength (resisting moment), in.-lb (N-mm)
Ms = flexural strength (resisting moment) when reinforce-
ment controls, in.-lb (N-mm)
Nv = compressive force acting normal to the shear sur-
NCMA TEK 7
face, lb (N)
n = modular ratio
P = applied axial load, lb (N)
Pa = allowable compressive force in reinforced masonry
due to axial load, lb (N)
Pe = Euler buckling load, lb (N)
Q = first moment of inertia about the neutral axis, in.3
(mm3)
r = radius of gyration, in. (mm)
s = spacing of shear reinforcement, in. (mm)
T = resultant tensile force, lb (N)
t = thickness of masonry element, in. (mm)
tfs = concrete masonry unit face shell thickness, in. (mm)
V = applied shear force, lb (N)
Vr = shear capacity (resisting shear) of masonry, lb
(N)
ρ = reinforcement ratio
REFERENCES
1. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, Reported by the Masonry Standards Joint Committee.
a. 2005 Edition: ACI 530-05/ASCE 5-05/TMS 402-05
b. 2008 Edition: TMS 402-08/ACI 530-08/ASCE 5-08
2. International Building Code. International Code Council.
a. 2006 Edition
b. 2009 Edition
3. Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE 7-05. American Society of Civil Engineers, 2005.
4. Empirical Design of Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 14-8B. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2008.
5. Strength Design Provisions for Concrete Masonry, TEK 14-4B. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2008.
6. Section Properties of Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 14-1B. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2007.
7. Steel Reinforcement for Concrete Masonry, TEK 12-4D. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2007.
8. Concrete Masonry Design Tables, TR121. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2000.
9. Structural Masonry Design System, Version 4.0, CMS10, National Concrete Masonry Association, 2006.
10. Loadbearing Concrete Masonry Wall Design, TEK 14-5A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2006.

NCMA and the companies disseminating this technical information disclaim any and all responsibility and liability for the accuracy
and the application of the information contained in this publication.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION

13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171
www.ncma.org

To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index, contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900

8 NCMA TEK
An information series from the national
ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN OF
CONCRETE MASONRY BASED ON
THE 2012 IBC & 2011 MSJC
INTRODUCTION
Concrete masonry elements can be designed by using one of
several methods in accordance with the International Building
Code (IBC, ref. 2) and, by reference, Building Code Require-
ments for Masonry Structures (MSJC Code, ref. 1): allowable
stress design, strength design, direct design, empirical design,
or prestressed masonry. This TEK provides a basic overview
of design criteria and requirements for concrete masonry as-
semblies designed using allowable stress design provisions.
For masonry design in accordance with the strength design,
prestressed or empirical provisions, the reader is referred to
TEK 14-4B, Strength Design Provisions for Concrete Masonry
(ref. 5), TEK 14-20A, Post-Tensioned Concrete Masonry
Wall Design (ref. 10), and TEK 14-8B, Empirical Design of
Concrete Masonry Walls (ref. 4), respectively.
The content presented in this edition of TEK 14-7C is
based on the requirements of the 2012 International Building
Code (ref. 2a), which in turn references the 2011 edition of the
MSJC Code (ref. 1a). For designs based on the 2006 or 2009
IBC (refs. 2b, 2c), which reference the 2005 and 2008 MSJC
(refs. 1b, 1c), respectively, the reader is referred to TEK 14-7B
(ref. 11).
Significant changes were made to the allowable stress
design (ASD) method between the 2009 and 2012 editions of
the IBC. In previous codes, the IBC included alternative load
combinations for ASD, and the MSJC ASD criteria allowed a
one-third increase in allowable stresses for load combinations
that include wind or seismic. The one-third stress increase is not
included in the 2011 MSJC. In addition, previous code versions
allowed the use of strength-level load combinations in ASD to
compensate for the lack of service-level load combinations in
previously referenced versions of ASCE 7, Minimum Design
Loads for Buildings and Other Structures (ref. 3). Currently,
however, ASCE 7-10 includes both service level and strength
level load combinations, so this "pseudo-strength" procedure
is no longer included in the current ASD method.
Keywords: allowable loads, allowable stress, allowable stress design, axial
Related TEK: strength, building code provisions, flexural strength, reinforced concrete mason-
12-4D, 14-1B, 14-4B, 14-5A, ry, shear strength, structural design, unreinforced concrete masonry
14-7B, 14-8B, 14-19A, 14-20A
NCMA TEK 14-7C 1
authority on concrete masonry technology
TEK 14-7C
Structural (2013)
This TEK provides a general review of the pertinent al-
lowable stress design criteria contained within the 2011 MSJC.
Allowable stress design is based on the following design
principles and assumptions:
• Within the range of allowable stresses, masonry elements
satisfy applicable conditions of equilibrium and compat-
ibility of strains.
• Stresses remain in the elastic range.
• Plane sections before bending remain plane after bending.
Therefore, strains in masonry and reinforcement are directly
proportional to the distances from the neutral axis.
• Stress is linearly proportional to strain within the allowable
stress range.
• For unreinforced masonry, the resistance of the reinforce-
ment, if present, is neglected.
• For reinforced masonry design, all tensile stresses are re-
sisted by the steel reinforcement. Masonry in tension does
not contribute to axial or flexural strength.
• The units, mortar, grout, and reinforcement, if present, act
compositely to resist applied loads.
Based on these assumptions, the internal distribution of
stresses and resulting equilibrium is illustrated in Figure 1 for
unreinforced masonry and Figure 2 for reinforced masonry.
Using allowable stress design, the calculated design stresses
on a masonry member (indicated by lowercase f) are compared
to code-prescribed maximum allowable stresses (indicated by a
capital F). The design is acceptable when the calculated applied
stresses are less than or equal to the allowable stresses (f < F).
DESIGN LOADS
Utilizing ASD, masonry elements are sized and pro-
portioned such that the anticipated service level loads can
be safely and economically resisted using the specified
material strengths. The specified strength of masonry and
reinforcement are in turn reduced by appropriate safety fac-
tors. Minimum design loads for allowable stress design are
included in ASCE 7-10, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings
and Other Structures, or obtained from the IBC.
UNREINFORCED MASONRY
For unreinforced masonry, the masonry assembly (units,
mortar, and grout if used) is designed to carry all applied stresses
(see Figure 1). The additional capacity from the inclusion of
reinforcing steel, such as reinforcement added for the control
of shrinkage cracking or prescriptively required by the code,
is neglected. Because the masonry is intended to resist both
tension and compression stresses resulting from applied loads,
the masonry must be designed to remain uncracked.
Unreinforced Out-of-Plane Flexure
Allowable flexural tension values as prescribed in the
2011 MSJC Code vary with the direction of span, mortar type,
bond pattern, and percentage of grouting as shown in Table 1.
For assemblies spanning horizontally between supports, the
code conservatively assumes that masonry constructed in a
bond pattern other than running bond cannot reliably transfer
flexural tension stresses across the head joints. As such, the
allowable flexural tension values parallel to the bed joints
(perpendicular to the head joints) in these cases are assumed
to be zero. In cases where a continuous section of grout crosses
the head joint, such as would occur with the use of open-ended
units or bond beam units with recessed webs, tension resisted
only by the minimum cross-sectional area of the grout may be
considered.
Because the compressive strength of masonry is much
kd
fb 1
3 kd
Wall width
Figure 1—Unreinforced
Masonry Stress
Distribution
2 NCMA TEK 14-7C
larger than its corresponding tensile strength, the capacity of
unreinforced masonry subjected to net flexural stresses is al-
most always controlled by the flexural tension values of Table
1. For masonry elements subjected to a bending moment, M,
and a compressive axial force, P, the resulting flexural bending
stress is determined using Equation 1.
Mt P
fb = − Eqn. 1
2 I n An
TEK 14-1B, Section Properties of Concrete Masonry Walls
(ref. 6) provides typical values for the net moment of inertia,
In, and cross-sectional area, An, for various wall sections. If the
value of the bending stress, fb, given by Equation 1 is positive,
the masonry section is controlled by tension and the limiting
values of Table 1 must be satisfied. Conversely, if fb as given
by Equation 1 is negative, the masonry section is in compres-
sion and the compressive stress limitation of Equation 2 must
be met.
fb < Fb = 1/3 f'm Eqn. 2
Unreinforced Axial Compression and Flexure
While unreinforced masonry can resist flexural tension
stresses due to applied loads, unreinforced masonry is not
permitted to be subjected to net axial tension, such as that
due to wind uplift on a roof connected to a masonry wall or
the overturning effects of lateral loads. While compressive
stresses from dead loads can be used to offset tensile stresses,
reinforcement must be incorporated to resist the resulting tensile
forces when the element is subject to a net axial tension.
When masonry elements are subjected to compressive
axial loads only, the calculated compressive stress due to ap-
d d
jd jd
T kd T
1
3 kd
fb
fb
C C
Masonry cover Masonry cover
Bar diameter Bar diameter
Wall width Wall width
3Aaxis within the
2 A: Neutral 3Baxis within
2B: Neutral
compression face shell the core area
Figure 2—Reinforced Masonry Stress Distribution
plied load, fa, must not exceed the allowable Table 1—Allowable Flexural Tensile Stresses, psi (kPa) (ref. 1a)
compressive stress, Fa, as given by Equations Direction of flexural Mortar types
3 or 4, as appropriate. tensile stress and
For elements having h/r < 99: masonry type Portland cement/ lime or Masonry cement or
1   h 2 mortar cement air-entrained portland
fa ≤ Fa = f 'm 1 −    Eqn. 3 cement/lime

4   140 r  
M or S N M or S N
Normal to bed
For elements having h/r > 99:
2 joints:
1  70 r  Solid units 53 (366) 40 (276) 32 (221) 20 (138)
fa ≤ Fa = f 'm   Eqn. 4
4  h  Hollow unitsA

Ungrouted 33 (228) 25 (172) 20 (138) 12 (83)
A further check for stability against an Fully grouted 86 (593) 84 (579) 81 (559) 77 (531)
eccentrically applied axial load is included Parallel to bed joints
with Equation 5, whereby the axial com- in running bond:
pressive load, P, is limited to one-fourth the Solid units 106 (731) 80 (552) 64 (441) 40 (276)
buckling load, Pe. With Equation 5, the actual Hollow units
eccentricity of the applied load, e, is used to Ungrouted & 66 (455) 50 (345) 40 (276) 25 (172)
determine Pe. Moments on the assembly due partially grouted
to loads other than the eccentric load are not Fully grouted 106 (731) 80 (552) 64 (441) 40 (276)
considered in Equation 5. Parallel to bed joints
3
1 1  π 2 Em I n   e in masonry not laid
P≤ Pe =   1 − 0.577  Eqn. 5
4 4  h 2   r in running bond:
Continuous grout 133 (917) 133 (917) 133 (917) 133 (917)
When unreinforced masonry elements are section parallel
subjected to a combination of axial load and to bed joints
flexural bending, a unity equation is used to Other 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0) 0 (0)
proportion the available allowable stresses
to the applied loads per Equation 6. This
A
For partially grouted masonry, allowable stresses are determined on the basis of
check ensures that the critical sections remain linear interpolation between fully grouted hollow units and ungrouted hollow units
uncracked under design loads. based on amount (percentage) of grouting.
fa fb
+ ≤1 Eqn. 6
Fa Fb

Unreinforced Shear
Shear stresses on unreinforced masonry elements are cal-
culated using the net cross-sectional properties of the masonry
in the direction of the applied shear force using the following
relation: P
VQ V
fv = Eqn. 7
I nb M
Compressive
Equation 7 is applicable to determining both in-plane and stress, fb
out-of-plane shear stresses. Because unreinforced masonry is
designed to remain uncracked, it is not necessary to perform a
cracked section analysis to determine the net cross-sectional Shear
area of the masonry. stress, f v
The theoretical distribution of shear stress, fv, along the b
length of the shear wall (Figure 3) for in-plane loads, or per-
pendicular to any wall for out-of-plane loads, is parabolic in
shape for a rectangular cross-section. The calculated shear
stress due to applied loads, fv, as given by Equation 7 cannot
exceed any of the code-prescribed allowable shear stresses,
Fv, as follows:
(
a) 1.5 f 'm psi 0.125 f 'm MPa ) Figure 3—Unreinforced Masonry
b) 120 psi (827 kPa) Shear Walls

NCMA TEK 14-7C 3

c) For running bond masonry not fully grouted:
37 psi + 0.45Nv /An (255 + 0.45Nv /An kPa)
d) For masonry not laid in running bond, constructed of
open-end units and fully grouted:
37 psi + 0.45Nv /An (255 + 0.45Nv /An kPa)
e) For running bond masonry fully grouted:
60 psi + 0.45Nv /An (414 + 0.45Nv /An kPa)
f) For masonry not laid in running bond, constructed of other
than open-end units and fully grouted:
15 psi (103 kPa)
The MSJC Code defines the above allowable shear stresses
as being applicable to in-plane shear stresses only: allowable
shear stresses for out-of-plane loads are not provided. In light
of this absence, Commentary on Building Code Requirements
for Masonry Structures suggests using these same values for
out-of-plane shear design.
REINFORCED MASONRY
Reinforced masonry design in accordance with the MSJC
Code neglects the tensile resistance provided by the masonry
units, mortar and grout in determining the strength of the ma-
sonry assemblage. Thus, for design purposes, the portion of
masonry subjected to net tensile stresses is assumed to have
cracked, transferring all tensile forces to the reinforcement.
(While the determination of the reinforced masonry element
strength conservatively assumes the portion of the masonry
subjected to net tensile stresses has cracked, this should be
verified when calculating the stiffness and deflection of a
reinforced masonry element.)
Reinforcement
The tensile stress in the reinforcement due to applied
load, fs, is calculated as the product of the strain in the steel
(which increases linearly in proportion to the distance from
the neutral axis) and its modulus of elasticity, Es. The modulus
of elasticity, Es, of mild steel reinforcement is assumed to be
29,000,000 psi (200 GPa). The code-prescribed allowable
steel stresses are as follows (ref. 1a):
For Grade 60 bar reinforcement in tension: • 72 in. (1,829 mm).
Fs = 32,000 psi (220.7 MPa)
For Grade 40 and 50 bar reinforcement in tension:
Fs = 20,000 psi (137.9 MPa)
For wire joint reinforcement in tension: Where the center-to-center spacing of the reinforcement does
Fs = 30,000 psi (206.9 MPa)
Unless ties or stirrups laterally confine bar reinforcement
as required by the MSJC Code, the reinforcement is assumed
not to contribute compressive resistance to axially loaded ele-
ments. When reinforcement is confined as prescribed, stresses
are limited to the values listed above. Additional information
on mild reinforcing steel can be found in TEK 12-4D, Steel
Reinforcement for Concrete Masonry (ref. 7).
Reinforced Out-of-Plane Flexure
The allowable compressive stress in masonry, Fb, due to
flexure or due to a combination of flexure and axial load is
limited by Equation 8. When axial loads are not present, or are
4 NCMA TEK 14-7C
conservatively neglected as may be appropriate in some cases,
there are several circumstances to consider in determining the
flexural capacity of reinforced masonry assemblies.
fb < Fb = 0.45 f'm Eqn. 8
For a fully grouted element, a cracked transformed section
approach is used, wherein the reinforcement area is transformed
to an equivalent area of concrete masonry using the modular
ratio.
Partially grouted assemblies are analyzed in the same way,
but with the additional consideration of the ungrouted cores.
For partially grouted masonry there are two types of behavior
to consider.
1. The first case applies when the neutral axis (the location of
zero stress) lies within the compression face shell, as shown
in Figure 2A. In this case, the masonry is analyzed and
designed using the procedures for a fully grouted assembly.
2. The second type of analysis occurs when the neutral axis
lies within the core area rather than the compression face
shell, as shown in Figure 2B. For this case, the portion
of the ungrouted cells must be deducted from the area of
masonry capable of carrying compression stresses.
The neutral axis location depends on the relative moduli of
elasticity of the masonry and steel, n, as well as the reinforce-
ment ratio, ρ, and the distance between the reinforcement and
extreme compression fiber, d.
When analyzing partially grouted assemblies, it is typically
assumed that the neutral axis lies within the compression face
shell, as the analysis is more straightforward. Based on this as-
sumption, the resulting value of k and the location of the neutral
axis (kd) is calculated. If it is determined that the neutral axis
lies outside the compression face shell, the more rigorous tee
beam analysis is performed. Otherwise, the rectangular beam
analysis is carried out. A complete discussion and derivation
of this procedure is contained in Concrete Masonry Design
Tables (ref. 8).
For design purposes, the effective width of the compres-
sion zone per bar is limited to the smallest of:
• six times the wall thickness,
• the center-to-center spacing of the reinforcement, or
This requirement applies to masonry laid in running bond
and to masonry not laid in running bond and containing bond
beams spaced no farther than 48 in. (1,219 mm) on center.
not control the effective width of the compression zone, the
resulting resisting moment or resisting shear is proportioned
over the width corresponding to the effective width of the
compression zone as determined above.
Rectangular Beam Analysis
For fully grouted masonry elements and for partially
grouted masonry elements with the neutral axis in the compres-
sion face shell, the resisting flexural capacity, Mr, is calculated
as follows:
n = Es /Em Eqn. 9
As
ρ=
bd Eqn. 10
 k = 2 ρn + ( ρn ) − ρn Note that Equations 21 and 22 apply only if compression
2

Eqn. 11
reinforcement is provided. Such reinforcement requires ties
j = 1 - k/3 Eqn. 12 or stirrups to laterally confine the reinforcement.
Mm = 1/2 Fb k j b d2 Eqn. 13
Ms = As Fs j d Eqn. 14 Reinforced Axial Compression and Flexure
Where the resisting flexural capacity, Mr, is taken as the lesser Often, loading conditions result in both axial load and
of Mm and Ms. flexure on a masonry element. Superimposing the stresses
resulting from axial compression and flexural compression
Tee Beam Analysis produces the combined stress. Members are proportioned
For partially grouted masonry assemblies where the neutral so that this maximum combined stress does not exceed the
axis is located within the cores (i.e., when kd > tfs), the resist- allowable stress limitation imposed by Equation 8 and the
ing flexural capacity, Mr, is calculated using the neutral axis calculated compressive stress due to the axial load component
coefficient k given by Equation 15 and either Case A or Case fa, must not exceed the allowable compressive stress, Fa, as
B as follows: given by Equation 3 or 4 as appropriate if no compression
−t fs ( b − bw ) − As n reinforcement is provided. If compression reinforcement is
k= +
dbw provided, limitations are per Equation 8 and either Equation
21 or 22, as appropriate. In cases where the combined com-
(t (b − b ) + A n ) (
+ bw t 2fs ( b − bw ) + 2As nd )
2
fs w s pressive stresses are relatively large, design economy may
dbw be realized by increasing the specified masonry compressive
Eqn. 15 strength, f ’m, which in turn can result in thinner wall cross-
sections, reduced material usage, and increased construction
(A) For cases where the masonry strength controls the design productivity. Several design approaches are available for
capacity: combined axial compression and flexure, most commonly
using either computer programs to perform the necessary itera-
1− k
fs = nFb  Eqn. 16 tive calculations or using interaction diagrams to graphically
 k 
determine the required reinforcement for a given condition.
One such software program is Structural Masonry Design
If fs as determined using Equation 16 is greater than the System (ref. 9), which is described in TEK 14-17A, Software
allowable steel stress, Fs, then the steel controls the strength and for the Structural Design of Concrete Masonry (ref. 12).
the design is carried out using procedure (B) below. Otherwise,
the internal compression force, C, and moment capacity are Reinforced Shear
computed as follows: Under the 2011 MSJC Code, the shear resistance provided
C = 1/2 Fb b k d Eqn. 17 by the masonry is added to the shear resistance provided by the
Mr = Cjd Eqn. 18 shear reinforcement. This is a change from previous versions
of the Code, and provides a better prediction of shear strength.
(B) For cases where the steel strength controls: Note that additional requirements apply to special reinforced
T = As Fs Eqn. 19 masonry shear walls.
Mr = Tjd Eqn. 20 There are two checks to be made for reinforced shear. First, as
for all ASD design, the calculated shear stress must be less than
Reinforced Axial Compression or equal to the allowable shear stress (fv < Fv). Secondly, when
Axial loads acting through the axis of a member are the calculated shear stress is greater than the allowable shear
distributed over the net cross-sectional area of the effective stress resisted by the masonry (fv > Fvm), shear reinforcement
compression zone, or, for concentrated loads, 4t plus the bear- must be provided. These calculations are presented below.
ing width. The allowable axial compressive force is based on The applied shear stress on the masonry member is calculated
the compressive strength of masonry and the slenderness ratio as follows:
of the element in accordance with the following: V
fv = Eqn. 23
For elements having h/r < 99, the allowable compressive force, Anv

Pa, is determined as follows:
  h 2
Pa = ( 0.25 f 'm An + 0.65 As Fs ) 1 −   Eqn. 21
The allowable shear stress, Fv, is determined using Equation

  140 r   24 and Equation 25 or 26, as appropriate.

Fv = Fvm +Fvs Eqn. 24
For elements having h/r > 99, the allowable compressive force,
Where M/Vd < 0.25:
Pa, is determined as follows:
F ″ 3 f 'm
v Eqn. 25
 70 r  2 
Pa = ( 0.25 f 'm An + 0.65 As Fs )    Eqn. 22
 h   Where M/Vd is > 1.0:
Fv ″ 2 f 'm Eqn. 26

NCMA TEK 14-7C 5

 When the ratio M/Vd falls between 0.25 and 1.0, the maximum In addition, when fv > Fvm, shear reinforcement must be
value of Fv may be linearly interpolated using Equations 25 provided in accordance with the following requirements:
and 26. The values of Fvm and Fvs are determined using Equa- • the shear reinforcement must be oriented parallel to the
tions 27 and 28. When calculating Fvm, M/Vd must be taken direction of the shear force,
as a positive number and need not exceed 1. • the shear reinforcement spacing must not exceed the lesser
1   M   P of d/2 or 48 in. (1,219 mm), and
Fvm =  4.0 − 1.75    f 'm  + 0.25 Eqn. 27
2   Vd    A • reinforcement must also be provided perpendicular to the shear
n

reinforcement. This prescriptive reinforcement must have an
 Av Fs d 
Fvs = 0.5  Eqn. 28 area of at least one-third Av, must be uniformly distributed,
 An s  and may not be spaced farther apart than 8 ft (2,438 mm).

6 NCMA TEK 14-7C

NOTATION
An = net cross-sectional area of a member, in.2 (mm2)
Anv = net shear area, in.2 (mm2)
As = area of nonprestressed longitudinal reinforcement, in.2
(mm2)
Av = cross-sectional area of shear reinforcement, in.2 (mm2)
b = width of section, in. (mm)
bw = for partially grouted walls, width of grouted cell plus
each web thickness within the compression zone, in.
(mm)
C = resultant compressive force, lb (N)
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of
tension reinforcement, in. (mm)
Em = modulus of elasticity of masonry in compression, psi
(MPa)
Es = modulus of elasticity of steel, psi (MPa)
e = eccentricity of axial load, lb (N)
Fa = allowable compressive stress available to resist axial
load only, psi (MPa)
Fb = allowable compressive stress available to resist flexure
only, psi (MPa)
Fs = allowable tensile or compressive stress in reinforcement,
psi (MPa)
Fv = allowable shear stress, psi (MPa)
Fvm = allowable shear stress resisted by the masonry, psi (MPa)
Fvs = allowable shear stress resisted by the shear reinforce-
ment, psi (MPa)
fa = calculated compressive stress in masonry due to axial
load only, psi (MPa)
fb = calculated flexural bending stress in masonry, psi (MPa)
f’m = specified compressive strength of masonry, psi (MPa)
fs = calculated tensile or compressive stress in reinforcement,
psi (MPa)
NCMA TEK 14-7C 7
fv = calculated shear stress in masonry, psi (MPa)
h = effective height of masonry element, in. (mm)
In = moment of inertia of net cross-sectional area of a member,
in.4 (mm4)
j = ratio of distance between centroid of flexural compressive
forces and centroid of tensile forces to depth, d
k = ratio of distance between compression face of element and
neutral axis to the effective depth d
M = maximum calculated bending moment at section under
consideration, in.-lb, (N-mm)
Mm = flexural strength (resisting moment) when masonry
controls, in.-lb (N-mm)
Mr = flexural strength (resisting moment), in.-lb (N-mm)
Ms = flexural strength (resisting moment) when reinforcement
controls, in.-lb (N-mm)
Nv = compressive force acting normal to shear surface, lb (N)
n = modular ratio, Es /Em
P = axial compression load, lb (N)
Pa = allowable axial compressive force in a reinforced mem-
ber, lb (N)
Pe = Euler buckling load, lb (N)
Q = first moment of inertia about the neutral axis of an area
between the extreme fiber and the plane at which the
shear stress is being calculated, in.3 (mm3)
r = radius of gyration, in. (mm)
s = spacing of shear reinforcement, in. (mm)
T = resultant tensile force, lb (N)
t = nominal thickness of masonry member, in. (mm)
tfs = concrete masonry unit face shell thickness, in. (mm)
V = shear force, lb (N)
Vr = shear capacity (resisting shear) of masonry, lb (N)
ρ = reinforcement ratio
REFERENCES
1. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, Reported by the Masonry Standards Joint Committee.
a. 2011 Edition: TMS 402-11/ACI 530-11/ASCE 5-11
b. 2008 Edition: TMS 402-08/ACI 530-08/ASCE 5-08
c. 2005 Edition: ACI 530-05/ASCE 5-05/TMS 402-05
2. International Building Code. International Code Council.
a. 2012 Edition
b. 2009 Edition
c. 2006 Edition
3. Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE 7-10. American Society of Civil Engineers, 2010.
4. Empirical Design of Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 14-8B. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2008.
5. Strength Design Provisions for Concrete Masonry, TEK 14-4B. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2008.
6. Section Properties of Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 14-1B. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2007.
7. Steel Reinforcement for Concrete Masonry, TEK 12-4D. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2007.
8. Concrete Masonry Design Tables, TR121. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2000.
9. Structural Masonry Design System Software, CMS10V5. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2010.
10. Post-Tensioned Concrete Masonry Wall Design, TEK 14-20A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2002.
11. Allowable Stress Design of Concrete Masonry, TEK 14-7B. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2009.
12. Software for the Structural Design of Concrete Masonry, TEK 14-17A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2010.

NCMA and the companies disseminating this technical information disclaim any and all responsibility and liability for the accuracy
and the application of the information contained in this publication.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION

13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171
www.ncma.org

To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index, contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900

8 NCMA TEK
 NCMA TEK
National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology

EMPIRICAL DESIGN OF TEK 14-8B

Structural (2008)
CONCRETE MASONRY WALLS

Keywords: allowable stress, anchorage, bonding, building

codes, empirical design, height/thickness ratio, intersecting
walls, lateral support, nonbearing wall, parapet, partition
walls, shear wall, unreinforced concrete masonry, vertical
loads, wall ties

INTRODUCTION This TEK is based on the provisions of Section 2109 of

Empirical design is a procedure of proportioning and siz-
ing unreinforced masonry elements based on known historical
performance for a given application. Empirical provisions
preceded the development of engineered masonry design, and
can be traced back several centuries. This approach to design
is based on historical experience in lieu of analytical methods.
It has proven to be an expedient design method for typical
loadbearing structures subjected to relatively small wind loads
and located in areas of low seismic risk. Empirical design has
also been used extensively for the design of exterior curtain
walls and interior partitions.
Using empirical design, vertical and lateral load resistance
is governed by prescriptive criteria which include wall height to
thickness ratios, shear wall length and spacing, minimum wall
thickness, maximum building height, and other criteria, which
have proven to be effective through years of experience.
the International Building Code (IBC) (ref. 1). These empiri-
cal design requirements do not apply to other design methods
such as allowable stress or limit states design. For empirical
design of foundation walls, see TEK 15-1B, Allowable Stress
Design of Concrete Masonry Foundation Walls (ref. 2)
APPLICABILITY OF EMPIRICAL DESIGN
The IBC allows elements of masonry structures to be de-
signed by empirical methods when assigned to Seismic Design
Category (SDC) A, B or C, subject to additional restrictions
described below. When empirically designed elements are part
of the seismic lateral force resisting system, however, their
use is limited to SDC A.
Empirical design has primarily been used with masonry
laid in running bond. When laid in stack bond, the IBC requires
a minimum amount of horizontal reinforcement (0.003 times

Table 1—2006 IBC Empirical Design Limitations Based on Building Height and Basic Wind SpeedA

Basic wind speed, w, mph (m/s)

Building height, w < 90 90 < w < 100 100 < w < 110 110 < w
Masonry wall type: h, ft (m) (w < 40) (40 < w < 45) (45 < w < 49) (49 < w)
Part of the lateral force-
resisting system h < 35 (11) Allowed Not allowed
Interior, not part of the h > 180 (55) Not allowed
lateral force-resisting 60 (18) < h < 180 (55) Allowed Not allowed
system, in buildings other 35 (11) < h < 60 (18) Allowed Not allowed
than enclosedA h < 35 (11) Allowed Not allowed
Exterior, not part of the h > 180 (55) Not allowed
lateral force-resisting 60 (18) < h < 180 (55) Allowed Not allowed
system 35 (11) < h < 60 (18) Allowed Not allowed
Exterior h < 35 (11) Allowed Not allowed
A
Per Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE 7 (ref. 4).

TEK 14-8B © 2008 National Concrete Masonry Association (replaces TEK 14-8A)
 t

Simple span deflection

l
t
h

t t1
l
t2

Simple span deflection

Single wythe Double wythe
Note: In cases where reinforced masonry pilasters have
(Note: t = t1 + t2 )
control joints on only one side of each pilaster, the clear
span, l, extends from control joint to control joint.
Where:
h = clear span between supports t = nominal wall thickness
l = horizontal span t1, t2 = nominal wythe thicknesses
Figure 1—Lateral Support of Empirically Designed (Unreinforced) Concrete Masonry Walls

Table 2—Wall Lateral Support Requirements (ref. 1) Table 3—Maximum Unreinforced Wall Spans, ft (m)A

Maximum wall length-to Wall thickness, in. (mm) 6 (152) 8 (203) 10 (254) 12 (305)
thickness or height-to Bearing walls
Construction (unreinforced) thickness ratioA Solid or solid grouted 10 (3.0)B 13.3 (4.1) 16.6 (5.1) 20 (6.1)
Bearing walls All other 9 (2.7)B 12 (3.7) 15 (4.5) 18 (5.5)
Solid units or solid grouted 20 Nonbearing walls
All others 18 Exterior 9 (2.7) 12 (3.7) 15 (4.5) 18 (5.5)
Nonbearing walls Interior 18 (5.5) 24 (7.3) 30 (9.1) 36 (11)
Exterior 18 Cantilever WallsC
Interior 36 Solid 3 (0.9) 4 (1.2) 5 (1.5) 6 (1.8)
Cantilever wallsB Hollow 2 (0.6) 2.6 (0.8) 3.3 (1.0) 4 (1.2)
Solid 6 Parapets C 1.5 (0.5) 2 (0.6) 2.5 (0.8) 3 (0.9)
Hollow 4 A
Note that Ref. 6 includes modified requirements for walls
Parapets (8-in. (203-mm) thick min.)B 3
with openings.
A
Ratios are determined using nominal dimensions. For multi- B Unreinforced 6-in. (152-mm) thick bearing walls are limited
wythe walls where wythes are bonded by masonry headers, to one story in height.
the thickness is the nominal wall thickness. When multiwythe C For these cases, spans are maximum wall heights.
walls are bonded by metal wall ties, the thickness is taken
as the sum of the wythe thicknesses. Note that Reference 6
includes modified requirements for walls with openings. check the SDC and basic wind speed, with the 2006 IBC, to
B
The ratios are maximum height-to-thickness ratios and do use empirical design the designer must check:
not limit wall length.
• SDC,
the wall's vertical cross-sectional area and spaced not more • basic wind speed,
than 48 in. (1,219 mm) apart). • building height, and
In addition, buildings that rely on empirically designed • location of gravity loads resultant.
masonry walls for lateral load resistance are allowed up to 35 The limitations based on SDC are the same as in the 2003
ft (10.7 m) in height. IBC, described above. Building height and basic wind speed
The 2003 IBC restricts empirical design to locations where conditions where empirical design is permitted under the 2006
the basic wind speed (three-second gust, not fastest mile) is IBC are summarized in Table 1.
less than or equal to 110 mph (79 m/s), as defined in Minimum The 2006 IBC also requires the resultant of gravity loads
Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE 7 to fall within the kern of the masonry element, to avoid im-
(ref. 3). A wind speed of this velocity generally applies along parting tension to the element. This area is defined as: within
the East and Gulf coasts of the United States. the center third of the wall thickness, or, for foundation piers,
The 2006 IBC further refines the empirical design limi- within the central area bounded by lines at one-third of each
tations. Whereas with the 2003 IBC, the designer need only cross-sectional dimension of the pier.
 Table 4—Allowable Compressive Stress for DESIGN PROVISIONS
Empirical Design of Masonry
Minimum Wall Thickness
Allowable compressive stresses Empirically designed (unreinforced) bearing walls of
based on gross cross-sectional one story buildings must be at least 6 in. (152 mm) thick. For
area, psi (MPa)A buildings more than one story high, walls must be at least 8
Gross area compressive Type M or S Type N in. (203 mm) thick. The minimum thickness for unreinforced
strength of unit, psi (MPa) mortar mortar masonry shear walls and for masonry foundation walls is also
8 in. (203 mm). Note that the 2003 IBC allows shear walls
Solid and Solidly Grouted Masonry (refs. 1, 6): of one-story buildings to have a minimum thickness of 6 in.
Solid concrete brick:
(152 mm).
8,000 (55) or greater 350 (2.41) 300 (2.07)
4,500 (31) 225 (1.55) 200 (1.38)
2,500 (17) 160 (1.10) 140 (0.97) Lateral Support
1,500 (10) 115 (0.79) 100 (0.69) Lateral support for walls can be provided in the horizontal
Grouted concrete masonry: direction by cross walls, pilasters, buttresses and structural
4,500 (31) or greater 225 (1.55) 200 (1.38) frame members, or in the vertical direction by floor diaphragms,
2,500 (17) 160 (1.10) 140 (0.97) roof diaphragms and structural frame members, as illustrated
1,500 (10) 115 (0.79) 100 (0.69) in Figure 1. For empirically designed walls, such support must
Solid concrete masonry units: be provided at the maximum intervals given in Tables 2 and 3.
3,000 (21) or greater 225 (1.55) 200 (1.38) Note that the span limitations apply to only one direction; that
2,000 (14) 160 (1.10) 140 (0.97) is, the span in one direction may be unlimited as long as the
1,200 (8.3) 115 (0.79) 100 (0.69) span in the other direction meets the requirements of Tables
Hollow walls (noncomposite masonry bondedB):
2 or 3.
Solid units:
2,500 (17) or greater 160 (1.10) 140 (0.97)
1,500 (10) 115 (0.79) 100 (0.69) Allowable Stresses
Allowable stresses in empirically designed masonry due
to building code prescribed vertical (gravity) dead and live
Hollow Unit Masonry (Units Complying With ASTM loads (excluding wind or seismic) are given in Table 4.
C 90-06 or Later) (ref. 6)C: Table 4 includes two sets of compressive stresses for
Hollow loadbearing CMU, t < 8 in. (203 mm)D: hollow concrete masonry units (CMU). The first set, titled
2,000 (14) or greater 140 (0.97) 120 (0.83) "Hollow Unit Masonry (Units Complying With ASTM C 90-
1,500 (10) 115 (0.79) 100 (0.69) 06 or Later)" apply to most CMU currently available. The
1,000 (6.9) 75 (0.52) 70 (0.48) 2006 edition of the CMU specification, Standard Specification
700 (4.8) 60 (0.41) 55 (0.38)
for Loadbearing Concrete Masonry Units, ASTM C 90 (ref.
Hollow loadbearing CMU, 8 in. < t < 12 in. (203 to 305 mm)D:
7), included slightly reduced minimum face shell thickness
2,000 (14) or greater 125 (0.86) 110 (0.76)
1,500 (10) 105 (0.72) 90 (0.62) requirements for CMU 10 in. (254 mm) and greater in width.
1,000 (6.9) 65 (0.49) 60 (0.41) These smaller face shells require a corresponding adjustment
700 (4.8) 55 (0.38) 50 (0.35) to the allowable compressive stresses. The values currently
Hollow loadbearing CMU, t > 12 in (305 mm)D: published in the 2006 IBC ("Hollow Unit Masonry (Units
2,000 (14) or greater 115 (0.79) 100 (0.69) Complying With Previous Editions of ASTM C 90)" in Table
1,500 (10) 95 (0.66) 85 (0.59) 4), apply to the previous face shell thicknesses, and should
1,000 (6.9) 60 (0.41) 55 (0.38) only be used if the CMU to be used have the thicker face shells
700 (4.8) 50 (0.35) 45 (0.31)
Hollow walls (noncomposite masonry bondedB):
t < 8 in. (203 mm)D 75 (0.52) 70 (0.48)
A
8 < t < 12 in (203 to 305 mm)D 70 (0.48) 65 (0.45) Linear interpolation for intermediate values of compressive
t > 12 in (305 m.m)D 60 (0.41) 55 (0.38) strength is permitted.
B
Where floor and roof loads are carried on one wythe, the gross
cross-sectional area is that of the wythe under load; if both
wythes are loaded, the gross cross-sectional area is that of the
Hollow Unit Masonry (Units Complying With Previous
wall minus the area of the cavity between the wythes. Walls
Editions of ASTM C 90) (ref. 1)C: bonded with metal ties shall be considered as noncomposite
Hollow concrete masonry units: walls unless collar joints are filled with mortar or grout.
2,000 (14) or greater 140 (0.97) 120 (0.83) C
Minimum unit face shell thicknesses, for units 10 in. (254 mm)
1,500 (10) 115 (0.79) 100 (0.69) and greater in width, were reduced beginning with ASTM C
1,000 (6.9) 75 (0.52) 70 (0.48) 90-06. Hence, minimum allowable compressive stresses should
700 (4.8) 60 (0.41) 55 (0.38) be reduced accordingly when using these units. See text for
Hollow walls (noncomposite masonry bondedB): further information.
D
Hollow units 75 (0.52) 70 (0.48) t = nominal unit thickness.
listed in previous editions of ASTM C 90. This distinction is
not applicable to masonry that will be solidly grouted.
Calculated compressive stresses for both single and mul-
tiwythe walls are determined by dividing the design load by
the gross cross-sectional area of the wall, excluding areas of
openings, chases or recesses. The area is based on the specified
dimensions of masonry, rather than on nominal dimensions.
In multiwythe walls, the allowable stress is determined by the
weakest combination of units and mortar shown in Table 4.
In addition, the commentary to Building Code Require-
ments for Masonry Structures (refs. 6, 8) contains additional
guidance for concentrated loads. According to the commentary,
when concentrated loads act on empirically designed masonry,
the course immediately under the point of bearing should be
a solid unit or be filled solid with mortar or grout. Further,
when the concentrated load acts on the full wall thickness,
the allowable stresses under the load may be increased by
25 percent. The allowable stresses may be increased by 50
percent when concentrated loads act on concentrically placed
bearing plates that are greater than one-half but less than the
full area.
Anchorage for Lateral Support
Where empirically designed masonry walls depend on
cross walls, roof diaphragms, floor diaphragms or structural
frames for lateral support, it is essential that the walls be prop-
erly anchored so that the imposed loads can be transmitted
from the wall to the supporting element. Minimum anchor-
age requirements for intersecting walls and for floor and roof
diaphragms are shown in Figures 2 and 3, respectively.
Masonry walls are required to be anchored to structural
frames that provide lateral support by 1/2 in. (13 mm) diameter
bolts spaced at a maximum of 4 ft (1.2 m), or with other bolts
and spacings that provide equivalent anchorage. The bolts
must be embedded a minimum of 4 in. (102 mm) into the
masonry.
In addition, the 2006 IBC requires the designer to check
the roof loading for net uplift and, where net uplift occurs, to
design the anchorage system to entirely resist the uplift.
Shear Walls
Where the structure depends on masonry walls for lateral
stability against wind or earthquake forces, shear walls must
be provided parallel to the direction of the lateral forces as
well as in a perpendicular plane, for stability.
Requirements for empirically designed masonry shear
walls are shown in Figure 4.
Shear wall spacing is determined empirically by the
length-to-width aspect ratio of the diaphragms that transfer
lateral forces to the shear walls, as listed in Table 5. In addition,
roofs must be designed and constructed in a manner such that
they will not impose thrust perpendicular to the shear walls

3 in. (76 mm) min. At corners, overlap

or use prefabricated
extension into the wall sections
Joint reinforcement
at 8 in. (203 mm) 30 in. (762 mm) min.
max. vertical extension in each
Alternate courses spacing - W 1.7 direction
intersect as shown
(MW 11) min.
longitudial wire size

Loadbearing walls Loadbearing walls

Metal lath below or wide Control joint

screen over cores to rake and caulk
support grout fill

Embed bent ends in grout,

2 in. (51 mm) min., or use
cross pins to form anchorage

Galvanized mesh joint

reinforcement or 1/4 in.
Grouted cores (6.4 mm) hardware cloth,
Steel connectors at 48 in. 16 in. (406 mm) max.
(1.2 m) o.c. max. vertically. vertical spcacing
24 in. (610 mm) min. length
and min. section 1/4 x 1 1/2 in.
(6.4 x 38 mm)
Loadbearing walls Interior nonloadbearing walls
Note: Other metal ties, joint reinforcement or anchors may be used, provided they are spaced to provide an equivalent area of anchorage.

Figure 2—Empirical Anchorage Requirements for Lateral Support of Intersecting Masonry Walls
to which they are attached.
The height of empirically designed shear walls is not
permitted to exceed 35 ft (10.7 m). The minimum nominal
thickness of shear walls is 8 in. (203 mm), except under the
2003 IBC, which allows shear walls of one-story buildings
to have a minimum thickness of 6 in. (152 mm).
Bonding of Multiwythe Walls
Wythes of multiwythe masonry walls are required to
be bonded together. Bonding can be achieved using masonry
headers, metal wall ties, or prefabricated joint reinforcement,
as illustrated in Figure 5. Various empirical requirements for
each of these bonding methods are given below.
Bonding of solid unit walls with masonry headers.
Where masonry headers are used to bond wythes of solid
masonry construction, at least 4 percent of the wall surface of
each face must be composed of headers, which must extend
at least 3 in. (76 mm) into the backing. The distance between
adjacent full-length headers may not exceed 24 in. (610 mm)
in either the horizontal or vertical direction. In walls where
a single header does not extend through the wall, headers
from opposite sides must overlap at least 3 in. (76 mm), or
headers from opposite sides must be covered with another
header course which overlaps the header below by at least
3 in. (76 mm).
Bonding of hollow unit walls with masonry headers.
Where two or more hollow units are used to make up the thick-
ness of a wall, the stretcher courses must be bonded at vertical
intervals not exceeding 34 in. (864 mm) by lapping at least
3 in. (76 mm) over the unit below, or by lapping at vertical
intervals not exceeding 17 in. (432 mm) with units that are at
least 50 percent greater in thickness than the units below.

Unit notched at
joist, solid or
filled at joist
location

Fill with concrete Solid or filled

masonry units concrete masonry
between joists unit, notched at
joist

1
2 in. (13 mm)
diameter anchor
at 6 ft (1.8 m)
max., or
equivalent,
embedded at least
Strap anchors at 6 ft. 15 in. (381 mm) A
(1.8 m) o.c. max. Weld or other approved
connection
Mesh or other
CMU with grout grout stop device
filled cores

Mesh or other Roof diaphragmsC

grout stop device
Wood floor joistsB

Notes:
A
As an alternative, the bolts can be hooked or welded to at least 0.2 in.2 (No. 4, M#13) of bond beam reinforcement placed
at least 6 in. (152 mm) from the top of the wall.
B
Wood joists anchored parallel to masonry walls require metal straps which extend over or under the joists and which are
secured to at least three joists. Anchors must be spaced at a maximum of 6 ft (1.8 m). Blocking is required between joists
at each strap anchor.
C
Steel floor joists which bear on and are anchored to masonry walls require 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) reinforcing bars spaced a maxi-
mum of 6 ft (1.8 m) on center, or equivalent anchorage. Where joists are parallel to the wall, anchors must be located at
joist cross bridging.
D
Refer to TEK 5-7A, Floor and Roof Connections to Concrete Masonry Walls (ref. 10) for other types of connections. Note
that elements such as flashing, weeps, insulation, etc. are not shown for clarity.
Figure 3—Empirical Anchorage Requirements for Floor and Roof DiaphragmsD
 Bonding with metal wall ties (other than adjustable ties).
Lx Wire size W2.8 (MW18) wall ties, or metal wire of equivalent
x1 x2 x3 stiffness, may be used to bond wythes. Each 41/2 ft2 (0.42 m2)
of wall surface must have at least one tie. Ties must be spaced
y1 y3 a maximum of 24 in. (610 mm) vertically and 36 in. (914 mm)
8 in. (203 mm) min.
masonry thickness A horizontally. Hollow masonry walls must use rectangular wall
ties for bonding. In other walls, ends of ties must be bent to
90o angles to provide hooks no less than 2 in. (51 mm) long.
Ly Additional bonding ties are required at all openings, and must
Do not include wall sections
with openings or any element be spaced a maximum of 3 ft (914 mm) apart around the
whose length is less than one- perimeter and located within 12 in. (305 mm) of the opening.
y2 half its height. y4
Note that wall ties may not include drips, and that corrugated
ties may not be used.
x4 x5 x6
Bonding with adjustable ties.
In x-direction, Adjustable ties must be spaced such that there is one tie for
cumulative shear wall length = lx1 + lx2 + ... + lxn each 1.77 ft2 (0.164 m2) of wall area, with maximum horizontal
In y-direction, and vertical spacings of 16 in. (406 mm). The ties must have a
cumulative shear wall length = ly1 + ly2 + ... + lyn maximum clearance between connecting parts of 1/16 in. (1.6
In each direction, cumulative shear wall length must exceed mm), and, when pintle legs are used, at least two legs with a
the larger of 0.4Lx and 0.4Ly B minimum wire size of W2.8 (MW18). The bed joints of the
A
Note that the 2003 IBC allows shear walls of one-story two wythes may have a maximum vertical offset of no more
buildings to have a minimum thickness of 6 in. (152 mm). than 11/4 in. (32 mm). (See Reference 9 for an illustration of
B
Note that in the 2008 Building Code Requirements for Ma- these requirements.)
sonry Structures, this criteria is: In each direction, cumulative
shear wall length must exceed the larger of 0.2Lx and 0.2Ly Bonding with prefabricated joint reinforcement.
Where adjacent wythes of masonry are bonded with
Figure 4—Empirically Designed Shear Wall
prefabricated joint reinforcement, there must be at least one cross
Requirements
wire serving as a tie for each 22/3 ft2 (0.25 m2) of wall area. The
joint reinforcement must be spaced 24 in. (610 mm) or closer
Table 5—Shear Wall Diaphragm Length-to-Width
vertically. Cross wires on prefabricated joint reinforcement must
Ratios (ref. 1)
be at least wire size W1.7 (MW11) and shall be without drips.
The longitudinal wires must be embedded in the mortar.
Floor or roof Maximum length-to-width
diaphragm construction ratio of diaphragm panel Change in Wall Thickness
Cast-in-place concrete 5:1 Whenever wall thickness is decreased, at least one course of
Precast concrete 4:1 solid masonry, or special units or other construction, must be
Metal deck with concrete fill 3:1 placed under the thinner section to ensure load transfer to the
Metal deck with no fill 2:1 thicker section below.
Wood diaphragm 2:1
Miscellaneous Empirical Requirements
Following are additional empirical requirements in Build-
Header ing Code Requirements for Masonry Structures. Although not
Bonding with
masonry header included explicitly in IBC Section 2109, the IBC includes a
direct reference to Building Code Requirements for Masonry
Structures.

Chases and Recesses

Masonry directly above chases or recesses wider than 12 in.
(305 mm) must be supported on lintels.

Examples of bonding with metal wall ties
Figure 5—Types of Bonding
Lintels
Lintels are designed as reinforced beams, using either the
allowable stress design or the strength design provisions of
Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures. End
bearing must be at least 4 in. (102 mm), although 8 in. (203
mm) is typical.
 d
a + 1 in. (25 mm), max. Where:
a = air space thickness
d = nominal unit thick-
Pc ≤ t 2 Pc ≤ d 2 ness (specified
p ≤ the lesser of h 2 and d 3 p ≤ the lesser of h 2 and d 3
thickness plus the
thickness of one
mortar joint)
h p
h = nominal unit height
Pc
(specified height
plus the thickness
h
of one mortar joint)
p
Pc = allowable total hor-
p izontal projection
Pc of corbelling
p = allowable projec-
tion of each unit
t a
Pc t = nominal wall thick-
ness
Solid walls Walls with air space

Note: Ties and/or headers not shown for clarity.

Figure 6—Prescriptive Requirements for Corbelling

Support on Wood
Empirically designed masonry is not permitted to
be supported by wood girders or other forms of
wood construction, due to expected deformations
in wood from deflection and moisture, causing
Compressible filler
distress in the masonry, and due to potential safety
in open joint, 1 2 to
implications in the event of fire. 1 in. (13 to 25 mm)

Corbelling Clip angles at 4

When corbels are not designed using allowable ft (1.2 m) o.c.,
attached to
stress design or strength design, they may be
concrete deck,
detailed using the empirical requirements shown but not to wall
in Figure 6. Only solid or solidly grouted masonry
units may be used for corbelling.

EMPIRICALLY DESIGNED
PARTITION WALLS
In many cases, the building structure is de-
signed using traditional engineered methods, such
as strength design or allowable stress design, but the interior
nonloadbearing masonry walls are empirically designed. In
these cases, the partition walls are supported according to the
provisions listed in Tables 2 and 3, but it is important that the
support conditions provide isolation between the partition walls
and the building's structural elements to prevent the building
loads from being transferred into the partition. The anchor, or
other support, must provide the required lateral support for the
partition wall while also allowing for differential movement.
This is in contrast to the "Anchorage for Lateral Support"
section, which details anchorage requirements to help ensure
Figure 7—Example of Support for Empirically
Designed Masonry Partition Wall
adequate load transfer between the building structure and the
loadbearing masonry wall.
Figure 7 shows an example of such a support, using clip
angles. C channels or adjustable anchors could be used as well.
The gap at the top of the wall should be between 1/2 and 1 in.
(13 and 25 mm), or as required to accommodate the anticipated
deflection. The gap is filled with compressible filler, mineral
wool or a fire-rated material, if required. Fire walls may also
require a sealant to be applied at the bottom of the clip angles.
This joint should not be filled with mortar, as it may allow load
transfer between the structure and the partition wall.
REFERENCES
1. International Building Code. International Code Council, 2003 and 2006.
2. Allowable Stress Design of Concrete Masonry Foundation Walls, TEK 15-1B. National Concrete Masonry Association,
2001.
3. Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE 7-02. New York, NY: American Society of Civil Engineers,
2002.
4. Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE 7-05. New York, NY: American Society of Civil Engineers,
2005.
5. Masonry Designer's Guide, 5th Edition. Council for Masonry Research and The Masonry Society, 2007.
6. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, ACI 530-08/ASCE 5-08/TMS 402-08. Reported by the Masonry Stan-
dards Joint Committee, 2008.
7. Standard Specification for Loadbearing Concrete Masonry Units, ASTM C 90-06. ASTM International, Inc., 2006.
8. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402. Reported by the Masonry Standards Joint
Committee, 2002 and 2005.
9. Anchors and Ties for Masonry, TEK 12-1A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2008.
10. Floor and Roof Connections to Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 5-7A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2001.

NCMA and the companies disseminating this technical information disclaim any and all responsibility and liability for the
accuracy and the application of the information contained in this publication.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171 contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
www.ncma.org
An information series from the national
HYBRID
CONCRETE MASONRY
DESIGN
INTRODUCTION
Hybrid masonry is a structural system that uti-
lizes reinforced masonry infill walls with a framed
structure. While the frame can be constructed of
reinforced concrete or structural steel, the discussion
here will include steel frames in combination with
reinforced concrete masonry walls. The masonry
walls are used as part of the lateral load resisting
system.
Following the development of the wrought iron
framed Glass Palace in France in 1851, framed
technology evolved and spread to the United States.
Since then, combining masonry walls with frames
has been used as a common feature of many early
building types.
Caged construction was introduced in 1882 by
architect George Post. The first caged framed build-
ing used a structural steel framework mixed with
exterior walls of unreinforced masonry. The term
caged walls resulted from the exterior walls being
built around a structural cage. The frame supported
the floor and roof gravity loads; the masonry was
independent of the frame and self-supporting and
provided the lateral stiffness. As a result, the wall
thicknesses were only slightly less than those in
bearing wall buildings.
Another type of structure used exterior unrein-
forced bearing walls and interior structural frames.
The famous Monadnock Building in Chicago,
constructed in 1892 is an example of this type with
exterior masonry bearing walls up to 6 ft (1.83 m)
thick. The 15-story building was the largest office
Related TEK: Keywords: frame structures, hybrid, infill, reinforced concrete masonry,
3-3B shear walls, tie-down
NCMA TEK 14-9A 1
authority on concrete masonry technology
TEK 14-9A
Structural (2009)
building in the world when completed. Ironically,
it was the last high-rise built with exterior masonry
bearing walls for the full height of the building and
an interior frame.
Transitional buildings were perhaps the most
used type of combination frame/masonry structures
used through the 1940s. An example is the 13-story
Tower Building in New York built in 1888, which
used transitional and load bearing construction.
Transitional buildings took traditional masonry walls
and constructed them integrally with the exterior
structural frame. Brick or hollow clay tile was used
as an inner wythe, usually 8 in. (203 mm) thick.
An exterior wythe of brick, cast stone, terra-cotta
or stone was anchored or headered to the backup to
function as a composite wall system, but there was
no accommodation for the masonry walls to take
differential movement. It was common to design
these buildings for gravity loads only. While the wall
system was not intended to be structural, it provided
lateral stiffness. The masonry also provided exterior
finish, fire protection for the frame, and backup for
the interior finish.
Confined masonry within concrete frames is yet
another form of combination structure. This system
originated in the 1800s. It has developed globally
but apparently has no specific origin. Confined
masonry is used primarily for residential construc-
tion. The type of masonry infill varies by region or
country and includes clay brick, clay tile, stone or
concrete masonry.
As framed structures grew taller, architects tried
to reduce the thickness of the exterior walls. The
structural steel and reinforced concrete structures
were used to support building loads and exterior
wall loads. Curtain walls and cavity walls devel-
oped during this time and masonry was no longer
the only wall material used as a backup system for
exterior walls.
The concept of using masonry infill to resist
lateral forces is not new; having been used suc-
cessfully throughout the world in different forms.
While common worldwide, U.S. based codes and
standards have lagged behind in the establishment
of standardized means of designing masonry infill.
The hybrid masonry system outlined in this TEK
is a unique method of utilizing masonry infill to resist
lateral forces. The novelty of the hybrid masonry
design approach relative to other more established
infill design procedures is in the connection detailing
between the masonry and the steel frame, which of-
fers multiple alternative means of transferring loads
into the masonry—or isolating the masonry infill
from the frame.
Prior to implementing the design procedures
outlined in this TEK, users are strongly urged to
become familiar with the hybrid masonry concept, its
modeling assumptions, and its limitations particularly
in the way in which inelastic loads are distributed
during earthquakes throughout the masonry and
frame system. This system, or design methods,
should not be used in Seismic Design Category D
and above until further studies and tests have been
performed; and additional design guidance is outlined
in adopted codes and standards.
HYBRID MASONRY CONCEPT
Since the 1950s, architects and engineers have
primarily used cavity walls with framed structures.
The backup masonry walls are generally termed infill
walls. They support out-of-plane loads on the wall
and are isolated from the frame so as not to participate
in the lateral load resistance (see Figure 1). Codes
usually require that these walls be isolated from the
lateral movement of the frame to ensure that lateral
loads are not imparted to the masonry.
The hybrid system is a variation of the confined
masonry system. It incorporates
the beneficial qualities of transi- Table 1—Hybrid Masonry Wall Systems
tional buildings and the character-
istics of cavity wall construction. Wall Type
It differs from cavity wall con-
struction in that the infill masonry Type I Hybrid
walls participate with the frame
Type II Hybrid
and provide strength and stiffness
to the system. The masonry can Type III Hybrid
2 NCMA TEK 14-9A
be used as single wythe or as cavity wall construc-
tion. Hybrid masonry structures are constructed of
reinforced masonry, not unreinforced masonry, as
was common in transitional buildings.
Hybrid masonry/framed structures were first
proposed in print in 2006 (ref. 1). There are several
primary reasons for its development. One reason
is to simplify the construction of framed buildings
with masonry infill. While many designers prefer
masonry infill walls as the backup for veneers in
framed buildings, there is often a conflict created
when steel bracing is required and positioned such
that conflicts arise with the masonry infill. This leads
to detailing difficulties and construction interferences
in trying to fit masonry around the braces. One
solution is to eliminate the steel bracing and use
reinforced masonry infill as shear wall and bracing.
Hybrid masonry/steel structures also provide
structural redundancy that can be utilized to limit
progressive collapse. The reinforced masonry infill
provides an alternative load path for the frame's
gravity loads, hence providing redundancy. The
resulting system is more efficient than either a frame
or a bearing wall system alone when subjected to
progressive collapse design conditions. If a steel
column is damaged in a hybrid structure, gravity
loads will transfer to the reinforced masonry. If the
masonry is damaged, the gravity load transfers to
the frame. There are documented examples from
the World Trade Center disaster that illustrate re-
dundancy in transitional buildings (ref. 2).
CLASSIFICATION OF WALLS
There are three hybrid wall types. The load-
ings these walls can support is dependent upon the
degree of confinement of the masonry within the
frame. These walls can potentially transfer axial
loads from the beam/girder of the frame as well as
transfer shear from the beam/girder or the columns.
The wall systems are defined in Table 1 based on
their ability to transfer loads from the frame to the
wall. All wall systems listed can address the backup
for cavity wall construction. If a veneer is used, it is
Load transferred from trame to wall:
Axial In-plane shear at In-plane shear at
load beam/girder column
No Yes No
Yes Yes No
Yes Yes Yes
constructed with relieving angles and is isolated for
Type I Hybrid Walls
differential movement as with conventional cavity
This wall type transmits out-of-plane loads and
wall construction. By comparison, an infill wall
in-plane shear loads (Figure 1). The gap at the
used in a cavity wall does not transfer axial load or
top and the top anchors should not transmit axial
in-plane shear. loads. If column anchors are used, they should not
The following sections describe each wall type.
transmit shear loads. The gaps at the columns must
The key to the performance of the walls is the con-
be adequate so the columns do not bear against the
finement at the columns and the top of the wall along
masonry when the frame undergoes drift.
with the anchorage. All wall types must transfer shear at the base of
the wall. This is commonly done using dowels into
the foundation or on the framing at the bottom of
the wall.
BEAM OR The tie-down forces are a
GIRDER GAP 3 key component to the support
of the wall against preventing
overturning.
COLUMN Effectively, the masonry wall
SHEAR (IN-PLANE) is a nonloadbearing shear wall
that also supports out-of-plane
GAP 1 GAP 2 loads. The in-plane forces
are shown in Figure 2. These
TYPE I COLUMN
forces must be applied to the
SHEAR WALL
frame design. The tension load
T can be accommodated by the
distributed reinforcement or the
designated tie-down reinforce-
ment. This same reinforcement
can be used to distribute shear
forces as well. Type I walls can
GAPS 1, 2: NO IN-PLANE LOAD TRANSFER be ideal for buildings up to four
GAP 3: TRANSFERS IN-PLANE SHEAR LOAD; NO AXIAL LOAD stories.
The forces are resolved into:
C = Pwall + T Eqn. 1
Figure 1—Type I Hybrid Wall

l kd 
M C  w −  +T ⋅e
= Eqn. 2
 2 3 

where e is the eccentricity of the tie-down force,
which is defined as the distance between the tie-
down reinforcement and the center of the wall.

Type II Hybrid Walls

The Type II hybrid wall is a modi-
fication of Type I. It is constructed tight to the
beam framing above such that axial loads are
transmitted to the masonry wall (Figure 3). The
top anchors transmit out-of-plane loads and
shear loads. If column anchors are used, they
do not transmit shear loads.
Effectively, the masonry wall is a
loadbearing shear wall that also supports out-
of-plane loads.
Figure 2— Type I Force Distribution

NCMA TEK 14-9A 3


Figure 3—Type II Hybrid Wall
Figure 4—Type IIa Force Distribution
=M C
Figure 5—Type IIb Force Distribution
4 NCMA TEK 14-9A
There are two options for distributing the in-
plane forces resulting from overturning of the shear
wall, designated Type IIa and Type IIb. For Type
IIa (Figure 4), the tension load T can be accom-
modated by the distributed reinforcement or the
designated tie-down reinforcement. For Type IIb
(Figure 5), the tension force that tied down the wall
in the Type IIa wall is replaced by compression on
the upper framing and is transferred into the steel
frame. This is a significant benefit in multi-story
buildings because the tie-down to the frame is not
required.
As previously noted, shear dowels are needed at
the base of the walls. Type IIb walls, unlike Type
I and IIa, do not require tension lap splices for the
vertical reinforcement at the base of the walls since
only shear loads are being developed.
Type II walls are generally limited to buildings
10 to 14 stories high since masonry stresses will
usually govern. Generally, this limitation is similar
for loadbearing buildings as well.
The designer has the option to load-share the
gravity loads with the masonry wall. This can re-
duce the size of the beam/girder framing member.
For example, if the masonry is constructed after
the dead loads of the floor/roof framing system
are installed, the masonry wall can take the grav-
ity loads that are added to the structure after the
walls are built. The framing (columns and beams/
girders) sizes can be limited to support only the
dead loads and the lateral load effects. The fram-
ing should be designed for the full gravity loads
if there is a chance that the wall will be modified
in the future.
For the Type IIb wall at the base of the wall:
Cbottom = Paxial + Pwall + Ctop Eqn. 3
The overturning is resolved by:
l kd  l k 'd 
 w − +C  w − 
bottom  2 3  top  2 3  Eqn. 4

The axial load imparted to the wall is a function of
the construction sequence. This should be stated in
the construction documents. For example, if the steel
is designed for only the slab and framing dead load
and the lateral load effects, the masonry walls must
be constructed tight to the framing above after the
slab is in place but before the wall above is started.
The steel framing and the masonry must be
designed using similar assumptions.
Type III Hybrid Walls
This wall type is fully confined
within the framing (Figure 6). It
is most similar to the transitional
buildings from the early 1900s.
However, in this modernized ver-
sion the masonry is engineered
and reinforced to support axial
and shear loads in addition to
the out-of-plane loads. As with
the Type II hybrid wall, the de-
signer has the option to design the
columns and beams/girders for
the portion of the gravity loads
installed before the masonry.
Currently, there are no stan-
dards in the United States that
govern the design of this type of
wall. Research is underway to help Figure 6—Type III Hybrid Wall
define the behavior of these walls,
which will lead to code require-
ments. Designers should only use
this system at their own discretion.
Statics can be used to generate for-
mulas comparable to Equations 1
through 4 for Type I and II hybrid.
Figures 7 and 8 show the two
variations (Type IIIa and Type IIIb)
based on how the overturning force
is handled.

HYBRID DESIGN

As discussed, the masonry in

hybrid structures can carry out-of-
plane loads in addition to in-plane
loads. The masonry design can be Figure 7—Type IIIa Force Distribution
performed based on the code for
reinforced masonry using allow-
able stress (based on linear elastic
methods). As strength design pro-
cedures gain acceptance, load fac-
tor design with non-linear elastic
evaluation of the masonry will be
possible.
While there are three hybrid
types that dictate the loadings
(Type I, II and III), there are three
shear wall types available for the
design of the walls themselves.
The shear wall type depends on
the minimum prescriptive re-
inforcement and grouting. The
Building Code Requirements for
Figure 8—Type IIIb Force Distribution

NCMA TEK 14-9A 5

 Table 2—Factors Based On Shear Wall Type
(ref. 11)
Shear Wall Type R Ωo Cd
Ordinary Reinforced 2 2.5 2 have included hybrid masonry in their packages.
Intermediate Reinforced 4 2.5 4 This allows the masonry and steel to be modeled
Special Reinforced 5.5 2.5 4 and designed as a system. The software is primarily
Masonry Structures and the International Building
Code (IBC) (refs. 3, 4) classify shear walls as ordi-
nary reinforced, intermediate reinforced, or special
reinforced. Therefore, there are three combinations
of hybrid types to choose from.
The structural steel system design and the in-
plane loads to the masonry are based upon the IBC
and ASCE 7 (ref. 11) using seismic factors for R
(response modification coefficient), Ωo (system
over-strength factor), and Cd (deflection amplifica-
tion factor) applicable to the type of shear walls
used with building frames. These factors are given
in Table 2. An on-going research project at the
University of Illinois is evaluating these factors
for their applicability to hybrid walls.
Ordinary reinforced shear walls are permitted in
Seismic Design Categories (SDCs) A, B and C. The
building height is unlimited for SDCs A and B and
limited to 160 ft (48.76 m) for SDC C.
Intermediate reinforced shear walls are permit-
ted in SDCs A, B and C. The building height is
unlimited.
Special reinforced shear walls are permitted in
all seismic design categories. The building height
is unlimited in SDCs A, B and C, limited to 160 ft
(48.8 m) in SDCs D and E, and limited to 100 ft
(30.5 m) in SDC F.
While these are the permitted types and classes,
most projects thus far have been in SDC A, B and
C. This has been convenient in that an R = 3 type
structural steel design has been used in accordance
with AISC. Designs in SDC D and higher would
require use of the AISC Seismic Design Manual,
AISC 327-05 (ref. 9). In addition, research is on-
going for various aspects of the systems in higher
seismic classes.
More detailed information on prescriptive seis-
mic detailing for concrete masonry shear walls can
be found in TEK 14-18A, Prescriptive
Seismic Reinforcement Requirements for Masonry
Structures (ref. 10).
6 NCMA TEK 14-9A
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Several commercial software companies have
masonry design packages (refs. 5, 6), some of which
based on allowable stress design and linear elastic
analysis. There are plans to incorporate strength
design in the future.
CONCLUSIONS
Hybrid masonry offers many benefits and
complements framed construction. By using the
masonry as a structural element for in-plane loads,
the constructability of the masonry with the frames
is improved, the lateral stiffness is increased, the
redundancy is improved, and opportunities for re-
duced construction costs are created.
Designs indicate that greater stiffness can be
achieved with hybrid masonry systems in compari-
son with braced frames or moment frames. The
beneficial effect on the framing through the load-
sharing abilities of the system is also evident. These
qualities, stiffness, and redundancy can be useful in
preventing progressive collapse.
For now, Type I and Type II hybrid systems can
be designed in the United States using existing codes
and standards. Criteria for Type III hybrid systems
are under development.
Details for the construction of hybrid walls
and design issues related to the top connectors are
discussed in TEK 3-3B and IMI Technology Brief
02.13.02 (refs. 7, 8).
NOTATIONS:
C = resultant compressive force, lb (N)
Cbottom = resultant compressive force at bottom of
masonry wall, lb (N)
Cd = deflection amplification factor
Cleft = resultant compressive force on left side of
masonry wall, lb (N)
Cright = resultant compressive force on right side
of masonry wall, lb (N)
Ctop = resultant compressive force at top of ma-
sonry wall, lb (N)
d = distance from extreme compression fiber
to centroid of tension reinforcement, in.
(mm)
e = eccentricity of the tie-down force, equal
to the distance of the tie-down reinforce-
ment from the center of the wall, in. (mm)
H = shear force, lb (N)
h = effective height of masonry element, in.
(mm)
k, k' = ratio of distance between compression
face of wall and neutral axis to the effec-
tive depth, d for the bottom and top of the
wall; and to the height of the wall, h, for
the sides, respectively.
NCMA TEK 14-9A 7
lw = length of entire wall or of segment of wall
considered in the direction of shear force,
in. (mm)
M = maximum moment at the section under
consideration, in.-lb (N-mm)
Paxial = axial load, lb (N)
Pwall = axial load due to wall weight, lb (N)
R = seismic response modification factor
T = tension in reinforcement, lb (N)
Ωo = system over-strength factor
REFERENCES
1. Biggs, D.T., Hybrid Masonry Structures, Proceedings of the Tenth North American Masonry Conference,
The Masonry Society, June 2007.
2. Biggs, D.T., Masonry Aspects of the World Trade Center Disaster, The Masonry Society, 2004.
3. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, ACI 530-08/ASCE 5-08/TMS 402-08. The Masonry
Society, 2008.
4. 2006 International Building Code. International Code Council, 2006.
5. RAM Advanse Version 10.0, Masonry Wall, RAM International, 2009.
6. RISA 3D Version 8.0, RISA Technologies.
7. Hybrid Masonry Construction With Structural Steel Frames, TEK 3-3B. National Concrete Masonry As-
sociation, 2009.
8. Hybrid Masonry Construction, IMI Technology Brief 02.13.02. International Masonry Institute, 2009.
9. AISC Seismic Design Manual, AISC 327-05. American Iron and Steel Insitutue, 2005.
10.Prescriptive Seismic Reinforcement Requirements for Masonry Structures, TEK 14-18A. National Concrete
Masonry Association, 2003.
11. Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE 7-05. American Society of Civil Engi-
neers, 2005.

NCMA and the companies disseminating this technical information disclaim any and all responsibility and liability for the accuracy
and the application of the information contained in this publication.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION

13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171
www.ncma.org

To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index, contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900

8 NCMA TEK 14-9A


National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology
STRENGTH DESIGN OF CONCRETE MASONRY
WALLS FOR AXIAL LOAD & FLEXURE
Keywords: axial strength, design aids, design example,
interaction diagrams, loadbearing walls, load combina-
tions, strength design, flexural strength, reinforced
concrete masonry, structural design
INTRODUCTION
The structural design of buildings requires a variety of
loads to be accounted for: dead and live loads, those from wind,
earthquake, lateral soil pressure, lateral fluid pressure as well
as forces induced by temperature changes, creep, shrinkage
and differential movements. Because most loads can act simul-
taneously with another, the designer must consider how these
various loads interact on the wall. For example, a concentrically
applied compressive axial load can offset tension due to lateral
load, effectively increasing flexural capacity. Building codes
dictate which load combinations must be considered, and
require that the structure be designed to resist all possible
combinations.
The design aids in this TEK cover combined axial compres-
sion or axial tension and flexure, as determined using the
strength design provisions of Building Code Require-
ments for Masonry Structures (ref. 3). For concrete ma-
sonry walls, these design provisions are outlined in TEK 14-
4A, Strength Design of Concrete Masonry (ref. 1). Axial
load-bending moment interaction diagrams account for the
interaction between moment and axial load on the design
capacity of a wall. This TEK shows the portion of the interac-
tion diagram that applies to the majority of wall designs.
Although negative moments are not shown, the figures may be
used for these conditions, since reinforcement in the center of
the wall will provide equal strength under either a positive or
negative moment of the same magnitude. Conditions outside
of this area may be determined using Concrete Masonry
Wall Design Software or Concrete Masonry Design Tables
(refs. 4, 5). The reader is referred to Loadbearing Concrete
Masonry Wall Design (ref. 2) for a full discussion of interac-
tion diagrams.
Figures 1 through 8 apply to fully or partially grouted
reinforced concrete masonry walls with a specified compres-
sive strength f'm of 1,500 psi (10.34 MPa), and a maximum wall
height of 20 ft (6.10 m), Grade 60 (414 MPa) vertical reinforce-
ment, with reinforcing bars positioned in the center of the wall
TEK 14-11B © 2003 National Concrete Masonry Association (replaces TEK 14-11A)
NCMA TEK
TEK 14-11B
Structural (2003)
and reinforcing bar spacing s from 8 in. to 120 in. ( 203 to 3,048
mm). The following discussion applies to simply supported
walls and is limited to uniform lateral loads. Other support and
loading conditions should comply with applicable engineering
procedures. Each figure applies to one specific wall thickness
and one reinforcing bar size.
In strength design, two different deflections are calcu-
lated; one for service level loads (δs) and another for factored
loads (δu). For a uniformly loaded simply supported wall , the
resulting bending moment is as follows:
Mx = Wxh2/8 + Pxf (e/2) + Pxδx (Eqn. 1)
In the above equation, notations with "x" are replaced with
factored or service level values as appropriate. The first term
on the right side of Equation 1 represents the maximum moment
of a uniform load at the mid-height of the wall (normally wind
or earthquake loads). The second term represents the moment
induced by eccentrically applied floor or roof loads. The third
term is the P-delta effect, which is the moment induced by
vertical axial loads and lateral deflection of the wall.
DESIGN EXAMPLE
An 8-in. (203-mm) thick, 20 ft (6.10 m) high reinforced
simply supported concrete masonry wall (115 pcf (1,842 kg/m3))
is to be designed to resist wind load as well as eccentrically
applied axial live and dead loads as depicted in Figure 9. The
designer must determine the reinforcement size spaced at 24 in.
(610 mm) required to resist the applied loads, listed below.
D = 520 lb/ft (7.6 kN/m), at e = 0.75 in. (19 mm)
L = 250 lb/ft (3.6 kN/m), at e = 0.75 in. (19 mm)
W = 20 psf (1.0 kPa)
The wall weight at midheight for 115 pcf (1,842 kg/m3) unit
concrete density is 49 lb/ft2 (239 kg/m2) (ref. 7, Table 1).
Pw = (49 lb/ft2)(10 ft)
= 490 lb/ft (7.2 kN/m)
 5,000
Axial compression Pu , lb/ft

4,000 0
12 32 24 16
3,000 s= s= s= s=
48

8
s=

s=
2,000

1,000
0
-1,000
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000
Total moment, Mu , ft-lb/ft

Figure 1—8-Inch (203-mm) Concrete Masonry Wall With No. 4 (M # 13) Reinforcing Bars

5,000
Axial compression Pu , lb/ft

4,000
48 32 24
3,000 20 s= s= s=

s=8
s =1 16
2,000 s=
1,000
0
-1,000
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000
Total moment, Mu , ft-lb/ft

Figure 2—8-Inch (203-mm) Concrete Masonry Wall With No. 5 (M # 16) Reinforcing Bars

5,000
Axial compression Pu , lb/ft

4,000 0
12
48

s=
s=

3,000
s = 16
32

24
s=

s=

2,000
s=8

1,000
0
-1,000
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000
Total moment, Mu , ft-lb/ft

Figure 3—8-Inch (203-mm) Concrete Masonry Wall With No. 6 (M # 19) Reinforcing Bars
 10,000
Axial compression Pu , lb/ft

8,000

6,000 0 24
12
s= s= 8
4,000 3 2
6 s=
s= =1
s
2,000

-2,000
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000
Total moment, M u , ft-lb/ft

Figure 4—10-Inch (254-mm) Concrete Masonry Wall With No. 4 (M # 13) Reinforcing Bars

10,000
Axial compression Pu , lb/ft

8,000

6,000

s=8
0 32 24
12 16
4,000 s = s= s= s=

2,000

-2,000
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000
Total moment, M , ft-lb/ft

Figure 5—10-Inch (254-mm) Concrete Masonry Wall With No. 5 (M # 16) Reinforcing Bars

The applicable load combination (ref. 6) for this example is: where: Em = 900f'm = 1,350,000 psi (9,308 MPa)
1.2D + 1.6W + f1L + 0.5Lr (Eqn. 2) Ig = 369.4 in.4/ft (504x106mm4/m) (ref. 8, Table 1)
Icr = 21.0 in.4/ft (504 x 106 mm4/m) (Table 1)
During design, all load combinations should be checked. For
5(9,199)(240) 2 5(12,289 − 9,199)( 240) 2
brevity, only the combination above will be evaluated here. δ s1 = +
First determine the cracking moment Mcr: 48(1,350,000)(369.4) 48(1,350,000)( 21.0)
Mcr = Sn fr = 9,199 lb-in./ft (3,410 m.N/m), where = 0.76 in. (19 mm)
S n = 93.2 in.3/ft (5.01 x 106 mm3/m) (ref. 8, Table 1)
Second iteration, δs = 0.76 in. (19 mm)
fr = 98.7 psi (0.68 MPa)
(ref. 1, Table 1 interpolated for grout at 24 in. (610 mm) o.c.) Mser2 = 12,289 + (520 + 250 + 490)(0.76)
= 13,247 in.-lb/ft (4,910 m.N/m)
To check service level load deflection and moment, the following δs2 = 0.97 in. (25 mm)
analysis is performed in an iterative process. Third iteration, Mser2 = 13,511 in.-lb/ft (5,008 m.N/m), δs3 = 1.02
First iteration, δs = 0 in. (26 mm). Because δs3 is within 5% of δs2, then δs = δs3.
Mser1 = 20(20)2(12)/8 + (520 + 250)(0.75/2) + (520 + 250 + 490)(0) Check δs against the maximum service load deflection: δs
= 12,289 in.-lb/ft (4,555 m.N/m) (from Eqn. 1) < 0.007h = 0.007(240) = 1.68 in. (43 mm) > 1.02 in. (26 mm), OK.
Since Mcr < Mser1, therefore analyze as a cracked section. If Mser < Mcr, instead of using Equation 2 for deflection,
5M cr h 2 5( M ser − M cr )h 2 we would have used:
δ s1 = + (12) (Eqn. 3)
48 Em I g 48 Em I cr
 10,000
Axial compression Pu , lb/ft

8,000
12
0 32
s = s=
4,000 24 8
s= 6 s=
1
s=
0
-2,000
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000 14,000
Total moment, M , ft-lb/ft

Figure 6—12-Inch (305-mm) Concrete Masonry Wall With No. 4 (M # 13) Reinforcing Bars

10,000
Axial compression Pu , lb/ft

8,000
0
12 32
s= s=
4,000 16
24

8
s= s=

s=
0
-2,000
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000 14,000
Total moment, M , ft-lb/ft
Figure 7—12-Inch (305-mm) Concrete Masonry Wall With No. 5 (M # 16) Reinforcing Bars

10,000
Axial compression Pu , lb/ft

8,000

20 32
=1 8 s=
4,000 s s =4 16
24
8

s= s=
s=

0
-2,000
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000 14,000
Total moment, Mu , ft-lb/ft

Figure 8—12-Inch (305-mm) Concrete Masonry Wall With No. 6 (M # 19) Reinforcing Bars
 Table 1—Cracked Moment of Inertia, Icr, in.4/fta

Bar size, Spacing of reinforcement, in. (mm)

No. (M #) 8 (203) 16 (406) 24 (610) 32 (813) 40 (1,016) 48 (1,219) 72 (1,829) 96 (2,438) 120 (3,048)
8-inch (203-mm) wall thickness:
4 (13) 47.9 28.9 21.0 16.6 13.7 11.8 8.25 6.38 5.21
5 (16) 63.8 40.0 29.6 23.7 19.8 17.0 12.1 9.42 7.74
6 (19) 78.5 51.0 38.5 31.1 26.2 22.7 16.3 12.8 10.5
10-inch (254-mm) wall thickness:
4 (13) 81.8 48.5 34.9 27.4 22.6 19.3 13.5 10.4 8.47
5 (16) 110.5 67.9 49.7 39.5 32.9 28.2 19.9 15.4 12.6
12-inch (305-mm) wall thickness:
4 (13) 125.7 73.4 52.5 41.1 33.8 28.8 20.0 15.4 12.5
5 (16) 171.6 103.7 75.4 59.6 49.4 42.3 29.7 23.0 18.8
6 (19) 216.1 134.3 99.4 79.3 66.2 56.9 40.3 31.4 25.7

a
Intermediate spacings may be interpolated.

repeated and verified with the new grout spacings and asso-
5M ser h 2
δs = (Eqn. 4) ciated properties. Although above grade wall design is seldom
48 Em I g governed by out-of-plane shear, the shear capacity should be
To determine deflection and moment due to factored checked.
loads, an identical calculation is performed as for service loads
with the exception that factored loads are used in Equations 1 NOMENCLATURE
and 3 or Equations 1 and 4.
D dead load, lb/ft (kN/m)
Em modulus of elasticity of masonry in compression, psi
First iteration, δu = 0, using Equation 1: (MPa)
lateral = 1.6[(20)(20)2(12)/8] = 19,200 e eccentricity of axial load - measured from centroid of wall,
roof & floor = 1.2(520)(0.75/2) + 0.5(250)(0.75/2) = 281 in. (mm)
P-delta = [1.2(520 + 490) + 0.5(250)]0 = 0 f’m specified masonry compressive strength, psi (MPa)
Mu1 = lateral + roof & floor + P-delta = 19,481lb-in./ft (7,221 m.N/m) fr modulus of rupture, psi (MPa)
From Equation 3, using Mu1 instead of Mser, δu1 = 2.29 in. (58 f1 factor for floor load: = 1.0 for floors in places of public
mm). assembly, for live loads in excess of 100 psf (4.8 kPa) and
for parking garage live loads; = 0.5 otherwise
Second iteration, Mu2 = 22,543 lb-in./ft (8,356 m.N/m), δu2 = 2.94
h height of wall, in. (mm)
in. (75 mm). Icr moment of inertia of cracked cross-sectional area of a
Third iteration, Mu3 = 23,412 lb-in./ft (8,678 m.N/m), δu3 = 3.12 member, in.4/ft (mm4/m)
in. (79 mm). Ig moment of inertia of gross cross-sectional area of a
Fourth iteration, Mu4 = 23,652 lb-in./ft (8,767 m.N/m), δu4 = 3.17 member, taken here as equal to Iavg, in.4/ft (mm4/m)
in. (81 mm). L live load, lb/ft (kN/m)
δu4 is within 5% of δu3. Therefore, Mu = Mu4 = 23,652 lb-in./ft = Lr roof live load, lb/ft (kN/m)
Mcr nominal cracking moment strength, in.-lb/ft (kN.m/m)
1,971 lb-ft/ft (8,767 m.N/m).
Mser service moment at midheight of a member, including P-
delta effects, in.-lb/ft (kN.m/m)
Pu = 1.2(520 + 490) + 0.5(250)
Mu factored moment, in.-lb/ft or ft-lb/ft (kN.m/m)
= 1,337 lb/ft (20 kN/m) Pu factored axial load, lb/ft (kN/m)
Puf factored load from tributary floor or roof areas, lb/ft (kN/
To determine the required reinforcement size and spacing m)
to resist these loads, Pu and Mu are plotted on the appropriate Pw load due to wall weight, lb/ft (kN/m)
interaction diagram until a satisfactory design is found. If the Sn section modulus of the net cross-sectional area of a
axial load is used to offset stresses due to bending, only the member, in.3/ft (mm3/m)
unfactored dead load should be considered. s spacing of vertical reinforcement, in. (mm)
Figure 1 shows that No. 4 bars at 24 in. (M #13 at 610 mm) W wind load, psf (kN/m2)
on center is adequate. If a larger bar spacing is desired, No. 5 δs horizontal deflection at midheight under service loads,
at 32 in. (M #16 at 813 mm) or No. 6 at 48 in. (M #19 at 1219 mm) in. (mm)
also appear to meet the design requirements (see Figures 2 and δu deflection due to factored loads, in. (mm)
3, respectively). However, the design procedure should be
 REFERENCES
P (dead & live) 1. Strength Design of Concrete Masonry, TEK 14-4A.
e = 3 4 in. (19 mm) National Concrete Masonry Association, 2002.
2. Loadbearing Concrete Masonry Wall Design, TEK
14-5A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2000.
3. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Struc-
tures, ACI 530-02/ASCE 5-02/TMS 402-02. Reported
by the Masonry Structures Joint Committee, 2002.
4. Concrete Masonry Wall Design Software, CMS-10.
20 ft National Concrete Masonry Association, 2002.
W = 20 psf 5. Concrete Masonry Design Tables, TR 121A. Na-
(1.0 kPa) (6.10 m)
tional Concrete Masonry Association, 2000.
(suction) 6. Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other
Structures, ASCE 7-02. American Society of Civil
Engineers, 2002.
7. Concrete Masonry Wall Weights, TEK 14-13A. Na-
tional Concrete Masonry Association, 2002.
8. Section Properties of Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK
14-1. National Concrete Masonry Association, 1993.
CL

METRIC CONVERSIONS
Figure 9—Wall Section for Loadbearing To convert: To metric units: Multiply English units by:
Wall Design Example ft m 0.3048
lb-ft/ft m.N/m 4.44822
lb-in/ft m.N/m 0.37069
in. mm 25.4
in.4/ft mm4/m 1,366,000
lb/ft kN/m 0.0145939
psi MPa 0.00689476

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171 contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
www.ncma.org
 NCMA TEK
National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology

CONCRETE MASONRY WALL WEIGHTS TEK 14-13B

Structural (2008)

Keywords: heat capacity, single wythe walls, sound trans-
mission classification, structural properties, unit density,
wall weight
INTRODUCTION
Concrete masonry walls provide a range of benefits, in-
cluding structural integrity, fire and sound resistance, energy
efficiency, insect resistance, durability and architectural inter-
est. Many of these attributes are measured quantitatively, and
often vary directly with the weight of the concrete masonry
wall.
Wall weights are used directly to calculate:
- Sound transmission class (STC) ratings, with heavier walls
providing higher STC ratings and hence better sound insula-
tion. See TEK 13-1B, Sound Transmission Class Ratings for
Concrete Masonry Walls (ref. 1), for further information.
- Seismic base shear force, with heavier walls resulting in
higher base shear values. See TEK 14-12B, Seismic Design
Forces on Concrete Masonry Buildings (ref. 2), for further
information.
- Heat capacity, an indication of thermal storage capacity,
with heavier walls providing higher heat capacities and
potentially better energy performance. See TEK 6-16A,
Heat Capacity (HC) Values for Concrete Masonry Walls
(ref. 3), for further information).
- Gravity loads (wall dead loads) on structural members such
as lintels and foundations.
- Dead loads to resist uplift and overturning for high wind
resistance.
Additional wall properties are also impacted by wall
weight, although estimates of these properties are based on
concrete density or aggregate type, rather than directly on wall
weight. TEK 2-6, Density-Related Properties of Concrete Ma-
sonry Assemblies (ref. 4), also discusses the various physical
and design properties influenced by the density of concrete
masonry units. Examples of these properties include:
- Fire resistance ratings, with lower density walls providing
more fire resistance in general. See TEK 7-1B, Fire Resis-
tance Rating of Concrete Masonry Assemblies (ref. 5), for
further information).
- Thermal resistance, with lower density walls providing
higher R-values and potentially better energy performance.
See TEK 6-1A, R-Values of Multi-Wythe Concrete Masonry
Walls, and TEK 6-2A, R-Values for Single Wythe Concrete
Masonry Walls (refs. 6, 7), for further information.
Tables 1 through 8 list concrete masonry wall weights for
4 to 16 inch (102 to 406 mm) thick single wythe walls. Wall
weights for grouted 4-in. (102-mm) concrete masonry walls

Table 1—4-in. (102-mm) Single Wythe Wall Weights

Vertical grout
spacing, Mortar Wall weight, lb/ft2 (kg/m2) for concrete densities, lb/ft3 (kg/m3) of:
Units in. (mm) bedding 85 (1,362) 95 (1,522) 105 (1,682) 115 (1,842) 125 (2,003) 135 (2,163)
Hollow No grout Face shell 13 (64) 15 (73) 16 (78) 18 (88) 19 (93) 20 (98)
Hollow No grout Full 14 (68) 15 (73) 16 (78) 18 (88) 19 (93) 21 (103)
Solid No grout Full 27 (132) 30 (147) 33 (161) 35 (171) 38 (186) 41 (200)
Table 2—4-in. (102-mm) Single Wythe Wall Weights—Half-High UnitsA

Vertical grout
spacing, Mortar Wall weight, lb/ft2 (kg/m2) for concrete densities, lb/ft3 (kg/m3) of:
Units in. (mm) bedding 85 (1,362) 95 (1,522) 105 (1,682) 115 (1,842) 125 (2,003) 135 (2,163)
Hollow No grout Face shell 14 (68) 15 (73) 16 (78) 18 (88) 19 (93) 20 (98)
Hollow No grout Full 14 (68) 15 (73) 17 (83) 18 (88) 19 (93) 21 (103)
Solid No grout Full 28 (137) 31 (151) 34 (166) 36 (176) 39 (191) 42 (205)
A
units have nominal face dimensions of 16 in. (406 mm) long by 4 in. (102 mm) high

TEK 14-13B © 2008 National Concrete Masonry Association (replaces TEK 14-13A)
are not provided. Because of the small core size and result- depth is equal to the thickness of the face shell or web on
ing difficulty in consolidating grout, these units are rarely which it is placed (i.e., there is no excess mortar).
grouted. - Each unit has square ends and two square cores, as shown
Weights listed in the tables are based on the following in Figure 1.
assumptions. - Mortar density is 125 pcf (2,003 kg/m3).
- Minimum face shell & web thickness requirements of - Grout density is 140 pcf (2,243 kg/m3).
Standard Specification for Loadbearing Concrete Masonry - There is no excess grout in the wall.
Units, ASTM C 90-06 (ref. 8). These values apply to most
currently available concrete masonry units. The 2006 edition
of ASTM C 90 included slightly reduced minimum face
shell thickness requirements for concrete masonry units 10
in. (254 mm) and greater in width. These smaller face shells
result in slightly lower calculated wall weights for 10, 12-, 8 in.
14- and 16-in. (254-, 305-, 356-, and 406-mm) units. Note (203 mm)
that even though ASTM C 90-06 is not referenced in the
International Building Code (ref. 9) until the 2009 edition,
and in Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures
(ref. 10) until the 2008 edition, designers should be aware )
6 mm
that many concrete masonry producers started complying
(40
Th
with the reduced face shell requirements at a much earlier ick in.
nes 16
date. When using dead loads for beneficial effects such s
as overturning resistance, it is advised that the lower wall
weights based on ASTM C 90-06 be used. (nominal dimensions shown, actual dimensions
- Except as noted in Table 2, units have nominal face dimen- are 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) less)
sions of 16 in. (406 mm) long by 8 in. (203 mm) high, as
shown in Figure 1. Figure 1—General Unit Configuration Assumed for
- All mortar joints are 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) thick. The mortar joint Wall Weight Calculations

Table 3—6-in. (152-mm) Single Wythe Wall Weights

Vertical grout
spacing, Mortar Wall weight, lb/ft2 (kg/m2) for concrete densities, lb/ft3 (kg/m3) of:
Units in. (mm) bedding 85 (1,362) 95 (1,522) 105 (1,682) 115 (1,842) 125 (2,003) 135 (2,163)
Hollow No grout Face shell 20 (98) 22 (108) 24 (117) 26 (127) 28 (137) 30 (147)
Hollow No grout Full 20 (98) 22 (108) 24 (117) 26 (127) 28 (137) 31 (151)
Solid No grout Full 42 (205) 46 (225) 50 (244) 55 (269) 59 (288) 63 (308)
Hollow 8 (203) Full 53 (259) 56 (274) 58 (283) 60 (293) 62 (303) 64 (313)
Hollow 16 (406) Face shell 37 (181) 39 (191) 41 (200) 43 (210) 45 (220) 47 (230)
Hollow 24 (610) Face shell 31 (151) 33 (161) 35 (171) 37 (181) 39 (191) 41 (200)
Hollow 32 (812) Face shell 28 (137) 30 (147) 32 (156) 34 (166) 37 (181) 39 (191)
Hollow 40 (1,016) Face shell 26 (127) 29 (142) 31 (151) 33 (161) 35 (171) 37 (181)
Hollow 48 (1,219) Face shell 25 (122) 27 (132) 30 (147) 32 (156) 34 (166) 36 (176)
Hollow 56 (1,422) Face shell 25 (122) 27 (132) 29 (142) 31 (151) 33 (161) 35 (171)
Hollow 64 (1,626) Face shell 24 (117) 26 (127) 28 (137) 30 (147) 32 (156) 34 (166)
Hollow 72 (1,829) Face shell 23 (112) 26 (127) 28 (137) 30 (147) 32 (156) 34 (166)
Hollow 80 (2,032) Face shell 23 (112) 25 (122) 27 (132) 29 (142) 31 (151) 34 (166)
Hollow 88 (2,235) Face shell 23 (112) 25 (122) 27 (132) 29 (142) 31 (151) 33 (161)
Hollow 96 (2,438) Face shell 23 (112) 25 (122) 27 (132) 29 (142) 31 (151) 33 (161)
Hollow 104 (2,642) Face shell 22 (108) 24 (117) 27 (132) 29 (142) 31 (151) 33 (161)
Hollow 112 (2,845) Face shell 22 (108) 24 (117) 26 (127) 28 (137) 30 (147) 33 (161)
Hollow 120 (3,048) Face shell 22 (108) 24 (117) 26 (127) 28 (137) 30 (147) 32 (156)
 Table 4—8-in. (203-mm) Single Wythe Wall Weights

Vertical grout
spacing, Mortar Wall weight, lb/ft2 (kg/m2) for concrete densities, lb/ft3 (kg/m3) of:
Units in. (mm) bedding 85 (1,362) 95 (1,522) 105 (1,682) 115 (1,842) 125 (2,003) 135 (2,163)
Hollow No grout Face shell 25 (122) 28 (137) 31 (151) 33 (161) 36 (176) 39 (191)
Hollow No grout Full 26 (127) 28 (137) 31 (151) 34 (166) 37 (181) 39 (191)
Solid No grout Full 56 (274) 62 (303) 68 (332) 74 (362) 80 (391) 86 (420)
Hollow 8 (203) Full 73 (357) 76 (371) 78 (381) 81 (396) 84 (411) 86 (420)
Hollow 16 (406) Face shell 49 (239) 52 (254) 55 (269) 57 (279) 60 (293) 63 (308)
Hollow 24 (610) Face shell 41 (200) 44 (215) 47 (230) 49 (239) 52 (254) 55 (269)
Hollow 32 (812) Face shell 37 (181) 40 (195) 43 (210) 45 (220) 48 (235) 51 (249)
Hollow 40 (1,016) Face shell 35 (171) 38 (186) 40 (195) 43 (210) 46 (225) 48 (235)
Hollow 48 (1,219) Face shell 33 (161) 36 (176) 39 (191) 41 (200) 44 (215) 47 (230)
Hollow 56 (1,422) Face shell 32 (156) 35 (171) 38 (186) 40 (195) 43 (210) 46 (225)
Hollow 64 (1,626) Face shell 31 (151) 34 (166) 37 (181) 39 (191) 42 (205) 45 (220)
Hollow 72 (1,829) Face shell 31 (151) 33 (161) 36 (176) 39 (191) 41 (200) 44 (215)
Hollow 80 (2,032) Face shell 30 (147) 33 (161) 35 (171) 38 (186) 41 (200) 44 (215)
Hollow 88 (2,235) Face shell 30 (147) 32 (156) 35 (171) 38 (186) 40 (195) 43 (210)
Hollow 96 (2,438) Face shell 29 (142) 32 (156) 35 (171) 37 (181) 40 (195) 43 (210)
Hollow 104 (2,642) Face shell 29 (142) 32 (156) 34 (166) 37 (181) 40 (195) 42 (205)
Hollow 112 (2,845) Face shell 29 (142) 31 (151) 34 (166) 37 (181) 39 (191) 42 (205)
Hollow 120 (3,048) Face shell 28 (137) 31 (151) 34 (166) 37 (181) 39 (191) 42 (205)

Table 5—10-in. (254-mm) Single Wythe Wall Weights

Vertical grout
spacing, Mortar Wall weight, lb/ft2 (kg/m2) for concrete densities, lb/ft3 (kg/m3) of:
Units in. (mm) bedding 85 (1,362) 95 (1,522) 105 (1,682) 115 (1,842) 125 (2,003) 135 (2,163)
Hollow No grout Face shell 29 (142) 32 (156) 35 (171) 38 (186) 41 (200) 45 (220)
Hollow No grout Full 30 (147) 33 (161) 36 (176) 39 (191) 42 (205) 45 (220)
Solid No grout Full 71 (347) 78 (381) 86 (420) 93 (454) 101 (494) 108 (528)
Hollow 8 (203) Full 93 (454) 96 (469) 100 (489) 103 (503) 106 (518) 109 (533)
Hollow 16 (406) Face shell 61 (298) 64 (313) 68 (332) 71 (347) 74 (362) 77 (376)
Hollow 24 (610) Face shell 50 (244) 54 (264) 57 (279) 60 (293) 63 (308) 66 (323)
Hollow 32 (812) Face shell 45 (220) 48 (235) 51 (249) 54 (264) 58 (283) 61 (298)
Hollow 40 (1,016) Face shell 42 (205) 45 (220) 48 (235) 51 (249) 54 (264) 58 (283)
Hollow 48 (1,219) Face shell 40 (195) 43 (210) 46 (225) 49 (239) 52 (254) 55 (269)
Hollow 56 (1,422) Face shell 38 (186) 41 (200) 44 (215) 48 (235) 51 (249) 54 (264)
Hollow 64 (1,626) Face shell 37 (181) 40 (195) 43 (210) 46 (225) 50 (244) 53 (259)
Hollow 72 (1,829) Face shell 36 (176) 39 (191) 42 (205) 46 (225) 49 (239) 52 (254)
Hollow 80 (2,032) Face shell 35 (171) 39 (191) 42 (205) 45 (220) 48 (235) 51 (249)
Hollow 88 (2,235) Face shell 35 (171) 38 (186) 41 (200) 44 (215) 47 (230) 50 (244)
Hollow 96 (2,438) Face shell 34 (166) 37 (181) 41 (200) 44 (215) 47 (230) 50 (244)
Hollow 104 (2,642) Face shell 34 (166) 37 (181) 40 (195) 43 (210) 46 (225) 50 (244)
Hollow 112 (2,845) Face shell 34 (166) 37 (181) 40 (195) 43 (210) 46 (225) 49 (239)
Hollow 120 (3,048) Face shell 33 (161) 36 (176) 40 (195) 43 (210) 46 (225) 49 (239)
 Table 6—12-in. (305-mm) Single Wythe Wall Weights

Vertical grout
spacing, Mortar Wall weight, lb/ft2 (kg/m2) for concrete densities, lb/ft3 (kg/m3) of:
Units in. (mm) bedding 85 (1,362) 95 (1,522) 105 (1,682) 115 (1,842) 125 (2,003) 135 (2,163)
Hollow No grout Face shell 32 (156) 35 (171) 39 (191) 42 (205) 46 (225) 49 (239)
Hollow No grout Full 33 (161) 36 (176) 40 (195) 43 (210) 47 (230) 50 (244)
Solid No grout Full 86 (420) 95 (464) 104 (508) 113 (552) 122 (596) 131 (640)
Hollow 8 (203) Full 114 (557) 118 (577) 121 (591) 125 (611) 128 (626) 132 (645)
Hollow 16 (406) Face shell 73 (357) 77 (376) 80 (391) 84 (411) 87 (425) 90 (440)
Hollow 24 (610) Face shell 59 (288) 63 (308) 66 (323) 70 (342) 73 (357) 77 (376)
Hollow 32 (812) Face shell 52 (254) 56 (274) 59 (288) 63 (308) 66 (323) 70 (342)
Hollow 40 (1,016) Face shell 48 (235) 52 (254) 55 (269) 59 (288) 62 (303) 66 (323)
Hollow 48 (1,219) Face shell 46 (225) 49 (239) 53 (259) 56 (274) 59 (288) 63 (308)
Hollow 56 (1,422) Face shell 44 (215) 47 (230) 51 (249) 54 (264) 57 (279) 61 (298)
Hollow 64 (1,626) Face shell 42 (205) 46 (225) 49 (239) 53 (259) 56 (274) 59 (288)
Hollow 72 (1,829) Face shell 41 (200) 44 (215) 48 (235) 51 (249) 55 (269) 58 (283)
Hollow 80 (2,032) Face shell 40 (195) 44 (215) 47 (230) 50 (244) 54 (264) 57 (279)
Hollow 88 (2,235) Face shell 39 (191) 43 (210) 46 (225) 50 (244) 53 (259) 57 (279)
Hollow 96 (2,438) Face shell 39 (191) 42 (205) 46 (225) 49 (239) 53 (259) 56 (274)
Hollow 104 (2,642) Face shell 38 (186) 42 (205) 45 (220) 49 (239) 52 (254) 55 (269)
Hollow 112 (2,845) Face shell 38 (186) 41 (200) 45 (220) 48 (235) 52 (254) 55 (269)
Hollow 120 (3,048) Face shell 37 (181) 41 (200) 44 (215) 48 (235) 51 (249) 55 (269)

Table 7—14-in. (356-mm) Single Wythe Wall Weights

Vertical grout
spacing, Mortar Wall weight, lb/ft2 (kg/m2) for concrete densities, lb/ft3 (kg/m3) of:
Units in. (mm) bedding 85 (1,362) 95 (1,522) 105 (1,682) 115 (1,842) 125 (2,003) 135 (2,163)
Hollow No grout Face shell 35 (171) 38 (186) 42 (205) 46 (225) 50 (244) 54 (264)
Hollow No grout Full 36 (176) 40 (195) 43 (210) 47 (230) 51 (249) 55 (269)
Solid No grout Full 100 (489) 111 (542) 121 (591) 132 (645) 142 (694) 153 (748)
Hollow 8 (203) Full 135 (660) 139 (679) 143 (699) 147 (718) 150 (733) 154 (753)
Hollow 16 (406) Face shell 85 (415) 89 (435) 93 (454) 96 (469) 100 (489) 104 (508)
Hollow 24 (610) Face shell 68 (332) 72 (352) 76 (371) 80 (391) 83 (406) 87 (425)
Hollow 32 (812) Face shell 60 (293) 64 (313) 67 (327) 71 (347) 75 (367) 79 (386)
Hollow 40 (1,016) Face shell 55 (269) 59 (288) 62 (303) 66 (323) 70 (342) 74 (362)
Hollow 48 (1,219) Face shell 51 (249) 55 (269) 59 (288) 63 (308) 67 (327) 70 (342)
Hollow 56 (1,422) Face shell 49 (239) 53 (259) 57 (279) 60 (293) 64 (313) 68 (332)
Hollow 64 (1,626) Face shell 47 (230) 51 (249) 55 (269) 59 (288) 62 (303) 66 (323)
Hollow 72 (1,829) Face shell 46 (225) 50 (244) 53 (259) 57 (279) 61 (298) 65 (318)
Hollow 80 (2,032) Face shell 45 (220) 49 (239) 52 (254) 56 (274) 60 (293) 64 (313)
Hollow 88 (2,235) Face shell 44 (215) 48 (235) 51 (249) 55 (269) 59 (288) 63 (308)
Hollow 96 (2,438) Face shell 43 (210) 47 (230) 51 (249) 54 (264) 58 (283) 62 (303)
Hollow 104 (2,642) Face shell 42 (205) 46 (225) 50 (244) 54 (264) 58 (283) 61 (298)
Hollow 112 (2,845) Face shell 42 (205) 46 (225) 49 (239) 53 (259) 57 (279) 61 (298)
Hollow 120 (3,048) Face shell 41 (200) 45 (220) 49 (239) 53 (259) 57 (279) 60 (293)
 Table 8—16-in. (406-mm) Single Wythe Wall Weights

Vertical grout
spacing, Mortar Wall weight, lb/ft2 (kg/m2) for concrete densities, lb/ft3 (kg/m3) of:
Units in. (mm) bedding 85 (1,362) 95 (1,522) 105 (1,682) 115 (1,842) 125 (2,003) 135 (2,163)
Hollow No grout Face shell 37 (181) 42 (205) 46 (225) 50 (244) 54 (264) 58 (283)
Hollow No grout Full 39 (191) 43 (210) 47 (230) 51 (249) 55 (269) 60 (293)
Solid No grout Full 115 (562) 127 (621) 139 (679) 151 (738) 163 (797) 175 (855)
Hollow 8 (203) Full 156 (762) 160 (782) 164 (801) 168 (821) 173 (845) 177 (865)
Hollow 16 (406) Face shell 97 (474) 101 (494) 105 (513) 109 (533) 114 (557) 118 (577)
Hollow 24 (610) Face shell 77 (376) 81 (396) 85 (415) 90 (440) 94 (459) 98 (479)
Hollow 32 (812) Face shell 67 (327) 71 (347) 76 (371) 80 (391) 84 (411) 88 (430)
Hollow 40 (1,016) Face shell 61 (298) 65 (318) 70 (342) 74 (362) 78 (381) 82 (401)
Hollow 48 (1,219) Face shell 57 (279) 61 (298) 66 (323) 70 (342) 74 (362) 78 (381)
Hollow 56 (1,422) Face shell 54 (264) 59 (288) 63 (308) 67 (327) 71 (347) 75 (367)
Hollow 64 (1,626) Face shell 52 (254) 56 (274) 61 (298) 65 (318) 69 (337) 73 (357)
Hollow 72 (1,829) Face shell 51 (249) 55 (269) 59 (288) 63 (308) 67 (327) 71 (347)
Hollow 80 (2,032) Face shell 49 (239) 54 (264) 58 (283) 62 (303) 66 (323) 70 (342)
Hollow 88 (2,235) Face shell 48 (235) 52 (254) 57 (279) 61 (298) 65 (318) 69 (337)
Hollow 96 (2,438) Face shell 47 (230) 52 (254) 56 (274) 60 (293) 64 (313) 68 (332)
Hollow 104 (2,642) Face shell 47 (230) 51 (249) 55 (269) 59 (288) 63 (308) 67 (327)
Hollow 112 (2,845) Face shell 46 (225) 50 (244) 54 (264) 58 (283) 63 (308) 67 (327)
Hollow 120 (3,048) Face shell 45 (220) 50 (244) 54 (264) 58 (283) 62 (303) 66 (323)
REFERENCES
1. Sound Transmission Class Ratings for Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 13-1B. National Concrete Masonry Association,
2007.
2. Seismic Design Forces on Concrete Masonry Buildings, TEK 14-12B. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2005.
3. Heat Capacity (HC) Values for Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 6-16A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2008.
4. Density-Related Properties of Concrete Masonry Assemblies, TEK 2-6. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2008.
5. Fire Resistance Rating of Concrete Masonry Assemblies, TEK 7-1B. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2008.
6. R-Values of Multi-Wythe Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 6-1A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 1999.
7. R-Values for Single Wythe Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 6-2A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2005.
8. Standard Specification for Loadbearing Concrete Masonry Units, ASTM C 90-06. ASTM International, 2006.
9. International Building Code. International Code Council, 2003, 2006 and 2009.
10. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402. Reported by the Masonry Standards
Joint Committee, 2002, 2005 and 2008.

NCMA and the companies disseminating this technical information disclaim any and all responsibility and liability for the
accuracy and the application of the information contained in this publication.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171 contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
www.ncma.org
 NCMA TEK
National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology

CONCRETE MASONRY ARCHES TEK 14-14

Structural (1994)

reaction components or force paths that could be eliminated

Keywords: arch analysis, arches, construction techniques
without adversely effecting their stability. This redundancy
is a hidden asset of masonry; the tendency for “arching
INTRODUCTION action” provides a masonry wall with resistance to progres-
sive type failure. When a hole is caused suddenly in a
The masonry arch, one of mans’ oldest architectural masonry wall, an arch is created over the opening and the wall
forms, is defined as a rigid span curving upward between two continues to carry load rather than fall down.
points of support. The arch appears in a wide variety of This redundancy of the masonry arch is, however, a
structures ranging from the purely decorative triumphal arch nuisance when one considers design. Because the masonry
to the masonry arch bridge where it sustains great loads. arch is statically indeterminate, arches in building walls are
The round arch, Figure 1, was used by the early Chinese generally designed or analyzed by approximate methods; the
in all types of buildings. In ancient Egypt, this arch and others degree of exactness of the design procedure depends upon the
were used in nonceremonial structures such as engineering size (span & rise) of the arch. Minor arches with spans of up
works and private dwellings. The Babylonians, on the other to 6 feet (1.8 m) and rise-to-span ratios not exceeding 0.15
hand, used their arches in temples, palaces, and tombs. The may be satisfactorily designed by the hypothesis of least
Romans used the arch freely in their secular structures, as in crown thrust first proposed by Mosely in 1837. Major arches
the Colosseum, and in their engineering works like the aque- may be designed by considering them as essentially thick
duct, but in their temples they followed the Greek style with the curved elastic beams. Many methods of elastic analysis have
horizontal entablature. been developed; however, in most instances the application
Many forms of the arch have been developed
during the centuries of its use, ranging from the Minor Arches:
flat or jack arch through the segmental, circular,
parabolic to the pointed Gothic. Used freely in the
great cathedrals of Europe, the Gothic or pointed
arch had a structural use more important than the
ornamental effect, as it minimized the outward
thrust, making possible the firmness and stability
combined with the lofty and spacious interior
characteristic of the Gothic cathedral.
Two distinct types of arches have been recog-
nized based on span, rise, and loading. The more Flat or Jack Segmental
common concrete masonry arch is the minor arch
where maximum span is limited to about 6 feet (1.8 Major Arches:
m) with a rise-to-span ratio not exceeding 0.15, and
carrying loads up to 1500 lb per foot of span (21,891
N/m). The second type of arch is the major arch
where span, rise, and loading may exceed those of the
minor. Illustrations of both types of arches are shown
in Figure 1. However, the design section of this TEK
discusses only minor arches.

ANALYSIS
Round or Semicircular Pointed or Gothic
Fixed masonry arches are statically indetermi-
Figure 1—Masonry Arch Forms
nate to the third degree, that is, they have three
TEK 14-14 © 1994 National Concrete Masonry Association
is complicated and time con-
1
suming. And, it is still an
2
approximate analysis since , S/d =
s p a n /depth
the equations are developed
assuming that deformations 0.8
within the arch are small
3
S/d =

Tan φ = V1/H = W/2H

enough that the stresses are
not affected if these deforma- 0.6
tions are ignored. This is not 4
S/d =
true of long span bridges 5
where secondary stresses are S/d =
0.4
significant and are taken into =6
S/d
account. In masonry arches 7
for building walls they can be S/d =
ignored safely. 0.2
Figure 2 shows the forces
and reactions within and upon
a minor concrete masonry 0
arch. The external load may 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14
(flat arch)
consist of a uniform load, w, Rise-to-Span Ratio, r/S
as shown, a concentrated load,
or other. A horizontal thrust, Figure 3—Relationship of Vertical Load, W, and Horizontal Thrust, H, in
H, is assumed to act at the Small Concrete Masonry Arches
crown, and its point of appli-
cation is assumed to be at the upper middle-third limit (upper There are four items to consider regarding structural
edge of kern) of the arch section. At the skewback (left-hand failure of minor unreinforced concrete masonry arches:
reaction), a reaction, F, is assumed to act at the lower middle- 1. failure due to tensile stresses (already eliminated by the
third limit (lower edge of kern) of the section. These assump- assumption that the force polygon remains within the
tions for the design of minor arches, that the equilibrium section kern)
polygon lies entirely within the middle third of the arch 2. crushing of the masonry due to compression by the
section, preclude the rotation of one section of the arch about horizontal thrust, H
the edge of a joint or the development of tensile stresses in 3. shear sliding failure of one section of the arch along
either the intrados or extrados. The assumptions appear another, or along the skewback
reasonable for symmetrical arches loaded equally and sym- 4. the ability of supporting adjacent masonry wall or
metrically, but may not be tenable for unsymmetrical arches abutment to safely resist the horizontal thrust, H, of
or nonuniform loading. A vertical shear, VO, is shown also at the arch.
the crown of the arch. This shear will equal zero when both Consider first the crushing of the masonry due to hori-
halves of the arch are loaded equally, i.e., the general case. zontal thrust. For minor arches (segmental or jack arches) the
relationship between vertical loading or vertical reaction, V1
uniform load, w or W, and horizontal thrust, H, depends on the rise-to-span
ratio, r/S, of the arch, and on the span/depth ratio, S/d. This
relationship is shown in Figure 3. Knowing r/S and S/d of an
arch, read the value W/2 H at the left-hand side of the graph.
Vo
extrados crown (Note: flat or jack arches are represented as r/S = 0).
assumed line Once the horizontal thrust has been determined, the
of resistance H maximum compressive stress in the masonry is determined
within middle third by the following formula:
f = compressive stress, psi (MPa)
2H
f = b = breadth of arch, in. (mm)
skew- bd d = depth of arch, in. (mm)
rise, r

back
intrados
H This value is twice an axial compressive stress on the
span/2 arch due to a load H because the horizontal thrust is located
F V1 at the edge of the kern.
Shear stress, or sliding of one section of the arch on
half length, L/2 another or on the skewback, requires consideration of the
angular relationship of the reaction and the mortar joint, Figure
Figure 2—Assumed Conditions for Static Analysis of 4. Stresses acting on the joint will depend on the angle formed
Small Concrete Masonry Arch between the reaction, F, and the inclined joint. This angle is:
 β=φ-γ H
vm = An = net mortar bedded area
φ = angle between reaction, F, and the horizontal. 2 An
γ = angle of mortar joint with vertical The tendency for the arch thrust, H, to overturn the
supporting masonry wall must be checked, especially when
For segmental arches with radial joints, the angle be- the arch is near the wall top. No tension due to overturning
tween the skewback and the vertical is: moment should be permitted in the supporting wall section.
4 rS S = span Applicable equations are:
γ = tan −1 2 P Mc
S − 4r 2 r = rise M=Hxh f = ±
or in terms of radius of curvature, R: An I
S M =
overturning moment due to thrust H
γ = sin −1
2R h =
wall height
f =
stress at bottom of wall
Y
P =
vertical load on wall
An =
net area of wall
I =
moment of inertia of wall based on length and
equivalent solid thickness
γ β
c = distance from neutral axis, 1/2 wall length

X X
,F
c tion
rea V1 joint
H φ
Y to ASTM C 270 (ref. 5), Type M, S, or N is recommended.
β=φ-γ
β = tan-1 (V1 /H - γ)
for segmental arches, γ = sin-1 (S/2R)
for jack arches, γ = tan-1 (S/8)
where: R = radius of curvature
S = span
V1 & H = reaction components
Figure 4—Angular Relationship Between Forces and
Stresses in Radial Joint of Segmental and/or Jack Arches
For jack or flat arches in which the skewback equals 1/
2 inch per foot of span (83 mm/m) for each 4 inches (102 mm)
of arch depth, the angle that the skewback makes with the
vertical is:
S S = span
γ = tan −1
8 Bearing Concrete Masonry Units, ASTM C 90 (ref. 4).
In these ratios all terms of length must be expressed in
the same units; for example, in computing S/r, S/d, and S/R,
if S is in feet (m), r, d, and R must be in feet (m) also.
Shear force, Q, along the mortar joint is then equal to:
Q = F sin B, and shear stress, v:
Q b = breadth, in. (mm)
v= d = depth, in. (mm)
bd
Finally, a check should be made to make certain the
supporting adjacent masonry wall has sufficient shear strength
and resistance to overturning against the horizontal thrust, H,
of the concrete masonry arch. Figure 5 illustrates how shear
resistance may be calculated. It is assumed that the horizon-
tal thrust of the arch attempts to move a volume of
masonry enclosed by the boundary lines ABCD and
CDEF. The thrust, H, is acting against two shear planes
of resistance, CF and DE. Shear stress along either plane
can then be calculated as:
CONSTRUCTION
Since any section of an arch may be subjected to shear,
moment, and thrust, it is important that arches be constructed
with high quality concrete masonry units, mortar, and good
workmanship. For this reason, the use of mortar conforming
Bond is an important factor in building arches with sufficient
shear resistance to withstand the imposed loads. To obtain
good bond, all mortar joints in the arch need to be completely
filled. This is sometimes very difficult to do, especially
where the concrete masonry units are laid in soldier bond or
rowlock header bond. It is also hard to do where the curvature
of the arch is of short radius, and mortar joints of varying
thickness are used. But completely filled joints are para-
mount to a strong arch, and can be achieved with quality
workmanship.
Concrete masonry units for arch construction should be
either 100 percent solid units, or filled units, or filled cell
construction. Applicable ASTM Specifications are: Con-
crete Building Brick, ASTM C 55 (ref. 3); Calcium Silicate
Face Brick, ASTM C 73 (Sand-Lime Brick) (ref. 2); Load-
Concrete masonry arches are constructed with the aid of
a form or temporary support. After construction, the form is
A
d D E
H
F
C
rise
span
x
B
Figure 5—Supporting Adjacent Masonry Must Resist
the Horizontal Thrust of the Arch
kept in place until the arch is strong enough to carry the loads f m = 0 . 2 ( 2000 ) = 400 psi
to which it will be subjected. For unreinforced concrete > 118 psi OK
masonry arches, the form should remain in place about one
(4)(6)(72)
week after construction. tanγ = = 0 . 3429
Finally, the wall supporting the concrete masonry arch (72) 2 − ( 4 )( 36 )
must be considered. With a masonry arch, three conditions γ = 18o − 50'
relating to the supporting wall must be maintained in order to β = ( 28 o − 00' ) − (18 o − 50' ) = 9 o − 10'
ensure arch action: the length of the span must remain constant;
the elevation of the arch ends must remain unchanged; and the sin β = 0 .1593
inclination of the skewback must remain fixed. If any of these F = ( 6000 ) 2 + ( 5660 ) 2 = 8250 lb
conditions are violated by sliding, settlement, or rotation of
Q = F sin β = ( 8250 )( 0.1593 ) = 1315 lb
the supporting abutments, critical stresses for which the arch
1315
was not designed may result. v= = 13. 7 psi
(8)(12)
DESIGN EXAMPLE—SEGMENTAL ARCH < 34 psi OK

A segmental arch is to be supported on an unreinforced Check thrust against wall:

8-inch (203 mm) hollow loadbearing wall. One end of the Wall length = 24 in.
arch will be 24 inches (610 mm) from the end of the wall. Mortar bed = 2 x 1.25 = 2.5 in.
Other given data are: An = 2.5 x 24 = 60 in2
Span, S = 72 in. (1829 mm) 5660
v= = 47 psi
Depth, d = 12 in. (305 mm) 2(60)
Breadth, b = 8 in. (203 mm) > 34 psi NG
Rise, r = 6 in. (152 mm)
Uniform load = 1000 lb/ft (14.6 kN/m) SUMMARY: The arch is sufficient to carry the loads, but the
f’m = 2000 psi (13.8 MPa) supporting wall will require reinforcement to increase its
vm = 34 psi (0.23 MPa), Type S mortar shear capacity.

ANALYSIS: REFERENCES
r/S = 6/72 = 0.083 1. Leontorich, V. Frames and Arches. McGraw-Hill, 1959.
S/d = 72/12 = 6 2. Standard Specification for Calcium Silicate Face Brick (Sand-
W = 6 x 1000 lb/ft = 6000 lb Lime Brick), ASTM C 73-94. American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1994.
From Figure 3, W/2H = 0.53 3. Standard Specification for Concrete Building Brick, ASTM C
6000 55-94. American Society for Testing and Materials, 1994.
H= = 5660 lb 4. Standard Specification for Load-Bearing Concrete Masonry
2 ( 0. 53) Units, ASTM C 90-94. American Society for Testing and
2(5660) Materials, 1994.
f = = 118 psi 5. Standard Specification for Mortar for Unit Masonry, ASTM C
8(12)
270-92a. American Society for Testing and Materials, 1992.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
2302 Horse Pen Road, Herndon, Virginia 20171-3499 contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
www.ncma.org

National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology
ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN OF PIER AND
PANEL HIGHWAY SOUND BARRIER WALLS
Keywords: allowable stress design, design examples, high-
way appurtenance, highway noise barrier, lateral loads,
noise control, panel walls, reinforced concrete masonry,
screen walls
INTRODUCTION
Sound barrier walls are increasingly being used to reduce
the impact of traffic noise on properties abutting major urban
traffic routes. Because concrete masonry possesses many
desirable features and properties—excellent sound resis-
tance, low cost, design flexibility, structural capability and
durability, it is an excellent material for the design and
construction of highway sound barrier walls.
Aesthetics is also an important consideration. Noise
barriers significantly impact a highway's visual impression.
Visual qualities of noise barriers include overall shape, end
conditions, color, texture, plantings and artistic treatment.
The variety of concrete masonry surface textures, colors
and patterns has led to its extensive use in sound barrier walls.
Various types of concrete masonry walls may be used for
sound barriers. Pier and panel walls are relatively easy to
build and are economical due to the reduced thickness of the
walls and the intermittent pier foundations. In addition, the
piers can be offset with respect to the panels to achieve
desired aesthetic effects. Pier and panel walls are also easily
adapted to varying terrain conditions and are often used in
areas that have expansive soils.
This TEK presents information on the structural design
of concrete masonry pier and panel sound barrier walls.
Requirements and considerations for reduction of highway
traffic noise are discussed in TEK 13-3, Concrete Masonry
Highway Noise Barriers (ref. 2).
DESIGN
Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures,
ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402 (ref. 1) includes requirements for
allowable stress design, strength design and prestressed
approaches. The allowable stress design approach was used to
develop the designs in this TEK. Allowable stresses were
increased by one-third, as permitted for load combinations
which include wind or seismic loads. Allowable Stress Design
TEK 14-15B © 2004 National Concrete Masonry Association (replaces TEK14-15A)
NCMA TEK
TEK 14-15B
Structural (2004)
of Concrete Masonry, TEK 14-7A (ref. 4), describes the basic
design approach.
Materials and Workmanship
Since concrete masonry sound barrier walls are subject to
a wide range of load conditions, temperatures and moisture
conditions, the selection of proper materials and proper
workmanship is very important to ensure durability and satisfactory
structural performance. Accordingly, it is recommended that
materials (concrete masonry units, mortar, grout and
reinforcement) comply with applicable requirements contained
in Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures (ref. 1).
Lateral Loads
Design lateral loads should be in accordance with those
specified by local or state building and highway departments.
If design lateral loads are not specified, it is recommended that
they conform to those specified in Minimum Design Loads for
Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE 7 (ref. 3). Wind and
earthquake loads required in this standard are briefly described
in the following paragraphs.
Design wind loads (F) on sound barrier walls may be
determined as follows:
F
w= = q z GC f
Af
For the wall designs in this TEK, G is taken as 0.85 and
Cf as 1.2. The minimum wind load specified in ASCE 7 is
10 psf (479 Pa). For basic wind speeds of 85 mph (minimum),
90 mph, 100 mph, and 110 mph (53, 145, 161, and 177 kmph),
the corresponding wind loads are listed in Table 1.
Earthquake loads (F ) on sound barrier walls may be
p
determined as follows, considering the wall system as a
reinforced masonry non-building structure (ref. 3):
S DSW p
Fp =
R
Ip
Seismic loads for a range of conditions are listed in Table 3.
Deflections
Deflection considerations typically govern wall design
for long spans and taller walls with greater lateral loads.
Deflections are imposed to limit the development of vertical M = 0.125wL2 V = 0.5wL
flexure cracks within the wall panel and horizontal flexure The wall panels themselves are analyzed as simply
cracks near the base of the pier. The design information supported beams, spanning from pier to pier.
presented in this TEK is based on a maximum allowable In addition to the horizontal reinforcement, which transfers
deflection of L/240, where L is the wall span between piers. lateral loads to the piers, vertical reinforcement in the panels
is required in Seismic Design Categories (SDC) C, D, E and
DESIGN TABLES F. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures (ref.
1) includes minimum prescriptive reinforcement as follows.
Design information for pier and panel walls is presented In SDC C, vertical No. 4 (M #13) bars are located within 8 in.
in Tables 4 through 7. Tables 4 and 5 provide horizontal
reinforcing steel requirements for 6 in. and 8 in. (152 and 203 Table 1—Wind Loads for Sound Barrier Walls
mm) panels, respectively. Horizontal reinforcement w, psf (Pa), for exposure category
requirements can be met using either joint reinforcement or V, mph (km/h) Ba Cb Dc
bond beams with reinforcing bars. 85 (53) 10 (479) 12.6 (601) 15.1 (772)
Table 6 provides pier size and reinforcement requirements 90 (145) 10 (479) 14.1 (674) 16.9 (809)
for various lateral loads. Table 7 lists minimum sizes for pier 100 (161) 11.3 (540) 17.4 (832) 20.9 (999)
foundations, as well as minimum embedment depths. These 110 (177) 13.6 (653) 21.0 (1007) 25.2 (1208)
components of pier and panel walls are illustrated in Figure 1. a
Urban and suburban areas, wooded areas or other terrain
When pier and panels are used, walls are considered as
with numerous closely spaced obstructions having the
deep beams, spanning horizontally between piers. Walls size of single-family dwellings or larger, not on a hill or
support their own weight, vertically, and also must resist escarpment.
lateral out-of-plane wind or seismic loads. The panels are b
Open terrain with scattered obstructions having heights
built to be independent of the piers to accommodate masonry generally less than 30 ft (9.1 m); includes flat open country,
unit shrinkage and soil movement. For this design condition, grasslands and all water surfaces in hurricane-prone regions,
wall reinforcement is located either in the horizontal bed not on a hill or escarpment.
c
joints or in bond beams. Wall reinforcement is based on Flat, unobstructed areas and water surfaces outside
maximum moments (M) and shears (V) in the wall panels, hurricane-prone regions; includes smooth mud flats, salt
determined as follows: flats and unbroken ice, not on a hill or escarpment.

Control joint, typical, provide

4 in. W 2.8 (MW 17) tie 6 or 8 in. (152 or bond breaker around end of wall
(102 mm) at 16 in. (406 mm) 203 mm) wall in pier
o.c. min. thickness

Grout See Table 4 or 5 for Pier size and reinforcement,

reinforcement requirements see Table 6
Bond beam, one No. 4 (M #13), min.
Wall height
Required embedment,
see Table 7

Pier cap Temporary

shoring
Bond beam, see
Table 4 or 5
Wall span Pier foundation,
see Table 7
Figure 1—Pier and Panel Sound Barrier Wall
(203 mm) of the wall ends, and at 10 ft (3.0 m) on center along • basic wind speed is 90 mph (145 km/h)
the length of the wall; minimum horizontal reinforcement • SS = 0.25, SDC B
requirements are satisfied by the primary reinforcement listed From Table 1, the design wind load is 14.1 psf (674 Pa)
in Tables 4 and 5. In SDC D, E and F, vertical No. 4 (M #13) for a basic wind speed of 90 mph (145 km/h) and exposure C.
bars are located within 8 in. (203 mm) of the wall ends, and at Using Table 3, the design seismic load is determined to be 2.8
4 ft (1.22 m) on center along the length of the wall. psf (0.13 kPa) for a 6 in. (152 mm) wall grouted at 48 in. (1219
Table 6 shows pier size and vertical reinforcement mm), or less, on center, for Ss = 0.25. Since the wind load is
requirements. Piers are designed as vertical cantilevers, not greater, the wall will be designed for 14.1 psf (674 Pa).
bonded with the walls, and pier reinforcement is based on Using Table 4, minimum horizontal panel reinforcement
maximum moment and shear, determined as follows: is either W1.7 (MW 11) joint reinforcement at 8 in. (203 mm)
M = 0.5wLH2 V = wLH on center, or bond beams at 48 in. (1220 mm) on center
Design assumptions for the pier and panel walls are given reinforced with one No. 5 (M #16) bar. At the bottom, the
in Table 2. Note that allowable stresses were increased by panel requires a beam 16 in. (406 mm), or two courses, deep
one-third, as permitted for load combinations which include reinforced with one No. 5 (M # 16) bar (last column of Table
wind or seismic loads (ref. 1). 4). Because the wall is located in SDC B, vertical reinforcement
Requirements for concrete foundations supporting the is not required to meet prescriptive seismic requirements.
concrete masonry piers are given in Table 7. These foundations The minimum pier size is 16 x 18 in. (406 x 460 mm),
can be constructed economically by drilling. The concrete reinforced with four No. 4 (M #13) bars, per Table 6. The pier
foundation piers should contain vertical reinforcement (same foundation diameter is 18 in. (457 mm), and should be
as shown in Table 6) which should be properly lapped with embedded at least 7.5 ft (2.29 m), per Table 7.
vertical reinforcement in the concrete masonry piers. The
embedment depths given in Table 7 are based on an allowable
lateral passive soil pressure of 300 psf (14.4 kPa). Table 2—Design Assumptions for Tables 4, 5, and 6
f’m = 1500 psi (10.34 MPa)
DESIGN EXAMPLE Fm = 0.33f’m(1.33) = 665 psi (4.58 MPa)
Fv = f 'm (1.33) = 51.5 psi (0.36 MPa)
A pier and panel highway sound barrier is to be designed
using the following parameters: Em = 900(f’m) = 1,350,000 psi (9,310 MPa)
• 6 in. (152 mm) panel thickness Fs = 24,000(1.33) = 31,920 psi (220.1 MPa) (bond beam
• 10 ft (3.05 m) wall height and pier reinforcement)
• 14 ft (4.27 m) wall span Fs = 30,000(1.33) = 39,900 psi (275.1 MPa) (joint
• open terrain, stiff soil reinforcement)
n = Es/Em = 21.5
Table 3—Seismic Loads for Sound Barrier Walls
Wall Grout
thickness, spacing, Seismic force, Fp, psf (kPa), for short period spectral response acceleration, SS, of:
in. (mm) in. (mm) 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.25 2.0
6 (152) 48 (1219) 2.8 (0.13) 4.9 (0.23) 6.3 (0.30) 7.7 (0.37) 8.7 (0.42) 13.9 (0.67)
24 (610) 3.2 (0.16) 5.7 (0.27) 7.3 (0.35) 8.9 (0.43) 10.1 (0.49) 16.2 (0.78)
8 (203) 5.1 (0.24) 8.9 (0.43) 11.5 (0.55) 14.0 (0.67) 15.9 (0.76) 25.5 (1.22)
8 (203) 48 (1219) 3.6 (0.17) 6.4 (0.31) 8.2 (0.39) 10.0 (0.48) 11.4 (0.55) 18.2 (0.87)
24 (610) 4.3 (0.21) 7.5 (0.36) 9.7 (0.46) 11.8 (0.57) 13.4 (0.64) 21.5 (1.03)
8 (203) 6.9 (0.33) 12.1 (0.58) 15.6 (0.75) 19.0 (0.91) 21.6 (1.04) 34.6 (1.66)
Table 4—6 in. (152 mm) Panel Wall Reinforcementa

Reinforcement size and spacing, in. on center Beam at bottom of

Wall w = 10psf (479 Pa) w = 15psf (718 Pa) w = 20psf (958 Pa) w = 25psf (1,197 Pa) panel (minimum
span, ft depth/
(m) Joint reinf. Bond beam Joint reinf. Bond beam Joint reinf. Bond beam Joint reinf. Bond beam reinforcement)
10 (3.1) W1.7 @ 16 No. 4 @ 48 W1.7 @ 16 No. 4 @ 48 W2.8 @ 16 No. 4 @ 48 W1.7 @ 8 No. 4 @ 48 8 in./1-No.5
12 (3.7) W1.7 @ 16 No. 4 @ 48 W2.8 @ 16 No. 4 @ 48 W1.7 @ 8 No. 5 @ 48 W2.1 @ 8 No. 5 @ 48 16 in./2-No. 4
14 (4.3) W2.8 @ 16 No. 4 @ 48 W1.7 @ 8 No. 5 @ 48 --- No. 5 @ 48 --- 2- No. 5 @ 48 16 in./1-No. 5
16 (4.9) W1.7 @ 8 No. 4 @ 48 W2.8 @ 8 No. 5 @ 48 --- 2- No. 5 @ 48 --- 2- No. 5 @ 16 24 in./1-No. 5
18 (5.5) W2.1 @ 8 No. 5 @ 48 W2.8 @ 8 No. 6 @ 48 --- 2- No. 5 @ 16 --- 2- No. 5 @ 8 24 in./2-No. 4
20 (6.1) W2.8 @ 8 No. 5 @ 48 --- No. 6 @ 16 --- No. 6 @ 16 --- 2- No. 5 @ 8 40 in./2-No. 4

a
Where values for joint reinforcement and bond beam reinforcement are both given, either may be selected. Assumed d values:
4.81 in. (122 mm) for joint reinforcement; 2.8 in. (71 mm) for bond beam. For other design assumptions, see Table 3.
 Table 5—8 in. (203 mm) Panel Wall Reinforcementa
Reinforcement size and spacing, in. on center Beam at bottom of
Wall w = 10psf (479 Pa) w = 15psf (718 Pa) w = 20psf (958 Pa) w = 25psf (1,197 Pa) panel (minimum
span, ft depth/
(m) Joint reinf. Bond beam Joint reinf. Bond beam Joint reinf. Bond beam Joint reinf. Bond beam reinforcement)
10 (3.1) W1.7 @ 16 No. 4 @ 48 W1.7 @ 16 No. 4 @ 48 W1.7 @ 16 No. 4 @ 48 W2.1 @ 16 No. 4 @ 48 8 in./2-No.4
12 (3.7) W1.7 @ 16 No. 4 @ 48 W1.7 @ 16 No. 4 @ 48 W2.8 @ 16 No. 4 @ 48 W1.7 @ 8 No. 4 @ 48 16 in./1-No. 4
14 (4.3) W1.7 @ 16 No. 4 @ 48 W2.8 @ 16 No. 4 @ 48 W1.7 @ 8 No. 5 @ 48 W2.8 @ 8 No. 5 @ 48 16 in./1-No. 5b
16 (4.9) W2.1 @ 16 No. 4 @ 48 W1.7 @ 8 No. 5 @ 48 W2.1 @ 8 No. 5 @ 48 W2.1 @ 8 No. 6 @ 48 24 in./1-No. 5c
18 (5.5) W2.8 @ 16 No. 4 @ 48 W2.1 @ 8 No. 5 @ 48 W2.8 @ 8 No. 6 @ 48 W2.8 @ 8 2- No. 6 @ 48 24 in./2-No. 4d
20 (6.1) W1.7 @ 8 No. 5 @ 48 W2.8 @ 8 No. 6 @ 48 --- No. 6 @ 48 --- 2- No. 6 @ 48 32 in./2-No. 5
a
Where values for joint reinforcement and bond beam reinforcement are both given, either may be selected. Assumed d values: 6.81 in. (173
mm) for joint reinforcement; 3.81 in. (97 mm) for single bar bond beams.; d = 5.0 in. (127 mm) for bond beams with two bars, although
the area of only one bar was used to determine resisting moment. For other design assumptions, see Table 3.
b
For 8 ft (2,430 mm) high wall, two No. 5 (M # 16) bars are required.
c
For 8 and 10 ft (2,430 and 3,050 mm) high walls, two No. 4 (M # 13) bars are required.
d
For 8 and 10 ft (2,430 and 3,050 mm) high walls, two No. 5 (M # 16) bars are required.
Table 6—Pier Size and Reinforcement
Reinforcement schedules: a = 4—No. 4; b = 4—No. 5; c = 4—No. 6; d = 4—No. 7; e = 4—No. 8; f = 6—No. 7; g = 6—No. 8
Pier sizes, in. x in.: A = 16 x 18; B = 16 x 20; C = 16 x 22; D = 16 x 24; E = 16 x 26; F = 16 x 28; G = 24 x 22; H = 24 x 24; I = 24 x 26; J = 24 x 28
w = 10 psf Pier reinforcement (reinforcement schedule/pier size) for wall height, ft, of:
For 6-inch wall panels: For 8-inch wall panels:
Wall span, ft 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
10 a/A a/A a/A a/A a/A a/A b/A c/A a/B a/B a/B a/B a/B a/B b/B b/B
12 a/A a/A a/A a/A a/A b/A b/A c/A a/B a/B a/B a/B a/B a/B b/B b/B
14 a/A a/A a/A a/A a/A b/A c/A c/C a/B a/B a/B a/B a/B b/B b/B c/B
16 a/A a/A a/A a/A b/A b/A c/A c/C a/B a/B a/B a/B b/B b/B c/B c/B
18 a/A a/A a/A a/A b/A c/A c/C c/C a/B a/B a/B a/B b/B b/B c/B c/D
20 a/A a/A a/A b/A b/A c/A c/C d/C a/B a/B a/B a/B b/B c/B c/D c/D

w = 15 psf Pier reinforcement (reinforcement schedule/pier size) for wall height, ft, of:
For 6-inch wall panels: For 8-inch wall panels:
Wall span, ft 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
10 a/A a/A a/A a/A b/A b/A c/A c/C a/B a/B a/B a/B a/B b/B b/B c/B
12 a/A a/A a/A a/A b/A c/A c/C c/C a/B a/B a/B a/B b/B b/B c/B c/D
14 a/A a/A a/A b/A b/A c/A c/C e/C a/B a/B a/B a/B b/B c/B c/D c/D
16 a/A a/A a/A b/A c/A c/C d/C d/E a/B a/B a/B b/B b/B c/B c/D d/D
18 a/A a/A a/A b/A c/A c/C e/C e/E a/B a/B a/B b/B c/B c/D d/D d/F
20 a/A a/A b/A c/A c/C d/C d/E f/G a/B a/B a/B b/B c/B c/D d/D d/F

w = 20 psf Pier reinforcement (reinforcement schedule/pier size) for wall height, ft, of:
For 6-inch wall panels: For 8-inch wall panels:
Wall span, ft 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
10 a/A a/A a/A b/A b/A c/A c/C d/C a/B a/B a/B a/B b/B c/B c/B c/D
12 a/A a/A a/A b/A c/A c/C d/C d/E a/B a/B a/B b/B b/B c/B c/D d/D
14 a/A a/A b/A b/A c/C c/C d/E e/E a/B a/B a/B b/B c/B c/D d/D d/F
16 a/A a/A b/A c/A c/C c/E d/E g/G a/B a/B b/B c/B c/D c/D d/F e/F
18 a/A a/A b/A c/A c/C d/E f/G f/I a/B a/B b/B c/B c/D d/D d/F f/H
20 a/A a/A b/A c/C d/C d/E g/G g/I a/B a/B b/B c/B c/D e/D e/F g/H

w = 25 psf Pier reinforcement (reinforcement schedule/pier size) for wall height, ft, of:
For 6-inch wall panels: For 8-inch wall panels:
Wall span, ft 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
10 a/A a/A a/A b/A c/A c/C d/C d/E a/B a/B a/B b/B b/B c/B c/D e/D
12 a/A a/A b/A c/A c/C d/C d/E f/G a/B a/B a/B b/B c/B c/D d/D d/F
14 a/A a/A b/A c/A c/C e/C e/E f/I a/B a/B b/B b/B c/D d/D d/F f/H
16 a/A a/A b/A c/C d/C d/E g/G g/I a/B a/B b/B c/B c/D e/D e/F g/H
18 a/A b/A c/A d/C d/E f/G f/I --- a/B a/B b/B c/B d/D e/F f/H f/J
20 a/A b/A c/A d/C d/E --- --- --- a/B b/B c/B c/D d/D e/F f/J g/J
Notes: Pier type and reinforcement is the minimum allowable for each wall span and height. Larger piers maybe designed and used. Pier
dimensions are nominal dimensions. Design dimensions were assumed to be 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) less than the nominal dimensions. Assumed d
is 2.5 in. (64 mm) less than the actual depth of the pier.
 Table 7—Pier Foundation Requirements, Minimum Embedment/Diametera, b
(T = 18 in. pier diam.; U = 20 in. pier diam.; X = 24 in. pier diam.; Y = 30 in. pier diam.; Z = 36 in. pier diam.)

Wall span, w = 10 psf (479 Pa) Wall height, ft (m)

ft (m) 6 (1.83) 8 (2.44) 10 (3.05) 12 (3.66) 14 (4.27) 16 (4.88) 18 (5.49) 20 (6.10)
c c c
10 (3.05) 4.0 ft/T 5.0 ft/T 5.5 ft/T 6.0 ft/T 6.5 ft/T 7.0 ft/T 7.5 ft/T 8.0 ft/T c
12 (3.66) 4.5 ft/T 5.0 ft/T 6.0 ft/T 6.5 ft/T 7.0 ft/T c 7.5 ft/T c 8.5 ft/T c 9.0 ft/T c
14 (4.27) 4.5 ft/T 5.5 ft/T 6.0 ft/T 7.0 ft/T 7.0 ft/T c 8.0 ft/T c 9.0 ft/T c 9.5 ft/T c
16 (1.88) 5.0 ft/T 6.0 ft/T 6.5 ft/T 7.5 ft/T c 8.0 ft/T c 8.5 ft/T c 9.0 ft/T c 10.0 ft/T c
18 (5.49) 5.0 ft/T 6.0 ft/T 7.0 ft/T 7.5 ft/T c 8.5 ft/T c 9.0 ft/T c 9.5 ft/T c 10.5 ft/T c
20 (6.10) 5.5 ft/T 6.5 ft/T 7.0 ft/T 8.0 ft/T c 8.5 ft/T c 9.5 ft/T c 10.0 ft/T c 10.5 ft/T c
Wall span, w =15 psf (718 Pa) Wall height, ft (m)
ft (m) 6 (1.83) 8 (2.44) 10 (3.05) 12 (3.66) 14 (4.27) 16 (4.88) 18 (5.49) 20 (6.10)
c
10 (3.05) 5.0 ft/T 5.5 ft/T 6.5 ft/T 7.0 ft/T 8.0 ft/T 8.5 ft/T 9.0 ft/T 9.5 ft/T c
12 (3.66) 5.0 ft/T 6.0 ft/T 7.0 ft/T 7.5 ft/T 8.5 ft/T 9.0 ft/T 9.5 ft/T c 10.5 ft/T c
14 (4.27) 5.5 ft/T 6.5 ft/T 7.5 ft/T 8.0 ft/T 9.0 ft/T 9.5 ft/T c 10.5 ft/T c 11.0 ft/T c
16 (1.88) 6.0 ft/T 7.0 ft/T 7.5 ft/T 8.5 ft/T 9.5 ft/T 10.0 ft/T c 11.0 ft/T c 11.5 ft/T c
18 (5.49) 6.0 ft/T 7.0 ft/T 8.0 ft/T 9.0 ft/T 10.0 ft/T c 10.5 ft/T c 11.5 ft/T c 11.5 ft/U c
20 (6.10) 6.5 ft/T 7.5 ft/T 8.5 ft/T 9.5 ft/T 10.0 ft/T c 11.0 ft/T c 11.5 ft/U c 12.0 ft/U c
Wall span, w = 20 psf (958 Pa) Wall height, ft (m)
ft (m) 6 (1.83) 8 (2.44) 10 (3.05) 12 (3.66) 14 (4.27) 16 (4.88) 18 (5.49) 20 (6.10)
10 (3.05) 5.5 ft/T 6.5 ft/T 7.0 ft/T 8.0 ft/T 8.5 ft/T 9.5 ft/T 10.0 ft/T 10.5 ft/T
12 (3.66) 6.0 ft/T 7.0 ft/T 7.5 ft/T 8.5 ft/T 9.5 ft/T 10.0 ft/T 11.0 ft/T 11.5 ft/T
14 (4.27) 6.0 ft/T 7.0 ft/T 8.0 ft/T 9.0 ft/T 10.0 ft/T 10.5 ft/T 11.5 ft/T 11.5 ft/U
16 (1.88) 6.5 ft/T 7.5 ft/T 8.5 ft/T 9.5 ft/T 10.5 ft/T 11.5 ft/T 11.5 ft/U 11.5 ft/X
18 (5.49) 7.0 ft/T 8.0 ft/T 9.0 ft/T 10.0 ft/T 11.0 ft/T 11.5 ft/U 12.0 ft/U 12.0 ft/X
20 (6.10) 7.0 ft/T 8.5 ft/T 9.5 ft/T 10.5 ft/T 11.5 ft/T 12.0 ft/U 12.0 ft/X 11.5 ft/Y
Wall span, w = 25 psf (1197 Pa) Wall height, ft (m)
ft (m) 6 (1.83) 8 (2.44) 10 (3.05) 12 (3.66) 14 (4.27) 16 (4.88) 18 (5.49) 20 (6.10)
10 (3.05) 6.0 ft/T 7.0 ft/T 8.0 ft/T 8.5 ft/T 9.5 ft/T 10.5 ft/T 11.0 ft/T 11.5 ft/T
12 (3.66) 6.5 ft/T 7.5 ft/T 8.5 ft/T 9.5 ft/T 10.0 ft/T 11.0 ft/T 11.5 ft/U 12.0 ft/U
14 (4.27) 6.5 ft/T 8.0 ft/T 9.0 ft/T 10.0 ft/T 11.0 ft/T 11.5 ft/U 12.0 ft/U 12.0 ft/X
16 (1.88) 7.0 ft/T 8.5 ft/T 9.5 ft/T 10.5 ft/T 11.5 ft/T 12.0 ft/U 12.0 ft/X 11.5 ft/Y
18 (5.49) 7.5 ft/T 9.0 ft/T 10.0 ft/T 11.0 ft/T 11.5 ft/U 11.5 ft/X 11.5 ft/Y 12.0 ft/Y
20 (6.10) 8.0 ft/T 9.0 ft/T 10.5 ft/T 11.5 ft/T 12.0 ft/U 12.0 ft/X 12.0 ft/Y 11.5 ft/Z
a
Pier reinforcement must be designed to resist moments and shears from the masonry piers above. Required embedment depth
was calculated using the following formula with an allowable lateral soil bearing pressure of 300 psf per foot of embedment
(47.1 kPa/m), increased by one-third for load combinations including wind or seismic.
d = A 1 + 1 + 4.36h  , where: A = 2.34P/(S b) b = diameter of foundation pier, ft (m)
2 A 1

P = applied lateral force, lb (N) d = depth of embedment, ft (m)

h = distance from the ground surface to the point of application of P (one-half the height
of the wall), ft (m)
S1 = allowable lateral soil-bearing pressure based on a depth of one-third the depth of
embedment, psf (kPa)
Vertical load capacity was based on 2000 psf (95.8 kPa) soil bearing capacity and 300 psf (14.4 kPa) skin friction between
the soil and drilled shafts.
b
If soil conditions warrant, the wall could alternatively be supported by a continuous 8 in. thick by 16 in. wide (203 by 406
mm) foundation between the drilled shaft foundations. This option precludes the need for the bond beam at the bottom
of the wall.
c
Increase the pier diameter where indicated by 6 in. (152 mm) if the drilled shaft foundations are used to fully support the wall weight.
NOTATIONS
Af = area normal to wind direction, ft2 (m2)
Cf = force coefficient (see ref. 3)
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid
of tension reinforcement, in. (mm)
Em = modulus of elasticity of masonry in compression, psi
(MPa)
Es = modulus of elasticity of steel, psi (MPa)
F = design wind load, psf (Pa) (see ref. 3)
Fa = acceleration-based site factor (at 0.3 second period)
(see ref. 3)
Fm = allowable masonry flexural compression stress, psi
(Pa)
Fp = seismic force, psf (Pa) (see ref. 3)
Fs = allowable tensile or compressive stress in
reinforcement, psi (MPa)
Fv = allowable shear stress in masonry, psi (MPa)
f’m = specified compressive strength of masonry, psi (MPa)
G = gust effect factor (see ref. 3)
H = wall height, ft (m)
I = importance factor (see ref. 3)
Ip = component importance factor (assume equal to 1.0
for sound barrier walls) (see ref. 3)
Kd = wind directionality factor (see ref. 3)
Kz = velocity pressure exposure coefficient (see ref. 3)
Kzt = hill and escarpment factor (see ref. 3)
L = wall span, ft (m)
M = maximum moment at the section under consideration,
in.-lb (N-mm)
n = ratio of elastic moduli, Es/Em
Disclaimer: Although care has been taken to ensure the enclosed information is as accurate and complete as possible, NCMA
does not assume responsibility for errors or omissions resulting from the use of this TEK.
NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION
13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171
www.ncma.org
P = applied lateral force, lb (N)
qz = velocity pressure, psf (Pa) (see ref. 3)
= 0.00256Kz KztKdv2 I
R = response modification coefficient (see ref. 3)
Rp = component response modification factor (equal to 3.0
for reinforced masonry non-building structures) (see
ref. 3)
SDS = design short period spectral acceleration = 2/3(FaSS),
where SS varies from less than 0.25 to greater than
1.25, and Fa is dependent on SS and soil conditions at
the site (see ref. 3)
SS = mapped maximum considered earthquake spectral
response acceleration at short periods (see ref. 3)
V = shear force, lb (N)
v = basic wind speed, mph (km/h) (see ref. 3)
Wp = weight of wall, psf (Pa)
w = wind or seismic load, psf (Pa)
REFERENCES
1. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures,
ACI 530-02/ASCE 5-02/TMS 402-02. Reported by the
Masonry Standards Joint Committee, 2002.
2. Concrete Masonry Highway Noise Barriers, TEK 13-3A.
National Concrete Masonry Association, 1999.
3. Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other
Structures, ASCE 7-02. American Society of Civil
Engineers, 2002.
4. Allowable Stress Design of Concrete Masonry, TEK 14-
7A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2002.
To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
 NCMA TEK
National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology

CONCRETE MASONRY FENCE DESIGN TEK 14-16B

Structural (2007)

Keywords: cantilevered wall, coping, fence, footing, STRUCTURAL DESIGN

lateral loads, reinforced masonry, seismic loads, Seismic
Design Category (SDC), serpentine fence, strength design,
wind loads
INTRODUCTION
Concrete masonry fences and garden walls are used to
fulfill a host of functions, including privacy and screening,
security and protection, ornamentation, sound insulation, shade
and wind protection.
In addition, concrete masonry provides superior durability,
design flexibility and economy. The wide range of masonry
colors and textures can be used to complement adjacent ar-
chitectural styles or blend with the natural landscape.
Because fences are subjected to outdoor exposure on both
sides, selection of appropriate materials, proper structural
design and quality workmanship are critical to maximize their
durability and performance.
Masonry fences are generally designed using one of five
methods:
(a) as cantilevered walls supported by continuous footings;
(b) as walls spanning between pilasters, that are, in turn, sup-
ported by a footing pad or caisson;
(c) as walls spanning between wall returns that are sufficient
to support the wall;
(d) as curved walls with an arc-to-chord relationship that
provides stability; or
(e) as a combination of the above methods.
This TEK covers cases (a) and (d) above, based on the
provisions of the 2003 and 2006 editions of the International
Building Code (refs. 1, 2). Although fences up to 6 ft (1,829
mm) high do not require a permit (refs. 1 and 2, Ch.1), this
TEK provides guidance on design and construction recommen-
dations. Fences designed as walls spanning between pilasters
(case b) are covered in TEK 14-15B, Allowable Stress Design
of Pier and Panel Highway Sound Barrier Walls (ref. 3). In

Optional reinforcement in bond beam or bed joint reinforcement in top joint

Concrete
masonry wall
Total Total exposed
wall height Compacted soil
height
Lap length = 15 in.
for No. 4 bar and
21 in. for No. 5 bar
Varies from 30 to 36 in. (381 mm for M#13
(762-914 mm). Verify and 533 mm for
adequacy for frost M#16)
requirements.
Minimum 3 in. (76 mm)
Reinforcement as required cover to all footing
per Table 1, 2 or 3 reinforcement
Footing - see Table 4 Dowel with standard hook at
Undisturbed soil, compacted fill or controlled all vertical reinforcements -
low-strength materal (CLSM) alternate direction of hook
Figure 1—Typical Construction Requirements for a Cantilevered Fence

TEK 14-16B © 2007 National Concrete Masonry Association (replaces TEK 14-16A)
addition, fences can be constructed by dry-stacking and surface Table 2—Cantilevered Fences Subject to
bonding conventional concrete masonry units (see ref. 4), or Lateral Loads up to 20 psf (0.95 kPa) A, B
by utilizing proprietary dry-stack fence systems.
Exposed
CANTILEVERED FENCE STRUCTURAL DESIGN height, Vertical reinforcement required:
ft (m) 6 in. (152 mm) CMU 8 in. (203 mm) CMU
Tables 1, 2 and 3 provide wall thickness and vertical rein- 4 (1.2) No. 4 at 64 in. o.c. solid grouted and
forcement requirements for cantilevered walls for three lateral (M#13 at 1,626 mm), or unreinforcedC, or
load cases: lateral load, w < 15 psf (0.71 kPa), 15 < w < 20 psf No. 5 at 104 in. o.c. No. 4 at 88 in. o.c.
(0.95 kPa), and 20 < w < 25 psf (1.19 kPa), respectively. For (M#16 at 2,642 mm) (M#13 at 2,235 mm)
each table, footnote A describes the corresponding wind and 6 (1.8) No. 4 at 32 in. o.c. No. 4 at 40 in. o.c.
seismic conditions corresponding to the lateral load, based on (M#13 at 813 mm), or (M#13 at 1,016 mm), or
Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, No. 5 at 48 in. o.c. No. 5 at 72 in. o.c.
ASCE 7 (ref. 5). (M#16 at 1,219 mm) (M#16 at 1,829 mm)
Assumptions used to develop Tables 1, 2 and 3 are: 8 (2.4) No. 4 at 16 in. o.c. No. 4 at 24 in. o.c.
1. strength design method (M#13 at 406 mm), or (M#13 at 610 mm), or
2. except as noted, designs comply with both the 2003 and No. 5 at 24 in. o.c. No. 5 bars at 40 in. o.c.
2006 International Building Code, (M#16 at 610 mm) (M#16 at 1,016 mm)
3. running bond masonry,
4. ASTM C 90 (ref. 6) concrete masonry units, A
Corresponds to total wind load for 110 mph (177 km/h)
5. specified compressive strength of masonry, f'm = 1,500 psi 3-second gust for exposure B, 90 mph (144 km/h) for
(10.3 MPa) exposure C; or Site Class D, Ss ranges:
6. ASTM C 270 (ref. 7) mortar as follows: Type N, S or M • 2.22 - 3.23 for 6-in. (152-mm) fences, and
portland cement /lime mortar or Type S or M masonry cement • 1.13 - 2.56 for 8-in. (203-mm) fences.
mortar (note that neither Type N nor masonry cement mortar B
Design values assume a return corner at each fence end
is permitted to be used in SDC D), with a length at least equal to the wall height.
7. ASTM C 476 (ref. 8) grout, C
This option is not permitted under the 2003 IBC.
8. Grade 60 reinforcing steel, reinforcement is centered in
the masonry cell,
9. depth from grade to top of footing is 18 in. for 4- and 6-ft
(457 mm for 1.2- and 1.8-m) high fences; 24 in. for 8-ft (610
mm for 2.4-m) high fences, and
Table 3—Cantilevered Fences Subject to
Lateral Loads up to 25 psf (1.19 kPa) A, B
Table 1—Cantilevered Fences Subject to
Lateral Loads up to 15 psf (0.71 kPa) A, B Exposed
height, Vertical reinforcement required:
Exposed ft (m) 6 in. (152 mm) CMU 8 in. (203 mm) CMU
height, Vertical reinforcement required: 4 (1.2) No. 4 at 48 in. o.c. solid grouted and
ft (m) 6 in. (152 mm) CMU 8 in. (203 mm) CMU (M#13 at 1,219 mm), or unreinforced, or
4 (1.2) No. 4 at 88 in. o.c. solid grouted and No. 5 at 80 in. o.c. No. 4 at 72 in. o.c.
(M#13 at 2,235 mm), or unreinforced, or (M#16 at 2,032 mm) (M#13 at 1,829 mm)
No. 5 at 120 in. o.c. No. 4 at 120 in. o.c. 6 (1.8) No. 4 at 24 in. o.c. No. 4 at 32 in. o.c.
(M#16 at 3,048 mm) (M#13 at 3,048 mm) (M#13 at 610 mm), or (M#13 at 813 mm), or
6 (1.8) No. 4 at 40 in. o.c. No. 4 at 56 in. o.c. No. 5 at 40 in. o.c. No. 5 at 56 in. o.c.
(M#13 at 1,016 mm), or (M#13 at 1,422 mm), or (M#16 at 1,016 mm) (M#16 at 1,422 mm)
No. 5 bars at 72 in. o.c. No. 5 at 96 in. o.c. 8 (2.4) No. 4 at 8 in. o.c. No. 4 at 16 in. o.c.
(M#16 at 1,829 mm) (M#16 at 2,438 mm) (M#13 at 203 mm), or (M#13 at 406 mm), or
8 (2.4) No. 4 at 24 in. o.c.C No. 4 at 32 in. o.c. No. 5 at 24 in. o.c. No. 5 bars at 32 in. o.c.
(M#13 at 610 mm), or (M#13 at 813 mm), or (M#16 at 610 mm) (M#16 at 813 mm)
No. 5 at 40 in. o.c. No. 5 bars at 48 in. o.c.
(M#16 at 1,016 mm) (M#16 at 1,219 mm) A
Corresponds to total wind load for 120 mph (193 km/h)
A
3-second gust for exposure B, 100 mph (160 km/h) for
Corresponds to total wind load for 90 mph (144 km/h) 3-
exposure C or 90 mph (144 km/h) for exposure D; or
second gust for exposure B; or Site Class D, Ss ranges:
Site Class D, Ss ranges:
• 1.16 - 2.50 for 6-in. (152-mm) fences, and
• 2.67 - 4.03 for 6-in. (152-mm) fences, and
• 0.67 - 1.92 for 8-in. (203-mm) fences.
B
• 1.49 - 3.13 for 8-in. (203-mm) fences.
Design values assume a return corner at each fence end B
Design values assume a return corner at each fence end
with a length at least equal to the wall height.
C
with a length at least equal to the wall height.
2003 IBC requires No. 4 at 16 in. o.c. (M#13 at 406 mm).
10. reinforcement requirements assume a return corner at each
fence end with a length at least equal to the exposed height.
Where fence ends do not include a return, increase the design
lateral load on the end of the fence (for a length equal to the
exposed height) by 5 psf (34.5 kPa).
FOOTINGS
For cantilevered walls, the footing holds the wall in posi-
tion and resists overturning and sliding due to lateral loads.
Dowels typically extend up from the footing into the wall to
transfer stresses and anchor the wall in place. Dowels should
be at least equal in size and spacing to the vertical fence rein-
forcement. The required length of lap is determined according
to the design procedure used and type of detail employed. For
the design conditions listed here, the No. 4 (M#13) reinforcing
bars require a minimum lap length of 15 in. (381 mm), and
the No. 5 (M#16) bars require a minimum lap length of 21
in. (533 mm). Refer to TEK 12-6, Splices, Development and
Standard Hooks for Concrete Masonry (ref. 9) for detailed
information on lap splice requirements.
Footings over 24 in. (610 mm) wide require transverse
reinforcement (see footnotes to Table 4). For all footings, the
hook should be at the bottom of the footing (3 in. (76 mm)
clearance to the subgrade) in order to develop the strength of
the bar at the top of the footing.
The footing designs listed in Table 4 conform with Building
Table 4—Footing Sizes
for Cantilevered FencesA, B
Wall
height, Footing size, in. (mm) for lateral load, w:
ft (mm) w < 15 psf 15 < w < 20 20 < w < 25
4 (1.2) 12 × 24C, F 12 × 24C, F 12 × 32C, G
(305 × 610) (305 × 610) (305 × 813)
6 (1.8) 12 × 30C, G 12 × 34D, G 12 × 38E, G
(305 × 762) (305 × 864) (305 × 965)
8 (2.4) 12 × 36D, G 12 × 42E, G 12 × 48E, H
(305 × 914) (305 × 1,067) (305 × 1,219)
A
Based on ACI 318-05 (ref. 10). Specified compressive
strength of concrete, f'c = 2,500 psi (17.2 MPa) and
2,000 psf (9.57 MPa) soil bearing minimum.
B
All footings require transverse reinforcement in the
top: No. 4 bars at 24 in. o.c. (M#13 at 610 mm).
c Footings over 24 to 32 in. (610 to 813 mm) wide re-
quire minimum transverse reinforcement in the bot-
tom: No. 4 bars at 24 in. o.c. (M#13 at 610 mm).
D
Footings 34 to 36 in. (864 to 914 mm) wide require
minimum transverse reinforcement in the bottom: No.
5 bars at 24 in. o.c. (M#16 at 610 mm).
E
Footings over 36 in. (914 mm) wide require minimum
transverse reinforcement in the bottom: No. 5 bars at
12 in. o.c. (M#16 at 305 mm).
Recommended longitudinal shrinkage reinforcement:
F
two No. 4 (M#13)
G
four No. 4 (M#13), two top and two bottom
H
six No. 4 (M#13), three top and three bottom
Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, ACI 318 (ref. 10).
Note that concrete for footings placed in soils containing high
sulfates are subject to additional requirements (refs. 1, 2).
SERPENTINE WALLS
Serpentine or “folded plate” wall designs add interesting
and pleasing shapes to enhance the landscape. The returns or
bends in these walls also provide additional lateral stability, al-
lowing the walls to be built higher than if they were straight.
Serpentine and folded plate walls are designed using
empirical design guidelines that historically have proven
successful over many years of experience. The guidelines
presented here are based on unreinforced concrete masonry for
lateral loads up to 20 psf (0.95 kPa). See Table 2, footnote A for
corresponding wind speeds and seismic design parameters.
Design guidelines are shown in Figure 2, and include:
• wall radius should not exceed twice the height,
• wall height should not exceed twice the width (or the depth
of curvature, see Figure 2),
• wall height should not exceed fifteen times the wall thick-
ness, and
• the free end(s) of the serpentine wall should have additional
support such as a pilaster or a short-radius return.
A wooden template, cut to the specified radius, is help-
ful for periodically checking the curves for smoothness and
uniformity. Refer to TEK 5-10A, Concrete Masonry Radial
Wall Details (ref. 11) for detailed information on constructing
curved walls using concrete masonry units.
CONSTRUCTION
All materials (units, mortar, grout and reinforcement)
should comply with applicable ASTM standards. Additional
material requirements are listed under the section Cantilevered
Fence Structural Design, above.
To control shrinkage cracking, it is recommended that
horizontal reinforcement be utilized and that control joints be
placed in accordance with local practice. In some cases, when
sufficient horizontal reinforcement is incorporated, control
joints may not be necessary. Horizontal reinforcement may
be either joint reinforcement or bond beams. See TEK 10-1A,
Crack Control in Concrete Masonry Walls, and TEK 10-2B,
Control Joints for Concrete Masonry Walls - Empirical Method
(refs. 12, 13) for detailed guidance.
In addition, horizontal reinforcement in the top course (or
courses if joint reinforcement is used) is recommended to help
tie the wall together. For fences, it is not structurally necessary
to provide load transfer across control joints, although this can
be accomplished by using methods described in TEK 10-2B
if deemed necessary to help maintain the fence alignment.
Copings provide protection from water penetration and can
also enhance the fence's appearance. Various materials such as
concrete brick, cast stone, brick and natural stone are suitable
copings for concrete masonry fences. Copings should project at
least 1/2 in. (13 mm) beyond the wall face on both sides to provide
a drip edge, which will help keep dripping water off the face of
the fence. In cases where aesthetics are a primary concern, the use
of integral water repellents in the masonry units and mortar can
also help minimize the potential formation of efflorescence.
 REFERENCES

3 ft (914 mm)
1. 2003 International Building Code. Interna-

width
9 ft (2.7 m)
24 x 10 in tional Code Council, 2003.
(610 x 254 mm) 2. 2006 International Building Code. Interna-
radius footing
tional Code Council, 2006.
3. Allowable Stress Design of Pier and Panel High-
Pilaster at
free end way Sound Barrier Walls, NCMA TEK 14-15B.
Short
9 ft (2.7 m)
radius at
National Concrete Masonry Association, 2004.
radius 4. Design and Construction of Dry-Stack Ma-
free end
Pitch 19 ft 103 4 in. (6.1 m) sonry Walls, TEK 14-22. National Concrete
Masonry Association, 2003.

Maximum = 15t = 4 ft 7 in. (1.4 m)

Maximum = 15t = 7 ft 1 in. (2 m)

5. Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other

Structures,ASCE 7-02 andASCE 7-05.American
Society of Civil Engineers, 2002 and 2005.
4 in. (102 mm) 6. Standard Specification for Loadbearing Concrete
6 in. (152 mm)
nominal concrete nominal concrete Masonry Units, ASTM C 90-01a and C 90-03.
block block ASTM International, Inc., 2001 and 2003.
7. Standard Specification for Mortar for Unit
Masonry, ASTM C 270-01a and C 270-04.
ASTM International, Inc., 2001 and 2004.
8. Standard Specification for Grout for Masonry,
ASTM C 476-01 and C 476-02. ASTM Inter-
national, Inc., 2001 and 2002.
9. Splices, Development and Standard Hooks
Well-compacted 6 in. (152 mm) Frost depth -
18 in. (457 mm) for Concrete Masonry, TEK 12-6. National
backfill block
minimum Concrete Masonry Association, 2007.
10. Building Code Requirements for Structural Con-
crete, ACI 318-02 and ACI 318-05. Detroit, MI:
American Concrete Institute, 2002 and 2005.
24 x 10 in. (457 x 254 mm) 11. ConcreteMasonryRadialWallDetails,TEK5-10A.
concrete footing National Concrete Masonry Association, 2006.
Figure 2—Serpentine Garden Walls 12.Crack Control in Concrete Masonry Walls,
TEK 10-1A. National Concrete Masonry As-
sociation, 2005.
13. Control Joints for Concrete Masonry Walls
- Empirical Method, TEK 10-2B. National
Concrete Masonry Association, 2005.

NCMA and the companies disseminating this technical information disclaim any and all responsibility and liability for the
accuracy and the application of the information contained in this publication.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171 contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
www.ncma.org
An information series from the national
SEISMIC DESIGN AND DETAILING
REQUIREMENTS FOR TEK 14-18B
MASONRY STRUCTURES Structural (2009)
INTRODUCTION
Historically, degree of seismic risk and the resulting design
loads have been linked to seismic zones, with higher seismic
zones associated with higher anticipated ground motion. More
recently, design codes and standards (refs. 1, 2, 3) have replaced
the use of seismic zones with Seismic Design Categories (SDCs).
While seismic zones and design categories share similar concepts,
there are also specific considerations that make each unique. The
information that follows outlines the procedure for defining a
project’s SDC, the permissible design methods that can be used
with each SDC, and the prescriptive reinforcement associated
with each SDC level.
This TEK is based on the requirements of the 2006 and
2009 editions of the International Building Code (IBC) (refs.
3a, 3b). While the applicable seismic provisions covered have
not changed significantly over the last several code cycles, de-
signers and contractors should be aware of several key revisions
that have been introduced in recent years.
SEISMIC DESIGN CATEGORIES
SDCs range from SDC A (lowest seismic risk) through
SDC F (highest seismic risk). Several factors contribute to
defining the seismic design category for a particular project,
including:
• Maximum earthquake ground motion. Ground accelera-
tion values are obtained from maps published in the IBC (ref.
3) or the ASCE 7 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and
Other Structures (ref. 2).
• Local soil profile. Soil profiles are classified as Site Class
A (hard rock) through Site Class F (organic or liquefiable soils).
When the soil properties are not know in sufficient detail to
determine the site class, Site Class D (moderately stiff soil) is
assumed.
• Use or occupancy hazard of the structure. Each structure
is assigned to one of four unique Occupancy Categories corre-
sponding to its use or hazard to life safety. Structures assigned
Related TEK: Keywords: earthquake, prescriptive reinforcement, nonloadbearing
14-4B, 14-7B, 14-8B, 14- walls, reinforced concrete masonry, seismic, seismic design category, shear
12B, 14-20A walls, unreinforced concrete masonry
NCMA TEK 14-18B 1
authority on concrete masonry technology
to Occupancy Category I include those with a very low hazard
to human life in the event of failure (including many agricultural
buildings and minor storage facilities). Structures assigned to
Occupancy Category III include those that would present a
substantial public hazard including schools, jails, and structures
with an occupancy load greater than 5,000. Structures assigned
to Occupancy Category IV are designated essential facilities
(such as hospitals and fire stations) and structures that contain
substantial quantities of hazardous materials. Structures assigned
to Occupancy Category II are those not included in any of the
other three categories.
Figures 1 and 2 define the SDC for 0.2 and 1 second spectral
response acceleration, respectively. Each figure is based on Site
Class D (the default class when the soil profile is not known) and
is applicable to structures assigned to Occupancy Categories I,
II, and III (buildings other than high hazard exposure structures).
Note that if the soil profile is known and is lower than D, a cor-
respondingly lower SDC may be realized.
Structures are assigned to the highest SDC obtained from
either Figure 1 or Figure 2. Alternatively, Section 1613.5.6.1 of
the 2006 or 2009 IBC (refs. 3a, 3b) permits the SDC to be de-
termined based solely on Figure 1 (0.2 second spectral response
acceleration) for relatively short, squat structures (common for
masonry buildings) meeting the requirements of that section. Table
1 may be used to apply Figures 1 and 2 to structures assigned to
Occupancy Category IV.
DESIGN LIMITATIONS
Based on the assigned SDC, limitations are placed on the
design methodology that is permitted to be used for the design
of the seismic force-resisting system (i.e., the masonry shear
walls).
Designers have the option of using several design methods
for masonry structures: empirical design (ref. 4); allowable
stress design (ref. 5); strength design (ref. 6); or prestressed
masonry design (ref. 7), each of which is based on the provi-
sions contained in the Masonry Standards Joint Committee
 Legend:
SDC A
SDC B
SDC C
A
A
SDC D
B
B

Figure 1—Seismic Design Categories for Site Class D, Seismic Use Group I and II,
for a 0.2-Second Spectral Response Acceleration

Legend: SDC C
SDC A SDC D
SDC B SDC E

A
A

B
B

Figure 2—Seismic Design Categories for Site Class D, Seismic Use Group I and II,
for a 1-Second Spectral Response Acceleration

2 NCMA TEK 14-18B

Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures (MSJC)
(ref. 1). There are, however, restrictions placed on the use of
both empirical design and unreinforced masonry, neither of
which considers reinforcement, if present, as contributing to
the structure's strength or ductility. Table 2 summarizes the
design procedures that may be used for each SDC.
Similarly, as the seismic risk/hazard increases, codes require
more reinforcement to be incorporated into the structure. This
reinforcement is prescriptively required as a minimum and is
not a function of any level of determined loading on the struc-
ture. That is, design loads may require a specific reinforcement
schedule to safely resist applied loads, which cannot be less than
the minimum prescriptive seismic reinforcement triggered by
the assigned SDC. For convenience, each level of prescriptive
seismic reinforcement is given a unique name as summarized
in Table 3.
The following discussion reviews in detail the seismic de-
sign requirements for loadbearing and nonloadbearing concrete
masonry assemblies as required under the 2006 and 2009 IBC,
which in turn reference the 2005 and 2008 MSJC, respectively.
While many of the seismic design and detailing requirements
between these two code editions are similar, there are unique
differences that need to be considered when using one set of
provisions over the other. The information presented covers
the seismic design and detailing requirements for all concrete
masonry construction with the exception of concrete masonry
veneers, which is addressed in TEK 3-6B, Concrete Masonry
Veneers (ref. 8).
The requirements listed below for each SDC and shear wall
type are cumulative. That is, masonry assemblies in structures
assigned to SDC B must meet the requirements for SDC A as
well as those for SDC B. Buildings assigned to SDC C must
meet the requirements for Categories A, B and C, and so on.
Table 1—SDC for Structures Assigned to
Occupancy Category IV
SDC based on Revised SDC for
Figures 1 and 2 Occupancy Category IV
A A
B C
C D
D D
E F
2006 IBC SEISMIC DESIGN AND DETAILING
REQUIREMENTS
The seismic design and detailing provisions for masonry
are invoked through Section 2106 of the IBC (ref. 3a), which in
turn references the 2005 MSJC (ref. 1a). The IBC provisions
detail a series of modifications and additions to the seismic
requirements contained in the MSJC, which include:
• IBC Section 2106.1 requires all masonry walls, regardless of
SDC, not designed as part of the seismic force-resisting system
(partition and nonloadbearing walls, eg.) to be structurally
isolated, so that in-plane loads are not inadvertently imparted
to them. The MSJC, conversely, requires isolation of such ele-
ments only for SDC C and higher.
• IBC Section 2106.1.1 outlines minimum prescriptive de-
tailing requirements for three prestressed masonry shear wall
types: ordinary plain, intermediate, and special prestressed
masonry shear walls. While the MSJC contains general design
requirements for prestressed masonry systems, it does not
contain prescriptive seismic requirements applicable to this
design approach.
• Anchorage requirements are addressed by Section 2106.2
of the IBC. Although analogous requirements are included in
MSJC Section 1.14.3.3, the MSJC requirements are based on
antiquated design loads that are no longer compatible with those
of the IBC.
• For structures assigned to SDC C and higher that include
columns, pilasters and beams, and that are part of the seismic
force-resisting system and support discontinuous masonry walls,
IBC Section 2106.4.1 requires these elements to have a mini-
mum transverse reinforcement ratio of 0.0015, with a maximum
transverse reinforcement spacing of one-fourth the least nominal
dimension for columns and pilasters and one-half the nominal
depth for beams.
• For structures assigned to SDC D and higher, IBC Section
2106.5 includes modifications that are an indirect means of
attempting to increase the flexural ductility of elements that
are part of the seismic force-resisting system. For elements
designed by allowable stress design provisions (MSJC Chapter
2), in-plane shear and diagonal tension stresses are required to
be increased by 50 percent. For elements designed by strength
design provisions (MSJC Chapter 3) that are controlled by
flexural limit states, the nominal shear strength at the base of
a masonry shear wall is limited to the strength provided by the
horizontal shear reinforcement in accordance with Eqn. 1.
Vn = An ρn fy Eqn. 1

Table 2—Permitted Design Procedures for Elements Participating in the Lateral

Force-Resisting System

Empirical Allowable stress design Strength design Prestressed

SDC design Unreinforced Reinforced Unreinforced Reinforced
A X X X X X X
B X X X X X
C X X X
D X X X
E X X X
F X X X

NCMA TEK 14-18B 3

 Due to a shear capacity check in MSJC Section 3.1.3 that requires
the nominal shear strength of a shear wall to equal or exceed the
shear corresponding to the development of approximately 156%
of the nominal flexural strength, Equation 1 controls except in
cases where the nominal shear strength equals or exceeds 250%
of the required shear strength. For such cases, the nominal shear
strength is determined as a combination of the shear strength
provided by the masonry and the shear reinforcement.
2005 MSJC Seismic Design and Detailing
Requirements
The majority of the prescriptive seismic design and de-
tailing requirements for masonry assemblies are invoked by
reference to Section 1.14 of the 2005 MSJC. The following
summarizes these requirements as they apply to concrete
masonry construction.
Masonry Shear Wall Types
In addition to the prestressed masonry shear walls outlined
by the IBC, the MSJC includes detailing requirements for six
different shear wall options. A summary of these shear wall
types follows. Table 3 summarizes the SDCs where each shear
wall type may be used.
Empirically Designed Masonry Shear Walls—Masonry shear
walls designed by the empirical design method (MSJC Chapter
5). Empirically designed masonry shear walls do not account
for the contribution of reinforcement (if present) in determining
the strength of the system.
Ordinary Plain (Unreinforced) Masonry Shear Walls—Ordi-
nary plain masonry shear walls are designed as unreinforced
elements, and as such rely entirely on the masonry to carry
and distribute the anticipated loads. These shear walls do not
require any prescriptive reinforcement. As such, they are
limited to SDCs A and B.
Detailed Plain (Unreinforced) Masonry Shear Walls—Detailed
plain masonry shear walls are also designed as unreinforced ele-
ments, however some prescriptive reinforcement is mandated by
the MSJC to help ensure a minimum level of inelastic deformation
capacity and energy dissipation in the event of an earthquake.
As the anticipated seismic risk increases (which corresponds to
higher SDCs), the amount of prescriptive reinforcement also
increases. The minimum prescriptive reinforcement for detailed
plain masonry shear walls is shown in Figure 3.
Ordinary Reinforced Masonry Shear Walls—Ordinary reinforced
masonry shear walls, which are designed using reinforced masonry
procedures, rely on the reinforcement to carry and distribute
anticipated tensile stresses, and on the masonry to carry compres-
sive stresses. Although such walls contain some reinforcement,
the MSJC also mandates prescriptive reinforcement to ensure a
minimum level of performance during a design level earthquake.
The reinforcement required by design may also serve as the pre-
scriptive reinforcement. The minimum prescriptive vertical and
horizontal reinforcement requirements are identical to those for
detailed plain masonry shear walls (see Figure 3).
Intermediate Reinforced Masonry Shear Walls—Intermediate
reinforced masonry shear walls are designed using reinforced
masonry design procedures. Intermediate reinforced shear wall
reinforcement requirements differ from those for ordinary rein-
forced in that the maximum spacing of vertical reinforcement
is reduced from 120 in. (3,048 mm) to 48 in. (1,219 mm) (see
Figure 4).
Special Reinforced Masonry Shear Walls—Prescriptive re-
inforcement for special reinforced masonry shear walls must
comply with the requirements for intermediate reinforced
masonry shear walls and the following (see also Figure 5):
• The sum of the cross-sectional area of horizontal and vertical
reinforcement must be at least 0.002 times the gross cross-
sectional wall area.
• The cross-sectional reinforcement area in each direction must
be at least 0.0007 times the gross cross-sectional wall area.
• The vertical and horizontal reinforcement must be uniformly
distributed.
• The minimum cross-sectional area of vertical reinforcement
must be one-third of the required horizontal reinforcement.
• All horizontal reinforcement must be anchored around the
vertical reinforcement with a standard hook.
The following additional requirements pertain to stack bond
masonry shear walls assigned to SDC D, E or F. These walls
must be constructed using fully grouted open-end units, fully
grouted hollow units laid with full head joints, or solid units.
The maximum reinforcement spacing for stack bond masonry
shear walls assigned to SDC D is 24 in. (610 mm). For those
assigned to SDC E or F, the cross-sectional area of horizontal
reinforcement must be at least 0.0025 times the gross cross-
sectional area of the masonry, and it must be spaced at 16 in.
(406 mm) o.c., maximum.
Prescriptive Seismic Detailing for Nonloadbear-
ing Elements
When incorporated into structures assigned to SDC C,
D, E or F, masonry partition walls and other nonloadbearing
masonry elements (i.e., those not designed to resist loads other
than those induced by their own mass) must be isolated from
the lateral force-resisting system. This helps ensure that forces

Table 3—Permitted Shear Wall Types for Seismic Design Categories

Ordinary Detailed Ordinary Intermediate Special

SDC Empirical unreinforcedA unreinforced reinforced reinforcedA reinforcedA
A X X X X X X
B X X X X X
C X X X
D X
E X
F X
A
Includes prestressed masonry assemblies meeting the same prescriptive reinforcement requirements as conventional masonry con-
struction.

4 NCMA TEK 14-18B

are not inadvertently transferred from the structural to the
nonstructural system. Nonstructural elements, such as parti-
tion walls, assigned to SDC C and above must be reinforced
in either the horizontal or vertical direction (see Figure 6).
2009 IBC SEISMIC DESIGN AND DETAILING
REQUIREMENTS
Unlike the 2006 IBC, the 2009 edition, which references
the 2008 MSJC, contains no modifications to the seismic
design and detailing provisions of the referenced standard. A
summary of the substantive differences between the seismic
design and detailing provisions of the 2005 and 2008 editions
of the MSJC follows.
2008 MSJC Seismic Design and Detailing
Requirements
The 2008 MSJC includes a comprehensive reorganization
of the seismic design and detailing requirements intended to
clarify the scope and intent of these provisions. In addition to
the reorganization, several substantive changes applicable to
concrete masonry construction have been incorporated, and
these are detailed below. The prescriptive seismic detailing
requirements for masonry shear walls remains substantially the
same as under the 2005 MSJC and 2006 IBC.
Participating versus Nonparticipating Members—Elements of
a masonry structure must now be explicitly classified either as
participating in the seismic force-resisting system (for example,
shear walls) or as nonparticipating members (for example, non-
loadbearing partition walls). Elements designated as shear walls
must satisfy the requirements for one of the designated shear
wall types. Nonparticipating members must be appropriately
isolated to prevent their inadvertent structural participation.
This provision is similar in intent to the 2006 IBC requirement
to isolate partition walls in SDC A and higher.
Connections—In previous editions of the MSJC, a minimum
unfactored (service level) connection design force of 200 lb/
ft (2,919 N/m) was prescribed for all masonry shear wall as-
semblies except ordinary plain (unreinforced) masonry shear
walls. In the 2008 MSJC, this minimum design load has been
removed and replaced with a reference to the minimum loads
prescribed by the adopted model building code. When the
adopted model building code does not prescribe such loads,
the requirements of ASCE 7 are to be used, which require a
factored design force (strength level) of 280 lb/ft (4,087 N/m).
Story Drift—Due to the inherent stiffness of masonry structures,
designers are no longer required to check the displacement of
one story relative to adjacent stories for most masonry systems,
simplifying the design process. Shear wall systems that are
not exempted from checks for story drift include prestressed
masonry shear walls and special reinforced masonry shear walls.
Stack Bond Prescriptive Detailing—Special reinforced masonry
shear walls constructed of masonry laid in stack bond must now
have a minimum area of horizontal reinforcement of 0.0015 times
the gross cross-sectional wall area. This is an increase from the
0.0007 required in such walls in structures assigned to SDC D,
and is a decrease from the 0.0025 required in such walls in struc-
tures assigned to SDC E and F by earlier editions of the MSJC.
NCMA TEK 14-18B 5
Shear Capacity Check—In the 2005 MSJC, all masonry
elements (both reinforced and unreinforced) designed by the
strength design method were required to have a design shear
strength exceeding the shear corresponding to the development
of 125 percent of the nominal flexural strength, but need not
be greater than 2.5 times the required shear strength. Because
this provision is related primarily to the seismic performance of
masonry structures, the 2008 MSJC requires it only for special
reinforced masonry shear walls. Similarly, when designing
special reinforced masonry shear walls by the allowable stress
design method, the shear and diagonal tension stresses resulting
from in-plane seismic forces are required to be increased by
a factor of 1.5. Each of these checks is intended to increase
flexural ductility while decreasing the potential for brittle
shear failure.
Stiffness Distribution—In Chapter 1 of the 2008 MSJC,
prescriptive seismic detailing requirements for masonry
shear walls are related to an implicit level of inelastic ductile
capacity. Because these detailing provisions apply primarily
to shear walls, which in turn provide the principal lateral force-
resistance mechanism for earthquake loads, the 2008 MSJC
requires that the seismic lateral force-resisting system consist
mainly of shear wall elements. At each story, and along each
line of lateral resistance within a story, at least 80 percent of
the lateral stiffness is required to be provided by shear walls.
This requirement is intended to ensure that other elements, such
as masonry piers and columns, do not contribute a significant
amount of lateral stiffness to the system, which might in turn
inadvertently change the seismic load distribution from that
assumed in design. The 2008 MSJC does permit, however, the
unlimited use of non-shear wall elements such as piers and
columns provided that design seismic loads are determined
using a seismic response modification factor, R, of 1.5 or less,
consistent with the assumption of essentially elastic response to
the design earthquake. In previous editions of the MSJC, these
requirements were imposed only for masonry designed by the
strength design method. In the 2008 MSJC, this requirement
applies to all structures assigned to SDC C or higher.
Support of Discontinuous Elements—New to the 2008 MSJC,
which was previously found in the 2006 IBC provisions, are
the prescriptive detailing requirements for masonry columns,
pilasters, and beams supporting discontinuous stiff elements
that are part of the seismic force-resisting system. Such ele-
ments can impose actions from gravity loads, and also from
seismic overturning, and therefore require that the columns,
pilasters and beams supporting them have stricter prescriptive
reinforcement requirements. These requirements apply only
to structures assigned to SDC C and higher.
System Response Factors for Prestressed Masonry—In deter-
mining seismic base shear and story drift for structures whose
seismic lateral force-resisting system consists of prestressed
masonry shear walls, the value of the response modification
coefficient, R, and of the deflection amplification factor, Cd,
are required to be taken equal to those used for ordinary plain
(unreinforced) masonry shear walls. The requirement previ-
ously existed as a recommendation in the MSJC Code Com-
mentary. These values, as they apply to all types of masonry
shear walls, are summarized in Table 4.
 Continue horizontal reinforcement
through control joint as
8 in. (203 mm) 16 in. (406 mm)
required at diaphragms
maximum maximum

Reinforcement
within 16 in. (406 mm)
of openings larger
120 in. than 16 in. (406 mm)
(3,048 mm)
maximum*
Control
24 in. (610 mm) joint
or 40db

Minimum
No. 4 (M #13)
prescriptive 8 in.
16 in. reinforcement
(406 mm) (203 mm)
maximum maximum
120 in. (3,048 mm)
maximum

*In lieu of bond beams with No. 4 bars (M #13) at 120 in. (3,048 mm) on center, provide two wires of wire size W1.7
(MW 11) joint reinforcement at 16 in. (406 mm) on center.

Figure 3—Prescriptive Seismic Detailing for Detailed Plain (Unreinforced) Masonry

Shear Walls and for Ordinary Reinforced Masonry Shear Walls

Reinforcement
Continue horizontal reinforcement
within 16 in. (406 mm)
8 in. (203 mm) through control joint as required
16 in. (406 mm) of openings larger
maximum at diaphragms
maximum than 16 in. (406 mm)

48 in.
120 in. (1,219 mm)
(3,048 mm) maximum
maximum*
Control
24 in. joint
(610 mm)
or 40db

Minimum
No. 4
16 in. (M #13) 8 in.
prescriptive (203 mm)
(406 mm)
maximum reinforcement maximum

*In lieu of bond beams with No. 4 bars (M #13) at 120 in. (3,048 mm) on center, provide two wires of wire size W1.7
(MW 11) joint reinforcement at 16 in. (406 mm) on center.
Figure 4—Prescriptive Seismic Detailing for Intermediate Reinforced Masonry Shear Walls

6 NCMA TEK 14-18B

 Reinforcement
within 16 in. (406 mm) Maximum13 height Minimum
of openings larger No. 4 (M #13)
3 length, or 48 in.
1
than 16 in. (406 mm) (1,219 mm) prescriptive
8 in. (203 mm) 16 in. (406 mm) reinforcement
maximum maximum

16 in.
(406 mm)
maximum

16 in.
(406 mm)
maximum

Figure 5—Prescriptive Seismic Detailing for Special Reinforced Masonry Shear Walls

Isolation Isolation
joint joint
16 in. (406 mm)
16 in. (406 mm)
maximum maximum
**Joint reinforcement alternative
to bond beams: For walls thicker
48 in. (1,219 mm)
48 in. (1,219 mm) than 4 in. (102 mm), two longitudi-
maximum* maximum* nal W1.7 (MW 11) wires minimum.
For walls 4 in. (102 mm) thick or
Bond
As anbeams As one
with
alternative an
to alternative
No. 4beams,
bond to bond less,
(M#13) only one W1.7 (MW 11) wire
beams,
bed joint reinforcement
bed joint reinforcement
minimum** may be is required.
may be The maximum joint
incorporated atincorporated
a maximumatspacing
a maximum reinforcement
spacing spacing is 16 in.
of 16 in. (406 of
mm)16 in. (406 mm) (406 mm) for either case.
16 in. (406 mm)
16 in. (406 mm)
maximum maximum
Isolationjoint Isolation
Isolation 48 in. 48 in.
joint
joint Reinforcement Option (1,219 mm) (1,219 mm)
Horizontal 16 in. (406 mm)
16 in. (406 mm)
maximum maximum
maximum maximum
*Note:
*Note: For stack bondForconstruction
stack bond construction
of masonry
of masonry partition wallspartition
in walls in
Seismic DesignSeismic Design
Category E orCategory
F, E or F,
the maximumthe maximum
spacing spacing of horizontal
of horizontal
reinforcementreinforcement is 24 inches (610
is 24 inches (610 Isolation Isolation
mm). The
mm). The horizontal horizontal cross-sectional
cross-sectional joint joint
area of reinforcement
area of reinforcement is required to isIsolation
required to Isolation
be at times
be at least 0.0015 least 0.0015
the grosstimesjoint
the gross joint No. 4 (M#13), minimum (typ.)
cross-sectional
cross-sectional area of the masonry.
area of the masonry.
Stack bond
Stack bond partition wallspartition
are alsowalls are also
required to berequired to beofconstructed
constructed solidly of solidly
grouted hollowgrouted
open-endhollow open-end
units or units or
two wythes oftwo wythes
solid units.of solid units.
Vertical Reinforcement Option
Figure 6—Reinforcement Options for Nonloadbearing Elements in SDC C and Higher

NCMA TEK 14-18B 7

 Table 4—Seismic Design Coefficients and Factors for Masonry Bearing Wall Systems

Response modification Systems overstrength Deflection amplification

Shear wall type: coefficient, R factor, W0 factor, Cd
Empirical Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable
Ordinary plain (unreinforced) 1.5 2.5 1.25
Detailed plain (unreinforced) 2 2.5 1.75
Ordinary reinforced 2 2.5 1.75
Intermediate reinforced 3.5 2.5 2.25
Special reinforced 5 2.5 3.5
Prestressed 1.5 2.5 1.75

REFERENCES

1. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, Reported by the Masonry Standards Joint Committee.
a. 2005 Edition: ACI 530-05/ASCE 5-05/TMS 402-05
b. 2008 Edition: TMS 402-08/ACI 530-08/ASCE 5-08
2. Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE 7-05. American Society of Civil Engineers, 2005.
3. International Building Code. International Code Council.
a. 2006 Edition
b. 2009 Edition
4. Empirical Design of Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 14-8B. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2008.
5. Allowable Stress Design of Concrete Masonry, TEK 14-7B. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2009.
6. Strength Design of Concrete Masonry, TEK 14-4B. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2008.
7. Post-Tensioned Concrete Masonry Wall Design, TEK 14-20A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2002.
8. Concrete Masonry Veneers, TEK 3-6B. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2005.

NCMA and the companies disseminating this technical information disclaim any and all responsibility and liability for the accuracy
and the application of the information contained in this publication.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION

13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171
www.ncma.org

To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index, contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900

8 NCMA TEK 14-18B


National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology
ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN TABLES FOR
REINFORCED CONCRETE MASONRY WALLS
Keywords: allowable stress design, design examples,
flexural strength, lateral loads, reinforced concrete ma-
sonry
INTRODUCTION
The combination of concrete masonry and steel rein-
forcement provides a strong structural system capable of
resisting large compressive and flexural loads. Reinforced
masonry structures have significantly higher flexural strength
and ductility than similarly configured unreinforced struc-
tures and provide greater reliability in terms of expected load
carrying capacity at failure.
Two methods of designing reinforced concrete masonry
structures are commonly used:
• allowable stress design, based on service level loads and propor-
tioning members using conservative allowable stresses.
• strength design, based on a realistic evaluation of member
strength subjected to factored loads which have a low prob-
ability of being exceeded during the life of the structure.
Capacities of reinforced concrete masonry determined
by the allowable stress design method are included herein.
Capacities of reinforced concrete masonry determined by the
strength design method are included in Strength Design of
Concrete Masonry Walls for Axial Load and Flexure, TEK
14-11B (ref.3).
ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN
The wall capacities of Table 3 are determined in accor-
dance with the requirements for allowable stress design of
reinforced concrete masonry contained in Chapter 2 of Build-
ing Code Requirements for Masonry Structures (ref. 2). A
more detailed discussion of the allowable stress design method,
as well as provisions governing materials and construction
for reinforced concrete masonry, are contained in Allowable
Stress Design of Reinforced Concrete Masonry, TEK 14-
7A (ref. 1).
TEK 14-19A © 2005 National Concrete Masonry Association (replaces TEK 14-19)
NCMA TEK
TEK 14-19A
Structural (2005)
LOAD TABLES
Tables 1 and 2 list the maximum bending moments and
shears, respectively, imposed on walls simply supported at
top and bottom subjected to uniform lateral loads with no
applied axial loads.
WALL CAPACITY TABLES
Table 3 contains the maximum bending moments and
shear loads that can be sustained by various reinforced walls,
without exceeding the allowable stresses defined in Building
Code Requirements for Masonry Structures (ref. 2). These
wall strengths can be compared to the loads in Tables 1 and
2 to ensure the wall under consideration is not loaded beyond
its design capacity.
The values in Table 3 are based on the following criteria:
• Allowable stresses:
Fb = 1/3 f'm
Fv = f ' m , 50 psi (0.35 MPa) maximum
Fs = 24,000 psi (165 MPa)
• f'm = 1500 psi (10.3 MPa)
• Em = 900f'm or 1,350,000 psi (9,310 MPa)
• Es = 29,000,000 psi (200,000 MPa)
• Type M or S mortar
• running bond or bond beams at 48 in or less o.c.
• reinforcement spacing does not exceed the wall height
• walls are grouted only at cores containing reinforcement
• where indicated, allowable stresses are increased by 1/3, as
prescribed in Building Code Requirements for Masonry
Structures (ref. 2), section 2.1.2.3, for load combina-
tions including wind or seismic loads
• due to space limitations, metric equivalents are not
provided in Table 3 except for reinforcement bar sizes.
Metric equivalents can be obtained by applying the
following conversion factors:
in x 25.4 = mm
in2/ft x 2117 = mm2/m
lb-in/ft x 0.0003707 = kN-m/m
lb/ft x 0.01459 = kN/m
 Table 1—Required Moment Strength of Walls for Uniform Lateral Loads

Required resisting moment, M, lb-in/ft (kN-m/m)(a)

Wall ht., Uniform lateral load, psf (kPa)
ft (m) 5 (0.24) 15 (0.72) 20 (0.96) 25 (1.20) 30 (1.44) 35 (1.68) 45 (2.15)
8 (2.4) 480 (0.18) 1,440 (0.53) 1,920 (0.71) 2,400 (0.89) 2,880 (1.07) 3,360 (1.25) 4,320 (1.60)
12 (3.7) 1,080 (0.40) 3,240 (1.20) 4,320 (1.60) 5,400 (2.00) 6,480 (2.40) 7,560 (2.80) 9,720 (3.60)
16 (4.9) 1,920 (0.71) 5,760 (2.14) 7,680 (2.85) 9,600 (3.56) 11,500 (4.27) 13,400 (4.98) 17,300 (6.41)
20 (6.1) 3,000 (1.11) 9,000 (3.34) 12,000 (4.45) 15,000 (5.56) 18,000 (6.67) 21,000 (7.78) 27,000 (10.0)
24 (7.3) 4,320 (1.60) 13,000 (4.80) 17,300 (6.41) 21,600 (8.01) 25,900 (9.61) 30,200 (11.2) 38,900 (14.4)
28 (8.5) 5,880 (2.18) 17,600 (6.54) 23,500 (8.72) 29,400 (10.9) 35,300 (13.1) 41,200 (15.3) 52,900 (19.6)
32 (9.8) 7,680 (2.85) 23,000 (8.54) 30,700 (11.4) 38,400 (14.2) 46,100 (17.1) 53,800 (19.9) 69,100 (25.6)
36 (11.0) 9,720 (3.60) 29,200 (10.81) 38,900 (14.4) 48,600 (18.0) 58,300 (21.6) 68,000 (25.2) 87,500 (32.4)
40 (12.2) 12,000(4.45) 36,000 (13.34) 48,000 (17.8) 60,000 (22.2) 72,000 (26.7) 84,000 (31.1) 108,000(40.0)

(a)
Based on walls simply supported at top and bottom, no axial load.

Table 2—Required Shear Strength of Walls for Uniform Lateral Loads

Required resisting shear, V, lb/ft (kN/m)(a)

Wall ht., Uniform lateral load, psf (kPa)
ft (m) 5 (0.24) 15 (0.72) 20 (0.96) 25 (1.20) 30 (1.44) 35 (1.68) 45 (2.15)
8 (2.4) 20 (0.29) 60 (0.88) 80 (1.17) 100 (1.46) 120 (1.75) 140 (2.04) 180 (2.63)
12 (3.7) 30 (0.44) 90 (1.31) 120 (1.75) 150 (2.19) 180 (2.63) 210 (3.07) 270 (3.94)
16 (4.9) 40 (0.58) 120 (1.75) 160 (2.34) 200 (2.92) 240 (3.50) 280 (4.09) 360 (5.25)
20 (6.1) 50 (0.73) 150 (2.19) 200 (2.92) 250 (3.65) 300 (4.38) 350 (5.11) 450 (6.57)
24 (7.3) 60 (0.88) 180 (2.63) 240 (3.50) 300 (4.38) 360 (5.25) 420 (6.13) 540 (7.88)
28 (8.5) 70 (1.02) 210 (3.07) 280 (4.09) 350 (5.11) 420 (6.13) 490 (7.15) 630 (9.19)
32 (9.8) 80 (1.17) 240 (3.50) 320 (4.67) 400 (5.84) 480 (7.01) 560 (8.17) 720 (10.5)
36 (11.0) 90 (1.31) 270 (3.94) 360 (5.25) 450 (6.57) 540 (7.88) 630 (9.19) 810 (11.8)
40 (12.2) 100 (1.46) 300 (4.38) 400 (5.84) 500 (7.30) 600 (8.76) 700 (10.2) 900 (13.1)

(a)
Based on walls simply supported at top and bottom, no axial load.

DESIGN EXAMPLE ment - one next to each faceshell. Alternatively no. 6 bars at
24 in (19M at 610mm) or no. 8 at 40 in (25M at 1016 mm)
A warehouse wall will span 34 ft (10.4 m) between the floor could have been used in the center of the wall.
slab and roof diaphragm. The walls will be 12 in. (305 mm)
thick. What is the required reinforcing steel to support a wind NOTATION
load of 20 psf (0.96 kPa)?
As = net area of steel per foot of wall length, in.2/ft (mm2/m)
From interpolation of Tables 1 and 2, respectively, the wall b = effective width of compression zone, in. (mm)
must be able to resist: d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of
M = 34,800 lb-in/ft (12.9 kN-m/m) tension reinforcement, in. (mm)
V = 340 lb/ft (4.96 kN/m) Em = modulus of elasticity of masonry, psi (MPa)
Es = modulus of elasticity of steel, psi (MPa)
Fb = allowable compressive stress due to flexure, psi (MPa)
Assuming d = 8.625 in. (219 mm), from Table 3 (for load
Fs = allowable tensile stress in reinforcement, psi (MPa)
combinations including wind or seismic) no. 7 bars at 48 in.
Fv = allowable shear stress in masonry, psi (MPa)
(1219 mm) on center provides sufficient strength: f'm = specified compressive strength of masonry, psi (MPa)
Mr = 38,512 lb-in/ft (14.3 kN-m/m) > M OK M = applied moment, in.-lb/ft (kN.m/m)
Vr = 5345 lb/ft (77.9 kN/m) >V OK Mr = resisting moment of wall, in.-lb/ft (kN.m/m)
Note: Since wind loads can act in either direction, two bars V = applied shear, lb/ft (kN/m)
must be provided in each cell when using off center reinforce- Vr = resisting shear of wall, lb/ft (kN/m)
 Table 3—Allowable Stress Design Capacities of 8 in. Concrete Masonry Walls

3.813 in.

Nominal wall thickness = 8 in. Effective depth, d = 3.813 in.

Not including wind Including Not including wind Including

75/8 in.
or seismic wind or seismic or seismic wind or seismic
Bar Bar
Bar Size 2 Mr Vr Mr Vr Bar Size 2 Mr Vr Mr Vr
Spacing A s in /ft Spacing A s in /ft
no. lb-in/ft lb/ft lb-in/ft lb/ft no. lb-in/ft lb/ft lb-in/ft lb/ft
in in
8 (25M) 8 1.19 21,860 1,772 29,146 2,363 7 (22M) 48 0.15 12,171 1,772 16,227 2,363
7 (22M) 8 0.90 20,647 1,772 27,529 2,363 6 (19M) 40 0.13 10,888 1,772 14,518 2,363
6 (19M) 8 0.66 19,201 1,772 25,602 2,363 6 (19M) 48 0.11 9,146 1,772 12,195 2,363
8 (25M) 16 0.59 18,055 1,772 24,073 2,363 4 (13M) 24 0.10 8,348 1,772 11,130 2,363
5 (16M) 8 0.47 17,511 1,772 23,348 2,363 5 (16M) 40 0.09 7,786 1,772 10,381 2,363
7 (22M) 16 0.45 16,963 1,772 22,617 2,363 5 (16M) 48 0.08 6,534 1,772 8,712 2,363
8 (25M) 24 0.40 16,306 1,772 21,741 2,363 6 (19M) 72 0.07 6,097 1,181 8,130 1,575
6 (19M) 16 0.33 15,660 1,772 20,880 2,363 4 (13M) 40 0.06 5,104 1,772 6,805 2,363
e g
4 (13M) 8 0.30 15,381 1,772 20,507 2,363 6 (19M) 96 0.06 4573 886 6097 1,181
7 (22M) 24 0.30 15,196 1,772 20,262 2,363 5 (16M) 72 0.05 4,356 1,181 5,808 1,575
8 (25M) 40 0.24 14,181 1,772 18,908 2,363 4 (13M) 48 0.05 4,278 1,772 5,705 2,363
c d
5 (16M) 16 0.23 14,127 1,772 18,836 2,363 6 (19M) 120 0.04 3658 709 4878 945
e g
6 (19M) 24 0.22 13,871 1,772 18,494 2,363 5 (16M) 96 0.04 3267 886 4356 1,181
8 (25M) 48 0.20 13,392 1,772 17,856 2,363 4 (13M) 72 0.03 2,852 1,181 3,803 1,575
c d
7 (22M) 40 0.18 12,982 1,772 17,309 2,363 5 (16M) 120 0.03 2614 709 3485 945
5 (16M) 24 0.16 12,315 1,772 16,420 2,363 4 (13M) 96 0.03 2,139 886 2,852 1,181
4 (13M) 16 0.15 12,171 1,772 16,227 2,363 4 (13M) 120 0.02 1,711 709 2,282 945

4.625 in.

Nominal wall thickness = 8 in. Effective depth, d = 4.625 in.

Not including wind Including Not including wind Including

75/8 in.
or seismic wind or seismic or seismic wind or seismic
Bar Bar
Bar Size Mr Vr Mr Vr Bar Size Mr Vr Mr Vr
Spacing A s in2 /ft Spacing A s in2/ft
no. lb-in/ft lb/ft lb-in/ft lb/ft no. lb-in/ft lb/ft lb-in/ft lb/ft
in in
8 (25M) 8 1.19 30,928 2,150 41,237 2,866 4 (13M) 16 0.15 15,058 2,150 20,077 2,866
7 (22M) 8 0.90 29,071 2,150 38,762 2,866 6 (19M) 40 0.13 13,321 2,150 17,761 2,866
8 (25M) 8 0.66 26,892 2,150 35,856 2,866 6 (19M) 48 0.11 11,183 2,150 14,911 2,866
8 (25M) 16 0.59 24,724 2,150 32,966 2,866 4 (13M) 24 0.10 10,204 2,150 13,605 2,866
5 (16M) 8 0.47 24,384 2,150 32,512 2,866 5 (16M) 40 0.09 9,515 2,150 12,687 2,866
7 (22M) 16 0.45 23,202 2,150 30,935 2,866 5 (16M) 48 0.08 7,981 2,150 10,641 2,866
8 (25M) 24 0.40 22,140 2,150 29,520 2,866 6 (19M) 72 0.07 7,455 1,433 9,940 1,911
6 (19M) 16 0.33 21,408 2,150 28,544 2,866 4 (13M) 40 0.06 6,230 2,150 8,307 2,866
4 (13M) 8 0.30 21,276 2,150 28,369 2,866 6 (19M) 96 0.06 5592e 1,075 7455g 1,433
7 (22M) 24 0.30 20,669 2,150 27,558 2,866 5 (16M) 72 0.05 5,321 1,433 7,094 1,911
5 (16M) 16 0.23 19,321 2,150 25,761 2,866 4 (13M) 48 0.05 5,220 2,150 6,960 2,866
8 (25M) 40 0.24 19,273 2,150 25,697 2,866 6 (19M) 120 0.04 4473a,c 860 5964b,e 1,146
6 (19M) 24 0.22 18,921 2,150 25,228 2,866 5 (16M) 96 0.04 3990e 1,075 5321g 1,433
8 (25M) 48 0.20 18,251 2,150 24,335 2,866 4 (13M) 72 0.03 3,480 1,433 4,640 1,911
7 (22M) 40 0.18 17,730 2,150 23,640 2,866 5 (16M) 120 0.03 3192c 860 4256e 1,146
5 (16M) 24 0.16 15,542 2,150 20,722 2,866 4 (13M) 96 0.03 2610e 1,075 3480g 1,433
7 (22M) 48 0.15 15,061 2,150 20,081 2,866 4 (13M) 120 0.02 2,088 860 2,784 1,146
 Table 3—Allowable Stress Design Capacities of Concrete Masonry Walls (continued)

4.813 in.

Nominal wall thickness = 10 in. Effective depth, d = 4.813 in.

95/8 in. Not including wind Including Not including wind Including
or seismic wind or seismic or seismic wind or seismic
Bar Bar
Bar Size Mr Vr Mr Vr Bar Size Mr Vr Mr Vr
Spacing A s in2 /ft Spacing A s in2 /ft
no. lb-in/ft lb/ft lb-in/ft lb/ft no. lb-in/ft lb/ft lb-in/ft lb/ft
in in
9 (29M) 8 1.49 34,782 2,237 46,375 2,982 7 (22M) 48 0.15 15,691 2,237 20,922 2,982
8 (25M) 8 1.19 33,203 2,237 44,270 2,982 6 (19M) 40 0.13 13,884 2,237 18,511 2,982
7 (22M) 8 0.90 31,178 2,237 41,571 2,982 6 (19M) 48 0.11 11,654 2,237 15,539 2,982
6 (19M) 8 0.66 28,810 2,237 38,413 2,982 4 (13M) 24 0.10 10,633 2,237 14,178 2,982
9 (29M) 16 0.74 28,106 2,237 37,475 2,982 5 (16M) 40 0.09 9,915 2,237 13,221 2,982
8 (25M) 16 0.59 26,777 2,237 35,702 2,982 5 (16M) 48 0.08 8,316 2,237 11,088 2,982
5 (16M) 8 0.47 26,093 2,237 34,790 2,982 6 (19M) 72 0.07 7,834 1,864 10,446 2,485
9 (29M) 24 0.50 25,297 2,237 33,730 2,982 4 (13M) 40 0.06 6,491 2,237 8,654 2,982
g
8 (25M) 24 0.40 23,997 2,237 31,996 2,982 6 (19M) 96 0.06 5876 1,398 7,834 1,864
4 (13M) 8 0.30 22,737 2,237 30,317 2,982 5 (16M) 72 0.05 5,584 1,864 7,445 2,485
7 (22M) 24 0.30 22,323 2,237 29,764 2,982 4 (13M) 48 0.05 5,438 2,237 7,250 2,982
e
9 (29M) 48 0.25 21,042 2,237 28,056 2,982 6 (19M) 120 0.04 4700 1,118 6,267 1,491
g
8 (25M) 40 0.24 20,784 2,237 27,712 2,982 5 (16M) 96 0.04 4188 1,398 5,584 1,864
6 (19M) 24 0.22 20,340 2,237 27,120 2,982 4 (13M) 72 0.03 3,647 1,864 4,863 2,485
8 (25M) 48 0.20 19,617 2,237 26,156 2,982 5 (16M) 120 0.03 3,350 1,118 4,467 1,491
7 (22M) 40 0.18 18,686 2,237 24,915 2,982 4 (13M) 96 0.03 2,735 1,398 3,647 1,864
5 (16M) 24 0.16 16,191 2,237 21,588 2,982 4 (13M) 120 0.02 2,188 1,118 2,918 1,491

6.625 in.

Nominal wall thickness = 10 in. Effective depth, d = 6.625 in.

Not including wind Including Not including wind Including

95/8 in.
or seismic wind or seismic or seismic wind or seismic
Bar Bar
Bar Size Mr Vr Mr Vr Bar Size Mr Vr Mr Vr
Spacing A s in2/ft Spacing A s in2 /ft
no. lb-in/ft lb/ft lb-in/ft lb/ft no. lb-in/ft lb/ft lb-in/ft lb/ft
in in
9 (29M) 8 1.49 61,632 3,079 82,176 4,105 7 (22M) 48 0.15 21,945 3,079 29,260 4,105
8 (25M) 8 1.19 58,450 3,079 77,933 4,105 6 (19M) 40 0.13 19,376 3,079 25,835 4,105
7 (22M) 8 0.90 54,459 3,079 72,612 4,105 6 (19M) 48 0.11 16,234 3,079 21,645 4,105
6 (19M) 8 0.66 49,897 3,079 66,530 4,105 4 (13M) 24 0.10 14,803 3,079 19,737 4,105
9 (29M) 16 0.74 46,932 3,079 62,577 4,105 5 (16M) 40 0.09 13,799 3,079 18,399 4,105
5 (16M) 8 0.47 44,788 3,079 59,718 4,105 5 (16M) 48 0.08 11,564 3,079 15,418 4,105
8 (25M) 16 0.59 44,595 3,079 59,460 4,105 6 (19M) 72 0.07 10,900 2,566 14,533 3,421
9 (29M) 24 0.50 41,384 3,079 55,179 4,105 4 (13M) 40 0.06 9,017 3,079 12,022 4,105
8 (25M) 24 0.40 39,292 3,079 52,390 4,105 6 (19M) 96 0.06 8175g 1,924 10,900 2,566
4 (13M) 8 0.30 38,637 3,079 51,517 4,105 5 (16M) 72 0.05 7,758 2,566 10,343 3,421
7 (22M) 24 0.30 36,639 3,079 48,852 4,105 4 (13M) 48 0.05 7,549 3,079 10,065 4,105
b,g b,f
9 (29M) 48 0.25 34,295 3,079 45,727 4,105 6 (19M) 120 0.04 6540 1,540 8720 2,053
g
8 (25M) 40 0.24 33,984 3,079 45,312 4,105 5 (16M) 96 0.04 5818 1,924 7,758 2,566
6 (19M) 24 0.22 31,815 3,079 42,421 4,105 4 (13M) 72 0.03 5,059 2,566 6,745 3,421
e f
8 (25M) 48 0.20 28,701 3,079 38,269 4,105 5 (16M) 120 0.03 4655 1,540 6206 2,053
g
7 (22M) 40 0.18 26,208 3,079 34,944 4,105 4 (13M) 96 0.03 3794 1,924 5,059 2,566
5 (16M) 24 0.16 22,641 3,079 30,188 4,105 4 (13M) 120 0.02 3,035 1,540 4,047 2,053
 Table 3—Allowable Stress Design Capacities of Concrete Masonry Walls (continued)
5.813 in.

Nominal wall thickness = 12 in. Effective depth, d = 5.813 in.

115/8 in. Not including wind Including Not including wind Including
or seismic wind or seismic or seismic wind or seismic
Bar Bar
Bar Size Mr Vr Mr Vr Bar Size Mr Vr Mr Vr
Spacing A s in2 /ft Spacing A s in2 /ft
no. lb-in/ft lb/ft lb-in/ft lb/ft no. lb-in/ft lb/ft lb-in/ft lb/ft
in in
9 (29M) 8 1.49 48,819 2,701 65,092 3,602 7 (22M) 48 0.15 19,103 2,701 25,471 3,602
8 (25M) 8 1.19 46,422 2,701 61,897 3,602 6 (19M) 40 0.13 16,896 2,701 22,528 3,602
7 (22M) 8 0.90 43,390 2,701 57,853 3,602 6 (19M) 48 0.11 14,176 2,701 18,901 3,602
6 (19M) 8 0.66 39,891 2,701 53,189 3,602 4 (13M) 24 0.10 12,930 2,701 17,240 3,602
9 (29M) 16 0.74 38,714 2,701 51,619 3,602 5 (16M) 40 0.09 12,055 2,701 16,073 3,602
8 (25M) 16 0.59 36,789 2,701 49,052 3,602 5 (16M) 48 0.08 10,105 2,701 13,474 3,602
5 (16M) 8 0.47 35,935 2,701 47,914 3,602 6 (19M) 72 0.07 9,578 2,701 12,771 3,602
9 (29M) 24 0.50 34,604 2,701 46,138 3,602 4 (13M) 40 0.06 7,883 2,701 10,510 3,602
8 (25M) 24 0.40 32,771 2,701 43,694 3,602 6 (19M) 96 0.06 7,184 2,026 9,578 2,701
4 (13M) 8 0.30 31,125 2,701 41,500 3,602 5 (16M) 72 0.05 6,815 2,701 9,087 3,602
7 (22M) 24 0.30 30,428 2,701 40,571 3,602 4 (13M) 48 0.05 6,601 2,701 8,802 3,602
f
9 (29M) 48 0.25 28,622 2,701 38,163 3,602 6 (19M) 120 0.04 5747 1,621 7,663 2,161
8 (25M) 40 0.24 28,272 2,701 37,696 3,602 5 (16M) 96 0.04 5,112 2,026 6,815 2,701
6 (19M) 24 0.22 27,626 2,701 36,835 3,602 4 (13M) 72 0.03 4,443 2,701 5,924 3,602
8 (25M) 48 0.20 24,906 2,701 33,207 3,602 5 (16M) 120 0.03 4,089 1,621 5,452 2,161
7 (22M) 40 0.18 22,769 2,701 30,359 3,602 4 (13M) 96 0.03 3,332 2,026 4,443 2,701
5 (16M) 24 0.16 19,714 2,701 26,286 3,602 4 (13M) 120 0.02 2,666 1,621 3,555 2,161

8.625 in.

Nominal wall thickness = 12 in. Effective depth, d = 8.625 in.

Not including wind Including Not including wind Including

115/8 in.
or seismic wind or seismic or seismic wind or seismic
Bar Bar
Bar Size Mr Vr Mr Vr Bar Size Mr Vr Mr Vr
Spacing A s in2 /ft Spacing A s in2 /ft
no. lb-in/ft lb/ft lb-in/ft lb/ft no. lb-in/ft lb/ft lb-in/ft lb/ft
in in
9 (29M) 8 1.49 98,140 4,009 130,853 5,345 7 (22M) 48 0.15 28,884 4,009 38,512 5,345
8 (25M) 8 1.19 92,583 4,009 123,444 5,345 6 (19M) 40 0.13 25,484 4,009 33,979 5,345
7 (22M) 8 0.90 85,727 4,009 114,303 5,345 6 (19M) 48 0.11 21,328 4,009 28,437 5,345
6 (19M) 8 0.66 78,030 4,009 104,040 5,345 4 (13M) 24 0.10 19,434 4,009 25,912 5,345
9 (29M) 16 0.74 72,397 4,009 96,529 5,345 5 (16M) 40 0.09 18,109 4,009 24,145 5,345
5 (16M) 8 0.47 69,562 4,009 92,750 5,345 5 (16M) 48 0.08 15,166 4,009 20,221 5,345
8 (25M) 16 0.59 68,555 4,009 91,407 5,345 6 (19M) 72 0.07 14,371 4,009 19,161 5,345
9 (29M) 24 0.50 62,992 4,009 83,989 5,345 4 (13M) 40 0.06 11,816 4,009 15,755 5,345
8 (25M) 24 0.40 59,697 4,009 79,596 5,345 6 (19M) 96 0.06 10,778 3,006 14,371 4,009
4 (13M) 8 0.30 55,971 4,009 74,628 5,345 5 (16M) 72 0.05 10,210 4,009 13,613 5,345
7 (22M) 24 0.30 55,575 4,009 74,100 5,345 4 (13M) 48 0.05 9,887 4,009 13,183 5,345
f
9 (29M) 48 0.25 47,187 4,009 62,917 5,345 6 (19M) 120 0.04 8622 2,405 11,497 3,207
8 (25M) 40 0.24 45,192 4,009 60,255 5,345 5 (16M) 96 0.04 7,657 3,006 10,210 4,009
6 (19M) 24 0.22 41,921 4,009 55,895 5,345 4 (13M) 72 0.03 6,645 4,009 8,860 5,345
f
8 (25M) 48 0.20 37,822 4,009 50,429 5,345 5 (16M) 120 0.03 6126 2,405 8,168 3,207
7 (22M) 40 0.18 34,521 4,009 46,028 5,345 4 (13M) 96 0.03 4,984 3,006 6,645 4,009
5 (16M) 24 0.16 29,794 4,009 39,726 5,345 4 (13M) 120 0.02 3,987 2,405 5,316 3,207
 Table 3—Allowable Stress Design Capacities of Concrete Masonry Walls (continued)

Notes:
For reinforcement spacings exceeding six times the wall thickness, the loads must be distributed to the reinforced
sections by action parallel to the bed joints (horizontally).
Where indicated by the following superscripts, the plain masonry capacity parallel to the bed joints of both
portland cement/lime and mortar cement mortars are exceeded and shall not be used for loadings exceeding the
following without further special analysis:
a. 25 psf
b. 35 psf
Where indicatedby the following superscripts, the plain masonry capacity parallel to the bed joints of masonry
cement mortars are exceeded and shall not be used for loadings exceeding the following without further special
analysis:
c. 15 psf
d. 20 psf
e. 25 psf
f. 30 psf
g. 35 psf

REFERENCES
1. Allowable Stress Design of Reinforced Concrete Masonry, TEK 14-7A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2004.
2. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, ACI 530-05/ASCE 5-05/TMS 402-05. Reported by the Masonry
Standards Joint Committee, 2005.
3. Strength Design of Concrete Masonry Walls for Axial Load & Flexure, TEK 14-11A. National Concrete Masonry
Association, 2003.

NCMA and the companies disseminating this technical information disclaim any and all responsibility and liability for the
accuracy and the application of the information contained in this publication.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171 contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
www.ncma.org
An information series from the national
ASD TABLES FOR REINFORCED CONCRETE
MASONRY WALLS BASED ON TEK 14-19B
THE 2012 IBC & 2011 MSJC Structural (2011
INTRODUCTION
The combination of concrete masonry and steel reinforce-
ment provides a strong structural system capable of resisting
large compressive and flexural loads. Reinforced masonry
structures have significantly higher flexural strength and duc-
tility than similarly configured unreinforced structures and
provide greater reliability in terms of expected load carrying
capacity at failure.
Concrete masonry elements can be designed using several
methods in accordance with the International Building Code
(IBC, ref. 1) and, by reference, Building Code Requirements
for Masonry Structures (MSJC Code, ref. 2): allowable stress
design, strength design, direct design, empirical design, or
prestressed masonry. The design tables in this TEK are based
on allowable stress design provisions.
The content presented in this edition of TEK 14-19B is
based on the requirements of the 2012 IBC (ref. 1a), which in
turn references the 2011 edition of the MSJC Code (ref. 2a).
For designs based on the 2006 or 2009 IBC (refs. 1b, 1c), which
reference the 2005 and 2008 MSJC (refs. 2b, 3c), respectively,
the reader is referred to TEK 14-19A (ref. 3).
Significant changes were made to the allowable stress
design (ASD) method between the 2009 and 2012 editions of
the IBC. These are described in detail in TEK 14-7C, Allowable
Stress Design of Concrete Masonry Based on the 2012 IBC &
2011 MSJC (ref. 4), along with a detailed presentation of all
of the allowable stress design provisions of the 2012 IBC.
LOAD TABLES
Tables 1 and 2 list the maximum bending moments and
shears, respectively, imposed on walls simply supported at the
top and bottom and subjected to uniform lateral loads with no
applied axial loads.
Related TEK: Keywords: allowable stress design, design examples, flexural strength,
14-7C, 14-19A lateral loads, reinforced concrete masonry
NCMA TEK 14-19B 1
authority on concrete masonry technology
WALL CAPACITY TABLES
Tables 3, 4, 5 and 6 contain the maximum bending mo-
ments and shear loads that can be sustained by 8-, 10-, 12-,
and 16-in. (203-, 254-, 305-, 406 mm) walls, respectively,
without exceeding the allowable stresses defined in the 2012
IBC and 2011 MSJC (refs. 1a, 2a). These wall strengths can
be compared to the loads in Tables 1 and 2 to ensure the wall
under consideration has sufficient design capacity to resist the
applied load.
The values in Tables 3 through 6 are based on the follow-
ing criteria:
• Maximum allowable stresses:
Fb = 0.45 f'm
Fv = 2 f 'm
Fs = 32,000 psi (220.7 MPa) (Grade 60)
• f'm = 1500 psi (10.3 MPa)
• Em = 900f'm or 1,350,000 psi (9,310 MPa)
• Es = 29,000,000 psi (200,000 MPa)
• Type M or S mortar
• running bond or bond beams at 48 in. (1,219 mm) max o.c.
• reinforcement spacing does not exceed the wall height
• only cores containing reinforcement are grouted.
Reinforcing Steel Location
Two sets of tables are presented for each wall thickness.
Tables 3a, 4a, 5a and 6a list resisting moment and resisting
shear values for walls with the reinforcing steel located in the
center of the wall. Centered reinforcing bars are effective for
providing tensile resistance for walls which may be loaded
from either side, such as an above grade exterior wall which
is likely to experience both wind pressure and suction.
 Table 1—Required Moment Strength for Walls Subjected to Uniform Lateral Loads
Required resisting moment, M, lb-in/ft (kN-m/m)A
Wall ht., Uniform lateral load, psf (kPa)
ft (m) 5 (0.24) 15 (0.72) 20 (0.96) 25 (1.20) 30 (1.44) 35 (1.68) 45 (2.15)
8 (2.4) 480 (0.18) 1,440 (0.53) 1,920 (0.71) 2,400 (0.89) 2,880 (1.07) 3,360 (1.25) 4,320 (1.60)
12 (3.7) 1,080 (0.40) 3,240 (1.20) 4,320 (1.60) 5,400 (2.00) 6,480 (2.40) 7,560 (2.80) 9,720 (3.60)
16 (4.9) 1,920 (0.71) 5,760 (2.14) 7,680 (2.85) 9,600 (3.56) 11,500 (4.27) 13,400 (4.98) 17,300 (6.41)
20 (6.1) 3,000 (1.11) 9,000 (3.34) 12,000 (4.45) 15,000 (5.56) 18,000 (6.67) 21,000 (7.78) 27,000 (10.0)
24 (7.3) 4,320 (1.60) 13,000 (4.80) 17,300 (6.41) 21,600 (8.01) 25,900 (9.61) 30,200 (11.2) 38,900 (14.4)
28 (8.5) 5,880 (2.18) 17,600 (6.54) 23,500 (8.72) 29,400 (10.9) 35,300 (13.1) 41,200 (15.3) 52,900 (19.6)
32 (9.8) 7,680 (2.85) 23,000 (8.54) 30,700 (11.4) 38,400 (14.2) 46,100 (17.1) 53,800 (19.9) 69,100 (25.6)
36 (11.0) 9,720 (3.60) 29,200 (10.81) 38,900 (14.4) 48,600 (18.0) 58,300 (21.6) 68,000 (25.2) 87,500 (32.4)
40 (12.2) 12,000 (4.45) 36,000 (13.34) 48,000 (17.8) 60,000 (22.2) 72,000 (26.7) 84,000 (31.1) 108,000 (40.0)

A
Based on walls simply supported at top and bottom, no axial load.

Table 2—Required Shear Strength for Walls Subjected to Uniform Lateral Loads
Required resisting shear, V, lb/ft (kN/m)A
Wall ht., Uniform lateral load, psf (kPa)
ft (m) 5 (0.24) 15 (0.72) 20 (0.96) 25 (1.20) 30 (1.44) 35 (1.68) 45 (2.15)
8 (2.4) 20 (0.29) 60 (0.88) 80 (1.17) 100 (1.46) 120 (1.75) 140 (2.04) 180 (2.63)
12 (3.7) 30 (0.44) 90 (1.31) 120 (1.75) 150 (2.19) 180 (2.63) 210 (3.07) 270 (3.94)
16 (4.9) 40 (0.58) 120 (1.75) 160 (2.34) 200 (2.92) 240 (3.50) 280 (4.09) 360 (5.25)
20 (6.1) 50 (0.73) 150 (2.19) 200 (2.92) 250 (3.65) 300 (4.38) 350 (5.11) 450 (6.57)
24 (7.3) 60 (0.88) 180 (2.63) 240 (3.50) 300 (4.38) 360 (5.25) 420 (6.13) 540 (7.88)
28 (8.5) 70 (1.02) 210 (3.07) 280 (4.09) 350 (5.11) 420 (6.13) 490 (7.15) 630 (9.19)
32 (9.8) 80 (1.17) 240 (3.50) 320 (4.67) 400 (5.84) 480 (7.01) 560 (8.17) 720 (10.5)
36 (11.0) 90 (1.31) 270 (3.94) 360 (5.25) 450 (6.57) 540 (7.88) 630 (9.19) 810 (11.8)
40 (12.2) 100 (1.46) 300 (4.38) 400 (5.84) 500 (7.30) 600 (8.76) 700 (10.2) 900 (13.1)

A
Based on walls simply supported at top and bottom, no axial load.

Tables 3b, 4b, 5b and 6b list resisting moment and resist-
ing shear values for walls with the reinforcing steel offset
from the center. Placing the reinforcement farther from the
compression face of the masonry provides a larger effective
depth of reinforcement, d, and correspondingly larger capaci-
ties. A single layer of off-center reinforcement can be used in
situations where the wall is loaded from one side only, such
as a basement wall with the reinforcement located towards the
interior. For walls where loads can be in both directions (i.e.
pressure or suction), two layers of reinforcement are used:
one towards the wall exterior and one towards the interior to
provide increased capacity under both loading conditions. In
Tables 3b, 4b, 5b and 6b, the effective depth of reinforcement,
d, is a practical value which takes into account construction
tolerances and the reinforcing bar diameter.
Figure 1 illustrates the two steel location cases.
floor slab and roof diaphragm. The walls will be constructed
using 12 in. (305 mm) concrete masonry units. What is the
required reinforcing steel size and spacing to support a wind
load of 20 psf (0.96 kPa)?
From interpolation of Tables 1 and 2, respectively, the wall
must be able to resist:
M = 34,800 lb-in./ft (12.9 kN-m/m)
V = 340 lb/ft (4.96 kN/m)
Assuming the use of offset reinforcement, from Table 5b, No. 6
bars at 40 in. on center (M#19 at 1,016 mm) or No. 7 bars at 48
in. (M#22 at 1,219 mm) on center provides sufficient strength:
for No. 6 bars at 40 in. o.c. (M#19 at 1,016 mm):
Mr = 35,686 lb-in./ft (13.3 kN-m/m) > M OK
Vr = 2,299 lb/ft (33.5 kN/m) > V OK

DESIGN EXAMPLE for No. 7 bars at 48 in. (M#22 at 1,219 mm) :

A warehouse wall will span 34 ft (10.4 m) between the

2 NCMA TEK 14-19B

 Reinforcement located in the center of the wall
(see Tables 3a, 4a, 5a and 6a)

Reinforcement located towards the tension side of the

wall (see Tables 3b, 4b, 5b and 6b)

Figure 1—Reinforcing Steel Locations

Mr = 40,192 lb-in./ft (14.9 kN-m/m) > M OK d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of
Vr = 2,133 lb/ft (31.1 kN/m) > V OK
As discussed above, since wind loads can act in either
direction, two bars must be provided in each cell when using
off-center reinforcement—one close to each faceshell.
Alternatively, No. 6 bars at 24 in (M#19 at 610 mm) or
No. 8 at 40 in (M#25 at 1,016 mm) could have been used in
the center of the wall.
NOTATION
As = area of nonprestressed longitudinal reinforcement, in.2
(mm2)
b = effective compressive width per bar, in. (mm)
tension reinforcement, in. (mm)
Em = modulus of elasticity of masonry in compression, psi
(MPa)
Es = modulus of elasticity of steel, psi (MPa)
Fb = allowable compressive stress available to resist flexure
only, psi (MPa)
Fs = allowable tensile or compressive stress in reinforcement,
psi (MPa)
Fv = allowable shear stress, psi (MPa)
f'm = specified compressive strength of masonry, psi (MPa)
M = maximum calculated bending moment at section under
consideration, in.-lb, (N-mm)
Mr = flexural strength (resisting moment), in.-lb (N-mm)
V = shear force, lb (N)
Vr = shear capacity (resisting shear) of masonry, lb (N)

NCMA TEK 14-19B 3

 Table 3—Allowable Stress Design Capacities for 8-in. (203-mm) WallsA

3a: 8-in. (203 mm) wall with reinforcement centered in the wall
Bar Bar
Bar size spacing, A s, Mr , Bar size spacing, A s, Mr ,
No. in. in 2 /ft d, in. lb-in/ft V r , lb/ft No. in. in2/ft d, in. lb-in/ft V r , lb/ft
8 8 1.178 29,511 3,987 7 48 0.150 16,400 1,771
7 8 0.902 27,873 3,987 6 40 0.133 14,518 1,864
6 8 0.663 25,922 3,987 6 48 0.110 12,195 1,771
8 16 0.589 24,374 2,699 4 24 0.098 11,130 2,235
5 8 0.460 23,640 3,987 5 40 0.092 10,381 1,864
7 16 0.451 22,900 2,699 5 48 0.077 8,712 1,771
8 24 0.393 22,013 2,235 6 72 0.074 8,130 1,181
6 16 0.331 21,141 2,699 4 40 0.059 6,805 1,864
4 8 0.295 3.813 20,946 3,987 6 96 0.055 3.813 6,097 886
7 24 0.301 20,370 2,235 5 72 0.051 5,808 1,181
8 40 0.236 19,144 1,864 4 48 0.049 5,705 1,771
5 16 0.230 19,071 2,699 6 120 0.044 4,878 708
6 24 0.221 18,726 2,235 5 96 0.038 4,356 886
8 48 0.196 18,079 1,771 4 72 0.033 3,803 1,181
7 40 0.180 17,526 1,864 5 120 0.031 3,485 708
5 24 0.153 16,625 2,235 4 96 0.025 2,852 886
4 16 0.147 16,400 2,699 4 120 0.020 2,282 708

3b: 8-in. (203 mm) wall with offset reinforcement

Bar Bar
Bar size spacing, A s, Mr , Bar size spacing, A s, Mr ,
No. in. in 2 /ft d, in. lb-in/ft V r , lb/ft No. in. in2/ft d, in. lb-in/ft V r , lb/ft
8 8 1.178 4.875 45,867 3,987 4 16 0.147 5.125 24,462 2,699
7 8 0.902 4.938 44,032 3,987 6 40 0.133 5.000 20,666 1,864
6 8 0.663 5.000 41,552 3,987 6 48 0.110 5.000 17,426 1,771
5 8 0.460 5.063 38,393 3,987 4 24 0.098 5.125 16,706 2,235
8 16 0.589 4.875 36,327 2,699 5 40 0.092 5.063 15,201 1,864
7 16 0.451 4.938 34,776 2,699 5 48 0.077 5.063 12,750 1,771
4 8 0.295 5.125 34,091 3,987 6 72 0.074 5.000 11,617 1,181
6 16 0.331 5.000 32,726 2,699 4 40 0.059 5.125 10,200 1,864
8 24 0.393 4.875 32,439 2,235 6 96 0.055 5.000 8,713 886
7 24 0.301 4.938 30,902 2,235 4 48 0.049 5.125 8,546 1,771
5 16 0.230 5.063 30,126 2,699 5 72 0.051 5.063 8,500 1,181
6 24 0.221 5.000 28,877 2,235 6 120 0.044 5.000 6,970 708
8 40 0.236 4.875 28,232 1,864 5 96 0.038 5.063 6,375 886
8 48 0.196 4.875 26,754 1,771 4 72 0.033 5.125 5,698 1,181
7 40 0.180 4.938 25,663 1,864 5 120 0.031 5.063 5,100 708
5 24 0.153 5.063 22,792 2,235 4 96 0.025 5.125 4,273 886
7 48 0.150 4.938 21,514 1,771 4 120 0.020 5.125 3,419 708

A
Metric equivalents can be obtained by applying the following conversion factors:
in. x 25.4 = mm lb-in./ft x 0.0003707 = kN-m/m
in.2/ft x 2,117 = mm2/m lb/ft x 0.01459 = kN/m
B
For reinforcement spacings exceeding six times the wall thickness (the effective compressive width of masonry b for
each reinforcing bar), prudent engineering practice dictates that the masonry between these sections be designed to
span this horizontal distance.

4 NCMA TEK 14-19B

 Table 4—Allowable Stress Design Capacities for 10-in. (254-mm) WallsA

4a: 10-in. (254 mm) wall with reinforcement centered in the wall
Bar Bar
Bar size spacing, A s, Mr , Bar size spacing, A s, Mr ,
No. in. in 2 /ft d, in. lb-in/ft V r , lb/ft No. in. in2/ft d, in. lb-in/ft V r , lb/ft
9 8 1.491 47,047 5,032 7 48 0.150 20,940 1,952
8 8 1.178 44,823 5,032 6 40 0.133 18,514 2,081
7 8 0.902 42,091 5,032 6 48 0.110 15,539 1,952
6 8 0.663 38,893 5,032 4 24 0.098 14,178 2,597
9 16 0.746 37,375 3,243 5 40 0.092 13,221 2,081
8 16 0.589 35,582 3,243 5 48 0.077 11,088 1,952
5 8 0.460 35,225 5,032 6 72 0.074 10,446 1,519
9 24 0.497 33,500 2,597 4 40 0.059 8,654 2,081
8 24 0.393 4.813 31,796 2,597 6 96 0.055 4.813 7,834 1,140
4 8 0.295 30,696 5,032 5 72 0.051 7,445 1,519
7 24 0.301 29,692 2,597 4 48 0.049 7,250 1,952
9 48 0.249 28,044 1,952 6 120 0.044 6,267 912
8 40 0.236 27,675 2,081 5 96 0.038 5,584 1,140
6 24 0.221 27,196 2,597 4 72 0.033 4,863 1,519
8 48 0.196 26,221 1,952 5 120 0.031 4,467 912
7 40 0.180 24,972 2,081 4 96 0.025 3,647 1,140
5 24 0.153 21,608 2,597 4 120 0.020 2,918 912

4b: 10-in. (254 mm) wall with offset reinforcement

Bar Bar
Bar size spacing, A s, Mr , Bar size spacing, A s, Mr ,
No. in. in 2 /ft d, in. lb-in/ft V r , lb/ft No. in. in2/ft d, in. lb-in/ft V r , lb/ft
9 8 1.500 6.811 87,591 5,032 7 48 0.150 6.938 30,805 1,952
8 8 1.178 6.875 84,202 5,032 6 40 0.133 7.000 27,432 2,081
7 8 0.902 6.938 79,618 5,032 6 48 0.110 7.000 22,957 1,952
6 8 0.663 7.000 73,983 5,032 4 24 0.098 7.125 21,299 2,597
5 8 0.460 7.063 67,305 5,032 5 40 0.092 7.063 19,666 2,081
9 16 0.750 6.811 65,094 3,243 5 48 0.077 7.063 16,467 1,952
8 16 0.589 6.875 62,660 3,243 6 72 0.074 7.000 15,387 1,519
4 8 0.295 7.125 58,797 5,032 4 40 0.059 7.125 12,954 2,081
9 24 0.333 6.811 56,846 2,597 6 96 0.055 7.000 11,540 1,140
8 24 0.393 6.875 54,713 2,597 5 72 0.051 7.063 11,045 1,519
7 24 0.301 6.938 51,859 2,597 4 48 0.049 7.125 10,844 1,952
8 40 0.236 6.875 47,272 2,081 6 120 0.044 7.000 9,232 912
9 48 0.250 6.811 47,039 1,952 5 96 0.038 7.063 8,284 1,140
6 24 0.221 7.000 45,081 2,597 4 72 0.033 7.125 7,265 1,519
8 48 0.196 6.875 39,950 1,952 5 120 0.031 7.063 6,627 912
7 40 0.180 6.938 36,810 2,081 4 96 0.025 7.125 5,449 1,140
5 24 0.153 7.063 32,356 2,597 4 120 0.020 7.125 4,359 912

A
Metric equivalents can be obtained by applying the following conversion factors:
in. x 25.4 = mm lb-in./ft x 0.0003707 = kN-m/m
in.2/ft x 2,117 = mm2/m lb/ft x 0.01459 = kN/m
B
For reinforcement spacings exceeding six times the wall thickness (the effective compressive width of masonry b for
each reinforcing bar), prudent engineering practice dictates that the masonry between these sections be designed to
span this horizontal distance.

NCMA TEK 14-19B 5

 Table 5—Allowable Stress Design Capacities for 12-in. (305-mm) WallsA

5a: 12-in. (305 mm) wall with reinforcement centered in the wall
Bar Bar
Bar size spacing, A s, Mr , Bar size spacing, A s, Mr ,
No. in. in 2 /ft d, in. lb-in/ft V r , lb/ft No. in. in2/ft d, in. lb-in/ft V r , lb/ft
9 8 1.491 66,047 6,078 7 48 0.150 25,559 2,133
8 8 1.178 62,670 6,078 6 40 0.133 22,567 2,299
7 8 0.902 58,576 6,078 6 48 0.110 18,908 2,133
6 8 0.663 53,853 6,078 4 24 0.098 17,241 2,960
9 16 0.746 50,600 3,786 5 40 0.092 16,073 2,299
5 8 0.460 48,513 6,078 5 48 0.077 13,474 2,133
8 16 0.589 48,085 3,786 6 72 0.074 12,771 1,858
9 24 0.497 44,751 2,960 4 40 0.059 10,510 2,299
8 24 0.393 5.813 42,484 2,960 6 96 0.055 5.813 9,578 1,393
4 8 0.295 42,019 6,078 5 72 0.051 9,087 1,858
7 24 0.301 39,714 2,960 4 48 0.049 8,802 2,133
9 48 0.249 37,292 2,133 6 120 0.044 7,663 1,115
8 40 0.236 36,885 2,299 5 96 0.038 6,815 1,393
6 24 0.221 36,459 2,960 4 72 0.033 5,924 1,858
8 48 0.196 33,425 2,133 5 120 0.031 5,452 1,115
7 40 0.180 30,521 2,299 4 96 0.025 4,443 1,393
5 24 0.153 26,364 2,960 4 120 0.020 3,555 1,115

5b: 12-in. (305 mm) wall with offset reinforcement

Bar Bar
Bar size spacing, A s, Mr , Bar size spacing, A s, Mr ,
No. in. in 2 /ft d, in. lb-in/ft V r , lb/ft No. in. in2/ft d, in. lb-in/ft V r , lb/ft
9 8 1.500 8.811 137,877 6,078 7 48 0.150 8.938 40,192 2,133
8 8 1.178 8.875 131,323 6,078 6 40 0.133 9.000 35,686 2,299
7 8 0.902 8.938 122,983 6,078 6 48 0.110 9.000 29,839 2,133
6 8 0.663 9.000 113,163 6,078 4 24 0.098 9.125 27,535 2,960
5 8 0.460 9.063 101,938 6,078 5 40 0.092 9.063 25,477 2,299
9 16 0.750 8.811 97,676 3,786 5 48 0.077 9.063 21,301 2,133
8 16 0.589 8.875 93,382 3,786 6 72 0.074 9.000 20,034 1,858
9 24 0.333 8.811 83,402 2,960 4 40 0.059 9.125 16,691 2,299
8 24 0.393 8.875 79,903 2,960 6 96 0.055 9.000 15,026 1,393
4 8 0.295 9.125 79,154 6,078 5 72 0.051 9.063 14,319 1,858
7 24 0.301 8.938 75,450 2,960 4 48 0.049 9.125 13,964 2,133
9 48 0.250 8.811 65,395 2,133 6 120 0.044 9.000 12,021 1,115
8 40 0.236 8.875 62,450 2,299 5 96 0.038 9.063 10,739 1,393
6 24 0.221 9.000 58,672 2,960 4 72 0.033 9.125 9,383 1,858
8 48 0.196 8.875 52,286 2,133 5 120 0.031 9.063 8,591 1,115
7 40 0.180 8.938 48,042 2,299 4 96 0.025 9.125 7,037 1,393
5 24 0.153 9.063 41,992 2,960 4 120 0.020 9.125 5,630 1,115

A
Metric equivalents can be obtained by applying the following conversion factors:
in. x 25.4 = mm lb-in./ft x 0.0003707 = kN-m/m
in.2/ft x 2,117 = mm2/m lb/ft x 0.01459 = kN/m
B
For reinforcement spacings exceeding six times the wall thickness (the effective compressive width of masonry b for
each reinforcing bar), prudent engineering practice dictates that the masonry between these sections be designed to
span this horizontal distance.

6 NCMA TEK 14-19B

 Table 6—Allowable Stress Design Capacities for 16-in. (406-mm) WallsA

6a: 16-in. (406 mm) wall with reinforcement centered in the wal6
Bar Bar
Bar size spacing, A s, Mr , Bar size spacing, A s, Mr ,
No. in. in 2 /ft d, in. lb-in/ft V r , lb/ft No. in. in2/ft d, in. lb-in/ft V r , lb/ft
9 8 1.491 111,627 8,170 7 48 0.150 34,905 2,496
8 8 1.178 105,260 8,170 6 40 0.133 30,779 2,733
7 8 0.902 97,689 8,170 6 48 0.110 25,746 2,496
6 8 0.663 89,134 8,170 4 24 0.098 23,437 3,684
9 16 0.746 80,840 4,872 5 40 0.092 21,839 2,733
5 8 0.460 79,661 8,170 5 48 0.077 18,273 2,496
8 16 0.589 76,548 4,872 6 72 0.074 17,314 2,099
9 24 0.497 69,772 3,684 4 40 0.059 14,237 2,733
4 8 0.295 7.813 67,291 8,170 6 96 0.055 7.813 12,985 1,575
8 24 0.393 66,184 3,684 5 72 0.051 12,303 2,099
7 24 0.301 61,882 3,684 4 48 0.049 11,915 2,496
9 48 0.249 57,254 2,496 6 120 0.044 10,388 1,260
8 40 0.236 54,618 2,733 5 96 0.038 9,227 1,575
6 24 0.221 50,598 3,684 4 72 0.033 8,011 2,099
8 48 0.196 45,727 2,496 5 120 0.031 7,382 1,260
7 40 0.180 41,718 2,733 4 96 0.025 6,008 1,575
5 24 0.153 35,965 3,684 4 120 0.020 4,806 1,260

6b: 16-in. (406 mm) wall with offset reinforcement

Bar Bar
Bar size spacing, A s, Mr , Bar size spacing, A s, Mr ,
No. in. in 2 /ft d, in. lb-in/ft V r , lb/ft No. in. in2/ft d, in. lb-in/ft V r , lb/ft
9 8 1.500 12.811 263,890 8,170 7 48 0.150 12.938 59,041 2,496
8 8 1.178 12.875 248,478 8,170 6 40 0.133 13.000 52,269 2,733
7 8 0.902 12.938 229,922 8,170 6 48 0.110 13.000 43,693 2,496
6 8 0.663 13.000 208,999 8,170 4 24 0.098 13.125 40,078 3,684
9 16 0.750 12.811 175,484 4,872 5 40 0.092 13.063 37,184 2,733
5 8 0.460 13.063 175,003 8,170 5 48 0.077 13.063 31,064 2,496
8 16 0.589 12.875 166,221 4,872 6 72 0.074 13.000 29,278 2,099
9 24 0.333 12.811 144,735 3,684 4 40 0.059 13.125 24,237 2,733
8 24 0.393 12.875 137,713 3,684 6 96 0.055 13.000 21,959 1,575
4 8 0.295 13.125 115,581 8,170 5 72 0.051 13.063 20,811 2,099
7 24 0.301 12.938 115,516 3,684 4 48 0.049 13.125 20,245 2,496
9 48 0.250 12.811 96,550 2,496 6 120 0.044 13.000 17,567 1,260
8 40 0.236 12.875 91,944 2,733 5 96 0.038 13.063 15,608 1,575
6 24 0.221 13.000 85,901 3,684 4 72 0.033 13.125 13,576 2,099
8 48 0.196 12.875 77,012 2,496 5 120 0.031 13.063 12,487 1,260
7 40 0.180 12.938 70,565 2,733 4 96 0.025 13.125 10,182 1,575
5 24 0.153 13.063 61,323 3,684 4 120 0.020 13.125 8,145 1,260

A
Metric equivalents can be obtained by applying the following conversion factors:
in. x 25.4 = mm lb-in./ft x 0.0003707 = kN-m/m
in. /ft x 2,117 = mm /m
2 2
lb/ft x 0.01459 = kN/m
B
For reinforcement spacings exceeding six times the wall thickness (the effective compressive width of masonry b for
each reinforcing bar), prudent engineering practice dictates that the masonry between these sections be designed to
span this horizontal distance.

NCMA TEK 14-19B 7

REFERENCES
1. International Building Code. International Code Council.
a. 2012 Edition
b. 2009 Edition
c. 2006 Edition
2. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures. Reported by the Masonry Standards Joint Committee.
a. 2011 Edition: TMS 402-11/ACI 530-11/ASCE 5-11
b. 2008 Edition: TMS 402-08 /ACI 530-08/ASCE 5-08
c. 2005 Edition: ACI 530-05/ASCE 5-05/TMS 402-05
3. Allowable Stress Design Tables for Reinforced Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 14-19A. National Concrete Masonry Association,
2009.
4. Allowable Stress Design of Concrete Masonry Based on the 2012 IBC & 2011 MSJC, TEK 14-7C. National Concrete Masonry
Association, 2011.

NCMA and the companies disseminating this technical information disclaim any and all responsibility and liability for the accuracy
and the application of the information contained in this publication.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION

13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171
www.ncma.org

To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index, contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900

8 NCMA TEK 14-19B

 NCMA TEK
National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology

POST-TENSIONED TEK 14-20A

Structural (2002)
CONCRETE MASONRY WALL DESIGN
Keywords: allowable stress design, design examples, flexural top and bottom of the masonry element (see Figure 1). Post-
strength, post-tensioned masonry, prestressed masonry, reinforcing
tensioning is the primary method of prestressing, where the
tendons, strength design
tendons are stressed after the masonry has been placed. This
TEK focuses on the design of concrete masonry walls con-
INTRODUCTION structed with vertical post-tensioned tendons.

The 1999 Building Code Requirements for Masonry Advantages—Prestressing has the potential to increase the
Structures, ACI 530/ASCE 5/TMS 402 (ref. 1), was the first flexural strength, shear strength and stiffness of a masonry
masonry code in the United States to include general design element. In addition to increasing the strength of an element,
provisions for prestressed masonry. Prestressing masonry is prestressing forces can also close or minimize the formation
a process whereby internal compressive stresses are intro- of some cracks. Further, while research (refs. 14, 15) indi-
duced to counteract tensile stresses resulting from applied cates that ductility and energy dissipation capacity are en-
loads. Compressive stresses are developed within the ma- hanced with prestressing, Building Code Requirements for
sonry by tensioning a steel tendon, which is anchored to the Masonry Structures (ref. 1) conservatively does not take
such performance into account.
Post-tensioned masonry can be an economical alterna-
Top anchorage
tive to conventionally reinforced masonry. One major advan-
tage of prestressing is that it allows a wall to be reinforced
without the need for grout. Also, the number of prestressing
Top anchorage tendons may be less than the number of reinforcing bars
block or bond required for the same flexural strength.
beam Post-tensioning masonry is primarily applicable to walls,
although it can also be used for beams, piers, and columns.
Concrete
Vertical post-tensioning is most effective for increasing the
masonry units
structural capacity of elements subjected to relatively low
(single wythe
axial loads. Structural applications include loadbearing, non-
Internal stresses shown) loadbearing and shear walls of tall warehouses and gymnasi-
ums, and commercial buildings, as well as retaining walls and
Coupler
sound barrier walls. Post-tensioning is also an option for
strengthening existing walls.
Prestressing
tendons (bonded MATERIALS
or unbonded;
restrained or Post-tensioned wall construction uses standard materi-
unrestrained) als: units, mortar, grout, and perhaps steel reinforcement. In
addition, post-tensioning requires tendons, which are steel
Footing wires, bars or strands with a higher tensile strength than
anchorage conventional reinforcement. Manufacturers of prestressing
tendons must supply stress relaxation characteristics for
Footing their material if it is to be used as a prestressing tendon.
Specifications for those materials used specifically for post-
tensioning are given in Table 1. Other material specifications
Figure 1—Schematic of Typical Post-Tensioned Wall are covered in references 9 through 12. Construction is

TEK 14-20A © 2002 National Concrete Masonry Association (replaces TEK 14-20)

Table 1—Post-Tensioned Material Specifications
Prestressing Tendons
ASTM A 416 Steel Strand, Uncoated Seven-Wire
ASTM A 421 Uncoated Steel Wire
ASTM A 722 Uncoated High-Strength Steel Bar
Accessories
ASTM F 959 Washer-Type Direct Tension Indicators
covered in Construction of Post-Tensioned Concrete Ma-
sonry Walls, TEK 3-14 (ref. 3).
CORROSION PROTECTION
As with conventionally reinforced masonry structures,
Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures (ref.
1) mandates that prestressing tendons for post-tensioned
masonry structures be protected against corrosion. As a
minimum, the prestressing tendons, anchors, couplers and
end fittings in exterior walls exposed to earth or weather must
be protected. All other walls exposed to a mean relative
humidity exceeding 75% must also employ some method of
corrosion abatement. Unbonded tendons can be protected
with galvanizing, epoxy coating, sheathing or other alterna-
tive method that provides an equivalent level of protection.
Bonded tendons are protected from corrosion by the corru-
gated duct and prestressing grout in which they are encased.
DESIGN LOADS
As for other masonry structures, minimum required
design loads are included in Minimum Design Loads for
Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE 7 (ref. 5), or the
governing building codes. If prestressing forces are intended
to resist lateral loads from earthquake, a factor of 0.9 should
be applied to the strength level prestress forces (0.6 for
allowable stress design) as is done with gravity loads.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
The design of post-tensioned masonry is based on al-
lowable stress design procedures, except for laterally re-
strained tendons which use a strength design philosophy.
Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures (ref.
1) prescribes allowable stresses for unreinforced masonry in
compression, tension and shear, which must be checked
against the stresses resulting from applied loads.
The flexural strength of post-tensioned walls is gov-
erned by either the flexural tensile stress of the masonry (the
flexural stress minus the post-tensioning and dead load stress),
the masonry compressive stress, the tensile stress within the
tendon, the shear capacity of the masonry or the buckling
capacity of the wall.
Masonry stresses must be checked at the time of peak
loading (independently accounting for both short-term and
long-term losses), at the transfer of post-tensioning forces,
and during the jacking operation when bearing stresses may
be exceeded. Immediately after transfer of the post-tensioning
forces, the stresses in the steel are the largest because long-
term losses have not occurred. Further, because the masonry
has had little time to cure, the stresses in the masonry will be
closer to their capacity. Once long-term losses have tran-
spired, the stresses in both the masonry and the steel are
reduced. The result is a coincidental reduction in the effec-
tive capacity due to the prestressing force and an increase in the
stresses the fully cured masonry can resist from external loads.
Effective Prestress
Over time, the level of prestressing force decreases due
to creep and shrinkage of the masonry, relaxation of the
prestressing tendons and potential decreases in the ambient
temperature. These prestressing losses are in addition to seat-
ing and elastic shortening losses witnessed during the pre-
stressing operation. In addition, the prestressing force of bonded
tendons will decrease along the length of the tendon due to
frictional losses. Since the effective prestressing force varies
over time, the controlling stresses should be checked at several
stages and loading conditions over the life of the structure.
The total prestress loss in concrete masonry can be
assumed to be approximately 35%. At the time of transfer of
the prestressing force, typical losses include: 1% seating
loss + 1% elastic shortening = 2%. Additional losses at
service loads and moment strength include:
relaxation 3%
temperature 10%
creep 8%
CMU shrinkage 7%
contingency 5%
total 33%
Prestress losses need to be estimated accurately for a
safe and economical structural design. Underestimating losses
will result in having less available strength than assumed.
Overestimating losses may result in overstressing the wall in
compression.
Effective Width
In theory, a post-tensioning force functions similarly to
a concentrated load applied to the top of a wall. Concentrated
loads are distributed over an effective width as discussed in
the commentary on Building Code Requirements for Ma-
sonry Structures (ref. 1). A general rule-of-thumb is to use
six times the wall thickness as the effective width.
Elastic shortening during post-tensioning can reduce
the stress in adjacent tendons that have already been stressed.
Spacing the tendons further apart than the effective width
theoretically does not reduce the compressive stress in the
effective width due to the post-tensioning of subsequent
tendons. The applied loads must also be consolidated into the
effective width so the masonry stresses can be determined.
These stresses must be checked in the design stage to avoid
overstressing the masonry.
Flexure
Tensile and compressive stresses resulting from bend-
ing moments applied to a section are determined in accor-
dance with conventional elastic beam theory. This results in area of masonry, and the wall is sized such that the maximum
a triangular stress distribution for the masonry in both tension shear stress is less than the allowable stress. In addition, the
and compression. Maximum bending stress at the extreme compressive stress due to post-tensioning can be relied on to
fibers are determined by dividing the applied moment by the increase allowable shear stresses in some circumstances.
section modulus based on the minimum net section.
Post-Tensioning Tendons
Net Flexural Tensile Stress The stress in the tendons is limited (ref. 1) such that:
Sufficient post-tensioning force needs to be provided so (a) the stress due to the jacking force does not exceed
the net flexural tensile stress is less than the allowable values. 0.94fpy, 0.80fpu, nor that recommended by the manufac-
Flexural cracking should not occur if post-tensioning forces turer of the tendons or anchorages,
are kept within acceptable bounds. Flexural cracking due to (b) the stress immediately after transfer does not exceed
sustained post-tensioning forces is believed to be more 0.82fpy nor 0.74fpu, and
severe than cracking due to transient loading. Flexural cracks (c) the stress in the tendons at anchorages and couplers does
due to eccentric post-tensioning forces will remain open not exceed 0.78fpy nor 0.70fpu.
throughout the life of the wall, and may create problems
related to water penetration, freeze-thaw or corrosion. For DETERMINATION OF POST-TENSIONING FORCES
this reason, Building Code Requirements for Masonry Struc-
tures (ref. 1) requires that the net flexural tensile stress be Case (a) after prestress losses and at peak loading:
limited to zero at transfer of the post-tensioning force and for Assuming that the moment, M, due to wind or earthquake
service loadings with gravity loads only. loadings is large relative to the eccentric load moment, the
critical location will be at the mid-height of the wall for
Axial Compression simply-supported walls, and the following equations apply
Compressive stresses are determined by dividing the (bracketed numbers are the applicable Building Code Re-
sum of the post-tensioning and gravity forces by the net area quirements for Masonry Structures (ref. 1) equation or
of the section. They must be less than the code prescribed section numbers):
(ref. 1) allowable values of axial compressive stress. fa fb
Walls must also be checked for buckling due to gravity [2-10] + ≤ 1.33
Fa Fb
loads and post-tensioning forces from unrestrained tendons.
Laterally restrained tendons can not cause buckling; there- where:
Pd ed Pl el Ppf e p
fore only gravity compressive forces need to be checked for P + Pl + Ppf M+ + +
buckling in walls using laterally restrained tendons. Restrain- fa = d and fb = 2 2 2
ing the tendons also ensures that the tendons do not move An S
laterally in the wall when the masonry deflects. The maximum
compressive force that can be applied to the wall based upon The 1.33 factor in Equation [2-10] represents the one-
buckling is 1/4 Pe, per equation 2-11 of Building Code Re- third increase in allowable stress permitted for wind and
quirements for Masonry Structures (ref. 1). earthquake loadings. If the moment, M, is a result of soil
pressures (as is the case for retaining walls), the 1.33 factor
Combined Axial and Flexural Compressive Stress in Equation [2-10] must be replaced by 1.00.
Axial compressive stresses due to post-tensioning and
gravity forces combine with flexural compressive stresses at [2-11] Pd + Pl + Ppf < 1/4 Pe
the extreme fiber to result in maximum compressive stress. Note that if the tendons are laterally restrained, Ppf should not
Conversely, the axial compressive stresses combine with the be included in Equation [2-11].
flexural tensile stresses to reduce the absolute extreme fiber
stresses. To ensure the combination of these stresses does fb - fa < fbt
not exceed code prescribed allowable stresses, a unity equa- [4.5.1.3] fb - fa < 0 (under the load combination of
tion is checked to verify compliance. Employing this unity prestressing force and dead load only)
equation, the sum of the ratios of applied-to-allowable axial
and flexural stresses must be less than one. Unless standards Additional strength design requirements for laterally re-
(ref. 5) limit its use, an additional one-third increase in strained tendons:
allowable stresses is permitted for wind and earthquake load- [4-3] Mu < φMn = φ [Ppf + fyAs + Pdu + Plu] (d - a/2)
ings, as is customary with unreinforced and reinforced ma- Equation 4-3 above applies to members with uniform
sonry. Further, for the stress condition immediately after width, concentric reinforcement and prestressing tendons
transfer of the post-tensioning force, a 20% increase in and concentric axial load. The nominal moment strength for
allowable axial and bending stresses is permitted by Building other conditions should be determined based on static mo-
Code Requirements for Masonry Structures (ref. 1). ment equilibrium equations.
Ppf + f y As + Pdu + Plu
Shear [4-1] a=
As with all stresses, shear stresses are resisted by the net 0.85 f 'm b
 a < tf Loads: M = wh2/8 = (15)(12)2/8 = 270 ft-lb (366 N-m)
[4.5.3.3.5] a/d < 0.425 Pd at mid-height = (39)(12)/2 = 234 lb/foot of wall (3,410
[4.5.3.3.2] φ = 0.80 N/m) (Pl = 0)

Case (b) at transfer of post-tensioning: Maximum tendon stresses:

Assuming that vertical live loads are not present during post- Determine governing stresses based on code limits (ref. 1):
tensioning, the following equations apply. The worst case is At jacking: 0.94 fpy = 94.0 ksi (648 MPa)
at the top of the wall where post-tensioning forces are 0.80 fpu = 97.6 ksi (673 MPa)
applied. At transfer: 0.82 fpy = 82.0 ksi (565 MPa)
f ai f bi 0.74 fpu = 90.3 ksi (623 MPa)
[2-10] + ≤ 1.2 At service loads: 0.78 fpy = 78.0 ksi (538 MPa) ⇒ governs
Fai Fbi
0.70 fpu = 85.4 ksi (589 MPa)
where:
Pd + Ppi Pd ed + Ppi e p + M Because the tendon's specified tensile strength is less than
f ai = f bi = 150 ksi (1,034 MPa), fps = fse (per ref. 1 section 4.5.3.3.4).
An S
and: Prestress losses: Assume 35% total loss (as described in the
fbi - fai < 0 Effective Prestress section above).

For cantilevered walls, these equations must be modi- Tendon forces:

fied to the base of the wall.
If the eccentricity of the live load, Pl, is small, neglect-
ing the live load in Equation [2-10] may also govern.
Case (c) bearing stresses at jacking:
Bearing stresses at the prestressing anchorage should
be checked at the time of jacking. The maximum allowable
bearing stress at jacking is 0.50f'mi per Building Code Re-
quirements for Masonry Structures (ref. 1) section 4.9.4.2.
DESIGN EXAMPLE
Design a simply-supported exterior wall 12 ft (3.7 m)
high for a wind load of 15 psf (0.72 kPa). The wall is
constructed of concrete masonry units complying with ASTM
C 90 (ref. 6). The units are laid in a full bed of Type S Portland
cement lime mortar complying with ASTM C 270 (ref. 7).
The specified compressive strength of the masonry (f'm) is
1,500 psi (10.3 MPa). The wall will be post-tensioned with
7/16 in. (11 mm) diameter laterally restrained tendons when the
wall achieves a compressive strength of 1,250 psi (8.6 MPa).
Axial load and prestress are concentric.
Given:
8 in. (203 mm) CMU
tf = 1.25 in. (32 mm)
f'm = 1,500 psi (10.3 MPa)
f'mi = 1,250 psi (8.6 MPa)
Fbt = 25 psi (0.17 MPa) (Type S Portland cement/lime mortar)
fpy = 100 ksi (690 MPa) (bars)
f pu = 122 ksi (840 MPa)
Aps = 0.14 in2 (92 mm2)
Es = 29 x 106 psi (200 GPa)
Em = 900 f’m = 1.35 x 106 psi (9,300 MPa)
n = Es/Em = 21.5
d = 7.625/2 in. = 3.81 in. (97 mm) (tendons placed in the
center of the wall)
unit weight of CMU wall = 39 psf (190 kg/m2) (ref. 13)
Determine the maximum tendon force, based on the govern-
ing tendon stress determined above for each case of jacking,
transfer and service. At transfer, include 2% prestress losses.
At service, include the full 35% losses.
Tendon capacity at jacking = 0.94 fpy Aps = 13.3 kips (59
kN)
Tendon capacity at transfer = 0.82 fpy Aps x 0.98 = 11.4
kips (51 kN) (including transfer losses)
Tendon capacity at service = 0.78 fpy Aps x 0.65 = 7.2 kips
(32 kN) (including total losses)
Try tendons at 48 in. (1,219 mm) on center (note that this
tendon spacing also corresponds to the maximum effective
prestressing width of six times the wall thickness).
Determine prestressing force, based on tendon capacity
determined above:
at transfer: Ppi = 11.4 kips/4 ft = 2,850 lb/ft (41.6 kN/m)
at service: Ppf = 7.2 kips/4 ft = 1,800 lb/ft (26.3 kN/m)
Wall section properties: (ref. 8)
8 in. (203 mm) CMU with full mortar bedding:
An = 41.5 in.2/ft (87,900 mm2/m)
I = 334 in.4/ft (456 x 106 mm4/m)
S = 87.6 in.3/ft (4.71 x 106 mm3/m)
r = 2.84 in. (72.1 mm)
At service loads:
At service, the following are checked: combined axial com-
pression and flexure using the unity equation (equation 2-
10); net tension in the wall; stability by ensuring the compres-
sive load does not exceed one-fourth of the buckling load, Pe,
and shear and moment strength.
Check combined axial compression and flexure:
Pd + Ppf 234 + 1800
fa = = = 49 psi (0.34 MPa)
An 41.5
h/r = (12 ft)(12 in./ft)/2.84 in. = 50.7 < 99
[2-12] Fa = 1/4 f'm [ 1- ( h/140r )2 ] Pd + Ppi 234 + 2,850
= 1/4 (1,500 psi) [1- ( 50.7/140)2 ] = 326 psi (2.2 MPa) f ai = = = 74 psi (0.51 MPa)
An 41.5
M + Pd ed + Ppf e p 270 + 0 + 0
fb = = x 12 in./ft h/r = (12 ft)(12 in./ft)/2.84 in. = 50.7
S 87.6 Fai = 1/4 f'mi [1- ( h/140r )2 ]
= 37 psi (0.26 MPa) = 1/4(1,250)[1 -(50.7/140)2] = 272 psi (1.9 MPa)
[2-14] Fb = 1/3 f'm = 500 psi (3.4 MPa)
M + Pd ed + Ppi e p 270 + 0 + 0
fa fb 49 37 f bi = = = 37 psi (0.26 MPa)
+ = + S 87.6
Fa Fb 326 500 = 0.22 < 1.33 OK
Fbi = 1/3 f'mi = 1/3(1,250) = 417 psi (2.9 MPa)
f ai f bi 74 37
Check tension for load combination of prestress force and + = +
dead load only (per ref. 1 section 4.5.1.3): Fai Fbi 272 417 = 0.36 < 1.2 OK
fb - fa = 37 - 49 = -12 psi (-0.08 MPa) < 0 OK
Check tension for load combination of prestress force and
Check stability: dead load only (per ref. 1 section 4.5.1.3):
Because the tendons are laterally restrained, the prestressing fbi - fai = 37 - 74 = -37 psi (-0.26 MPa) < 0 OK
force, Ppf, is not considered in the determination of axial load
( per ref. 1 section 4.5.3.2), and the wall is not subject to live Therefore, use 7/16 in. (11 mm) diameter tendons at 48 in.
load in this case, so equation 2-11 reduces to: (1,219 mm) o.c. Note that although wall design is seldom
P = Pd = 234 lb/ft (3,414 N/m) governed by out-of-plane shear, the shear capacity should
also be checked.
[2-15] 1/4 Pe = 1/4
π 2 Em I
h2
(1 − 0.577 e
r
)
3

NOTATIONS
π (1.35 × 10 )(334) 3
2 6 An net cross-sectional area of masonry section, in.2 (mm2)
(1) = 53,653 lb (239 kN)
= (12 × 12)2 Aps threaded area of post-tensioning tendon, in.2 (mm2)
As cross-sectional area of mild reinforcement, in.2 (mm2)
[2-11] P < 1/4 Pe OK a depth of an equivalent compression zone at nominal
strength, in. (mm)
Check moment strength: b width of section, in. (mm)
Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures sec- d distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of
tion 4.5.3.3 includes the following criteria for moment prestressing tendon, in. (mm)
strength of walls with laterally restrained tendons: Es modulus of elasticity of prestressing steel, psi (MPa)
a/d < 0.425 Em modulus of elasticity of masonry, psi (MPa)
Mu < φ Mn e d eccentricity of dead load, in. (mm)
where φ = 0.8 and el eccentricity of live load, in. (mm)
Mn = [Ppf + fyAs + Pdu] [d - a/2] e p eccentricity of post-tensioning load, in. (mm)
In addition, the compression zone must fall within the ma- Fa allowable masonry axial compressive stress, psi (MPa)
sonry, so a < tf . Fai allowable masonry axial compressive stress at transfer,
psi (MPa)
Mu = 1.3 M = 1.3 x 270 = 351 ft-lb (476 N.m) Fb allowable masonry flexural compressive stress, psi (MPa)
Pdu = 1.2 Pd = 1.2 x 234 = 281 lb (1.2 kN) Fbi allowable masonry flexural compressive stress at trans-
where 1.3 and 1.2 are load factors for wind and dead loads, fer, psi (MPa)
respectively. Fbt allowable flexural tensile strength of masonry, psi (MPa)
Ppf + Fy As + Pdu 1,800 + 0 + 281 f a axial stress after prestress loss, psi (MPa)
a= = f ai axial stress at transfer, psi (MPa)
0.85 f 'm b 0.85(1,500)(12 ) = 0.14 in. (3.6 mm) f b flexural stress after prestress loss, psi (MPa)
a < tf OK f bi flexural stress at transfer, psi (MPa)
a/d = 0.14/3.81 = 0.036 < 0.425 OK f'm specified compressive strength of masonry, psi (MPa)
Mu < φ Mn f'mi specified compressive strength of masonry at time of
φ Mn = 0.8 [Ppf + fyAs + Pdu] [d - a/2] transfer of prestress, psi (MPa)
= 0.8 [1,800 + 0 + 281] (3.81 - 0.14/2)/12 in./ft f ps stress in prestressing tendon at nominal strength, psi (MPa)
= 519 ft-lb (703 N.m) > Mu OK f pu specified tensile strength of prestressing tendon, ksi (MPa)
fpy specified yield strength of prestressing tendon, ksi (MPa)
At transfer: fse effective stress in prestressing tendon after all pre-
Check combined axial compression and flexure using the stress losses have occurred, psi (MPa)
unity equation (equation 2-10) and net tension in the wall. fy specified yield strength of steel for reinforcement and an-
chors, psi (MPa)
h masonry wall height, in. (mm)
I moment of inertia of net wall section of extreme fiber tension or
compression, in.4/ft (mm4/m)
M moment due to lateral loads, ft-lb (N.m)
Mn nominal moment strength, ft-lb (N.m)
Mu factored moment due to lateral loads, ft-lb (N.m)
n modular ratio of prestressing steel and masonry (Es/Em)
Pd axial dead load, lb/ft (kN/m)
Pd u factored axial dead load, lb/ft (kN/m)
Pe Euler buckling load, lb/ft (kN/m)
Pl axial live load, lb/ft (kN/m)
Pl u factored axial live load, lb/ft (kN/m)
Pp i prestress force at transfer, lb/ft (kN/m)
Pp f prestress force including losses, lb/ft (kN/m)
r radius of gyration for net wall section, in. (mm)
S section modulus of net cross-sectional area of the wall, in.3/ft
(mm3/m)
tf face shell thickness of concrete masonry, in. (mm)
w applied wind pressure, psf (kPa)
φ strength reduction factor = 0.8
REFERENCES
1. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, ACI
530-02/ASCE 5-02/TMS 402-02. Reported by the Masonry
Standards Joint Committee, 2002.
2. Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete, ACI
318-99. Detroit, MI: American Concrete Institute, Revised 1999.
3. Construction of Post-Tensioned Concrete Masonry Walls,
TEK 3-14. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2002.
4. International Building Code. International Code Council, 2000.
5. Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE
7-98, American Society of Civil Engineers, 1998.
6. Standard Specification for Loadbearing Concrete Masonry
Units, ASTM C 90-01a. American Society for Testing and
NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION
13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171
www.ncma.org
Materials, 2001.
7. Standard Specification for Mortar for Unit Masonry, ASTM
C 270-01. American Society for Testing and Materials, 2001.
8. Section Properties of Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 14-1.
National Concrete Masonry Association, 1993.
9. ASTM Specifications for Concrete Masonry Units, TEK 1-
1C. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2000.
10. Mortars for Concrete Masonry, TEK 9-1A. National Con-
crete Masonry Association, 2001.
11. Grout for Concrete Masonry, TEK 9-4. National Concrete
Masonry Association, 1998.
12. Steel for Concrete Masonry Reinforcement, TEK 12-4B.
National Concrete Masonry Association, 1998.
13. Concrete Masonry Wall Weights, TEK 14-13A. National
Concrete Masonry Association, 2002.
14. Schultz, A.E., and M.J. Scolforo, An Overview of Prestressed
Masonry, TMS Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1, August 1991, pp. 6-21.
15. Schultz,A.E.,andM.J.Scolforo,EngineeringDesignProvisionsfor
Prestressed Masonry, Part 1: Masonry Stresses, Part 2: Steel
Stresses and Other Considerations, TMS Journal, Vol. 10, No. 2,
February 1992, pp. 29-64.
16. Standard Specification for Steel Strand, Uncoated Seven-
Wire for Prestressed Concrete, ASTM A 416-99. American
Society for Testing and Materials, 1999.
17. Standard Specification for Uncoated Stress-Relieved Steel
Wire for Prestressed Concrete, ASTM A 421-98a. American
Society for Testing and Materials, 1998.
18. Standard Specification for Uncoated High-Strength Steel
Bar for Prestressed Concrete, ASTM A 722-98. American
Society for Testing and Materials, 1998.
19. Standard Specification for Compressible-Washer-Type Di-
rect Tension Indicators for Use with Structural Fasteners,
ASTM F 959-01a. American Society for Testing and Materials,
2001.
To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
An information series from the national
DESIGN OF CONCRETE MASONRY
WALLS FOR BLAST LOADING
INTRODUCTION
Compared to the typical forces usually included in build-
ing design, such as wind and seismic, there are many unique
considerations involved in blast design. Except for high-
threat scenarios associated with military and diplomatic facil-
ities, a blast event is typically considered to be very unlikely
but potentially catastrophic. The priority of blast design is to
ensure the life safety of occupants and protection of critical
assets, and therefore high levels of structural damage may be
acceptable. To design a building to withstand any possible
blast load event without significant damage tends to be pro-
hibitively expensive, and achieving the balance between the
additional costs of blast protection and the costs associated
with significant but acceptable damage is often challenging.
For introductory purposes, the source of blast loading
can be broadly categorized as either “intentional” or “ac-
cidental.” In today’s global political environment, “inten-
tional” primarily refers to an act of terrorism that involves
explosives. “Accidental” refers to the many other potential
sources of blast loading such as explosions at industrial fa-
cilities, crashes of tractor trailers or trains that are transport-
ing energetic materials, deflagration resulting from gas line
leaks, etc. However, from a structural engineering standpoint,
the design methodology is the same regardless of the source,
although the source defines the design load.
Blast design associated with intentional load sources is
one aspect of the broader subject of “security engineering.”
In commonly used broad terms, security engineering involves
detecting the possibility of intrusive behavior, deterring, de-
laying or denying a potential perpetrator from attacking, and
defending people and assets against harm. Any scenario that
involves design for an explosion attack will begin with iden-
tifying nonstructural approaches for protecting the subject
building. For example, simply placing bollards around the
building perimeter and restricting access to adjacent garages
and parking areas can greatly reduce the blast design load
by increasing the distance between the asset and a potential
Related TEK: Keywords: blast design, blast loads, explosions, security engineering,
structural design
NCMA TEK 14-21A (replaces TEK 14-21) 1
authority on concrete masonry technology
TEK 14-21A
Structural (2014)
vehicle-borne explosive device, and thereby minimize con-
struction costs. At the same time however, buildings such as
embassies that must be constructed in urban settings, do not
allow for a large standoff distance, and the only recourse is
to design for the potentially intense blast loading. There are
many consulting companies that specialize in site, architec-
tural, and operational design and planning for security.
This TEK provides an introduction to the major concerns
and challenges associated with design of concrete masonry
walls for blast loading and directs the reader to sources for
additional information and assistance.
TECHNICAL GUIDANCE, DOCTRINE & CRITERIA
Although blast design is not typically taught as part of
college engineering curriculums, there are ample resources
available for engineers to learn the basics of security engi-
neering, explosion loading phenomena and blast design.
This includes seminars and training courses taught by agen-
cies such as the Federal Emergency Management Agency
(FEMA) and the Interagency Security Committee (ISC), as
well as through academic centers, companies and organiza-
tions around the United States. Standing technical commit-
tees such as the ASCE /SEI Committee on Blast, Shock and
Impact and the ACI Committee 370 on Blast and Impact
Load Effects, play prominent roles in disseminating state-of-
the-art practice. There are also several international organi-
zations, conferences, and technical publications focused on
protection against blast and ballistic events, such as the In-
ternational Association of Protective Structures (IAPS, pro-
tectivestructures.org), the International Journal of Protective
Structures (multi-science.co.uk/ijps.htm), the International
Conference on Protective Structures (ICPS), and the Inter-
national Conference on Shock & Impact Loads on Structures
(SILOS).
Several comprehensive reference books related to de-
sign for blast protection have emerged over the past several
years. Most prominent are: Blast and Ballistic Loading of
Structures (ref. 1), Modern Protective Structures (ref. 2) and
Handbook for Blast Resistant Design of Buildings (ref. 3).
Some of the most frequently used design guides and cri-
teria include:
• Design of Blast-Resistant Buildings in Petrochemical Fa-
cilities (ref. 4)
• Blast Protection of Buildings, ASCE/SEI 59-11 (ref. 5)
• Structural Design for Physical Security: State of the Prac-
tice (ref. 6)
• Blast Resistant Design Guide for Reinforced Concrete
Structures (ref. 7)
• FEMA-427: Primer for Design of Commercial Buildings
to Mitigate Terrorist Attacks (2003)
• FEMA-452: Risk Assessment: A How-To Guide to Mitigate
Potential Terrorist Attacks (2005)
• FEMA-426/BIPS-06: Reference Manual to Mitigate Po-
tential Terrorist Attacks Against Buildings (2011)
Historically, many government departments and agencies,
such as the Government Services Agency (GSA), Department
of Defense (DoD), Department of State (DoS), and Depart-
ment of Energy (DoE), developed and implemented their own
independent criteria and standards. These independent stan-
dards compounded the complexity of designing and construct-
ing government facilities. In fact, the Departments of the Army,
Air Force, and Navy each had separate standards until the late
1990s. Fortunately however, much of this has been consoli-
dated in recent years with the advent of Unified Facilities Crite-
ria (UFC), Unified Facilities Guide Specifications (UFGS) and
products of the Interagency Security Committee (ISC).
The UFC and UFGS documents are applicable to the de-
sign, construction, operation, maintenance, and moderniza-
tion of all DoD facilities. The ISC Security Design Criteria
was developed to ensure that security issues are addressed
during the planning, design, and construction of all new fed-
eral courthouses, new federal office buildings, and major ren-
ovations, including leased facilities. Most of these criteria
and guidelines are now disseminated in an easy-to-locate for-
mat provided by the National Institute of Building Sciences
under the Whole Building Design Guide (wbdg.org). In ad-
dition, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Protective Design
Center (PDC) provides information, criteria, and software for
protective structures design and security engineering (pdc.
usace.army.mil). Most DoD-sponsored research reports are
available through the Defense Technical Information Center
website (DTIC.mil). The distribution of some of these re-
sources is restricted, but generally any U.S. company with
the appropriate credentials can acquire the documents needed
to conduct business for the U.S. Government by following
instructions provided on the respective websites. Following
are some of the most prevalent documents and tools relevant
to blast design of masonry and other exterior wall compo-
nents in government buildings and facilities.
Unified Facilities Criteria
• UFC 3-340-01, Design and Analysis of Hardened Struc-
tures to Conventional Weapons Effects (For Official Use
Only, FOUO)
• UFC 3-340-02: Structures to Resist the Effects of Acciden-
tal Explosions
2 NCMA TEK 14-21A
• UFC 4-010-01: DoD Minimum Antiterrorism Standards
for Buildings
• UFC 4-010-02: DoD Minimum Antiterrorism Standoff
Distances for Buildings (FOUO)
• UFC 4-020-01: Security Engineering: Facilities Planning
Manual
• UFC 4-020-02FA/T 5-853-2: Security Engineering: Con-
cept Design
• UFC 4-020-03FA/TM 5-853-3: Security Engineering: Fi-
nal Design
• UFC 4-023-03: Security Engineering: Design of Buildings
to Resist Progressive Collapse
ISC, GSA, DoS
• The Risk Management Process for Federal Facilities: An
Interagency Security Committee Standard (ISC 2013)
• Physical Security Criteria for Federal Facilities (ISC
2010)
• Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service (GSA
2010) (superseded by ISC standards)
• The Site Security Design Guide (GSA 2008) (superseded
by ISC standards)
• A&E Design Guidelines for U.S. Diplomatic Mission
Buildings (DoS 2002)
PDC Software (includes user documentation)
• BlastX: Internal and External Blast Effects Prediction
—performs calculations of the shock wave and confined
detonation products pressure and venting for explosions,
either internal or external, to a structure.
• CEDAW: Component Explosive Damage Assessment
Workbook—a Microsoft Excel-based tool for generating
pressure-impulse (P-i) and charge weight-standoff (CW-S)
damage level curves for structural components.
• ConWep: Conventional Weapons Effects—a collection of
conventional weapons effects analysis tools that perform
a variety of conventional weapons effects calculations
including airblast loads, fragment and projectile penetra-
tions, breach, cratering, and ground shock.
• PSADS: Protective Structures Automated Design System
—automates the procedures in UFC 3-340-01 into digi-
tally read graphical tools.
• SBEDS: Single-Degree-of-Freedom Blast Effects Design
Spreadsheets—Excel-based tool for designing structural
components subjected to dynamic loads using single de-
gree of freedom (SDOF) methodology.
RECENT RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT ON
MASONRY PERFORMANCE under BLAST LOADS
From a blast-response standpoint, unreinforced masonry
behaves much differently from reinforced masonry. Unrein-
forced masonry tends to be very brittle under blast loads, and
has been demonstrated to fail catastrophically at relatively
low load intensity. Fragmentation of brittle exterior wall
components, namely unreinforced masonry and windows
(glass), is the primary cause of injury and death when an oc-
cupied building is subjected to an external explosion. For
this reason, the U.S. Department of Defense (UFC 4-010-01)
and the ASCE blast standard (ref. 5) prohibit the use of un-
reinforced masonry in the construction of new buildings that
must be designed to withstand significant blast demands.
Due to the fragmentation susceptibility combined with
the widespread use of unreinforced masonry throughout the
world, there has been extensive research supported by many
agencies in the U.S. and abroad on the use of a variety of
materials such as fiber composite laminates, geotextiles,
shotcrete with wire meshing and spray-on polymers for ret-
rofitting existing unreinforced masonry for blast protection.
Design guidelines and commercially available products have
evolved, some of which are included in the documents refer-
enced above, and research on the subject of retrofitting exist-
ing unreinforced masonry has recently subsided.
In contrast, because of the ductility provided by the re-
inforcement and the mass provided by the grout, even mini-
mally reinforced fully grouted masonry provides a high level
of blast resistance. The distinction between unreinforced
masonry and reinforced masonry is very important because
properly designed and detailed reinforced masonry can pro-
vide a high level of protection at relatively low cost. Po-
tentially misleading broad statements such as “masonry is
considered a very brittle material that may generate highly
hazardous flying debris in the event of an explosion and is
generally discouraged for new construction” (FEMA-426/
BIPS-06 2011) are intended to reference unreinforced ma-
sonry.
Recent full-scale blast testing conducted by the Air Force
Research Laboratory (AFRL) (refs. 8, 9) on fully grouted
8-in. (203-mm) concrete masonry walls with No. 5 vertical
Figure 1—Result of Full-Scale Explosion Testing
of Fully Grouted CMU and Cavity Walls
NCMA TEK 14-21A 3
reinforcement at 40 in. (M #16 at 1,016 mm) on center (one
bar at the cell center) and W1.7 (9 gage, MW11) horizontal
joint reinforcement 16 in. (406 mm) on center demonstrated
excellent ductility under blast loading (Figure 1). That test-
ing involved panels with and without clay brick veneer and
polystyrene foam insulation (typical cavity wall construc-
tion). The veneer enhances resistance due to the added mass,
but does not significantly increase the section moment of in-
ertia through composite action. Furthermore, it was noted
that the veneer ties provide sufficient strength and stiffness to
transfer the forces from the reflected pressure from the veneer
exterior to the structural wythe without significantly loading
the insulation.
The second phase of the AFRL masonry test program
demonstrated that the ungrouted cells of partially grouted
exterior walls tend to breach and turn into hazardous frag-
ments similar to unreinforced masonry, and therefore partial-
ly grouted walls should not be used when designing against a
significant blast demand (refs. 10, 11) (see Figure 2).
BLAST PHENOMENA AND DESIGN LOAD
The intensity of blast loading on a given structure de-
pends upon several key factors, such as the type of energetic
material, distance between load origin and the structure, po-
sition of the load origin relative to the ground, the relative
orientation of the structure, etc. Explosions external to a
building tend to result in a single predominate reflected pres-
sure pulse that is relatively easy to predict. The duration of
loading on a building façade from external explosions is typi-
Figure 2—Result of Full-Scale Explosion Testing
of Partially Grouted CMU Demonstrating
Breaching Tendency
cally characterized in milliseconds (seconds/1,000). Forces
resulting from internal explosion are significantly more com-
plex to predict due to reflections and gas pressure venting.
The duration of the reflection peaks resulting from internal
detonations may be only a few microseconds, followed by a
longer build-up and release of gas pressure through venting
mechanisms.
The most intense loading occurs on forward-facing com-
ponents closest to the blast origin (reflected pressure), but an
explosion that is external to a building can also cause signifi-
cant side, rear, and roof loadings. Figures 3 and 4 illustrate
some of the basic factors involved in explosion loading on
structures and the idealized shape of pressure over time. For
purposes of exterior wall system structural design, the nega-
tive phase is typically (and conservatively) ignored, and the
positive impulse is simplified to a right triangle form (Figure
5). Load is defined in terms of anticipated size (i.e., indus-
trial container size, truck-, car- or person-carried explosive
device, etc.) and distance between the building component
being designed and blast origin (commonly referred to as the
“standoff distance”). A close-in blast tends to cause local
breaching; far-away blasts tend to result in a flexural response
of exterior wall components. The intensity degrades ex-
ponentially with distance between subject component and
blast origin; therefore one of the primary protection meth-
ods is always to maximize the standoff distance. It should
be understood that the size of explosive device is not a
singular descriptor of the potential level of damage/harm
that could be caused—a well-placed satchel device can be
more destructive than a truck full of explosives detonated
on the street.
Many of the resources listed above describe the blast
load phenomena in great detail. Approximate methods for
transforming explosive type, size and distance into the peak
pressure and impulse required for engineering analysis and
design are thoroughly defined in UFC 3-340-02 (ref. 12).
Airblast calculators such as CONWEP are also available,
and some engineering analysis software such as SBEDS,
WAC, and LS-DYNA include embedded blast load calcu-
lators. Accurate analysis
of internal detonations
or explosions that may Pso
involve multiple reflec-
tions requires advanced
Pressure
cific military-use or mission-specific information or capabili-
ties. Therefore, some documentation such as UFC 3-340-01
and calculators such as CONWEP are restricted since they
contain weapons effects information. However, any contrac-
tor or organization with the proper need and contract creden-
tials can gain access to the necessary information and tools.
DESIGN FOR FAR-FIELD BLAST LOADS
Once the design load has been defined, the structural en-
gineer can proceed with the dynamic response calculations
required to analyze the masonry component. In general, blast
analyses for designing exterior wall systems are done in the
latter phases of design. The components are typically first
designed for gravity, wind and seismic loads, and then the
design is checked for blast adequacy and altered for blast re-
sistance if needed.
Single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) response calculations
are most common, but some blast design engineers prefer
more robust, but more complicated and expensive, finite ele-
ment analyses. Finite element modeling can provide a more
accurate and detailed response simulation, but must only be
Ground
reflected wave
Assumed plane
wave front
Ground
W Shelter
surface
*
RG
Figure 3—Surface Burst Blast Environment (ref. 12)
Positive specific
impulse, is

shock analysis and com-

putational physics codes. Ps Negative specific
Some government- impulse, i s -
provided documenta-
tion and software used tA tA + to tA + to + to -
for blast load prediction Ambient, o P
is restricted as “for of- Pso-
ficial use only” (FOUO), 0 Ps -
but general airblast load Positive phase Negative phase
methodology and calcu- duration, t o duration, t o -
lators are not sensitive
and can be openly distrib- Time after explosion
uted. Restriction occurs
when the documentation
or software contains spe-
Figure 4—Free-Field Pressure-Time Variation (ref. 12)

4 NCMA TEK 14-21A

 used by persons with a high degree of knowledge in finite
element theory and application.

Response Limits
Pressure
Component deflection is the first focus of the dynamic
Impulse, (i) analyses for systems that will respond in a flexural mode.
The required level of protection (LOP) for individual struc-
tural components must be defined during the planning pro-
cess. Table 1 introduces the damage categorization language
typically used. Components are generally categorized as pri-
mary, secondary or non-structural, as described in Table 2.
Time Table 3 illustrates the typical terminology used to describe
0 td component damage. And, Table 4 is used to relate LOP to
component damage. The process and information presented
in Tables 1 through 4 may differ slightly between the various
standards and criteria, but the overall approach and concepts
Figure 5—Simplified Right Triangular Blast Pressure
involved will be essentially the same.
Idealization for Blast Load (ref. 12)
Blast criteria for flexural components are typically writ-

Table 1—Structural Damage Associated with Building Levels of Protection (ref. 13)
Level of Descriptions of potential overall structural damage
protection
Below Severe damage: Progressive collapse likely. Space in and around damaged area is unusable.
standard
Very low Heavy damage: Onset of structural collapse. Progressive collapse is unlikely. Space in and around damaged area
is unusable.
Low Unrepairable damage: Progressive collapse will not occur. Space in and around damaged area is unusable.
Medium Repairable damage: Space in and around damaged area can be used and is fully functional after cleanup and repairs.
High Superficial damage: No permanent deformations. The facility is immediately operable.

Table 2—Component Descriptions (ref. 13)

Component Description
Primary Members whose loss would affect a number of other components supported by that member and whose loss could
structural potentially affect the overall structural stability of the building in the area of loss. Examples of primary structural
components include: columns, girders, and other primary framing components directly or in-directly supporting
other structural or non-structural members, and any load-bearing structural components such as walls.
Secondary Structural component supported by a primary framing component. Examples of secondary structural components
structural include non-load bearing infill masonry walls, metal panels, and standing seam roofs.
Non- Components whose loss would have little effect on the overall structural stability of the building in the area of
structural loss. Examples of non-structural components include interior non-load bearing walls, and architectural items at-
tached to building structural components.

Table 3—Component Damage Levels (ref. 13)

Damage Description of component damage
level
Blowout Component is overwhelmed by the blast load causing debris with significant velocities.
Hazardous Component has failed, and debris velocities range from insignificant to very significant.
failure
Heavy Component has not failed, but it has significant permanent deflections causing it to be unrepairable.
damage
Moderate Component has some permanent deflection. It is generally repairable, if necessary, although replacement may be
damage more economical and aesthetic.
Superficial Component has no visible permanent damage.
damage

NCMA TEK 14-21A 5

ten in terms of the allowed ductility (μ) and rotation (θ). As tures; it is a common technique for dynamic analysis of a
part of the process, the building is categorized according to the wide range of structural and mechanical systems. However,
level of damage that is acceptable, and then the rotation limit some aspects of the resistance definition approach are spe-
is set according to that level of acceptable damage. “Ductil- cific to blast load analyses. The following provides a brief
ity” is the ratio of the maximum deflection of the component overview of the methodology.
to the yield deflection of the component; “rotation” is defined In SDOF blast design, the component, such as a masonry
in Figure 6. The limits for masonry are defined in Table 5. wall, is idealized as a beam subjected to the transient blast
load, which is then reduced to the transverse motion of a
Analysis Methodology single point (degree-of-freedom) (Figure 7). Equation 1 is
As mentioned above, single degree of freedom analy- solved numerically for transient displacements up to the peak
sis is generally considered to be the standard approach for displacement. The system is therefore comprised of a nonlin-
blast design of flexural components such as masonry walls ear resistance function (translated through time increments
used for exterior wall systems. Pressure-impulse (P-I) dia- into stiffness), a transient pressure loading, and an effective
grams, also called iso-damage curves, such as those provided mass. Once the displacement is solved, the peak rotation and
through the CEDAW software, can be used for preliminary other design parameters can then be related to the maximum
design or rapid assessment of structural components (ref. 14). displacement. The approach can include damping, but damp-
The fundamentals of SDOF analysis are defined in common- ing is typically not important for calculating the first peak dis-
ly-used structural dynamics textbooks such as Biggs, Chopra, placement of flexural systems subjected to impulse loading.
and Tedesco et al. (refs. 15, 16, 17), as well as in many of the .. . + R x(t) = F (t)
Me x(t) + Ce x(t) Eqn. 1
e e
references discussed above, and the reader must review those where:
sources to fully understand the methodology. ..x(t)
SDOF analysis is not unique to blast analysis of struc- = acceleration of the SDOF mass
.x(t) = velocity of the SDOF mass
Table 4—Building LOP—Component Damage x(t) = displacement of the SDOF mass
Relationship (refs. 5, 13) Me = effective mass of the equivalent SDOF system
Ce = effective damping coefficient
Level of Component damage Fe(t) = effective load history on the SDOF system
protec- Primary Secondary Non-structural
tion Re = effective resistance
components components components t = time
Below Hazardous Blowout Blowout
standard The resistance function used for reinforced masonry
Very low Heavy Hazardous Hazardous is essentially the same as used for reinforced concrete. The
resistance is idealized as an elasto-plastic form for simple
Low Moderate Heavy Heavy
(determinate) support conditions, or multi-linear for other
Medium Superficial Moderate Moderate support conditions, as illustrated in Figure 8. The ultimate
High Superficial Superficial Superficial resistance (ru) is defined using resistance definitions provid-
ed in standards and engineering guidelines such as Section
6-8: Design Criteria for Reinforced Masonry Walls of UFC
3-340-02 (ref. 12) and Chapter 7—Masonry Components of
Span length L the SBEDS methodology manual (ref. 18). In addition to
Support rotation the usual material properties, dimensions, etc., that play into
max concrete static design resistance, the approach used to define
the blast resistance also includes factors that compensate for
= tan-1
max effects of strain rate on material properties. Although strain
L/2 rate effects are localized and vary spatially and temporally,
the approach used in typical SDOF-based blast design is to
smear the effect using single dynamic increase factors (DIF)
Figure 6—Definition of Component Support Rotation

Table 5—Response Limits for Masonry (refs. 5, 13)

Member Superficial Moderate Heavy Hazardous
m Q m Q m Q m Q
Unreinforced Flexure 1 — — 1.5o — 4o — 8o
Combined flexure 1 — — 1.5o — 1.5o — 1.5o
& compression
Reinforced Flexure 1 — — 2o — 8o — 15o
Combined flexure 1 — — 2o — 2o — 2o
& compression

6 NCMA TEK 14-21A

 Blast pressure p (t) (function of time; transformed into Fe (t)) Obtained from the
ru resistance definition
re 1 Kep
KE
K(x)
Resistance Assumed
1 deflected
Fe (t)
shape Max deflection x(t) Me
Ke
(function of time)

x(t)

xe xE x p Figure
xm 7—Equivalent Spring-Mass SDOF System
Deflection

ru ru
re 1 Kep
KE
Resistance

Resistance
1
Ke
KE
1

xe xm xe xE xp xm
Deflection Deflection

Determinate boundary conditions Indeterminate boundary conditions

ru
r u = ultimate resistance r e = elastic resistance
Resistance

K e = elastic stiffness K E = equivalent elastic stiffness

x e = elastic deflection Kep = elasto-plastic stiffness
x m = maximum transient deflection x E = equivalent elastic deflection
K
xep = elasto-plastic Edeflection
1

Figure 8—Elasto-Plastic Resistance Curve Assumed for Flexural Response

that are applied to the material strengths (i.e., concrete and xe

steel) used in the resistance definition. The dynamic increase
factors for masonry are 1.19 for flexure, 1.12 for compres-
sion, and 1.10 for direct shear, which are the same as used for
concrete (ref. 5). A DIF on yield of approximately 1.17 is also
typically applied to Grades 40 and 60 reinforcing steel.
Unreinforced masonry does not exhibit any significant
resistance at deflections larger than the yield deflection. There-
fore, a brittle flexural response is assumed based on the moment
capacity controlled by the flexural tensile strength between ma-
sonry units. Increase in resistance due to compression arching,
which may be significant, can be considered if the supports
are sufficiently rigid and there are no gaps between the wall
boundaries and supports. There is no available test data on the
dynamic flexural tensile strength of masonry walls, therefore
a value of 1.38 MPa (200 psi) is recommended, based on use
of this assumed value in SDOF analyses that approximately
matched measured unreinforced masonry wall response from
a number of explosive and shock tube tests (refs. 13, 14).
The SDOF methodology for nonloadbearing wall com-
ponents can be easily programmed. However, the axial force
effects in loadbearing components xm
significantly complicate
the procedure. The axial load changes the system's resis-
Deflection
tance, and P-Δ effects amplify the displacement. Therefore,
to incorporate these effects into a SDOF framework, either
both (effect of axial load on resistance and P-Δ effects) must
be incorporated into the resistance definition, or only the ef-
fect of axial load on resistance changes the resistance and
P-Δ effects are incorporated through each time step. SDOF
calculators such as SBEDS and Wall Analysis Code (ref. 19)
developed specifically for blast analysis of wall components
are available, some of which include the ability to analyze
loadbearing components.
Maximum Shear and Reaction Forces
Shear failure in masonry can occur before the full flex-
ural response mode occurs and can be in the form of diagonal
shear or direct shear, as illustrated in Figure 9 (ref. 3). From
an SDOF calculation perspective, the reaction force trans-
ferred to the connection and the maximum flexural shear
force are the same at any point in analysis time. In reality
though, the transient force demand on a connection is a func-

NCMA TEK 14-21A 7

tion of the connection rigidity, which is not considered in the should be placed on each side of control joints. Splices must
typical SDOF methodology. For blast design purposes, this be tension lap splices for LOP III and LOP IV. Mechanical
demand can be estimated using two approaches: and weld splices should be limited to regions that will remain
1) as an equivalent static reaction force based upon the flex- elastic under loading and should meet TMS 402 specifica-
ural capacity of the member, and tions. Reinforced bond beams must be placed at the top of
2) as the maximum of a transient dynamic shear force calcu- the wall and at all floor diaphragms.  Lintels need to be rein-
lated using SDOF methodology. forced as well.  All horizontal discontinuous reinforcement
The equivalent static reaction force simply comes from should be hooked according to TMS 402 for special shear
balancing the maximum flexural resistance provided by the walls – see Figure 10.
component, including any strain rate effects (or DIF), with
the end or edge support reactions; it therefore does not re-
quire calculations involving the equation of motion. This
force can be used to check the shear capacity of components
and to design the connections. Therefore, it is also referred
to as equivalent support shear or equivalent static shear load.
Connections are typically designed to have an ultimate ca-
pacity that will exceed the equivalent static reaction force.
Connections typically have significantly less ductility than
the connected components and therefore the ultimate strength
of the component should not be controlled by the connec-
tions. ASCE/SEI 59-11 also requires that “the design shear
forces shall not be less than the shear forces associated with
the nominal flexural strength of the element.”
The dynamic reaction force is evaluated from dynamic
force equilibrium through time steps. It is a function of the
component resistance, inertial effects, and the applied load at
each time step. Since high intensity, very short duration fluctu-
ations will occur in the first milliseconds of dynamic reaction
force histories, dynamic reaction forces are not usually used
to define the maximum shear demand in a component or to
design connections. The assumption that the acceleration dis-
tribution, and therefore the inertia force distribution, along the
span is the same as the deflected shape assumed in the SDOF
approach and does not vary with time is not accurate. The
deflected shape of blast-loaded flexural components is flat-
ter than the static deflected shape very early in response time,
with almost all curvature occurring very close to the supports.
At later times, when significant deflections occur, the shape
changes to more closely approximate the first mode, or static
flexural response shape that is typically assumed in SDOF Direct Diagonal
analyses. For these reasons, among others, the dynamic reac- shear shear
tion calculated from standard SDOF methodology is typically
not considered to be accurate during very early time response,
Figure 9—Shear Response Modes for Masonry
and the equivalent static reaction force is typically preferred.

Detailing
Proper detailing is critical to achieving the
desired ductile failure modes that formed the
bases of design and to maximizing the protection Single shear reinforcement, one
One bar per vertical bar per cell
cell
capacity of the component. Reinforced concrete
masonry components must allow for the full
development of reinforcing steel. Longitudinal
reinforcement can be placed in several com- Double shear reinforcement, onecell,
Two bars per vertical bar per cell (staggered)
staggered
mon configurations, as illustrated in Figure 10.
The spacing between vertical bars is determined
through the standard TMS 402 (ref. 20) design
approach that meets the LOP requirements for Two barstwo
Double shear reinforcement, pervertical
cell bars per cell
the building being designed. All cells must be
grouted for LOP III and LOP IV. Vertical bars
Figure 10—Examples of Masonry Reinforcement Configurations

8 NCMA TEK 14-21A

REFERENCES
1. Hetherington, J., Smith, P. Blast and Ballistic Loading of Structures, CRC Press, 1994.
2. Krauthammer T. Modern Protective Structures. CRC Press, 2008.
3. Dusenberry, D.O. Handbook for Blast Resistant Design of Buildings. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2010.
4. Design of Blast-Resistant Buildings in Petrochemical Facilities, American Society of Civil Engineers Task Committee on
Blast-Resistant Design, 2010.
5. Blast Protection of Buildings, ASCE/SEI 59-11. American Society of Civil Engineers, 2011.
6. Structural Design for Physical Security: State of the Practice, American Society of Civil Engineers Task Committee on Struc-
tural Design for Physical Security, 1999.
7. Smith, S., McCann, D., Kamara, M. Blast Resistant Design Guide for Reinforced Concrete Structures. Portland Cement As-
sociation, 2008.
8. Browning R.S., Davidson J.S., and Dinan R.J. Resistance of Multi-Wythe Insulated Masonry Walls Subjected to Impulse
Loads—Volume 1. Air Force Research Laboratory Report AFRL-RX-TY-TR-2008-4603, 2008.
9. Browning R.S., Dinan R.J., and Davidson J.S. Blast Resistance of Fully Grouted Reinforced Concrete Masonry Veneer Walls.
ASCE Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities, Vol. 28, No. 2, April 1, 2014.
10. Davidson, J.S., Hoemann, J.M., Salim, H.H., Shull, J.S., Dinan, R.J., Hammons, M.I., and Bewick B.T. Full-Scale Experi-
mental Evaluation of Partially Grouted, Minimally Reinforced CMU Walls Against Blast Demands. Air Force Research Labo-
ratory Report AFRL-RX-TY-TR-2011-0025, 2011.
11. Hoemann, J.M., Shull, J.S., Salim, H.H., Bewick, B.T., and Davidson, J.S. Performance of Partially Grouted, Minimally
Reinforced CMU Cavity Walls Against Blast Demands, Part II: Performance Under Impulse Loads. ASCE Journal of Perfor-
mance of Constructed Facilities, 2014.
12. Structures to Resist the Effects of Accidental Explosions, UFC 3-340-02. U.S. Department of Defense, 2008.
13. Single-Degree-of-Freedom Structural Response Limits for Antiterrorism Design, PDC-TR 06-08 Rev 1. U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers Protective Design Center Technical Report, 2008.
14. Baker Engineering and Risk Consultants, Inc. Component Explosive Damage Assessment Workbook (CEDAW). Prepared for
the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Protective Design Center, Contract No. DACA45-01-D-0007-0013, 2005.
15. Biggs, J.M. Introduction to Structural Dynamics. McGraw-Hill, 1964.
16. Chopra A.K. Dynamics of Structures: Theory and Application to Earthquake Engineering. Prentice-Hall, 2001.
17. Tedesco J.W., W.G. McDougal and C.A. Ross. Structural Dynamics. Addison-Wesley, 1999.
18. Single Degree of Freedom Blast Design Spreadsheet (SBEDS) Methodology Manual, PDC-TR 06-01. U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers Protective Design Center Technical Report, 2006.
19. Slawson, T.R. Wall Response to Airblast Loads: The Wall Analysis Code (WAC). Prepared for the U.S. Army ERDC, Contract
DACA39-95-C-0009, ARA-TR-95-5208, November, 1995.
20. Building Code Requirements and Specification for Masonry Structures, TMS 402/ACI 530/ASCE 5 and TMS 602/ACI 530.1/
ASCE 6, Masonry Standards Joint Committee, 2011 and 2013.

NCMA and the companies disseminating this technical information disclaim any and all responsibility and liability for the accuracy
and the application of the information contained in this publication.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION

13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171
www.ncma.org

To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index, contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900

NCMA TEK 14-21A 9


National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF DRY-STACK
MASONRY WALLS
Keywords: allowable stress design, architectural details,
bond beams, composite wall, construction details, construc-
tion techniques, dry-stack, lintels, mortarless masonry, pre-
stressed masonry, reinforced masonry, surface bonding
INTRODUCTION
Construction of masonry wall systems is possible
without the use of mortar. The use of standard CMU
units laid dry and subsequently surface bonded with Þber
reinforced surfaced bonding cement has been well documented
in the past. (ref. 16) With the use of specially fabricated concrete
masonry units known as “dry-stack units,” construction of these
mortarless systems is simple, easy and cost effective. This TEK
describes the construction and engineering design of such mor-
tarless wall systems.
The provisions of this TEK apply to both specialty units
manufactured speciÞcally for dry-stack construction and con-
ventional concrete masonry units with the following system
types:
• Grouted, partially grouted or surface bonded
• Unreinforced, reinforced, or prestressed
Note that dry-stacked prestressed systems are available that do
not contain grout or surface bonding. The provisions of this
Specialty Units for Dry-Stack Masonry
Face shell aligning Face shell aligning
slotted system slotted / tabbed system
Figure 1–– Dry-Stack Masonry Units
TEK 14-22 © 2003 National Concrete Masonry Association
NCMA TEK
TEK 14-22
Structural (2003)
TEK do not apply to such systems due to a difference in design
section properties (ref 8).
Specially designed units for dry-stack construction are
available in many different conÞgurations as shown in Figure
1. The latest and most sophisticated designs incorporate face
shell alignment features that make units easier and faster to
stack plumb and level. Other units are fabricated with a com-
bination of keys, tabs or slots along both horizontal and ver-
tical faces as shown in Figure 1 so that they may interlock
easily when placed. Physical tolerances of dry-stack concrete
units are limited to ±1/16 in. (1.58 mm.) which precludes the
need for mortaring, grinding of face shell surfaces or shim-
ming to even out courses during construction. Interlocking
units placed in running bond resist ßexural and shear stresses
resulting from out-of-plane loads as a result of the keying
action: (a) at the top of a web with the recess in the web of the
unit above, (b) at two levels of bearing surface along each face
shell at the bed joint, and (c) between adjacent blocks along
the head joint. The Þrst of these two interlocking mechanisms
also ensures vertical alignment of blocks.
The interlocking features of dry-stack units improve
alignment and leveling, reduce the need for skilled labor and
reduce construction time. Floor and roof systems can be sup-
ported by mortarless walls with a bond beam at the top of the
Standard CMU
Non-face shell aligning Non-face shell aligning
systems standard CMU
wall which expedites the construction process.
Wall strength and stability are greatly enhanced with
grouting which provides the necessary integrity to resist
forces applied parallel, and transverse to, the wall plane. Ver-
tical alignment of webs ensures a continuous grout column
even when the adjacent cell is left ungrouted. Grouting is
necessary to develop ßexural tensile stress normal to the bed
joints, which is resisted through unit-mortar bond for tradi-
tional masonry construction. Strength of grouted dry-stack
Dry-stack concrete
walls may also be enhanced by traditional reinforcement,
masonry units
prestressing, post-tensioning or with external Þber-reinforced
surface coatings (surface bonding) as described in the next
section.
Typical applications for mortarless concrete masonry
include basement walls, foundation walls, retaining walls, Grout in all cores
exterior above-grade walls, internal bearing walls and par-
titions. Dry-stack masonry construction can prove to be a
cost-effective solution for residential and low-rise commer-
cial applications because of it’s speed and ease of construc-
tion, strength and stability even in zones of moderate and
a. Unreinforced, fully grouted wall
high seismicity. More information on design and construc-
tion of dry-stack masonry can be found in Reference 5.

CONSTRUCTION

Dry-stack concrete masonry units can be used to con-

struct walls that are grouted or partially grouted; unrein-
dry-stack concrete
forced, reinforced or prestressed; or surface bonded. With masonry units
each construction type, walls are built by Þrst stacking con-
crete masonry units.
For unreinforced construction as shown in Figure
2a, grouting provides ßexural and shear strength to a wall
system. Flexural tensile stresses due to out-of-plane bending Grouted cores with vertical
are resisted by the grout cores. Grout cores also interlace reinforcing bars
units placed in running bond and thus provide resistance to
in-plane shear forces beyond that provided by friction devel-
oped along horizontal joints. Grout cores can also be rein- b. Reinforced, fully or partially grouted wall
forced to increase ßexural strength.
Reinforcement can be placed vertically, in which case
only those cells containing reinforcement may be grouted
as shown in Figure 2b, as well as horizontally, in which
case the masonry must be fully grouted. Another version is
to place vertical prestressing tendons in place of reinforce-
ment. Vertical axial compressive stress, applied via the ten- Fiber-reinforced sur-
dons, increases ßexural and shear capacity. Tendons may be face bonding cement
bonded to grout, or unbonded, based upon the design. Place- parged onto both sides
ment of grout may be optional. Horizontally reinforced bond
beam lintels can be created using a grout stop beneath the
unit to contain grout.
As an alternative to reinforcing or prestressing, wall
Dry-stack concrete
surfaces may be parged (coated) with a Þber-reinforced sur- masonry units
face bonding cement/stucco per ASTM C887(ref. 14) as
illustrated in Figure 2c. This surface treatment, applied to
both faces of a wall, bonds concrete units together without c. Surface bonded wall
the need for grout or internal reinforcement. The parging
material bridges the units and Þlls the joints between units Figure 2–– Basic Dry-Stack Masonry Wall Types
to provide additional bonding of the coating to the units
through keying action. The compressive strength of the
 Table 1 –– Summary of Wall Heights for 8” (203 mm) wall or in a bottom bond beam and are tensioned from the
Dry-stacked Units (ref. 5) top of a wall.
Construction Type
Grouted Grouted Surface Surface Bonded Walls
unreinforced reinforced bonded For walls strengthened with a surface bonding, a thin
layer of portland cement surface bonding material should
Basement
8’ - 0” 10’ - 8” 8’ - 0” be troweled or sprayed on to a wall surface. The thickness
walls
(2.44m) (3.25m) (2.62m) of the surface coating should be at least 1/8 in. (3.2 mm.)
Cantilevered or as required by the material supplier.
retaining walls 5’ -0” 8’ -8” 5’ 4”
(1.52m) (2.64m) (4.88m) ENGINEERING PROPERTIES
Single-story 15’ -0” 20’ -0” 16’ -0”
buildings (4.57m) (6.10m) (4.88m) Walls constructed with mortarless masonry can
be engineered using conventional engineering principles.
Multi-story 3 stories 4 stories 2 stories Existing building code recommendations such as that pro-
buildings* less than 32’-8” less than 40’ -8” less than 20’ -0”
(9.96m) in height (12.4m) in height (6.10m) in height duced by the building code (ref. 1) can serve as reference
documents, but at the time of this printing it does not
* Laterally supported at each ßoor
address mortarless masonry directly. It is thus considered
parging material should be equal to or greater than that of an alternate engineered construction type. The Interna-
the masonry units. tional Building Code (ref. 7) does list allowable stresses
based on gross-cross-sectional area for dry-stacked, sur-
face-bonded concrete masonry walls. These values are the
Laying of Units
The Þrst course of dry-stack block should be placed same as presented in TEK 3-5A (ref. 16). Suggested limits
on a smooth, level bearing surface of proper size and on wall or building height are given in Table 1.
strength to ensure a plumb and stable wall. Minor rough- Test data (refs. 2, 3 and 4) have shown that the
ness and variations in level can be corrected by setting the strength of dry-stack walls exceeds the strength require-
Þrst course in mortar. Blocks should be laid in running ments of conventional masonry, and thus the recommended
bond such that cells will be aligned vertically. allowable stress design practices of the code can be used
in most cases. When designing unreinforced, grouted
masonry wall sections, it is important to deduct the thick-
Grout and Reinforcement
Grout and grouting procedures should be the same ness of the tension side face shell when determining the
as used in conventional masonry construction (ref. 1, 10) section properties for ßexural resistance.
except that the grout must have a compressive strength
of at least 2600 psi (190 MPa) at 28 days when tested Unit and Masonry Compressive Strength
in accordance with ASTM C 1019 (ref.12). Placement Units used for mortarless masonry construction are
of grout can be accomplished in one lift for single-story made of the same concrete mixes as used for conventional
height walls less than 8 ft (2.43 m). Grout lifts must be masonry units. Thus, compressive strength of typical units
consolidated with an internal vibrator with a head size less could vary between 2000 psi (13.79MPa) and 4000 psi.
than 1 in. (25 mm). (27.58 MPa) Standard Methods of Sampling and Testing
Concrete Masonry Units (ref. 11) can be referred to for
determining strength of dry-stack units.
Vertical Reinforcing
As for conventional reinforced masonry construc- Masonry compressive strength f’m can conserva-
tion, good construction practice should include placement tively be based on the unit-strength method of the build-
of reinforcing bars around door and window openings, at ing code (ref . 15), or be determined by testing prisms in
the ends, top and bottom of a wall, and between intersect- accordance with ASTM C1314 (ref. 4). Test prisms can be
ing walls. Well detailed reinforcement such as this can either grouted or ungrouted depending on the type of wall
help enhance nonlinear deformation capacity, or ductility, construction speciÞed.
of masonry walls in building systems subjected to earth-
quake loadings - even for walls designed as unreinforced
elements. Additional information on conventional grout-
ing and reinforced masonry wall can be found in TEK 9-4
and TEK 3-3A (refs. 9 & 6).

Pre-stressed Walls
Mortarless walls can also be prestressed by placing
vertical tendons through the cores. Tendons can be
anchored within the concrete foundation at the base of a
Solid Grouted, Unreinforced Construction
Out-of-Plane & In-Plane Allowable Flexural Strength
Because no mortar is used to resist ßexural tension
as for conventional masonry construction, ßexural strength
of mortarless masonry is developed through the grout, rein-
forcement or surface coating. For out-of-plane bending of
solid grouted walls allowable ßexural strength can be esti-
mated based on ßexural tensile strength of the grout per
Equation 1.
M=(fa+Ft)Sg Equation 1
Consideration should be given to the reduction in
wall thickness at the bed joints when estimating geometri-
cal properties of the net effective section.
Correspondingly, ßexural strength based on masonry
compressive stress should be checked, particularly for
walls resisting signiÞcant gravity loads, using the unity
equation as given below.
fa fb
+ ≤1 Equation 2
F a Fb
Buckling should also be checked. (Ref. 8)
In-Plane Shear Strength
Shear strength for out-of-plane bending is usually
not a concern since ßexural strength governs design for
this case. For resistance to horizontal forces applied paral-
lel to the plane of a wall, Equation 3 may be used to esti-
mate allowable shear strength.
Ib
V= F
Q v Equation 3
Fv is the allowable shear strength by the lesser of the
three values given in Equation 4.
Fv = 1.5 f ‘m
Fv = 120 psi
N Vd
Fv = 60 psi + 0.45 Av
n Equation 4
Grouted, Reinforced Construction
Mortarless masonry that is grouted and reinforced
behaves much the same as for conventional reinforced and
mortared construction. Because masonry tensile strength
is neglected for mortared, reinforced construction, ßexural
mechanisms are essentially the same with or without the
bed joints being mortared provided that the units subjected
to compressive stress are in good contact. Thus, allow-
able stress design values can be determined using the same
assumptions and requirements of the MSJC code. (ref.1)
Out-of-Plane & In-Plane Allowable Flexural Strength
Axial and ßexural tensile stresses are assumed to be
resisted entirely by the reinforcement. Strains in reinforce-
ment and masonry compressive strains are assumed to vary
linearly with their distance from the neutral axis. Stresses
in reinforcement and masonry compressive stresses are
assumed to vary linearly with strains. For purposes of
estimating allowable ßexural strengths, full bonding of
reinforcement to grout are assumed such that strains in
reinforcement are identical to those in the adjacent grout.
For out-of-plane loading where a single layer of ver-
tical reinforcement is placed, allowable ßexural strength
can be estimated using the equations for conventional rein-
forcement with the lower value given by Equations 5 or 6.
Ms = AsFs jd Equation 5
Mm = 0.5Fb jkbd2 Equation 6
In-Plane Shear Strength
Though the MSJC code recognizes reinforced
masonry shear walls with no shear, or horizontal reinforce-
ment, it is recommended that mortarless walls be rein-
forced with both vertical and horizontal bars. In such case,
allowable shear strength can be determined based on shear
reinforcement provisions (ref. 1) with Equations 7, 8 and
9.
V = bdFv Equation 7
Where Fv is the masonry allowable shear stress per
Equations 8 or 9.
1 M M
M
for ≤ 1 Fv = 2 (4- ) f ’m <(120-45 ) psi
Vd Vd
Equation 8
M
for Vd ≥ 1 Fv = 1.5 f ’m < 75 psi
Equation 9
 Solid Grouted, Prestressed Construction
Mortarless masonry walls that are grouted and pre-
stressed can be designed as unreinforced walls with the
prestressing force acting to increase the vertical compres-
sive stress. Grout can be used to increase the effective area
of the wall. Flexural strength will be increased because of
the increase in the fa term in Equation 1. Shear strength
will be increased by the Nv term in Equation 4.
Because the prestressing force is a sustained force,
creep effects must be considered in the masonry. Research
on the long-term behavior of dry-stacked masonry by Mar-
zahn and Konig (ref. 8) has shown that creep effects may
be accentuated for mortarless masonry as a result of stress
concentrations at the contact points of adjacent courses.
Due to the roughness of the unit surfaces, high stress con-
centrations can result which can lead to higher non-propor-
tional creep deformations. Thus, the creep coefÞcient was
found to be dependent on the degree of roughness along
bed-joint surfaces and the level of applied stress. As a
result, larger losses in prestressing force is probable for
dry-stack masonry.
Surface-Bonded Construction
Dry-stack walls with surface bonding develop their
strength through the tensile strength of small Þberglass
Þbers in the 1/8” (3.8mm) thick troweled or surface bonded
cement-plaster coating ASTM C-887(Ref. 14). Because no
grouting is necessary, ßexural tension and shear strength
are developed through tensile resistance of Þberglass Þbers
applied to both surfaces of a wall. Test data has shown that
surface bonding can result in a net ßexural tension strength
on the order of 300 psi.(2.07 MPa) Flexural capacity,
based on this value, exceeds that for conventional, unrein-
forced mortared masonry construction, therefore it is con-
Figure 3 - A Mortarless Garden Wall Application
sidered conservative to apply the desired values of the code
(ref. 1) for allowable ßexural capacity for portland cement
/ lime type M for the full thickness of the face shell.
Out-of-Plane and In-Plane Flexural Strength
Surface-bonded walls can be considered as unrein-
forced and ungrouted walls with a net allowable ßexural
tensile strength based on the strength of the Þber-reinforce-
ment. Flexural strength is developed by the face shells
bonded by the mesh. Allowable ßexural strength can be
determined using Equation 1 with an Ft value deter-
mined on the basis of tests provided by the surface bonding
cement supplier. Axial and ßexural compressive stresses
must also be checked per Equation 2 considering again
only the face shells to resist stress.
Surface Bonded In-Plane Shear Strength
In-plane shear strength of surface-bonded walls is
attributable to friction developed along the bed joints
resulting from vertical compressive stress in addition to
the diagonal tension strength of the Þber coating. If the
enhancement in shear strength given by the Þber reinforced
surface parging is equal to or greater than that provided
by the mortar-unit bond in conventional masonry construc-
tion, then allowable shear strength values per the MSJC
code (ref. 1)may be used. In such case, section properties
used in Equation 3 should be based on the cross-section of
the face shells.
Figure 4 - A Residential, Mortarless, Single-Family
Basement - Part of a 520 Home Development
REFERENCES
NOTATION
1. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures), ACI 530-02/
ASCE 5-02/TMS 402-02. Reported by the Masonry Standards Joint An net cross-sectional area of masonry, in2 (mm2)
Committee (MSJC), 2002.
2. Drysdale, R.G., Properties of Dry-Stack Block, Windsor, Ontario, As effective cross-sectional area of reinforcement, in2 (mm2)
July 1999. b width of section, in. (mm)
3. Drysdale, R.G., Properties of Surface-Bonded Dry-Stack Block d distance from extreme compression Þber centroid of tension rein
Construction, Windsor,Ontario, January 2000.
4. Drysdale, R.G., Racking Tests of Dry-Stack Block, Windsor, forcement, in. (mm)
Ontario, October 2000. Fa allowable compressive stress due to axial load only, psi (MPa)
5. Drysdale, R.G., Design and Construction Guide for Azar Dry-Stack Fb allowable compressive stress due to ßexure only, psi (MPa)
Block Construction,JNE Consulting, Ltd., February 2001.
6. Grout for Concrete Masonry, TEK 9-4. National Concrete Masonry Fs allowable tensile or compressive stress in reinforcement, psi (MPa)
Association, 2002. Ft ßexural tensile strength of the grout, psi(MPa)
7. 2000 International Building Code, Falls Church, VA. International Fv allowable shear stress in masonry psi (MPa)
Code Council, 2000.
8. Marzahn, G. and G. Konig, Experimental Investigation of Long- fa calculated vertical compressive stress due to axial load, psi (MPa)
Term Behavior of Dry-Stacked Masonry, Journal of The Masonry fb calculated compressive stress in masonry due to ßexure only, psi
Society, December 2002, pp. 9-21. (MPa)
9. Reinforced Concrete Masonry Construction, TEK 3-3A. National
Concrete Masonry Association, 2001. f’ speciÞed compressive strength of masonry, psi (MPa)
10. SpeciÞcation for Masonry Structures, ACI 530.1-02/ASCE 6-02/ I moment of inertia in.4 (mm4)
TMS 602-02. Reported by the Masonry Standards Joint Committee j ratio of distance between centroid of ßexural compressive forces and
(MSJC), 2002.
11. Standard Methods of Sampling and Testing Concrete Masonry centroid of tensile forces to depth, d
Units, ASTM C140-02a, ASTM International, Inc. , Philadelphia, k ratio of the distance between compression face of the wall and neu
2002. tral axis to the effective depth d
12. Standard Method of Sampling and Testing Grout, ASTM C1019-02,
ASTM International, Inc., Philadelphia, 2002. M maximum moment at the section under consideration, in.-lb
13. Standard SpeciÞcation for Grout for Masonry, ASTM C 476-02. (N-mm)
ASTM International, Inc., 2002 Nv compressive force acting normal to the shear surface, lb (N)
14. Standard SpeciÞcation for Packaged, Dry, Combined Materials for
Surface Bonding Mortar, ASTM C 887-79a (2001). ASTM Interna Q Þrst moment about the neutral axis of a section of that portion of the
tional, Inc., 2001. cross section lying between the neutral axis and extreme Þber in.3
15. Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Masonry Assem (mm3)
blages, ASTM C1314-02a, ASTM International, Inc., Philadelphia,
2002. Sg section modulus of uncracked net section in.3 (mm3)
16. Surface Bonded Concrete Masonry Construction, TEK 3-5A. V shear force, lb (N)
National Concrete Masonry Association, 1998.

Disclaimer: Although care has been taken to ensure the enclosed information is accurate and complete as possible, NCMA does not
assume any responsiblity for errors or omissions resulting from the use of this TEK

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
13750 Sunrise Valley Drive Herndon, Virginia 20171-4662 contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
www.ncma.org
An information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology

DESIGN OF TEK 14-23

CONCRETE MASONRY INFILL Structural (2012)

INTRODUCTION MASONRY INFILL LOAD RESPONSE

Masonry infill refers to masonry used to fill the opening in Several stages of in-plane loading response occur with a
a structural frame, known as the bounding frame. The bound- participating masonry infill system. Initially, the system acts as
ing frame of steel or reinforced concrete is comprised of the a monolithic cantilever wall whereby slight stress concentra-
columns and upper and lower beams or slabs that surround the tions occur at the four corners, while the middle of the panel
masonry infill and provide structural support. When properly develops an approximately pure shear stress state. As loading
designed, masonry infills provide an additional strong, ductile continues, separation occurs at the interface of the masonry
system for resisting lateral loads, in-plane and out-of-plane. and the frame members at the off-diagonal corners. Once a
Concrete masonry infills can be designed and detailed gap is formed, the stresses at the tensile corners are relieved
to be part of the lateral force-resisting system (participating while those near the compressive corners are increased.
infills) or they can be designed and detailed to be structurally As loading continues, further separation between the ma-
isolated from the lateral force-resisting system and resist only sonry panel and the frame occurs, resulting in contact only near
out-of-plane loads (non-participating infills). the loaded corners of the frame. This results in the composite
Participating infills form a composite structural system with system behaving as a braced frame, which leads to the concept
the bounding frame, increasing the strength and stiffness of the of replacing the masonry infill with an equivalent diagonal
wall system and its resistance to earthquake and wind loads. strut, as shown in Figure 1. These conditions are addressed in
Non-participating infills are detailed with structural gaps the masonry standard.
between the infill and the bounding frame to prevent the unin-
tended transfer of in-plane loads from the frame into the infill.
Such gaps are later sealed for other code requirements such as
weather protection, air infiltration, energy conservations, etc.
Construction of concrete masonry infilled frames is rela-
tively simple. First, the bounding frame is constructed of either
reinforced concrete or structural steel, then the masonry infill
is constructed in the portal space. This construction sequence
allows the roof or floor to be constructed prior to the masonry
being laid, allowing for rapid construction of subsequent stories
or application of roofing material.
The 2011 edition of Building Code Requirements for Ma-
sonry Structures (MSJC Code, ref. 1) includes a new mandatory
language Appendix B for the design of masonry infills that can
be either unreinforced or reinforced. Appendix B provides a
straightforward method for the design and analysis of both
participating and non-participating infills. Requirements were
developed based on experimental research as well as field
performance.
Figure 1—Concrete Masonry Infill as a
Diagonal Strut

Related TEK: Keywords: building codes, connectors, masonry infill, structural design

NCMA TEK 14-23 1

 Participating masonry infills resist out-of-plane loads by an
arching mechanism. As out-of-plane loads increase beyond the
elastic limit, flexural cracking occurs in the masonry panel. This
cracking (similar to that which occurs in reinforced masonry)
allows for arching action to resist the applied loads, provided
the infill is constructed tight to the bounding frame and the
infill is not too slender.
IN-PLANE SHEAR FOR PARTICIPATING INFILLS
For participating infills, the masonry is either mortared
tight to the bounding frame so that the infill receives lateral
loads immediately as the frame displaces, or the masonry is
built with a gap such that the bounding frame deflects slightly
before it bears upon the infill. If a gap exists between the infill
and the frame, the infill is considered participating if the gap
is less than 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) and the calculated displacements,
according to MSJC Code Section B3.1.2.1. However, the in-
fill can still be designed as a participating infill, provided the
calculated strength and stiffness are reduced by half.
The maximum height-to-thickness ratio (h/t) of the par-
ticipating infill is limited to 30 in order to maintain stability.
The maximum thickness allowed is one-eighth of the infill
height.
The MSJC Code requires participating infills to fully in-
fill the bounding frame and have no openings—partial infills
or infills with openings may not be considered as part of the
lateral force resisting system because structures with partial
infills have typically not performed well during seismic events.
The partial infill attracts additional load to the column due to
its increased stiffness; typically, this results in shear failure of
the column.
The in-plane design is based on a braced frame model, with
the masonry infill serving as an equivalent strut. The width of
the strut is determined from Equation 1 (see Figure 1).
0.3 Eqn. 1
winf =
strut cos strut
where:
Emt net inf sin 2 strut Eqn. 2
= 4
strut
4 Ebc I bc hinf
The term λstrut, developed by Stafford Smith and Carter
(ref. 2) in the late 60s, is the characteristic stiffness parameter
for the infill and provides a measure of the relative stiffness
of the frame and the infill. Design forces in the equivalent
strut are then calculated based on elastic shortening of the
compression-only strut within the braced frame. The area of
the strut used for that analysis is determined by multiplying
the strut width from Equation 1 by the specified thickness of
the infill.
The infill capacity can be limited by shear cracking,
compression failure, and flexural cracking. Shear cracking can
be characterized by cracking along the mortar joints (which
includes stepped and horizontal cracks) and by diagonal
tensile cracking. The compression failure mode consists of
2 NCMA TEK 14-23
either crushing of the masonry in the loaded diagonal corners
or failure of the equivalent diagonal strut. The diagonal strut
is developed within the panel as a result of diagonal tensile
cracking. Flexural cracking failure is rare because separation
at the masonry-frame interface usually occurs first; then, the
lateral force is resisted by the diagonal strut.
As discussed above, the nominal shear capacity is determined
as the least of: the capacity infill corner crushing; the horizon-
tal component of the force in the equivalent strut at a racking
displacement of 1 in. (25 mm); or, the smallest nominal shear
strength from MSJC Code Section 3.2.4, calculated along a bed
joint. The displacement limit was found to be a better predictor
of infill performance than a drift limit.
Generally, the infill strength is reached at lower dis-
placements for stiff bounding columns, while more flexible
columns result in the strength being controlled at the 1-in.
(25-mm) displacement limit. While MSJC Code Section 3.2
is for unreinforced masonry, use of equations from that sec-
tion does not necessarily imply that the infill material must be
unreinforced. The equations used in MSJC Code Section 3.2
are more clearly related to failure along a bed joint and are
therefore more appropriate than equations from MSJC Code
Section 3.3 for reinforced masonry.
The equations used in the code are the result of comparing
numerous analytical methods to experimental results. They are
strength based. The experimental results used for comparison
were a mixture of steel and reinforced concrete bounding
frames with clay and concrete masonry. While some methods
presented by various researchers are quite complex, the code
equations are relatively simple.
OUT-OF-PLANE FLEXURE FOR
PARTICIPATING INFILLS
The out-of-plane design of participating infills is based on
arching of the infill within the frame. As out-of-plane forces are
applied to the surface of the infill, a two-way arch develops,
provided that the infill is constructed tight to the bounding
frame. The code equation models this two-way arching action.
As previously mentioned, the maximum thickness allowed
for calculation for the out-of-plane capacity is one-eighth of
the infill height. Gaps between the bounding frame on either
the sides or top of the infill reduce the arching mechanism
to a one-way arch and are considered by the code equations.
Bounding frame members that have different cross sectional
properties are accounted for by averaging their properties for
use in the code equations.
NON-PARTICIPATING INFILLS
Because non-participating infills support only out-of-plane
loads, they must be detailed to prevent in-plane load transfer
into the infill. For this reason, MSJC Code Section B.2.1
requires these infills to have isolation joints at the sides and
the top of the infill. These isolation joints must be at least 3/8
in. (9.5 mm) and sized to accommodate the expected design
displacements of the bounding frame, including inelastic
deformation due to a seismic event, to prevent the infill from
receiving in-plane loadings. The isolation joints may contain
filler material as long as the compressibility of the material is
taken into consideration when sizing the joint.
Mechanical connectors and the design of the infill itself
ensure that non-participating infills support out-of-plane loads.
Connectors are not allowed to transmit in-plane loads. The
masonry infill may be designed to span vertically, horizontally,
or both. The masonry design of the non-participating infill is
carried out based on the applicable MSJC Code sections for
reinforced or unreinforced masonry (Section 3.2 for unrein-
forced infill and Section 3.3 for reinforced infill using strength
design methods). Note that there are seismic conditions which
may require the use of reinforced masonry.
Because they support only out-of-plane loads, non-partici-
pating infills can be constructed with full panels, partial height
panels, or panels with openings. The corresponding effects on
the bounding frame must be included in the design.
BOUNDING FRAME FOR PARTICIPATING INFILLS
The MSJC Code provides guidance on the design loads
applied to the bounding frame members; however, the actual
member design is governed by the appropriate material code
and is beyond the scope of the MSJC Code.
The presence of infill within the bounding frame places
localized forces at the intersection of the frame members.
MSJC Code Section B.3.5 helps the designer determine the
appropriate augmented loads for designing the bounding frame
members. Frame members in bays adjacent to an infill, but
not in contact with the infill, should be designed for no less
than the forces (shear, moment, and axial) from the equivalent
strut frame analysis. In the event of infill failure, the loading
requirement on adjacent frame members ensures adequacy in
the frame design, thus preventing progressive collapse.
The shear and moment applied to the bounding column
must be at least the results from the equivalent strut frame
analysis multiplied by a factor of 1.1. The axial loads are not
to be less than the results of that analysis. Additionally, the
horizontal component of the force in the equivalent strut is
added to the design shear for the bounding column.
Similarly, the shear and moment applied to the bounding
beam or slab must be at least the results from the equivalent
strut frame analysis multiplied by a factor of 1.1, and the axial
loads are not to be less than the results of that analysis. The
vertical component of the force in the equivalent strut is added
to the design shear for the bounding beam or slab.
The bounding frame design should also take into consider-
ation the volumetric changes in the masonry infill material that
may occur over time due to normal temperature and moisture
variations. Shrinkage of concrete masonry infill material may
open gaps between the infill and the bounding frame that need
to be addressed. Guidance for these volumetric changes is
provided in MSJC Code Section 1.7.5.
CONNECTORS
Mechanical connectors between the bounding frame and
the infill provide out-of-plane support of the masonry, for
both participating and non-participating infills. Connectors
are required only for the direction of span (i.e., at the top and
NCMA TEK 14-23 3
bottom of the infill for infill spanning vertically, for example).
The connectors must be designed to support the expected
out-of-plane loads and may not be spaced more than 4 ft (1.2
m) apart along the perimeter of the infill. Figure 2 shows an
example of a mechanical connector composed of clip angles
welded to the bottom flange of the steel beam.
Connectors for both participating and non-participating
infills are not permitted to transfer in-plane loads from the
bounding frame to the infill. For participating infills, in-plane
loads are assumed to be resisted by a diagonal compression strut
(see Figure 1), which does not rely upon mechanical connectors
to transfer in-plane load. Research (ref. 3) has shown that when
connectors transmit in-plane loads they create regions of local-
ized stress and can cause premature damage to the infill. This
damage then reduces the infill's out-of-plane capacity because
arching action is inhibited.
EXAMPLE 1: DESIGN OF PARTICIPATING
MASONRY INFILL WALL FOR IN-PLANE LOADS
Consider the simple structure of Figure 3. The east and
west side walls are concrete masonry infills laid in running
bond, while the north and south walls are store-fronts typical
of convenience stores. Steel frames support all gravity loads
and the lateral load in the east-west direction. The bounding
columns are W10x45s oriented with the strong axis in the
east-west direction. The bounding beams above the masonry
infill are W10x39s. The masonry infill resists the lateral load
in the north-south direction.
Use nominal 8-in. (203-mm) concrete masonry units, f'm =
1,500 psi (10.34 MPa), and Type S PCL mortar. Assume hol-
low units with face-shell bedding only. The total wall height
measures 16 ft-10 in. (5.1 m) to the roof with the infill being 16
Clip angles at 4
ft (1.2 m) o.c.,
welded to the
top of the
bottom flange
of beam, but not
attached to
masonry
Figure 2—Example of Mechanical Infill Connector
 30 ft (9.14 m)
Store front

W 10 x 45
column (typ.)

30 ft (9.14 m)
Masonry infill

Store front
Plan Plan
ViewView
of Store

W10 x 39
10 in.
(254 mm)

W10 x 45

16 ft
(4.9 m)

8 in. (203 mm) Concrete masonry units

Infilled Wall Elevation

Figure 3—Convenience Store Layout for Design Examples 1 & 2

ft (4.9 m). The building is loaded with a wind load of 24 lb/ft2
calculated per ASCE 7-10 (ref. 6) in the north-south direction.
The roof acts as a one-way system, transmitting gravity loads
to the north and south roof beams. Infill and bounding beam
properties are summarized in Tables 1 and 2.
MSJC Code Section B.3.4.3 requires Vn inf to be the small-
est of the following:
• (6.0 in.)tnet inf f'm
• the calculated horizontal component of the force in the
equivalent strut at a horizontal racking displacement of 1.0
in. (25 mm)
• Vn /1.5, where Vn is the smallest nominal shear strength from
MSJC Code Section 3.2.4, calculated along a bed joint.
MSJC Code Section 3.2.4 requires the nominal shear
strength not exceed the least of the following:
• 3.8 An f m′
• 300An
• 56An + 0.45Nv for running bond masonry not fully grouted
and for masonry not laid in running bond, constructed of
open end units, and fully grouted
• 90An + 0.45Nv for running bond masonry fully grouted
• 23An for masonry not laid in running bond, constructed of
other than open end units, and fully grouted
As a result of the wind loading, the reaction transmitted to the
roof diaphragm is:
Reaction = 1/2 (24 lb/ft2)(16.83 ft)
= 202 lb/ft (2.95 kN/m)
Total roof reaction acting on one side of the roof is
Reaction = (202 lb/ft)(30 ft)
= 6,060 lb (27.0 kN)

4 NCMA TEK 14-23

 Table 1—Infill Properties
Property: Value: Notes
Vertical dimension of infill, hinf 192 in. (4,877 mm)
Plan length of infill, linf 360 in. (9,144 mm)
Specified thickness of infill, tinf 7.625 in. (194 mm)
Net thickness of infill, tnet inf 2.5 in. (64 mm) Face shell thickness x 2
Specified compressive strength of masonry, f'm 1,500 psi (10.34 MPa)
Modulus of elasticity of masonry in compression, Em 1,350,000 psi 9,300 MPa)

Table 2—Bounding Frame Properties for In-Plane Loads

Property: Value: Notes
Modulus of elasticity of bounding beams, Ebb 29,000,000 psi
(200,000 MPa)
Modulus of elasticity of bounding columns, Ebc 29,000,000 psi
(200,000 MPa)
Moment of inertia of bounding beams for bending in 209 in.4 Bounding beam strong axis
the plane of the infill, Ibb (8.7 x 10-5 m4)
Moment of inertia of bounding columns for bending in 53.4 in.4 Bounding column weak axis
the plane of the infill, Ibc (2.2 x 10-5 m4)

This reaction is divided evenly between the two masonry infills, The resulting strut width is then:
so the shear per infill is 3,030 lb (13.5 kN). 0.3
=winf = 8.7 in.
0.0392in.−1 × cos (28.1 )
Using the conservative loading case of 0.9D + 1.0W,
Vu = 1.0 Vunfactored = 1.0 (3,030 lb) = 3,030 lb (13.5 kN) The stiffness of the equivalent braced frame is determined by
a simple braced frame analysis where the stiffness is based on
To be conservative, the axial load to the masonry infill is the elastic shortening of the diagonal strut. The strut area is
taken as zero. taken as the width of the strut multiplied by the net thickness
of the infill.
To ensure practical conditions for stability, the ratio of the
nominal vertical dimension to the nominal thickness is limited The stiffness is:
to 30 for participating infills. The ratio for this infill is:
AEm cos2 2
winf tnet inf Em linf
h/t = 192 in./8 in. = 24 < 30 stiffness = =
The ratio is less than 30 and the infill is therefore acceptable d d3
as a participating infill. where d is the diagonal length of the infill, 34 ft (10.3 m) in
this case.
2
The width of the equivalent strut is calculated by Equation 1  in. 
8.7 in.× 2.5in.×1,350, 000 psi ×  30 ft ×12 
(MSJC Code Equation B-1):  ft 
stiffness =
0.3  in. 
3

winf =  34 ft ×12 
strut cos strut  ft 
where λstrut is given by Equation 2 (Code Equation B-2). = 56,030 lb/in. (818 kN/m)

The angle of the equivalent diagonal strut, θstrut, is the angle of
the infill diagonal with respect to the horizontal.
θstrut = tan-1 (hinf / linf) = tan-1 (192 in./360 in.) = 28.1o
Using Equation 2, the characteristic stiffness parameter, λstrut,
  for this infill is then:
  = 33,600 lb
  = 0.0392 in.-1
The nominal shear capacity, Vn, is then the least of:
• (6.0 in.)tnet inf f'm = (6.0 in.)(2.5 in.)(1,500 psi) = 22,500 lb
• (56,030 lb/in.)(1 in.) = 56,030 lb
• (3.8 f m′ An)/1.5 = [3.8 1,500 psi (30 ft x 30 in.2/ft)]/1.5
= 88,304 lb
• (300An)/1.5 = [300(30 ft x 30 in.2/ft)]/1.5 = 180,000 lb
• (56An + 0.45Nv)/1.5 = [56(30 ft x 30 in.2/ft) + 0.45 x 0]/1.5
Vn = 22,500 lb (100 kN)

NCMA TEK 14-23 5

The design shear capacity is:
ϕVn = 0.6 x 22,500 lb = 13,500 lb (60 kN) 1 2 0.25
arch = Ebc I bc hinf
hinf
The design shear capacity far exceeds the factored design shear 1
4 2 0.25
of 3,030 lb (13.5 kN), so the infill is satisfactory for shear. = 192in. (29, 000, 000 psi × 248in. × (192in.) )

= 21 lb0.25 (31 N0.25) < 35
Additionally, the provisions of MSJC Code Section B.3.5 re-
1
quire that the designer consider the effects of the infill on the 2 0.25
arch = Ebb I bblinf
bounding frame. To ensure adequacy of the frame members linf

and connections, the shear and moment results of the equiva-
lent strut frame analysis are multiplied by a factor of 1.1. The 1
= (29, 000, 000 psi × 45in.4 × (360in.) 2 )0.25
column designs must include the horizontal component of the 360in.

equivalent strut force, while the beam designs must include   = 10 lb0.25 (15 N0.25) < 35
the vertical component of the equivalent strut force. The axial
forces from the equivalent strut frame analysis must also be
considered in both the column and beam designs.
 
EXAMPLE 2: DESIGN OF PARTICIPATING
MASONRY INFILL WALL FOR OUT-OF-PLANE LOADS
  = 41.4 psf (2.0 kPa)
Design the infill from the previous example for an out-of-    
plane wind load W of 24 lb/ft2 (1.2 kPa) per ASCE 7-10 acting
The design flexural capacity is
on the east wall, using Type S PCL mortar, and units with a
ϕVn = 0.6 x 41.4 psf = 24.8 psf (1.2 kPa)
nominal thickness of 8 in. (203 mm). Assume hollow units

with face-shell bedding only and that the infill is constructed
The design flexural capacity exceeds the factored design wind
tight to the bounding frame such that there are no gaps at the
load pressure of 24 lb/ft2 (1.2 kPa), so the infill is satisfactory
top or sides of the infill. See Table 3 for frame properties.
for out-of-plane loading
MSJC Code Section B.3.6 provides the equations for the
nominal out-of-plane flexural capacity. MSJC Code Equation
NOTATIONS
B-5 requires that the flexural capacity of the infill be:
An = net cross-sectional area of a member, in.2 (mm2)
0.75 2  arch 
qn inf = 105 f m′ tinf  2.5 + arch 2.5 
D = dead load, psf (Pa)

 linf hinf  d = diagonal length of the infill, in. (mm)

Ebb = modulus of elasticity of bounding beams, psi (MPa)
where:
Ebc = modulus of elasticity of bounding columns, psi
1 2 0.25
arch = Ebc I bc hinf < 35 (MPa)
h inf Em = modulus of elasticity of masonry in compression,
psi (MPa)
1 0.25
= 2
Ebb I bblinf < 35 f'm = specified compressive strength of masonry, psi
arch
linf (MPa)
h = effective height of the infill, in. (mm)
hinf = vertical dimension of infill, in. (mm)
αarch = 0 if a side gap is present,
Ibb = moment of inertia of bounding beam for bending
βarch = 0 if a top gap is present, and
in the plane of the infill, in.4 (mm4)
tinf < 1/8 hinf.
Ibc = moment of inertia of bounding column for bending
in the plane of the infill, in.4 (mm4)
Using the conservative loading case of 0.9D + 1.0W, the design
linf = plan length of infill, in. (mm)
wind load pressure is:
Nv = compressive force acting normal to shear surface,
q = 1.0W = 1.0 x 24 psf = 24 psf (1.15 kPa)
lb (N)
tinf = 7.625 in. < (1/8)(192 in.), OK
qn inf = nominal out-of-plane flexural capacity of infill per

Table 3—Bounding Frame Properties for Out-of Plane Loads

Property: Value: Notes
Moment of inertia of bounding beams for bending in the plane of the 45 in. (1.9 x 10-5 m4)
4
Beam weak axis
infill, Ibb
Moment of inertia of bounding columns for bending in the plane of the 248 in.4 (1.0 x 10-4 m) Column strong axis
infill, Ibc
All other design parameters are the same as used in Example 1.

6 NCMA TEK 14-23

 unit area, psf (Pa)
t = nominal thickness of infill, in. (mm)
tinf = specified thickness of infill, in. (mm)
tnet inf = net thickness of infill, in. (mm)
Vn = nominal shear strength, lb (N)
Vn inf = nominal horizontal in-plane shear strength of infill,
lb (N)
Vu = factored shear force, lb (N)
Vunfactored = unfactored shear force, lb (N)
NCMA TEK 14-23 7
W = out of plane wind load, psf (Pa)
winf = width of equivalent strut, in. (mm)
αarch = horizontal arching parameter for infill, lb0.25 (N0.25)
βarch = vertical arching parameter for infill, lb0.25 (N0.25)
λstrut = characteristic stiffness parameter for infill, in.-1
(mm-1)
θstrut = angle of infill diagonal with respect to the hori-
zontal, degrees
ϕ = strength reduction factor
REFERENCES
1. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures,TMS 402-11/ACI 530-11/ASCE 5-11. Reported by the Masonry Standards
Joint Committee, 2011.
2. Stafford-Smith, B. and Carter, C. (1969) "A Method for the Analysis of Infilled Frames." Proceedings of the Institution of Civil
Engineers, 44, 31-48.
3. Dawe, J. L., and Seah, C. K. (1989a). "Behavior of Masonry Infilled Steel Frames." Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering,
Ottowa, 16, 865-876.
4. Tucker, Charles J. "Infilling the Frame With Masonry." Structure, May 2012.
5. Tucker, Charles J. "Changing Masonry Standards: Masonry Infills." Structure, Feb. 2012.
6. Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE SEI 7-10. American Society of Civil Engineers Structural
Engineering Institute, 2010.

NCMA and the companies disseminating this technical information disclaim any and all responsibility and liability for the accuracy
and the application of the information contained in this publication.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION

13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171
www.ncma.org

To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index, contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900

8 NCMA TEK 14-23

An information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology

DESIGN OF REINFORCED
CONCRETE MASONRY TEK 14-24
DIAPHRAGM WALLS Structural (2017)

INTRODUCTION

Masonry is a versatile and robust structural system. The
available variety of materials, shapes and strengths offers
countless opportunities to create many types of masonry ele-
ments. Masonry’s versatility offers a continuous spectrum of
systems from unreinforced to reinforced or post-tensioned.
One example of such versatility is reinforced diaphragm
walls. While not specifically mentioned in Building Code
Requirements for Masonry Structures (TMS 402) (ref. 1), re-
inforced diaphragm walls can be designed and constructed
using criteria in that standard.
Diaphragm walls are cellular walls composed of two wy-
thes of masonry with a large cavity or void; the wythes of
which are bonded together with masonry ribs or crosswalls
(see Figure 1). The ribs are connected to the wythes in such
a way that the two wythes act compositely, thereby giving
a fully composite section. This TEK covers the structural
design of reinforced diaphragm walls. See TEK 3-15, Con-
struction of Reinforced Concrete Masonry Diaphragm Walls,
(ref. 2) for information on constructing diaphragm walls.
Figure 1 shows an example of a diaphragm wall con-
structed with concrete masonry units and its associated ter-
minology. The reinforced wythes can be fully or partially
grouted. The exterior face can be treated as the weathering
side of the wall as shown in Figure 1, or an anchored veneer
can be used on the exterior face. The internal cavity (void) of
the diaphragm wall is left open.
ADVANTAGES
Reinforced diaphragm walls present several opportuni-
ties for masonry design. These include:
1. Diaphragm construction can efficiently create strong, stiff
walls with individual units bonded together. Consider the
economy of building a 24-in. (610-mm) thick wall with
two 6 in. (152 mm) wythes and a 12 in. (305 mm) cavity
rather than a solid 24 in. (610 mm) wall.
2. Thick diaphragm walls can be designed to span much further
horizontally or vertically than single wythe walls or conven-

Exterior
t wythe Reinforced wythe

t wall
Internal cavity (void) Rib (crosswall)

t rib
Rib
spacing

Interior

Figure 1—Typical Reinforced Diaphragm Wall

Related TEK: Keywords: allowable stress design, crosswalls, design example, dia-
3-15, 10-2C, 10-3, 14-7C, phragm, diaphragm walls, reinforced masonry, ribs, tall walls, void
14-11B, 14-13B, 19-2B, 19-5A

NCMA TEK 14-24 1

 tional composite walls. It is also possible to make very tall
walls by virtue of the large sectional stiffness (ref. 3).
3. The greater thickness of diaphragm walls can also be used
to replicate historic walls (buildings of Gothic style, mon-
asteries, etc.) using modern methods.
4. The walls can have exposed, finished surfaces inside and
out, and those finishes can be different because they are
created by two individual wythes of masonry units.
5. The exterior wythe can be flashed and drained similar to
the conventional back-up of an anchored veneer in cav-
ity wall construction as detailed in TEK 19-5A, Flashing
Details for Concrete Masonry Walls, or for single wythe
walls per TEK 19-2B, Design for Dry Single-Wythe Con-
crete Masonry Walls (refs. 4, 5).
6. The large interior voids allow for placement of insulation
and utilities.
7. These walls can generate significant out-of-plane load ca-
pacity while supporting in-plane lateral loads.
8. The two distinct wythes provide a resilient system that
can resist debris penetration from a high wind event and
also provide great protection to potential blasts. With the
high out-of-plane lateral load resistance, these walls can
provide a good option for safe rooms or community rooms
in tornado and hurricane regions.
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Unreinforced diaphragm walls have been used in Great
Britain for decades. Many have been built using both con-
crete and clay masonry (Reference 3 provides wall dia-
phragm design criteria for concrete masonry assemblies used
in Great Britain). The philosophy for unreinforced masonry
in flexure is that the mortar controls the flexural tensile resis-
tance and the composite of masonry and mortar controls both
the compressive and shear stresses.
Valuable characteristics of unreinforced diaphragm
walls are that the net section properties are easily calculated
and they have a large moment of inertia. Given that they are
thick, unreinforced diaphragm walls are effective at resisting
out-of-plane loads and are inherently very stiff. Unreinforced
Figure 2—Fire Station With Diaphragm Wall
(courtesy of Malcolm Phipps)
2 NCMA TEK 14-24
walls, however, often crack before deflections control the
performance. To further increase the bending resistance of
unreinforced diaphragm walls, many walls in Great Britain
have been post-tensioned. The post-tensioning tendons are
often placed in the void, unbonded and unrestrained, and pro-
tected from corrosion.
Unreinforced diaphragm walls have been used for sports
halls, swimming pools, theaters, cinemas and other buildings
that require tall walls. Other applications include tall free-
standing walls, retaining walls, and replicating historical con-
struction.
Figure 2 shows a fire station in Great Britain with post-
tensioned diaphragm sidewalls (arrows). These walls provide
lateral stability for the building in both directions. As with
traditional masonry buildings, the sidewalls are shear walls
and resist loads acting on the front and rear of the building.
In the transverse direction (plane of the overhead doors), the
large openings leave short pier sections. Therefore, the dia-
phragm walls are designed to act as cantilever walls to pro-
vide the transverse building stability. This is a unique design
solution because most masonry buildings do not depend upon
the out-of-plane strength and stiffness of the walls to provide
stability against lateral loads. Diaphragm walls, however, can
be designed with sufficient thickness to develop the neces-
sary out-of-plane strength and stiffness.
Figure 3 shows a cross-section of a bridge abutment
and a photograph of the completed bridge where unrein-
forced post-tensioned brick diaphragm walls were used.
Various bridges also use diaphragm walls for the cantilever
wingwalls.
Diaphragm walls have not been specifically addressed
by name in codes and standards in the United States. Even
the definition of a diaphragm wall does not exist, however,
Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures (TMS
402) includes design methodologies for unreinforced mason-
ry using allowable stress design and strength design, as well
as design criteria for composite assemblies. Therefore, un-
reinforced and reinforced diaphragm walls can be designed
using the existing standards, despite the fact that there is no
specifically stated diaphragm wall criteria.
REINFORCED DIAPHRAGM WALLS
Even though unreinforced masonry is possible in areas
of the United States, reinforced masonry is more widely ad-
opted. Most regions require reinforcement for commercial
masonry construction based upon the International Building
Code (IBC) (ref. 6).
TMS 402 provides design methodologies for reinforced
masonry using allowable stress methods, post-tensioning,
and strength design. These provisions can all be applied to
reinforced concrete masonry diaphragm walls.
Design Detailing
Regardless of the design method utilized, there are some
detailing criteria that apply equally to all reinforced dia-
phragm walls. These criteria are outlined below.
 Therefore, the effective clear spacing between
ribs is 12·twythe for walls without control joints (6·twythe
from each rib), and the effective flange width is
12·twythe plus trib. Figure 4 illustrates how this effec-
tive flange width is smaller when a control joint is
located at a rib. When placing a control joint between
ribs, the flanging effect does not extend past the con-
trol joint.
It is possible to extend the rib spacing beyond
12·twythe, however, only the 12·twythe plus trib portion
of the flange can be considered to be effective in the
design calculations.

Movement joint
Sill beam and ballast wall
b) Flange Thickness
The masonry unit selected for the flange wythe
dictates the flange thickness (twythe). To accommodate
reinforcement, a 6-in. (152-mm) concrete masonry
unit is the smallest practical unit to be used. Larger
units can be used to accommodate larger bars and
provide larger compression areas.

Permanent form work c) Grouting

1 in. (25 mm)
diameter galvanized
prestressing bar 2 in. (50 mm) diameter
galvanized prestressing bar
Couplers Drainage blanket
Porous pipe with granular
bed and surround
The choice of full vs. partial grouting is a func-
tion of design:
1. If the compression area required by out-of-plane
design exceeds the face shell thickness of the wythe,
the recommendation is to fully grout the flanges. Al-
ternatively, the designer can use partial grouting and
perform a T-beam analysis on the wall.
2. If the compression area does not exceed the face
shell thickness of the wythe, either partial or full
grouting can be used without using the more cum-
bersome T-beam analysis.
3. The ribs are often fully grouted, but they can also
be designed with partial grouting.

Figure 3—Cross-Section of Diaphragm Walls for Abutment
and Completed Bridge
(courtesy of Malcolm Phipps)
a) Spacing of Ribs
The ribs of the reinforced diaphragm wall act as webs
for out-of-plane loads and connect the wythes structurally to
create a composite section.
It is preferable that the ribs be spaced so that the flanges
are fully effective in resisting applied loads. This is con-
trolled by TMS 402 Section 5.1.1.2 which governs wall inter-
sections. For reinforced walls where both flanges experience
compression and tension, TMS 402 requires the effective
flange width on either side of the web to not exceed 6 times
the flange thickness or 0.75 times the floor-to-floor height.
In addition, the effective flange width must not extend past a
control joint.
NCMA TEK 14-24 3
d) Masonry Bond
TMS 402 Section 5.1.1.2.1 requires that inter-
secting walls be constructed in running bond for
composite flanging action to occur. Therefore, re-
inforced diaphragm walls are always constructed in
running bond.
e) Connecting the Ribs to the Wythes
TMS 402 Section 5.1.1.2.5 requires that the con-
nection of intersecting walls conform to one of the
following requirements:
1. At least fifty percent of the masonry units at the interface
must interlock.
2. Walls must be anchored by steel connectors grouted into
the wall and meeting the following requirements:
(a) Minimum size: 1/4 in. x 1-1/2 in. x 28 in. (6.4 x 38.1 x
711 mm) including a 2-in. (50.8-mm) long, 90-degree
bend at each end to form a U or Z shape.
(b) Maximum spacing: 48 in. (1,219 mm).
3. Intersecting reinforced bond beams must be provided at
a maximum spacing of 48 in. (1,219 mm) on center. The
area of reinforcement in each bond beam must be not less
than 0.1 in.2 per ft (211 mm2/m) multiplied by the vertical

beffective at control joint
(6 twythe + trib ), not to exceed 1/2 rib spacing
beffective in field of wall
(12 twythe + trib ), not to exceed rib spacing
Figure 4—Effective Flange Width, beffective
spacing of the bond beams in feet (meters). Reinforcement
must be developed on each side of the intersection.
The use of bond beams in requirement 3 above is one
way of handling the interface shear requirement. However,
the equations below can also be used for this purpose:
For allowable stress design:
fv = V/An TMS 402 Section 8.3.5.1.1 (Eqn. 8-21)
where Fv is controlled by Section 8.3.5.1.2.
For strength design, the shear strength, fv, is controlled by
TMS 402 Section 9.3.4.1.2.
f) Control (Movement) Joints
TEKs 10-2C, Control Joints for Concrete Masonry
Walls—Empirical Method and 10-3, Control Joints for Con-
crete Masonry Walls—Alternative Engineered Method (refs.
7, 8) are the industry standards for determining control joint
spacing. Both were developed for single wythe walls with
and without horizontal reinforcement.
There is no specific research on shrinkage characteristics
of reinforced diaphragm walls. Vertical reinforcement has
no effect on crack control and vertical ribs would seem to
act similarly. Until research becomes available, the current
recommendation is to use the existing industry crack control
recommendations to space control joints for reinforced dia-
phragm walls (refs. 7, 8).
Additional attention must be placed on the size of the
corner control joints if the diaphragm walls are used to sup-
port out-of-plane loads (see Design Example).
Allowable Stress Design of Reinforced
Diaphragm Walls
The allowable stress design (ASD) methodology for
reinforced diaphragm walls is similar to reinforced single
wythe wall design and is discussed in TEK 14-7C, Allowable
Stress Design of Concrete Masonry (ref. 9). The maximum
4 NCMA TEK 14-24
wall height is controlled by the loadings and
slenderness effects. The slenderness effects
are based upon the h/r ratio and prevent the
wall from buckling.
Strength Design of Reinforced
Diaphragm Walls
The strength design method has no spe-
cific limit on h/t, however, it has design cri-
teria that limit service load deflections and
ultimate moment capacity for out-of-plane
loads. The service load deflections cannot
exceed 0.7 percent of the wall height. For a
30-ft (9.1 m) wall, that is 2.5 in. (64 mm) of
deflection for a simply supported wall.
There is an axial load capacity limita-
tion when h/t exceeds 30: the factored axial
load for these walls must be limited to 5
percent of f ’m based upon the gross section
properties.
The design methodology is similar to
single wythe design and is discussed in
NCMA TEK 14-11B, Strength Design of
Concrete Masonry Walls for Axial Load and Flexure (ref.
10).
Reinforced Concrete Masonry
Diaphragm Walls Using Post-tensioned Masonry
Design
Post-tensioned masonry design of diaphragm walls is
the same as single wythe design, however, the large void in
diaphragm walls provides an opportunity for the tendons to
be placed eccentrically as needed for the loadings. Placed
inside the void, the tendons are generally unbonded and un-
restrained, although adding restraint will improve the perfor-
mance of the wall.
Seismic Design
TMS 402 and ASCE 7 (refs. 1, 11) provide additional
criteria for seismic design of walls that need to be considered
as for any other masonry wall. This includes the degree of
grouting and the inclusion of prescriptive reinforcement.
DESIGN EXAMPLE: WINGWALL DESIGN FOR A
REINFORCED CONCRETE MASONRY
MAINTENANCE STORAGE FACILITY
Figure 5 shows the basic building layout for the design
example. The front and rear walls are perforated with 20 ft x
20 ft (6.1 x 6.1 m) overhead doors for vehicle access. Control
joints are shown over the door openings; the pier sections are
6 ft (1.8 m) in length. The endwalls have personnel access
openings. Because the front and rear walls are perforated, the
pier sections may not have sufficient in-plane stiffness and
strength. Therefore, the endwalls should be designed to brace
the building in both directions.
Although the roof structure is not shown, long-span
joists bear on the front and rear sidewalls (i.e., the walls with
the large perforations); the endwalls are nonloadbearing. The
roof diaphragm would be designed to distribute the front- at 32 in. (813 mm) on center vertically over the height of
rear lateral loads to the endwalls, which must be designed as the wall (TEK 10-3, Table 3 for fully grouted walls).
conventional shear walls. Conventional shear wall design is To minimize the possible number of control joints in the
covered by the Masonry Designer's Guide (ref. 12) and is not diaphragm walls, select option c) with the horizontal bond
covered here. beams. Provide control joints only at the corners (Figure 5).
The roof diaphragm will not be used to brace the side-to- If the designer chooses to use horizontal joint reinforcement
side lateral forces. For this example, the out-of-plane design
(the large red arrow in Figure 5 depicts the out-of-plane load)
will treat the endwalls as diaphragm walls acting as cantile-
vers to brace the building for the side-to-side lateral loads
similar to Figure 2. This decision exempts the roof diaphragm
from the strength and stiffness requirements for lateral loads
that are perpendicular to the plane of the roof trusses. These
requirements are typically met by horizontal braces between
roof trusses. 30 ft
(9.1 m)
Input:
Location: Coastal US, South Carolina 10
Loadings: ASCE 7-16, Part 2 for wind design (31 4 ft
.7
m) ft
Masonry Standard: TMS 402, ASD method 80 m)
. 4
Because no bracing is used at the top of the wall, component (24
and cladding loads will be used to design the wall.

1. Proposed wall section: Use 6-in. (152-mm) concrete Figure 5—Maintenance Facility for Design Example 1
masonry units for wythes and 8-in. (203-mm) for ribs (see
Figure 6).
Masonry units: ASTM C90 (ref. 13), f’m = 2,000 psi
(13.8 MPa); unit weight 125 pcf (2,000 kg/m3)
Reinforcement: ASTM A615 (ref. 14), Grade 60
Grout: ASTM C476 (ref. 15), 2,000 psi (13.8 MPa)
Mortar: ASTM C270 (ref. 16), Type S
Begin the design assuming the wall is fully grouted
and verify later (Item 10).

2. Select control joint spacing:

The three possible options are: b ef f ective
a) Using TEK 10-2C (empirical method), space con-
trol joints at the lesser of 1.5h = 45 ft (13.7 m),
max 25 ft (7.62 m). The 25 ft (7.62 m) criteria 66.3 psf 30 ft tall
governs. The required horizontal reinforcement (3.17 kPa) (9.1 m)
in the walls is 0.025 in.2/ft (TEK 10-2C, Table diaphragm
1). This corresponds to two-wire W1.7 (9 gauge, wall
MW11) joint reinforcement in each wythe at 16
in. (406 mm) on center vertically over the height
of the wall (TEK 10-2C, Table 2). 6 in. (152 mm)
b) Using TEK 10-3 (alternative engineered meth- concrete
od), space control joints at the lesser of 2.5h = masonry
75 ft or 25 ft (7.62 m). Again, the 25 ft (7.62 unit wythes
m) criteria governs. The required horizontal rein-
forcement in the walls is 0.0007An, which corre-
sponds to two-wire W1.7 (9 gauge, MW11) wire
8 in. (203 mm)
joint reinforcement at 8 in. (203 mm) on center
concrete
vertically over the height of the wall (TEK 10-3,
masonry
Tables 1 and 2). unit ribs
c) Using TEK 10-3, space control joints at any twall
length provided the horizontal reinforcement in
the walls exceeds 0.002An (TEK 10-3, Table 1 Wall Section Plan
footnote 2). This corresponds to 0.135 in2/ft or
one No. 6 (M#19) reinforcing bar in bond beams Figure 6—Wall Sections

NCMA TEK 14-24 5

and not bond beams, the maximum control joint spacing
would be 25 ft (7.62 m) using either options a) or b).
While the inner wythe will generally be exposed princi-
pally to shrinkage with only minor thermal effects, it is com-
mon to reinforce both wythes similarly.
3. Determine wind loads: From ASCE 7-16 Part 2, the
suction load at the Exterior Zone (5) is calculated as 66.3 psf
(3.17 kPa) (see Figure 6). In ASCE 7, wind loads are strength
level. Roof dead load is ignored at the nonbearing wall.
= 13.0 psf/ft of wall
PDL = (124 + 13.0) x 30 ft = 4,110 lb/ft of wall (60 kN/m)
9. Load combination:
0.6 PDL + 0.6W from ASCE 7-16 for ASD
Note: This one load combination is shown for this exam-
ple. The designer must check all combinations required by
ASCE 7.
P = 0.6PDL = 0.6 (4,110) = 2,466 lb/ft (36 kN/m)
M = 0.6 Mu, wind = Mser = 17,901 ft-lb/ft (79.6 kN-m/m)

4. Determine base of wall loads: 10. Determine n:

Vu = 66.3 psf × 30 = 1,989 lb/ft of wall (29.0 kN/m) From TMS 402 Section 4.2.2:
Mu = 66.3 x (30)2/2= 29,835 ft-lb/ft of wall (132 kN-m/m) Es = 29,000,000 psi (200,000 MPa)
Vser = 0.6 Vu = 1,193 lb/ft of wall (17.4 kN/m) Em = 900f’m = 1,800,000 psi (12,410 MPa)
Mser = 0.6 Mu = 17,901 ft-lb/ft of wall (79.6 kN-m/m) n = Es/Em = 16.1
Note: 0.6 reduces Vu to ASD per ASCE 7.
For As = 0. 44 in.2/ft (from 7 above),
5. Determine beffective: in field of wall (solid region away nρ = nAs /bd = 16.1(0.44)/12(20.82) = 0.028
from openings): If P = 0, approximate k = √ (nρ)2 + 2nρ - nρ = 0.222;
beffective = 12twythe + trib = 12(6 in.) + 8 in. = 80 in. (2,032 mm) j = 1- (k/3) = 0.926
kd = 4.62 > tface of 6-in. CMU but less than the wythe thick-
6. Determine minimum twall to satisfy shear capacity: ness. Axial load may increase kd. Therefore, grouting the full
Vrib = Vser × 80/12 = 7,953 lb (35.4 kN) wythe is appropriate.
fv = Vrib/Arib = 7,953/[(7.63 in.)·twall]
(TMS 402, Equation 8-21) 11. Design for PDL and M:
(see Figure 7)
Fv ≤ 2 f 'm γg = 89 psi,
From statics: P = C - T
assuming M/Vd > 1.0 and γg = 1.0
M = C x em + T (d - twall/2)
(TMS 402, Equation 8-24)
Per foot: C = 1/2(kd)fm x 12 in.
This produces twall ≥ 11.7 in. (297 mm)
fm = Em εm
T = As fs
Checking M/Vd = 17,901/[1,193 x (<1 ft)] = 15.0 > 1.0 OK
fs = Es εs
em = twall/2 – kd/3
Shear is not an issue. The prescriptive requirements for the
intersection of the ribs and flanges are sufficient.
From strain compatibility: εm/kd = εs(d - kd)
(fm /Em)/kd = (fs/Es)/(d - kd) → fs = n [(d - kd)/kd] fm
7. Determine minimum twall due to moment capacity:
Try a rib length of 1.5 courses of concrete masonry.
twall = 15.625 in. unit + 0.375 in. mortar joint + 7.625 in. half
unit = 23.63 in. (600 mm)
d = 23.63 in. – (5.63 in./2) = 20.82 in. (529 mm)
As
Ignoring axial load, Wall cross-section
As (estimated) = Mser /(28.8d)
= (17,901/1,000)(12 in./ft)/[28.8 x 20.82]
= 0.36 in.2/ft (0.77 mm2/mm) twall
23.63 in. (0.6 m)
Maximum bar size = No. 6 = 0.75 in. (19 mm) per TMS
6.1.2.5. Try 2 No. 6 bars at 24 in. (As = 0.44 in.2/ft) (2- M#19 kd
@ 610 mm). Check maximum area of reinforcement < 6 per- s

cent (TMS 6.1.2.4): 2 x 0.44/(4x6) is equivalent ot 3.7 per- Strain diagram

m
cent...OK

8. Determine wall dead load at base of wall: d = 20.82 in. (0.5 m)

From TEK 14-13B (ref. 17):
wall weight of 125 pcf 6 in. fully grouted concrete masonry kd/3 Force diagram
d - t wall /2 em
= 62 psf (303 kg/m2)
T C
125 pcf 8 in. fully grouted = 84 psf (411 kg/m2)
Flange load: 2 wythes x 62 psf = 124 psf per ft
Figure 7—Force and Strain Diagrams
Rib load: [23.63 in. - 2(5.63 in.)]/12 x 84 psf/80 in./12

6 NCMA TEK 14-24

Therefore, C = 6(kd)fm
T = 0.44(16.1)((20.82 - kd)/kd)) fm
= 7.08((20.82 - kd)/(kd)) fm
Solving for P = C - T and M = C em + T (d - twall/2)
gives kd = 4.86 in. (123 mm) and fm = 417 psi (2.9 MPa)
Checking:
C = 12,160 lb (54 kN)
T = 9,695 lb (43 kN)
P = 2,466 lb (10.9 kN) OK
em = twall/2 – kd/3 = 10.2 in. (259 mm)
M = C em + T (d - twall/2)
= 12,160(10.2)/12 + 9,695(20.82 - 23.63/2)/12
= 17,607 ft-lb approx. = M =17,901 ft-lb OK
Check:
fm = 417 psi < Fb = 0.45 f’m = 900 psi (6.2 MPa)
OK (TMS 402 8.3.4.2.2)
fs = 16.1((20.82 - 4.86)/4.86) 417 psi = 22,047 psi (152 MPa)
fs < Fs = 32,000 psi (221 MPa) OK (TMS 402 8.3.3.1)
TMS 402 Section 8.3.4.2.1 requires an additional check
for Pa alone. The design engineer is generally advised to per-
form this check. However, it rarely controls for diaphragm
walls due to the stiff wall section. For this example there is
no applied axial load, so the check is not required.
Therefore, this section checks using two No. 6 bars at
24 in. on center (two M#19 at 610 mm) in a fully grouted
diaphragm wall. Note that this only applies to the end zone in
suction. The design calculations should be repeated:
a. for pressure load on the end zone,
b. for pressure and suction over the interior zone,
c. over the height of the wall to reduce the amount of vertical
reinforcement, and
d. the design should be checked adjacent to control joints
and openings.
Using the walls to support of out-of-plane loads re-
quires the foundations to be designed and detailed for the
cantilever walls.
12. Horizontal span of exterior wythe
Check that the exterior wythe is adequately reinforced to span
horizontally between the ribs. From the control joint spacing
analysis (Item 2), we have No. 6 bars (M#19) in bond beams
at 32 in. (813 mm) on center vertically. The span between ribs
is 80 in. or 6.67 ft (2,032 mm) from Item 5.
Because the No. 8 (M#25) vertical bars occupy the cen-
ter of the wythe, the horizontal bars are offset such that the d
value for the bond beam is:
d = 5.625/2 – 1.0/2 - 0.75/2
= 1.93 in. (49 mm)
Load on the bond beam = 66.3 psf x 32 in./12
= 177 plf (2.6 kN/m)
Mu = 177 x (6.67)2 /8 = 984 ft-lb (1.34 kN-m)
beffective = 32 in. (813 mm)
a = As fy /0.8 (f’m)b
= 0.44(60,000)/0.8(2,000)32
= 0.52 in. (13 mm)
< face shell thickness (tface = 0.75 in., 19 mm)
NCMA TEK 14-24 7
OK…no need for T-beam analysis
Mu capacity = f [As fy (d – a/2)]
= 0.9 [0.44(60,000)( 1.93 – 0.52/2) /12]
= 3,306 ft-lb (4.5 kN-m) > 984 ft-lb (1.34 kN-m) OK
Therefore, bond beams at 32 in. (813 mm) o.c. vertically with
No. 6 bars (M#19) works for both crack control and lateral
loads. The same is used on the interior wythe.
13. Check deflection at top of the wall for a cantilever:
Using loads and section properties for beffective.
δ = 1/4 [Mcr h2/Em Ig] + 1/4[(Mser – Mcr) h2/Em Icr]
This equation is a modified version of TMS 402 Equation
9-26. The first modification was converting Equation 9-26
from strength to service loads. Equation 9-26 was developed
for a simply supported wall. The second modification was
converting it to a cantilever wall.
Ig = b (twall)3/12 – (b - trib)( twall – 2twythe)3/12
Ig = (80 in.)(23.63)3/12 – (80 - 7.63)(23.63 - 2(5.63))3/12
Ig = 87,963 - 11,415 = 76,578 in.4 (0.032 m4)
Note: The void only reduces the Ig by 13% from a completely
solid wall, yet the area reduction is approximately 47%. This
highlights a significant benefit of a tall diaphragm wall.
Sg = Ig /(twall/2)
= 76,578/11.82 = 6,479 in.3 (0.11 m3)
Mcr = Sg fr /12 in./ft
fr = 163 psi from TMS 402 Table 9.1.9.2
Mcr = 88,006 ft-lb (119 kN-m)
Mser = 0.6(Mu) x 80/12
= 0.6 (29,835 per ft of wall) x (80/12)
= 119,340 ft-lb (162 kN-m)
Icr = n[As + (Pu tsp)/(fy 2d)](d - c)2 + (bc3)/3 TMS 402 Eq. 9-30
c = (Asfy + Pu)/(0.64f’mb) TMS 402 Eq. 9-31
= [(0.44 x 80/12)(60,000) + (1.2PDL)]/[0.64(2,000)(80)]
= [(176,000) + (1.2(4,110 x 80/12))]/102,400
= 2.0 in. (52 mm)
Icr = 16.1[0.44(80)/12 + (32,880)( 23.63)/(60,000 x 2 x 20.82)]
x (20.82 - c)2 + (80c3)/3
= 16.1[2.93 + 0.31](18.82)2 + (80 x 2.03)/3
= 16.1[1,143] + 213
= 18,696 in.4 (0.007 m4)
Note: this is approximately 24% of Ig
δ = 1/4 [Mcr h2/Em Ig] + 1/4 [(Mser – Mcr) h2/Em Icr]
= 1/4 [0.99 in.] + 1/4 [1.18] = 0.54 in. (14 mm)
Provide the control joints between the endwalls and
the front/rear walls. Construct with sealant that has a shear
capacity of 50% of the joint thickness, the joint thickness
should exceed 2 x 0.56 in. = 1.12 in. (28 mm). See white ar-
row on Figure 5.
SUMMARY
Reinforced concrete masonry diaphragm walls provide
opportunities for engineers to design:
a) very tall walls, and
b) brace walls using the diaphragm walls as cantilevers. For
buildings, these are two unique options that are not normally
available from traditional masonry walls.
NOTATIONS
An = net cross-sectional area of a member, in.2 (mm2)
As = area of nonprestressed longitudinal tension rein-
forcement, in.2 (mm2)
b = width of section, in. (mm)
beffective = effective width of section, in. (mm)
C = resultant compressive force, lb (N)
c = distance from the fiber of maximum compressive
strain to the neutral axis, in. (mm)
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to cen-
troid of tension reinforcement, in. (mm)
Em = modulus of elasticity of masonry in compression,
psi (MPa)
Es = modulus of elasticity of steel, psi (MPa)
em = eccentricity of axial load, in. (mm)
Fm = allowable compressive stress, psi (MPa)
fm = calculated compressive stress in masonry due to
axial and flexure, psi (MPa)
Fv = allowable shear stress, psi (MPa)
Fs = allowable tensile or compressive stress in rein-
forcement, psi (MPa)
fa = calculated compressive stress in masonry due to
axial load only, psi (MPa)
f’m = specified compressive strength of clay masonry or
concrete masonry, psi (MPa)
f r = modulus of rupture, psi (MPa)
fs = calculated tensile or compressive stress in rein-
forcement, psi (MPa)
fv = calculated shear stress in masonry, psi (MPa)
fy = specified yield strength of steel for reinforcement
and anchors, psi (MPa)
h = effective height of wall, in. (mm)
Icr = moment of inertia of cracked cross-sectional area
of a member, in.4 (mm4)
I g = moment of inertia of gross cross-sectional area of
a member,, in.4 (mm4)
j = ratio of distance between centroid of flexural com-
pressive forces and centroid of tensile forces to
depth, d
8 NCMA TEK 14-24
k = ratio of the distance between the compression face
of an element and the neutral axis to the effective
depth d
M = maximum moment at the section under consider-
ation, in.-lb (N-mm)
Mcr = nominal cracking moment strength, in.-lb (N-mm)
Mser = service moment at midheight of a member, in.-lb
(N-mm)
Mu = factored moment, magnified by second-order ef-
fects where required by the code, in.-lb (N-mm)
n = modular ratio, Es/Em
P = axial load, lb (N)
PDL = axial load due to dead load, lb (N)
Pu = factored axial load, lb (N)
r = radius of gyration, in. (mm)
Sg = section modulus of the gross cross-sectional area
of a member, in.3 (mm3)
T = resultant tensile force, lb (N)
t = nominal thickness of member, in. (mm)
tface = specified thickness of masonry unit faceshell, in.
(mm)
trib = specified thickness of diaphragm wall rib, in.
(mm)
tsp = specified thickness of member, in. (mm)
twall = specified thickness of wall, in. (mm)
twythe = specified thickness of the masonry wythe, in.
(mm)
V = shear force, lb (N)
Vrib = shear capacity (resisting shear) of diaphragm wall
rib, lb (N)
Vser = service level shear force, lb (N)
Vu = factored shear force, lb (N)
W = wind load, psf (kPa)
γg = grouted shear wall factor
δ = moment magnification factor
εm = compressive strain of masonry
εs = strain of steel
f = strength reduction factor
ρ = reinforcement ratio
REFERENCES
1. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, TMS 402-16, Reported by The Masonry Society 2016.
2. Construction of Reinforced Concrete Masonry Diaphragm Walls, TEK 3-15. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2017.
3. Aggregate Concrete Blocks: Unreinforced Masonry Diaphragm Walls, Data Sheet 10. Concrete Block Association of Great
Britain, March 2003.
4. Flashing Details for Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 19-5A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2008.
5. Design for Dry Single-Wythe Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 19-2B. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2012.
6. International Building Code. International Code Council, 2015/2018.
7. Control Joints for Concrete Masonry Walls Empirical Method, TEK 10-2C. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2010.
8. Control Joints For Concrete Masonry Walls—Alternative Engineered Method, TEK 10-3. National Concrete Masonry Associa-
tion, 2003.
9. Allowable Stress Design of Concrete Masonry Based on the 2012 IBC and 2011 MSJC, TEK 14-7C. National Concrete Ma-
sonry Association, 2013.
10. Strength Design of Concrete Masonry Walls for Axial Load and Flexure, TEK 14-11B. National Concrete Masonry Associa-
tion, 2003.
11. Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE/SEI 7-16. American Society of Civil Engineers, 2016.
12. Masonry Designers' Guide 2013. The Masonry Society, 2015.
13. Standard Specification for Loadbearing Concrete Masonry Units, ASTM C90-16. ASTM International, Inc., 2016.
14. Standard Specification for Deformed and Plain Carbon-Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement, ASTM A615/A615M-15a.
ASTM International, Inc., 2015.
15. Standard Specification for Grout for Masonry, ASTM C476-16. ASTM International, Inc., 2016.
16. Standard Specification for Mortar for Unit Masonry ASTM C270-14a. ASTM International, Inc., 2014.
17. Concrete Masonry Wall Weights, TEK 14-13B. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2008.

NCMA and the companies disseminating this technical information disclaim any and all responsibility and liability for the accuracy
and the application of the information contained in this publication.

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NCMA TEK 14-24 9

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National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology

ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN OF TEK 15-1B

CONCRETE MASONRY FOUNDATION WALLS Structural (2001)

Keywords: allowable stress design, basements, basement to proportion and size masonry elements. Empirical design is
walls, empirical design, flexural strength, lateral loads, often used to design concrete masonry foundation walls due
reinforced concrete masonry, structural properties to its simplicity and history of successful performance.
Table 1 lists the allowable backfill heights for 8, 10 and
INTRODUCTION 12-inch (203, 254 and 305 mm) concrete masonry foundation
walls. Table 1 may be used for foundation walls up to 8 feet
Basements provide: economical living, working and (2.4 m) high under the following conditions (ref. 1):
storage areas; convenient spaces for mechanical equipment; (1) terrain surrounding the foundation wall is graded to
safe havens during tornadoes and other violent storms; and drain surface water away from foundation walls,
easy access to plumbing and ductwork. Concrete masonry is (2) backfill is drained to remove ground water away from
well suited to basement and foundation wall construction due foundation walls,
to its inherent durability, compressive strength, economy, (3) tops of foundation walls are laterally supported prior to
and resistance to fire, termites, and noise. backfilling,
Traditionally, residential basement walls have been con- (4) the length of foundation walls between perpendicular
structed of plain (unreinforced) concrete masonry, often masonry walls or pilasters is a maximum of 3 times the
designed empirically. Walls over 8 ft (2.4 m) high or with foundation wall height,
larger soil loads are typically designed using reinforced (5) the backfill is granular and soil conditions in the area
concrete masonry or using design tables included in building are non-expansive,
codes such as the International Building Code (ref. 4). (6) masonry is laid in running bond using Type M or S
mortar, and
DESIGN LOADS (7) units meet the requirements of ASTM C 90 (ref. 6).
Where these conditions cannot be met, the wall must be
Soil imparts a lateral load on foundation walls. For engineered using either an allowable stress design (see fol-
design, the load is traditionally assumed to increase linearly lowing section) or strength design procedure (see ref. 5).
with depth resulting in a triangular load distribution. This
lateral soil load is expressed as an equivalent fluid pressure, Table 1—Empirical Foundation Wall Design (ref. 1)a
with units of pounds per square foot per foot of depth (kPa/m).
The maximum force on the wall depends on the total wall Wall Nominal wall Maximum depth of
height, soil backfill height, wall support conditions, soil type, construction thickness, in. (mm) unbalanced backfill b, ft (m)
and the existence of any soil surcharges. For design, founda-
tion walls are typically assumed to act as simple vertical Hollow unit 8 (203) 5(1.52)
beams laterally supported at the top and bottom. masonry 10 (254) 6(1.83)
Foundation walls also provide support for the structure 12 (305) 7(2.13)
above, transferring vertical loads to the footing. When foun-
dations span vertically, this vertical compression counteracts Solid unit 8 (203) 5(1.52)
flexural tension, increasing the wall's resistance to flexure. In masonry 10 (254) 7(2.13)
low-rise construction, these vertical loads are typically small 12 (305) 7(2.13)
in relation to the compressive strength of concrete masonry.
Further, if the wall spans horizontally, vertical compression Fully grouted 8 (203) 7(2.13)
does not offset the flexural tension. Vertical load effects are masonry 10 (254) 8(2.44)
not included in the tables and design example presented in 12 (305) 8 (2.4)
this TEK (references 2 and 3 include vertical load effects).
a
see notes above for conditions
b
EMPIRICAL DESIGN unbalanced backfill is the distance from the top of the
basement floor slab to the top of the backfill
The empirical design method uses historical experience
TEK 15-1B © 2001 National Concrete Masonry Association (replaces TEK 15-1A)
WALL DESIGN Table 2—Vertical Reinforcement for 8 in. (203 mm)
Concrete Masonry Foundation Walls a, b
Tables 2 through 4 of this TEK have been rationally
designed in accordance with the allowable stress design provi- Wall Backfill Reinforcement size (No.) and spacing (in. o.c.) required
sions of Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures height, height, for equivalent fluid pressure of soil, psf/ft depth (kPa/m):
(ref. 1) and therefore meet the requirements of the International ft (m) ft (m) 30 (4.71) c 45 (7.07) d 60 (9.43) e
Building Code even though the latter limits reinforcment
spacing to 72 in. (1829 mm) when using their tables. Additional 7.3 (2.2) 4 (1.2) 5 @ 120 in. 6 @ 120 in. 5 @ 72 in.
5 (1.5) 5 @ 72 in. 4 @ 40 in. 5 @ 40 in.
reinforcement alternatives may be appropriate and can be
6 (1.8) 4 @ 40 in. 5 @ 40 in. 6 @ 40 in.
verified with an engineering analysis.
7 (2.1) 5 @ 40 in. 6 @ 40 in. 8 @ 48 in.
Tables 2, 3 and 4 list reinforcement options for 8, 10 and
12-in. (203, 254 and 305-mm) thick walls, respectively. The
8 (2.4) 4 (1.2) 5 @ 120 in. 5 @ 96 in. 7 @ 120 in. h
effective depths of reinforcement, d, (see Table notes) used are
5 (1.5) 5 @ 72 in. or 4 @ 32 in. or 5 @ 40 in. or
practical values, taking into account variations in face shell 6 @ 120 in. h 8 @ 120 in. h 7 @ 72 in. h
thickness, a range of bar sizes, minimum required grout cover, 6 (1.8) 4 @ 32 in. or 5 @ 32 in. or 5 @ 24 in. or
and construction tolerances for placing the reinforcing bars. 6 @ 72 in. h or 6 @ 48 in. or 6 @ 40 in. or
Tables 2 through 4 are based on the following: 7 @ 96 in. h 7 @ 72 in. h 8 @ 56 in. h
(1) no surcharges on the soil adjacent to the wall and no 7 (2.1) 5 @ 40 in. or 5 @ 24 in. or 6 @ 24 in. or
hydrostatic pressure, 6 @ 56 in. h or 6 @ 32 in. or 7 @ 32 in. or
(2) negligible axial loads on the wall, 7 @ 72 in. h 8 @ 56 in. h 8 @ 48 in.
(3) wall is simply supported at top and bottom, 8 (2.4) 5 @ 24 in. or 6 @24 in. or 5 @ 8 in.
(4) wall is grouted only at reinforced cells, 7 @ 64 in. h 8 @ 48 in.
(5) section properties are based on minimum face shell
and web thicknesses in ASTM C 90 (ref. 6), 9.3(2.8) 4 (1.2) 4 @ 96 in. or 5 @ 96 in. or 5 @ 72 in. or
(6) specified compressive strength of masonry, f 'm , is 5 @ 120 in. 6 @ 120 in. 7 @ 120 in. h
1,500 psi (10.3 MPa), 5 (1.5) 5 @ 72 in. or 5 @ 48 in. or 5 @ 40 in. or
(7) reinforcement yield strength, fy, is 60,000 psi (414 7 @ 120 in. h 8 @ 120 in. h 7 @ 72 in. h
MPa), 6 (1.8) 5 @ 48 in. or 5 @ 32 in. or 5 @ 24 in. or
(8) modulus of elasticity of masonry, Em , is 1,350,000 psi 7 @ 96 in. h 8 @ 72 in. h 8 @ 56 in. h
(9,308 MPa), 7 (2.1) 5 @ 32 in. or 5 @ 24 in. or 4 @ 8 in. or
(9) modulus of elasticity of steel, Es , is 29,000,000 psi 8 @ 72 in. h 8 @ 56 in. h 7 @ 24 in.
8 (2.4) 6 @ 32 in. or 4 @ 8 in. or 7 @ 8 in.
(200,000 MPa),
8 @ 56 in. h 7 @ 24 in.
(10) maximum width of compression zone is six times the
9 (2.7) 6 @ 24 in. or 6 @ 8 in. 8 @ 8 in.
wall thickness (where reinforcement spacing exceeds
8 @ 48 in.
this distance, the ability of the plain masonry outside
the compression zone to distribute loads horizontally
10 (3.1) 4 (1.2) 4 @ 72 in. or 5 @ 72 in. or 5 @ 64 in. or
to the reinforced section was verified assuming two- 5 @ 120 in. 6 @ 120 in. 7 @ 120 in. h
way plate action), 5 (1.5) 5 @ 72 in. or 5 @ 48 in. or 5 @ 32 in. or
(11) allowable tensile stress in reinforcement, Fs, is 24,000 7 @ 120 in. h 8 @ 120 in. h 7 @ 72 in. h
psi (165 MPa), 6 (1.8) 5 @ 48 in. or 5 @ 32 in. or 6 @ 32 in. or
(12) allowable compressive stress in masonry, Fb , is 1/3 f 'm 7 @ 96 in. h 8 @ 72 in. h 8 @ 56 in. h
(500 psi, 3.4 MPa), 7 (2.1) 5 @ 32 in. or 6 @ 24 in. or 5 @ 8 in. or
(13) grout complies with ASTM C 476 (2,000 psi (14 8 @ 72 in. h 8 @ 48 in. 8 @ 24 in.
MPa) if property spec is used) (ref. 7), and 8 (2.4) 5 @ 24 in. or 5 @ 8 in. or 8 @ 8 in.
(14) masonry is laid in running bond using Type M or S 8 @ 56 in. h 8 @ 24 in.
mortar and face shell mortar bedding. 9 (2.7) 6 @ 24 in. or 7 @ 8 in. ______
8 @ 40 in.
DESIGN EXAMPLE
Wall: 12-inch (305 mm) thick, Notes to Tables 2, 3, and 4:
a
12 feet (3.7 m) high. effective depth of reinforcement (distance from extreme compres-
sion fiber to centroid of tension reinforcement), d, is 4 5/8 in. (117
mm) minimum
12 ft (3.7 m)

Loads: equivalent fluid pres- b

metric equivalents: 1 in. (25.4 mm); No. 4 bar (M 13); No. 5 (M
45 psf/ft
10 ft (3.1 m)

(7.07 kPa/m ) sure of soil is 45 pcf (7.07 kPa/ 16); No. 6 (M 19); No. 7 (M 22); No. 8 (M 25)
c
m), 10 foot (3.1 m) backfill granular soil backfill
d
height. No axial, seismic, or drained silty sand or clayey silt backfill
e
other loads. clay soil (non-expansive) backfill
f
effective depth of reinforcement d, is 6 5/8 in. (168 mm) minimum
g
Using Table 4, #8 bars at 40 effective depth of reinforcement d, is 8 5/8 in. (219 mm) minimum
h
in. (M 25 at 1016 mm) o.c. are use Portland cement/lime or mortar cement mortar (Type M or S)
sufficient.
 Table 3—Vertical Reinforcement for 10 in. (254 mm) Table 4—Vertical Reinforcement for 12 in. (305 mm)
Concrete Masonry Foundation Walls b, f Concrete Masonry Foundation Walls b, g

Wall Backfill Reinforcement size (No.) and spacing (in. o.c.) required Wall Backfill Reinforcement size (No.) and spacing (in. o.c.) required
height, height, for equivalent fluid pressure of soil, psf/ft depth (kPa/m): height, height, for equivalent fluid pressure of soil, psf/ft depth (kPa/m):
ft (m) ft (m) 30 (4.71) c 45 (7.07) d 60 (9.43) e ft (m) ft (m) 30 (4.71) c 45 (7.07) d 60 (9.43) e

7.3 (2.2) 4 (1.2) No reinforcement 5 @ 120 in. 5 @ 96 in. 7.3 (2.2) 4 (1.2) No reinforcement No reinforcement 5 @ 120 in.
5 (1.5) 4 @ 72 in. or 5 @ 72 in. or 5 @ 64 in. or 5 (1.5) 5 @ 120 in. 5 @ 120 in. 5 @ 72 in.
5 @ 120 in. 6 @ 120 in. h 7 @ 120 in. h 6 (1.8) 4 @ 72 in. or 5 @ 72 in. or 5 @ 56 in. or
6 (1.8) 5 @ 72 in. or 5 @ 56 in. or 5 @ 40 in. or 5 @ 120 in. 7 @ 120 in. h 7 @ 96 in. h
6 @ 120 in. h 7 @ 96 in. h 7 @ 72 in. h 7 (2.1) 5 @ 72 in. or 5 @ 56 in. or 5 @ 40 in. or
7 (2.1) 4 @ 40 in. or 5 @ 40 in. or 5 @ 32 in. or 6 @ 120 in. h 7 @ 96 in. h 7 @ 72 in.
7 @ 96 in. h 6 @ 72 in. h 7 @ 56 in. h
8 (2.4) 4 (1.2) No reinforcement No reinforcement 5 @ 120 in.
8 (2.4) 4 (1.2) No reinforcement 5 @ 120 in. 5 @ 96 in. 5 (1.5) 5 @ 120 in. 5 @ 96 in. 5 @ 72 in.
5 (1.5) 5 @ 120 in. 5 @ 72 in. 5 @ 64 in. 6 (1.8) 5 @ 96 in. or 5 @ 72 in. or 5 @ 56 in. or
6 (1.8) 5 @ 72 in. or 5 @ 56 in. or 5 @ 40 in. or 6 @ 120 in. 7 @ 120 in. h 7 @ 96 in. h
6 @ 120 in. h 7 @ 96 in. h 7 @ 72 in. h 7 (2.1) 5 @ 72 in. or 5 @ 48 in. or 5 @ 32 in. or
7 (2.1) 5 @ 56 in. or 5 @ 40 in. or 5 @ 24 in. or 7 @ 120 in. h 7 @ 96 in. h 7 @ 72 in.
6 @ 72 in. h or 6 @ 56 in. or 6 @ 40 in. or 8 (2.4) 5 @ 56 in. or 5 @ 40 in. or 5 @ 24 in. or
7 @ 96 in. h 7 @ 72 in. h 7 @ 56 in. 7 @ 96 in. h 7 @ 72 in. 8 @ 72 in.
8 (2.4) 5 @ 40 in. or 5 @ 24 in. or 6 @ 32 in. or
7 @ 72 in. h 8 @ 64 in. h 8 @ 56 in. 9.3(2.8) 4 (1.2) No reinforcement No reinforcement 5 @ 120 in.
5 (1.5) 4 @ 96 in. or 5 @ 96 in. or 5 @ 72 in. or
9.3(2.8) 4 (1.2) No reinforcement 5 @ 120 in. 5 @ 96 in. 5 @ 120 in. 6 @ 120 in. 7 @ 120 in. h
5 (1.5) 4 @ 72 in. or 5 @ 72 in. or 5 @ 56 in. or 6 (1.8) 5 @ 96 in. or 5 @ 64 in. or 5 @ 48 in. or
5 @ 120 in. 7 @ 120 in. h 8 @ 120 in. h 6 @ 120 in. 7 @ 120 in. h 7 @ 96 in. h
6 (1.8) 5 @ 72 in. or 5 @ 48 in. or 5 @ 32 in. or 7 (2.1) 5 @ 64 in. or 5 @ 40 in. or 5 @ 32 in. or
7 @ 120 in. h 7 @ 96 in. h 7 @ 72 in. h 7 @ 120 in. h 8 @ 96 in. h 8 @ 72 in.
7 (2.1) 5 @ 48 in. or 5 @ 32 in. or 5 @ 24 in. or 8 (2.4) 5 @ 48 in. or 5 @ 32 in. or 5 @ 24 in. or
7 @ 96 in. h 8 @ 72 in. h 8 @ 56 in. 7 @ 96 in. h 8 @ 72 in. 8 @ 64 in.
8 (2.4) 5 @ 40 in. or 5 @ 24 in. or 6 @ 24 in. or 9 (2.7) 5 @ 40 in. or 5 @ 24 in. or 4 @ 8 in. or
7 @ 72 in. h 8 @ 64 in. h 8 @ 48 in. 7 @ 72 in. 8 @ 64 in. 8 @ 48 in.
9 (2.7) 5 @ 24 in. or 6 @ 24 in. or 4 @ 8 in. or
7 @ 56 in. h 8 @ 48 in. 8 @ 32 in. 10 (3.1) 4 (1.2) No reinforcement 5 @ 120 in. 5 @ 120 in.
5 (1.5) 5 @ 120 in. 5 @ 96 in. 5 @ 72 in.
10(3.1) 4 (1.2) No reinforcement 5 @ 120 in. 5 @ 96 in. 6 (1.8) 5 @ 96 in. or 5 @ 64 in. or 5 @ 48 in. or
5 (1.5) 5 @ 96 in. 5 @ 72 in. 5 @ 56 in. 6 @ 120 in. 7 @ 120 in. h 8 @ 96 in. h
6 (1.8) 5 @ 72 in. or 5 @ 48 in. or 5 @ 32 in. or 7 (2.1) 5 @ 64 in. or 5 @ 40 in. or 5 @ 32 in. or
7 @ 120 in. h 8 @ 96 in. h 8 @ 72 in. h 7 @ 120 in. h 8 @ 96 in. h 8 @ 72 in.
7 (2.1) 5 @ 48 in. or 5 @ 32 in. or 5 @ 24 in. or 8 (2.4) 5 @ 48 in. or 5 @ 32 in. or 5 @ 24 in. or
7 @ 96 in. h 8 @ 72 in. h 8 @ 56 in. 8 @ 96 in. h 8 @ 72 in. 8 @ 56 in.
8 (2.4) 5 @ 32 in. or 5 @ 24 in. or 4 @ 8 in. or 9 (2.7) 5 @ 32 in. or 5 @ 24 in. or 6 @ 24 in. or
7 @ 72 in. h 8 @ 56 in. 8 @ 40 in. 7 @ 72 in. 8 @ 64 in. 8 @ 48 in.
9 (2.7) 5 @ 24 in. or 6 @ 24 in. or 4 @ 8 in. 10 (3.1) 5 @ 24 in. or 6 @ 24 in. or 4 @ 8 in. or
7 @ 56 in. 8 @ 48 in. 8 @ 72 in. 8 @ 48 in. 8 @ 32 in.
10(3.1) 6 @ 32 in. or 4 @ 8 in. or 6 @ 8 in.
8 @ 56 in. 8 @ 32 in. 12 (3.7) 4 (1.2) No reinforcement 5 @ 120 in. 5 @ 120 in.
5 (1.5) 5 @ 120 in. 5 @ 72 in. 5 @ 72 in.
12(3.7) 4 (1.2) No reinforcement 5 @ 120 in. 5 @ 96 in. 6 (1.8) 5 @ 72 in. or 5 @ 56 in. or 5 @ 40 in. or
5 (1.5) 5 @ 96 in. 5 @ 72 in. 5 @ 48 in. 6 @ 120 in. 8 @ 120 in. h 8 @ 96 in. h
6 (1.8) 5 @ 64 in. or 5 @ 40 in. or 5 @ 32 in. or 7 (2.1) 5 @ 56 in. or 5 @ 32 in. or 5 @ 24 in. or
7 @ 120 in. h 8 @ 96 in. 8 @ 72 in. h 8 @ 120 in. h 8 @ 96 in. h 8 @ 72 in.
7 (2.1) 5 @ 40 in. or 5 @ 24 in. or 6 @ 24 in. or 8 (2.4) 5 @ 40 in. or 5 @ 24 in. or 6 @ 24 in. or
8 @ 96 in. h 8 @ 72 in. h 8 @ 56 in. 8 @ 96 in. h 8 @ 72 in. 8 @ 48 in.
8 (2.4) 5 @ 32 in. or 6 @ 24 in. or 4 @ 8 in. or 9 (2.7) 5 @ 32 in. or 6 @ 24 in. or 4 @ 8 in. or
8 @ 72 in. h 8 @ 48 in. 8 @ 40 in. 8 @ 72 in. 8 @ 48 in. 8 @ 40 in.
9 (2.7) 5 @ 24 in. or 4 @ 8 in. or 5 @ 8 in. 10 (3.1) 5 @ 24 in. or 4 @ 8 in. or 4 @ 8 in.
8 @ 56 in. 8 @ 40 in. 8 @ 64 in. 8 @ 40 in.
10(3.1) 8 @ 48 in. 5 @ 8 in. 8 @ 8 in. 11 (3.4) 8 @ 48 in. 8 @ 32 in. 5 @ 8 in.
11(3.4) 8 @ 40 in. 7 @ 8 in. 12 (3.7) 8 @ 40 in. 5 @ 8 in. 7 @ 8 in.
CONSTRUCTION ISSUES
Recommended protective coatings for
This section is not a complete construction guide, but waterproofing exterior face of walls
1) two 1/4 inch (6.4 mm) thick coats of portland cement, or,
rather discusses those issues directly related to structural
2) one 1/4 inch (6.4 mm) thick coat of portland cement
design assumptions. Figures 1 and 2 illustrate typical wall plaster plus two brush coats of bituminous
support conditions, drainage, and water protection. waterproofing,or,
Before backfilling, the floor diaphragm must be in place 3) one heavy troweled-on coat of cold,
or the wall must be properly braced to resist the soil load. In fiber-reinforced asphaltic mastic.
addition to the absence of additional dead or live loads
following construction, the assumption that there are no Filter paper or
geosynthetic Expansion joint
surcharges on the soil also means that heavy equipment material or bituminous
should not be operated close to basement wall systems that are Gravel or joint
not designed to carry the additional load. In addition, the stone fill
backfill materials should be placed and compacted in several Full mortar
Drain joint
lifts, taking care to prevent wall damage. Care should also be
taken to prevent damaging the drainage, waterproofing, or
exterior insulation systems, if present. Note: wet and impermeable soils may require additional
waterproofing
REFERENCES
1. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, Figure 1—Typical Base of Foundation Wall
ACI 530-99/ASCE 5-99/TMS 402-99. Reported by the
Masonry Standards Joint Committee, 1999.
2. Concrete Masonry Design Tables, TR 121. National
Concrete Masonry Association, 2000.
3. Concrete Masonry Wall Design Software, CMS-12111. Floor
National Concrete Masonry Association, 1999. diaphragm
4. International Building Code. International Code Council,
2000. Waterproof or
damproof
5. Strength Design of Reinforced Concrete Masonry Foun- membrane Anchor
dation Walls, TEK 15-2A. National Concrete Masonry Grade bolt
Association, 1997. (sloped)
6. Standard Specification for Loadbearing Concrete Ma-
sonry Units, ASTM C 90-01. American Society for Test-
ing and Materials, 2001. Figure 2—Typical Top of Foundation Wall
7. Standard Specification for Grout Masonry, ASTM C476-
01. American Society for Testing and Materials, 2001.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
2302 Horse Pen Road, Herndon, Virginia 20171-3499 contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
www.ncma.org

An Information Series from National Concrete Masonry Association
A national authority on concrete masonry technology
STRENGTH DESIGN OF
REINFORCED CONCRETE MASONRY
FOUNDATION WALLS
Keywords: basements, basement walls, flexural strength,
lateral loads, reinforced concrete masonry, strength de-
sign, structural properties
INTRODUCTION
Although concrete masonry foundation walls can be
constructed without reinforcing steel, reinforcement may
be required for walls supporting large soil backfill loads.
The strength design provisions found in Chapter 3 of
Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures (ref.
1) typically provides increased economy over the allowable
stress design method, as thinner walls or larger reinforcing
bar spacings often result from a strength design analysis.
Strength design criteria are presented in detail in TEK 14-
4A, Strength Design of Concrete Masonry (ref. 2).
DESIGN LOADS
Soil imparts lateral loads on foundation walls. The load
is assumed to increase linearly with depth, resulting in a
triangular load distribution on the wall. This lateral soil load
is expressed as an equivalent fluid pressure, with units of
pounds per square foot per foot of depth (kN/m 2/m). For
strength design analysis, this lateral soil pressure is in-
creased by multiplying by a load factor, which provides a
factor of safety against overload conditions. The maximum
moment on the wall depends on the total wall height, the soil
backfill height, the wall support conditions, the factored
soil load, the existence of any surcharges on the soil and the
presence of saturated soils.
Foundation walls also provide support for the struc-
ture above the foundation, transferring vertical loads to the
footing. Vertical compression counteracts flexural tension,
increasing the wall's resistance to flexure. In low-rise con-
struction, these vertical loads are typically small in relation
to the compressive strength of the concrete masonry.
Vertical load effects are not addressed in this TEK.
TEK 15-2B © 2004 National Concrete Masonry Association (replaces TEK 15-2A)
NCMA TEK
TEK 15-2B
Structural (2004)
DESIGN TABLES
Tables 1 through 4 present reinforcement schedules for
6, 8, 10 and 12-in. (152, 203, 254 and 305-mm) walls, respec-
tively. Additional reinforcement alternatives may be appro-
priate, and can be verified with an engineering analysis.
Walls from 8 to 16 ft (2.4 to 4.9 m) high and soil pressures
of 30, 45 and 60 psf/ft (4.7, 7.0, and 9.4 kN/m2/m) are included.
The effective reinforcement depth, d, assumed for the
analyses are practical values, taking into account varia-
tions in face shell thickness, a range of reinforcing bar sizes,
minimum required grout cover and construction tolerances
for placing the reinforcement.
The following assumptions also apply to the values in
Tables 1 through 4:
(1) there are no surcharges on the soil adjacent to the
wall,
(2) there are negligible axial loads on the wall,
(3) the wall is simply supported at top and bottom,
(4) the wall is grouted at cells containing reinforce-
ment (although solid grouting is acceptable),
(5) section properties are based on minimum face shell
and web thickness requirements of ASTM C 90 (ref. 3),
(6) the specified compressive strength of masonry, f'm , is
1500 psi (10.3 MPa),
(7) Grade 60 (413 MPa) reinforcement,
(8) reinforcement requirements listed account for a
soil load factor of 1.6 (ref. 6),
(9) the maximum width of the compression zone is
limited to six times the wall thickness, or a 72 in.
(1,829 mm) vertical bar spacing, whichever is smaller,
(10) reinforcing steel is placed toward the tension (inte-
rior) face of the wall (as shown in Figure 1), and
(11) the soil is well drained to preclude the presence of
saturated soil.
Table 1-Reinforcement for 6-inch (152-mm) Concrete Masonry Table 2-Reinforcement for 8-inch (203-mm) Concrete Masonry
Foundation Walls Foundation Walls
Reinforcement required for unfactored equivalent Reinforcement required for unfactored equivalent
Wall Wall
Backfill fluid pressure, psf/ft, d > 3.75 in., bar size and Backfill fluid pressure, psf/ft, d > 5 in., bar size and spacing
height, height,
height, ft spacing (inches on center) height, ft (inches on center)
ft ft
30(a) 45(b) 60(c) 30(a) 45(b) 60(c)
4 No. 3 at 32 No. 3 at 32 No. 3 at 32 4 No. 3 at 48 No. 3 at 48 No. 4 at 48
5 No. 3 at 32 No. 4 at 32 No. 4 at 32 5 No. 3 at 48 No. 4 at 48 No. 5 at 48
8 6 No. 4 at 32 No. 5 at 32 No. 5 at 32 8 6 No. 4 at 48 No. 5 at 48 No. 6 at 48
7 No. 4 at 32 No. 5 at 32 No. 6 at 32 7 No. 5 at 48 No. 6 at 48 No. 7 at 48
8 No. 5 at 32 No. 6 at 32 No. 6 at 24 8 No. 5 at 48 No. 7 at 48 No. 7 at 48
4 No. 3 at 32 No. 3 at 32 No. 3 at 32 4 No. 3 at 48 No. 3 at 48 No. 4 at 48
5 No. 3 at 32 No. 4 at 32 No. 4 at 32 5 No. 3 at 48 No. 4 at 48 No. 5 at 48
8.7 6 No. 4 at 32 No. 5 at 32 No. 5 at 32 8.7 6 No. 4 at 48 No. 5 at 48 No. 6 at 48
7 No. 5 at 32 No. 6 at 32 No. 6 at 24 7 No. 5 at 48 No. 6 at 48 No. 7 at 48
8.7 No. 6 at 32 No. 6 at 24 No. 6 at 16 (d) 8.7 No. 6 at 48 No. 7 at 48 No. 8 at 48
4 No. 3 at 32 No. 3 at 32 No. 4 at 32 4 No. 3 at 48 No. 3 at 48 No. 4 at 48
5 No. 3 at 32 No. 4 at 32 No. 5 at 32 5 No. 4 at 48 No. 4 at 48 No. 5 at 48
6 No. 4 at 32 No. 5 at 32 No. 6 at 32 6 No. 4 at 48 No. 5 at 48 No. 6 at 48
9.3 9.3
7 No. 5 at 32 No. 6 at 32 No. 6 at 24 7 No. 5 at 48 No. 6 at 48 No. 7 at 48
8 No. 6 at 32 No. 6 at 24 No. 6 at 16 (d) 8 No. 6 at 48 No. 7 at 48 No. 8 at 48
(d)
9.3 No. 6 at 32 No. 6 at 16 No. 6 at 8 (d) 9.3 No. 7 at 48 No. 8 at 48 No. 8 at 32 (d)
4 No. 3 at 32 No. 3 at 32 No. 4 at 32 4 No. 3 at 48 No. 3 at 48 No. 4 at 48
5 No. 3 at 32 No. 4 at 32 No. 5 at 32 5 No. 4 at 48 No. 4 at 48 No. 5 at 48
6 No. 4 at 32 No. 5 at 32 No. 6 at 32 6 No. 4 at 48 No. 5 at 48 No. 6 at 48
10 7 No. 5 at 32 No. 6 at 32 No. 6 at 24 10 7 No. 5 at 48 No. 6 at 48 No. 7 at 48
8 No. 6 at 32 No. 6 at 24 No. 6 at 16 (d) 8 No. 6 at 48 No. 7 at 48 No. 8 at 48
9 No. 6 at 32 No. 6 at 16 (d) No. 6 at 8 (d) 9 No. 7 at 48 No. 8 at 48 No. 8 at 32 (d)
(d)
10 No. 6 at 24 No. 6 at 8 (e) 10 No. 7 at 48 No. 8 at 40 No. 8 at 24 (d)
Notes to Tables 1 - 4: 4 No. 3 at 48 No. 3 at 48 No. 4 at 48
(a)
granular soil backfill 5 No. 4 at 48 No. 4 at 48 No. 5 at 48
(b)
drained silty sand or silty clay backfill 6 No. 4 at 48 No. 5 at 48 No. 6 at 48
(c)
clay soil backfill 7 No. 5 at 48 No. 7 at 48 No. 8 at 48
(d)
exceeds maximum permitted tensile reinforcement (ref. 2) 12 8 No. 6 at 48 No. 8 at 48 No. 8 at 40
(e)
can't be done with No. 6 (M# 19) bars
(f)
9 No. 7 at 48 No. 8 at 40 No. 8 at 32 (d)
metric equivalents: in. x 25.4 = mm; No. 3 = M# 10; No. 4 10 No. 8 at 48 No. 8 at 32 (d) No. 8 at 16 (d)
= M# 13; No. 5 = M# 16; No. 6 = M# 19; No. 7 = M# 22; 11 No. 8 at 40 No. 8 at 24 (d) No. 8 at 8 (d)
No. 8 = M# 25; No. 9 = M# 29 (d) (d)
12 No. 8 at 32 No. 8 at 16 No. 8 at 8 (d)

DESIGN EXAMPLE CONSTRUCTION ISSUES

This section discusses those issues which directly relate to

Wall:12-in.(305mm)thick
concrete masonry foun-
dation wall, 12 ft (3.66 m)
high
12 ft
45 psf/ft
(7.0 kN/m 2/m) (3.66 m) Soil: equivalent fluid
10 ft
pressure is 45 psf/ft (7.0
(3.05 m) kN/m2/m) (excluding soil
load factors), 10 ft (3.05
m) backfill height
Using Table 4, the wall
can be adequately rein-
forced using No. 9 bars
at 72 in. o.c. (M# 29 at
1,829 mm).
structural design assumptions. See TEK 3-11, Concrete Masonry
Basement Wall Construction and TEK 5-3A, Concrete Masonry
Foundation Wall Details (refs. 4, 5) for more complete information
on building concrete masonry foundation walls.
Figure 1 illustrates wall support conditions, drainage
and protection from water. Before backfilling, the floor dia-
phragm must be in place, or the wall must be properly braced
to resist the soil load. Ideally, the backfill should be free-
draining granular material, free from expansive soils or other
deleterious materials.
The assumption that there are no surcharges on the soil
means that heavy equipment should not be operated directly
adjacent to any basement wall system. In addition, the back-
fill materials should be placed and compacted in several lifts.
Care should be taken when placing backfill materials to
prevent damaging the drainage, waterproofing or exterior
insulation systems.
Table 3-Reinforcement for 10-inch (254-mm) Concrete Masonry Table 4-Reinforcement for 12-inch (305-mm) Concrete Masonry
Foundation Walls Foundation Walls
Reinforcement required for unfactored equivalent Reinforcement required for unfactored equivalent
Wall Wall
Backfill fluid pressure, psf/ft, d > 7 in., bar size and spacing Backfill fluid pressure, psf/ft, d > 9 in., bar size and spacing
height, height,
height, ft (inches on center) height, ft (inches on center)
ft ft
30(a) 45(b) 60(c) 30(a) 45(b) 60(c)
4 No. 3 at 56 No. 3 at 56 No. 3 at 56 4 No. 3 at 72 No. 3 at 72 No. 4 at 72
5 No. 3 at 56 No. 4 at 56 No. 4 at 56 5 No. 3 at 72 No. 4 at 72 No. 5 at 72
8 6 No. 4 at 56 No. 4 at 56 No. 5 at 56 6 No. 4 at 72 No. 5 at 72 No. 6 at 72
7 No. 4 at 56 No. 5 at 56 No. 6 at 56 7 No. 5 at 72 No. 6 at 72 No. 7 at 72
8 No. 5 at 56 No. 6 at 56 No. 7 at 56 12 8 No. 6 at 72 No. 7 at 72 No. 8 at 72
4 No. 3 at 56 No. 3 at 56 No. 3 at 56 9 No. 6 at 72 No. 8 at 72 No. 9 at 72
5 No. 3 at 56 No. 4 at 56 No. 4 at 56 10 No. 7 at 72 No. 9 at 72 No. 9 at 56
6 No. 4 at 56 No. 5 at 56 No. 5 at 56 11 No. 8 at 72 No. 9 at 64 No. 9 at 48
10 7 No. 5 at 56 No. 6 at 56 No. 6 at 56 12 No. 9 at 72 No. 9 at 56 No. 9 at 40
8 No. 5 at 56 No. 7 at 56 No. 7 at 56 4 No. 3 at 72 No. 3 at 72 No. 4 at 72
9 No. 6 at 56 No. 7 at 56 No. 8 at 56 5 No. 3 at 72 No. 4 at 72 No. 5 at 72
10 No. 7 at 56 No. 8 at 56 No. 9 at 56 6 No. 4 at 72 No. 5 at 72 No. 6 at 72
4 No. 3 at 56 No. 3 at 56 No. 4 at 56 7 No. 5 at 72 No. 6 at 72 No. 7 at 72
5 No. 3 at 56 No. 4 at 56 No. 5 at 56 8 No. 6 at 72 No. 7 at 72 No. 8 at 72
6 No. 4 at 56 No. 5 at 56 No. 6 at 56 14 9 No. 7 at 72 No. 8 at 72 No. 9 at 72
7 No. 5 at 56 No. 6 at 56 No. 7 at 56 10 No. 8 at 72 No. 9 at 72 No. 9 at 48
12 8 No. 6 at 56 No. 7 at 56 No. 8 at 56 11 No. 8 at 72 No. 9 at 56 No. 9 at 40
9 No. 7 at 56 No. 8 at 56 No. 9 at 56 12 No. 9 at 72 No. 9 at 48 No. 9 at 32
10 No. 7 at 56 No. 9 at 56 No. 9 at 40 13 No. 9 at 56 No. 9 at 40 No. 9 at 24 (d)
11 No. 8 at 56 No. 9 at 48 No. 9 at 32 (d) 14 No. 9 at 48 No. 9 at 32 No. 9 at 24 (d)
12 No. 9 at 56 No. 9 at 40 No. 9 at 24 (d) 4 No. 3 at 72 No. 3 at 72 No. 4 at 72
4 No. 3 at 56 No. 3 at 56 No. 4 at 56 5 No. 4 at 72 No. 4 at 72 No. 5 at 72
5 No. 3 at 56 No. 4 at 56 No. 5 at 56 6 No. 4 at 72 No. 5 at 72 No. 6 at 72
6 No. 4 at 56 No. 5 at 56 No. 6 at 56 7 No. 5 at 72 No. 6 at 72 No. 7 at 72
7 No. 5 at 56 No. 6 at 56 No. 7 at 56 8 No. 6 at 72 No. 7 at 72 No. 9 at 72
8 No. 6 at 56 No. 7 at 56 No. 8 at 56 9 No. 7 at 72 No. 9 at 72 No. 9 at 64
14 9 No. 7 at 56 No. 8 at 56 No. 9 at 48 16 10 No. 8 at 72 No. 9 at 64 No. 9 at 48
10 No. 8 at 56 No. 9 at 56 No. 9 at 40 11 No. 9 at 72 No. 9 at 48 No. 9 at 32
11 No. 9 at 56 No. 9 at 40 No. 9 at 32 (d) 12 No. 9 at 64 No. 9 at 40 No. 9 at 32
12 No. 9 at 56 No. 9 at 32 (d) No. 9 at 24 (d) 13 No. 9 at 48 No. 9 at 32 No. 9 at 24 (d)
13 No. 9 at 40 No. 9 at 24 (d) No. 9 at 16 (d) 14 No. 9 at 40 No. 9 at 24 (d) No. 9 at 16 (d)
14 No. 9 at 40 No. 9 at 16 (d) No. 9 at 8 (d) 15 No. 9 at 40 No. 9 at 24 (d) No. 9 at 16 (d)
16 No. 9 at 32 No. 9 at 16 (d) No. 9 at 8 (d)
REFERENCES
1. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, ACI 530-02/ASCE 5-02/TMS 402-02. Reported by the Masonry Standards
Joint Committee, 2002.
2. Strength Design of Concrete Masonry, TEK 14-4A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2002.
3. Standard Specification for Loadbearing Concrete Masonry Units, ASTM C 90-03. ASTM International, 2003.
4. Concrete Masonry Basement Wall Construction, TEK 3-11. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2001.
5. Concrete Masonry Foundation Wall Details, TEK 5-3A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2003.
6. Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE 7-02. American Society of Civil Engineers, 2002.
 Floor diaphragm
Waterproofing or
dampproofing system

Bond beam,
as required

Grade, slope Sill

away from building
Anchor bolt

Vertical reinforcement,
as required

Backfill Grout
Concrete masonry wall
Vertical reinforcement, as required
Horizontal joint reinforcement
as required

Foundation drain
Concrete slab

Vapor retarder
Free draining
backfill
1
2 in. (13 mm) islolation
joint, as required
Undisturbed soil
Dowel, Reinforcement,
Concrete footing as required as required

Figure 1—Typical Reinforced Basement Wall

Disclaimer: Although care has been taken to ensure the enclosed information is as accurate and complete as possible, NCMA
does not assume responsibility for errors or omissions resulting from the use of this TEK.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171 contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
www.ncma.org
An information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology

ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES

ON SEGMENTAL RETAINING TEK 15-3A
WALL PROJECTS Structural (2010)

INTRODUCTION is generally oriented towards projects where several design

professionals are contracted.
On all construction projects, including those involving Reinforced SRWs, because of their nature as composite
segmental retaining walls (SRWs), it is the owner’s responsi- soil structures, may have unique design and inspection consid-
bility to achieve coordination between construction and design erations for the site civil engineer, the geotechnical engineer,
professionals that ensures all required design, engineering and the independent testing agency. These considerations are
analysis, and inspection is provided. In many cases, a design discussed in further detail in the following sections.
professional such as a site civil engineer or an architect acts as Detailed guidance on SRW design, construction and
the owner’s representative. In either case, the owner or owner’s inspection can be found in references 1 through 3.
representative should ensure that the engineering design pro-
fessionals' scope of work, roles and responsibilities are clearly
defined so that there is no ambiguity regarding responsibility
for investigation, analysis and design, and
that all required testing is performed.
Slope for
The roles outlined in this TEK are typi- positive Low permeability soil
cal industry roles for various engineering Drainage swale drainage
(optional)
disciplines. SRW design and construction Cap unit
should generally follow these traditional (optional)
Geosynthetic reinforcement
roles. However, these roles may vary SRW units
from project to project, depending on the Wall Setback/batter Retained Soil Zone
contractual obligations of each consultant. height = H Limit of excavation
For example, for simpler projects, such as Finished
grade Compacted common
residential landscapes, one design profes- backfill
sional may take on the responsibility of Gravel fill
several roles, if acceptable to local building
code requirements. Compacted
reinforced
For tall or complex walls and for Leveling pad (infill)
commercial projects, each of these roles Drainage collection soil zone
Foundation soil pipe
is likely to be provided by separate
firms, each with expertise in a particular
discipline. The discussion in this TEK Figure 1—Reinforced Segmental Retaining Wall System Components

Related TEK: Keywords: contracts, construction, design, details, inspection, main-

8-1A, 8-2A, 8-3A, tenance, responsibilities, roles, scope of work, segmental retaining walls,
soils, SRW, stability, testing
8-4A, 18-11A

NCMA TEK 15-3A 1

 Table 1—Suggested Roles for a Segmental Retaining Wall Project
Owner/Developer or Owner's Representative:
Ensure that design professionals are contracted to provide all required engineering evaluation, layout, design, testing and
inspection.

Construction Observation and Testing Agencies:

Earthwork inspection preferably performed by the geotechnical engineering consultant.
Inspect SRW foundation area, including area below planned geosynthetic-reinforced soil fill, to verify that bearing, soil,
and groundwater conditions meet design assumptions.
Inspect native soils in retained zone for consistency with reported soil types and properties.
Monitor fill placement and laboratory- and field-testing to ensure specified soil types used for fill and specified compac-
tion achieved.
Inspect overall wall material installation–preferably contracted directly with SRW engineer or site civil engineer.
Observe placement of SRW units and geosynthetic reinforcement installation.
Review material submittals for conformance with specifications.
Additional review of soil properties and earthwork testing, provided by the geotechnical engineer, for conformance with
wall material specifications.

Geotechnical Engineer:
Subsurface investigation, including any required soil borings and laboratory soils testing.
Define pertinent subsurface conditions including soils, rock and groundwater conditions in the area of SRWs.
Determine properties and strengths of retained soil/rock behind and foundation material underneath the SRWs as well
proposed soil for use as reinforced fill.
Evaluate foundation capacity below SRW, including bearing capacity and settlement estimates and recommendations for
any required foundation improvements.
Global stability analysis throughout site including above and below SRWs.
Supervise and coordinate slope stability evaluation and corrections around the SRW with the SRW engineer.
Evaluate seismic potential and recommended design accelerations, if applicable.
Construction inspection and testing of on-site and fill soils (generally on a time and materials basis, separate from the
soils exploration report contract).

Landscape Architect/Architect:
May act as specifier of retaining walls, rather than site civil engineer, primarily for walls near building structures (archi-
tectural walls) or for landscaping features.
Specify retaining walls appropriate to project conditions, if not civil engineer’s responsibility.
For walls near building structures or for landscaping, retaining wall layout and alignment on site plan, if not site civil
engineer’s responsibility.
Coordinate SRW layout with site civil engineer’s site and grading plans.

Structural Engineer:
Structural design of appurtenant structures to SRW such as guide rails, traffic barriers and structural slabs at top or bot-
tom of wall.

2 NCMA TEK 15-3A

 Table 1—Suggested Roles for a Segmental Retaining Wall Project (continued)
SRW Engineer:
Design SRW for structural stability including external stability (sliding and overturning), internal stability, and facial stability.
Determine maximum unreinforced height of SRW.
Design geosynthetic reinforcement layout, when required.
Determine minimum embedment of wall (except in the case of scour depth or erosion control issues, which should be
determined by site civil).
Specify SRW unit, geosynthetic reinforcement, drainage material within wall structure and reinforced soil properties.
Determine which structures can or cannot be placed within the reinforced soil zone and wall face, and detail the SRWs
to accommodate acceptable structures.
Under the direction of geotechnical engineer, assist in coordination of slope stability evaluation around and through the
SRW and the geosynthetic reinforcement design in reinforced SRWs to address slope stability in vicinity of SRW, as
required.
If contracted to and notified, observe construction of the overall SRW installation and review SRW material submittals
(generally on a time and materials basis, separate from the wall design contract). See Construction Observation and
Testing Suggested Roles Overview below.
When required by state law that the SRW engineer be a licensed professional structural engineer (S.E.), structural engineer also
takes on SRW engineer role. In this case, the general project structural engineer often may be a different firm than the SRW
structural engineer, depending on the project structural engineer’s familiarity with SRWs and interest in designing SRWs.

Site/Civil Engineer:
Specify retaining walls appropriate to project conditions.
Act as SRW Engineer (see above) when wall design performed in-house.
Prepare site plan and grading plan, including slopes and SRW heights and alignments.
Address any space limitations and easement issues relevant to SRW layout.
Design surface grading for drainage and design for erosion control around SRWs.
Design storm water collection structures and detention/retention ponds.
Utility design and layout around SRWs.
Pavement section design and grading above SRWs.
Layout of traffic control structures, such as pedestrian fall protection, curbs, wheel stops, guide rails and traffic barriers
behind walls.
Hydrologic evaluations including water flows, scour depths, flood areas and high water level predictions around SRW.
Ensure SRW engineer contracted for involvement in pre-construction meetings and construction inspection services
coordination.
Observe construction of the overall SRW installation and review SRW material submittals, if SRW engineer not contracted
specifically for these services.

Owner (after installation):

Maintenance and cleaning.
Ensure landscaping and other site work does not damage or impair the SRW installation.

NCMA TEK 15-3A 3

OVERVIEW OF ROLES
The owner/developer, or a designated representative, is ulti-
mately responsible for ensuring that all applicable requirements
of governing authorities for the permitting, design, construction
and safety on the project are addressed. The owner or owners’
representative should ensure that the types of retaining walls
specified are appropriate for the site conditions and ensure the
wall alignment fits within the site’s space limitations. It is the
owner's or owner’s representative’s responsibility to contract
an engineer to provide site civil engineering including site
layout, drainage and grading. The owner must also ensure that
a geotechnical engineer and testing agency are contracted to
provide all necessary and required soils exploration, analysis
and earthwork inspection for the entire project, including in
the vicinity of the SRWs, just as they do in the vicinity of
building structures. The owner or owner’s representative must
also ensure that a qualified wall design engineer provides an
SRW structural design.
The most straightforward means for the owner or owner's
representative to ensure all engineering roles are well-defined
is for the SRW design engineer’s assigned roles to be the same
as those traditionally given to a structural engineer designing a
cast-in-place concrete retaining wall, and for the other design
professionals, such as site civil and geotechnical engineers, to
also provide the same roles and services as they would for a
cast-in-place retaining wall.
Table 1 contains an itemized list of the suggested roles for
each professional discipline for larger walls and commercial
projects involving SRWs. A more thorough explanation of the
site civil engineer's, geotechnical engineer's and SRW engi-
neer's roles, and construction observation and testing roles is
provided in the following sections. The actual responsibilities
for each discipline should be contractually based.
SITE CIVIL ENGINEER SUGGESTED ROLES OVER-
VIEW
It is suggested that the site civil engineer be contracted for
all traditional site civil duties, including the design of surface
drainage, storm drainage collection structures, utility layout,
erosion control and scour protection. The site civil engineer
is also typically responsible for site layout and grading plans,
including slopes and retaining wall locations. The site civil
engineer should, in consultation with the geotechnical engineer,
ensure that all planned grades, including those at the top and
bottom of SRWs, do not exceed the stable slope angles and
do not cause surface drainage or erosion problems.
The site civil engineer should also plan the wall alignment
so that the SRW structure does not encroach on any easements.
In addition, the site civil engineer should be responsible for
any other issues related to the wall location, such as proximity
to property lines, utilities, watersheds, wetlands, or any other
4 NCMA TEK 15-3A
easements. In some cases, the site civil engineer may also act
as the SRW Design Engineer and take on suggested roles for
the SRW Engineer discussed below.
The site civil engineer should evaluate and design for
any hydrologic issues and structures such as: culverts, open
channels, detention/retention ponds, scour and erosion control
details, as well as defining high water levels, flow volumes,
flood areas and scour depths. The site civil engineer should
provide any pertinent hydrologic data that may affect the SRW
to the SRW engineer.
Often, when not designing the SRW in-house, the site
civil engineer specifies the engineering design of SRWs to be
part of the SRW construction contract (a design/build bid).
While a common practice, this type of bid can place the SRW
engineer in a different position than other project engineers.
Unlike other engineers working directly for the owner, the SRW
engineer in this design/build case is often working directly for
a contractor, who is often a subcontractor to other contractors.
This can cause design coordination issues because the SRW
engineer may not be included in project discussions with other
engineers, such as pre-construction meetings. Therefore, it is
suggested that the site civil first determine if it is appropriate
to have the SRW engineering specified as part of the wall con-
struction contract. For some more complicated projects, it may
be preferable to have the SRW design engineer perform the
design prior to bidding the construction rather than as part of
a design/build bid. If the site civil engineer chooses to specify
the SRW design as part of the construction bid, it is recom-
mended that the site civil engineer ensure that the SRW design
engineer is involved in any required design and construction
observation services before and during construction, similar to
the way geotechnical engineers are often contracted for their
services during construction.
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEER SUGGESTED ROLES
OVERVIEW
The geotechnical engineer should typically be contracted
to provide the same engineering roles in the vicinity of the
SRW as they do for all other structures on site. The geotechni-
cal engineer’s typical roles are the investigation, analysis and
testing of the site soil materials and groundwater conditions.
Just as geotechnical engineers traditionally provide bearing
capacity, settlement estimates and slope stability analysis for
building structures, it is suggested they do the same for SRWs.
The geotechnical engineer’s role should include providing
soil properties such as soil shear strength parameters, ground
water elevation, seismic conditions, and bearing capacities to
the SRW engineer.
Responsibility for slope stability evaluation around an
SRW can be a source of confusion, because the SRW engineer
can often address slope stability issues near a geosynthetic-
reinforced SRW by modifying the geosynthetic reinforcement
layout. Thus, the SRW engineer is sometimes requested to
evaluate and design for slope stability by the civil engineer's
specifications. However, involving the SRW engineer in ad-
dressing slope stability should not remove ultimate global/
slope stability responsibility from the geotechnical engineer.
It is therefore suggested that, regardless of the SRW en-
gineer's involvement, the geotechnical engineer be contracted
to have the ultimate responsibility for the site's slope stability,
including: determining when and where global stability analyses
are required, determining the appropriate soils and groundwater
properties to be used for the analyses, and ensuring that all
required failure planes are analyzed. While the geotechnical
engineer may need to coordinate with the SRW engineer for
evaluating potential failure planes that pass through the rein-
forced soil (compound failures), the geotechnical engineer has
the primary responsibility for these analyses.
When the geotechnical consultant is retained to provide
construction observation and soils testing for a project, the
contract should include inspection and testing of SRW earth-
work along with all other earthwork on site. See TEK 18-11A,
Inspection Guide for Segmental Retaining Walls (ref. 3) for
further discussion of inspection roles.
While geotechnical engineers should be contracted for the
same traditional roles regarding SRWs as for other structures,
the soils engineering for SRWs may require some slightly
different methods of analysis compared to evaluating soils
below rigid structures on spread footings. Design guidelines
for SRWs are provided in Reference 1.
SRW DESIGN ENGINEER SUGGESTED ROLES
OVERVIEW
As noted previously, the SRW design engineer should
serve the same roles for SRWs as a structural engineer would
for the design of a cast-in-place concrete retaining wall. In
some cases, the site civil engineering firm may also act as the
SRW engineer, while in others, the SRW design engineer will
be a separate firm. The SRW design engineer should design a
stable SRW, given the specified wall geometry and site con-
ditions provided by the site civil and geotechnical engineers.
The SRW engineer’s duties typically include determining the
SRW's maximum stable unreinforced height and providing a
geosynthetic reinforcement layout design when required.
The SRW design engineer is typically responsible for
preparing the SRW construction drawings, and for determining
the internal stability, facial stability of the SRW units, internal
drainage of the SRW (both at the face of the wall and at the
rear of the reinforced soil mass, if required), external stability
(sliding and overturning), and internal compound stability.
The SRW designer engineer's output generally consists of
specifications of wall components, a wall elevation detail, typi-
cal cross sections, details for any required drainage materials
NCMA TEK 15-3A 5
within or just behind the wall system, and details for how to
incorporate any other structures (utilities, pipe penetrations,
posts, etc.), if feasible, within the reinforced zone and wall
face.
The SRW design engineer should typically not assume
any duties typically relegated to the geotechnical engineer
elsewhere on site. While an SRW engineer may be asked to
participate in addressing the slope stability immediately around
the SRW or foundation improvements in the soil below an SRW,
it is recommended that the geotechnical engineer be clearly
contracted to have ultimate responsibility for all slope stability
and bearing capacity/settlement concerns on site, including
those below and around SRWs.
It is appropriate that the SRW engineer be contracted to pro-
vide services during construction, especially on larger projects,
but it is recommended that these not be included in a design/
build contract for the wall construction. Time lag between
design and construction can make it impractical to expect the
designer to be available for services during construction and,
given the often unpredictable extent and timing of construction,
it is inappropriate to have services during construction be in
a lump-sum design/build contract. Rather, it is suggested that
the SRW engineer be hired under a separate contract directly
with the owner or owner’s representative to provide services
during construction. These services may include preconstruction
correspondences and meetings, review of materials submittals,
review of earthwork testing performed by the geotechnical
engineer, and review of the wall contractor's building practices.
CONSTRUCTION OBSERVATION AND TESTING
SUGGESTED ROLES OVERVIEW
The soil in the reinforced zone should be checked to ensure
it meets specifications; just as concrete and steel are inspected
in a cast-in-place concrete retaining wall.
The wall contractor is responsible for quality control of the
wall installation: performing necessary observation and testing
to verify that the work performed meets minimum standards.
It is the owner's or owner’s representative's responsibility
to perform quality assurance: auditing and verifying that the
quality control program is being performed properly.
Just as is done for building structures and cast-in-place
concrete retaining walls, foundation and retained soils should
be evaluated for consistency with the soil properties used in
the design. Generally, the geotechnical engineer evaluates
the onsite soil conditions and performs earthwork testing.
It is suggested that the geotechnical engineer perform any
field and laboratory testing they deem required to verify soil
conditions. The geotechnical engineer should confer with the
SRW engineer regarding the reinforced soil specifications and
provide the SRW engineer with the fill soil test results. The
geotechnical engineer should also determine the frequency of
tests required to ensure that compaction of the SRW reinforced
fill meets the project specifications.
OWNER SUGGESTED ROLES OVERVIEW
Segmental retaining walls are designed to provide a long
life with little to no maintenance required. After the SRW in-
stallation is complete, some very basic maintenance will help
maximize the SRW project's beauty and durability.
The most basic maintenance task is a periodic visual as-
sessment of the SRW units and overall wall. If coatings have
been applied to the wall, the need for re-coating should be as-
sessed based on the coating manufacturer's recommendations
and the exposure conditions of the wall. Table 2 lists regular
inspection tasks that can be performed on SRWs and their
suggested frequency.
Periodic cleaning of SRWs may be desired to maintain
the wall's aesthetics. Cleaning recommendations for SRWs are
essentially the same as those for other concrete masonry walls.
The reader is referred to: TEK 8-4A, Cleaning Concrete Ma-
sonry; TEK 8-2A, Removal of Stains from Concrete Masonry;
6 NCMA TEK 15-3A
and TEK 8-3A, Control and Removal of Efflorescence (refs.
5, 6, 7), for more detailed guidance.
In addition to maintenance and cleaning, the owner is also
responsible for ensuring that subsequent digging or trenching,
such as for landscaping, does not impact the SRW installation.
During any excavation, care should be taken to leave a zone
of undisturbed soil behind the segmental retaining wall. Par-
ticular care should be taken to ensure that excavation does not
damage, cut or remove the geosynthetic soil reinforcement, if
present. For this reason, the owner should maintain a record
of the installation, including the locations of geosynthetic
reinforcement.
Once established, tree roots do not typically damage an
SRW. The roots will typically not damage the wall face from
behind because the drainage aggregate behind the SRW face
does not support root growth. In fact, the root system can act
as additional soil reinforcement, helping to further stabilize
the soil. When newly planted, trees and other large vegetation
should be adequately supported to prevent them from toppling
and potentially damaging the SRW.
 Table 2—Example SRW Maintenance Schedule (ref. 4)
Task: Frequency
Check overall appearance of the structure for any signs of damage or poor performance. Periodically
Examine drainage outlets to ensure proper function. Biannually
Check to ensure roof drains, downspouts and other water sources are directed away from Spring and fall
the wall. Check that water collection structures are operating properly. Clean and repair as
necessary.
Check for locations and sources of water. Annually (spring)
Check to ensure grade slopes away from wall or that drainage swales are working properly. Annually (spring)
Examine drainage outlets for presence of vermin. Remove nests and clean as necessary. Annually
Install vermin caps or screens as necessary.
If a coating has been applied, examine the condition of the coating. Annually
Examine the condition of cap units and the effectiveness of cap unit adhesive. Annually
If large trees and/or shrubs are present, examine the impact of root structures on the wall. Annually
Check for the presence of dirt, efflorescence and graffiti. Clean as necessary. Annually
Check vertical and horizontal alignment of wall surfaces. Every 2 to 5 years

NCMA TEK 15-3A 7

REFERENCES
1. Design Manual for Segmental Retaining Walls, Third Edition, TR 127B. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2009.
2. Segmental Retaining Wall Installation Guide, TR 146. National Concrete Masonry Association, 1996.
3. Inspection Guide for Segmental Retaining Walls, TEK 18-11A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2010.
4. Maintenance of Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 8-1A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2004.
5. Cleaning Concrete Masonry, TEK 8-4A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2005.
6. Removal of Stains from Concrete Masonry, TEK 8-2A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 1998.
7. Control and Removal of Efflorescence, TEK 8-3A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2003.

NCMA and the companies disseminating this technical information disclaim any and all responsibility and liability for the accuracy
and the application of the information contained in this publication.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION

13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171
www.ncma.org

To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index, contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900

8 NCMA TEK 15-3A

An information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology

SEGMENTAL RETAINING WALL TEK 15-4B

GLOBAL STABILITY Structural (2010)

INTRODUCTION in a soil mass. The Bishop’s method is the most commonly

used. It models a group of slices and the forces acting on each
The general mass movement of a segmental retaining wall slice as shown in Figure 2. Limit equilibrium requirements are
(SRW) structure and the adjacent soil is called global stability applied to the slices comprising the soil structure. The factor
failure. Global stability analysis is an important component of of safety against sliding is defined as the ratio of the maxi-
SRW design, particularly under the following conditions: mum shear possessed by the soil on the trial failure surface
• groundwater table is above or within the wall height of the plus contributions from the soil reinforcement (tavailable) to the
SRW, shear resistance developed along the potential failure surface
• a 3H:1V or steeper slope at the toe or top of the SRW, (tmobilized), i.e.:
• for tiered SRWs, FS= tavailable/tmobilized or resistance/driving.
• for excessive surcharges above the wall top, Limit equilibrium methods of analysis are typically used
• for seismic design, and to determine the global stability of the SRW. These methods
• when the geotechnical subsurface exploration finds soft soils, assume that the SRW, the retained soil, and the foundation soil
organic soils, peat, high plasticity clay, swelling or shrinking will fail along a critical slip (failure) surface generated by the
soils or fill soil. force of gravity. The critical slip surface is commonly assumed
The designer should also review local code requirements as a circular arc, logarithmic spiral arc, curve, single plane or
applicable to designing soil retention structures. multiple planes to simulate the possible sliding movement.
There are two primary modes of global stability failure:
deep-seated and compound. A deep-seated failure is char- 2H or Hext + L
acterized by a failure surface that starts in front of an SRW,
Range of entry
passes below the base of the wall and extends beyond the
points for ICS
tail of the geosynthetic reinforcement (see Figure 1, surface failures
F).
Compound failures are typically described by a failure
surface that passes either through the SRW face or in front Soil
reinforcement F
of the wall, through the reinforced soil zone and continues
A E
into the unreinforced/retained soil (Fig. 1, surfaces A through
E). A special case of the compound failure is the Internal SRW B
Compound Stability (ICS) failure surface that exits at the unit
Reinforced
SRW face above the foundation soil (Fig. 1, surfaces A Hext soil zone
H C Failure
through D). surfaces
D
GLOBAL STABILITY ANALYSIS

Several methods of analysis (such as Janbu, Spencer and L

Bishop) have been developed to analyze the global stability
Figure 1—Global Stability Failures
A Surficial Stability: This mode of failure E Internal Compound Stability
will not be considered in the ICS analysis. (Bottom Block): Only circular
Related TEK: Keywords:
B Internalfactor of safety,
Compound globalFor
Stability: stability, failure surfaces tangent to the base
internal compound
a given pair stability
of the bottom block will be analyzed.
2-4B, 15-5A, 15-8A, (ICS), Csegmental retaining
of entry points wall,
and exit soil(block/block
points reinforcement, tiered SRW
D interface only), a series of circular failure F Outside entry point limits: This mode
15-9 surfaces are generated and analyzed. Included of failure will not be considered in the
in the analysis is the contribution of (when ICS analysis.
applicable) : G Global Stability: This mode of failure
NCMA TEK (replaces TEK) - Block/Block Shear Capacity 1 ICS
will not be considered in the
- Block/Reinforcement/Block Shear Capacity analysis.
- Connection Capacity

P MR(reinforcement ) + MR(facing)
β FS(reinforced) FS(unreinforced) +
φ, γ, c = 0 Soil
slice
W
b The global factor of safety of an SRW is a function of: the
α S N (i.e., sloping toe or crest, tiered walls), and the length, strength
Equibrium of forces in the
vertical direction:
N cos α + S sin α - (W + P) = 0
Figure 2—Representative Slope Slice for
Bishop’s Method of
Analysis (ref. 3)
In most limit equilibrium analyses, the minimum shear
strength required along a potential failure surface to maintain
stability is calculated and then compared to the available
shear strength of the soil. The factor of safety is assumed to
be constant along the entire failure surface. The design factor
of safety for global stability is typically between 1.3 and 1.5,
and depends on the criticality of the structure and how well
the site conditions are defined.
The global stability analysis is an iterative process where
as many as 250 trial failure surfaces are assumed and analyzed
to determine the critical failure surface (i.e. minimum factor of
safety). For this reason, the slope stability analyses are usually
performed using computer programs that implement one or
more methods. Many software programs have been developed
to analyze the global stability of unreinforced soil structures.
There are, however, only a limited number of programs that
include the stabilizing effects of the geosynthetic reinforce-
ment used to construct a soil-reinforced SRW. ReSSA (ref. 1)
is one of the specialized programs developed for the Federal
Highway Administration.
Internal Compound Stability
Internal Compound Stability (ICS) affects the internal
components of the retaining wall system, including the facing
elements and reinforced zone. Because ICS is influenced by
loading conditions outside the reinforced fill area, it is a special
case of a larger compound analysis.
The NCMA Design Manual for Segmental Retaining
Walls (ref. 3) provides specific guidelines for ICS analysis. The
failure surfaces are evaluated by defining a range of possible
entry points located behind the soil-reinforced SRW and exit
points at the face of the wall. The entry points are located at
a distance that is the larger of twice the wall height (2H) and
the height of the projection from the tail of the reinforcement
layers to the surface plus a distance equal to the length of the
reinforcement (Hext + L) (see Figure 1).
To analyze the ICS failure on soil-reinforced SRWs, the
components of the SRW (soil reinforcement and facing) are
2 NCMA TEK
considered to help resist the unbalanced forces of the system:
=
M DRIVING
To simplify the ICS analysis, NCMA has developed SRWall
4.0 Software (ref. 2).
Factors Affecting the Global Stability and Internal
Compound Stability (ICS) of SRWs
soil characteristics, groundwater table location, site geometry
and vertical location of soil reinforcement (geosynthetic). The
effects of each of these are briefly discussed below.
Soil Characteristics—Weak foundation soils increase the
potential for deep-seated stability problems. Low strength
reinforced soil will contribute to compound stability problems
and low strength retained soils may contribute to either deep-
seated or compound failure modes.
Groundwater Table—If the groundwater table is shallow
(i.e., close to the toe of the wall) the long-term shear strength
(i.e., effective shear strength) of the foundation soil will be
reduced. This reduction in strength is directly related to the
buoyant effect of the groundwater. The effective weight of
the soil is reduced by approximately 50%, which reduces the
shear strength along the failure surface.
Geometry—A sloping toe at the bottom of an SRW reduces
the resisting forces when analyzing failure surfaces exiting in
front of the SRW (deep-seated or compound). As the resist-
ing force decreases, the global factor of safety also decreases.
The ICS does not evaluate the influence of front slopes on the
stability of SRWs.
Figure 3 illustrates the design case for a parametric analysis
with top and toe slopes condition for a 10-ft (3.05-m) high wall
with a horizontal crest slope founded on a foundation soil with
a friction angle of 30°.
Figure 4 shows the change in factor of safety for deep-
seated failure as a function of the toe slope angle. However,
ICS analysis is not influenced by these changes and remains
constant for the different toe variations.
An increase of the slope above the wall decreases the SRW
global stability factor of safety. Figure 5 shows the change in
factor of safety for the design case used earlier (with the ex-
ception that the toe is level and the crest slope varies). In this
case, evaluation of the wall with this geometry shows a larger
reduction in safety factor for ICS than for global stability.
Tiered Walls—The NCMA Design Manual for Segmental
Retaining Walls (ref. 3) provides specific guidelines for tiered
SRWs with respect to the spacing between tiers and the effect
of the upper wall on the internal and external stability of the
lower wall (see Figure 6). When the setback of the upper wall,
J, is greater than the height of the lower wall, H1, the internal
design of the lower wall is not affected by the upper wall.
However, this is not true for global stability. Global stability
must be checked for all tiered walls.
Figure 7 shows the variation in the global factor of safety
for two 10-ft (3.05-m) high tiered walls with horizontal crest
slopes as a function of the setback J. In this example, the re-
inforcement length for both walls is 12 ft (3.66 m), which is
0.6 times the combined height of both walls. For this particular
example, constructing a tiered wall versus a single wall 20 ft
(6.10 m) high (i.e., J = 0) reduces the global factor of safety
from 1.3 to 1.2. From the ICS analysis, a tiered wall has better
safety factors and the stability is increased when the distance
between tiers is increased.
Soil Reinforcement—Generally speaking, increasing the spac-
ing between reinforcement layers increases the potential for
compound failures. Shortening the length of the reinforcement
will also increase the potential for both compound and deep-
seated failure. Changes in the design strength of the reinforce-
ment often have the smallest impact on the global stability.
6 ft (1.83 m)
ö = 32°
10 ft Reinforced fill
(3.05 m)
Retained soils
θ 0 - 20° ö = 30°
Foundation soils
CONCLUSIONS
The global stability analysis (deep-seated and compound)
of an SRW is an important consideration during the SRW
design stage in order to assess the overall wall performance
and the coherence of the system. Whenever the structure is
influenced by weak soils, ground water tables, slopes at the top
or toe of the structure or seismic conditions, an experienced
professional should verify that all possible failure conditions
have been evaluated.
When the global factor of safety of an SRW is below the
design requirement, stability may be increased by increasing
the reinforcement length or strength, or by decreasing the space
between reinforcement layers. If the changes on the internal
structure of the SRW do not improve the factors of safety, soil
β
characteristics can be improved, water can be addressed with
appropriate management and geometry can be modified.
When designing SRWs with these conditions, it is important
to maintain the coordination among the appropriate profession-
als to help ensure the success of the job. Consideration must
ö = 30° also be given to the impact that each variable has on the SRW
stability:
• Increasing the foundation, reinforced and/or retained soil
shear strength (using ground improvement techniques or
changing soil type).
q
γi(2) φ i(2) l2

Figure 3—Typical Section for Figures 4 and 5

Exposed
height

H2
1.9
J
FSICS
Factor of safety

S
1
γr(1) φr(1)
1.4 γi(1) φi(1)

FSglobal H1 Note: H1 must

be > H2
0.9 α e(1)
0 5 10 15 20
Sloping toe angle, θ L1 X1

Figure 4—Effect of Sloping Toe Angle

Figure 6—Tiered SRW

1.9 1.9
Factor of safety
Factor of safety

FSICS FSICS

1.4 1.4
FSglobal FSglobal

0.9 0.9
0 5 10 15 20 0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Slope above top of wall, β Setback between SRW tiers, J, ft

Figure 5—Effect of Slope Above Top of Wall Figure 7—Effect of Tiered SRW Setback

NCMA TEK 3
• Adding external and internal drainage features reduces
surcharges and improves soil properties.
• When a slope occurs at the toe of a wall, changing the
geometry of the wall slope may also increase stability. For
example, placing the SRW at the bottom of the slope and
having a slope above the wall instead may increase the
stability to an acceptable level.
• A change in the toe slope has a more drastic effect on FSglobal
than does a change in the slope above the wall.
• An increase in the slope above the wall reduces the ICS
safety factor more than the global stability safety factor.
Global stability analysis is a complex analytical procedure.
However, computer software is available which greatly reduces
the time required for the analysis.
NOTATIONS:
b = width of slice, ft (m)
c = cohesion of soil, psf (MPa)
FS = factor of safety
FSglobal = global factor of safety g = soil unit weight, pcf (kN/m3)
FSICS = ICS factor of safety
FS(reinforced) = the reinforced factor of safety of the soil
FS(unreinforced) = unreinforced factor of safety of the soil
H = total height of wall, ft (m)
Hext = height of back of reinforced wall over which the active
earth pressure for external stability is calculated, ft (m)
H1 = height of lower wall for tiered SRWs, ft (m)
H2 = exposed height of upper wall for tiered SRW, ft (m)
J = setback between SRW tiers, ft (m)
L = length of geosynthetic soil reinforcement, ft (m)
MR(reinforcement) = the resisting moment generated by the reinforce-
ment layers that intercept the slip surface
MR(facing) = the resisting contribution of the facing at the exit of
the potential slip circle.
MDRIVING = the driving force generated by the weight and surcharges
present on the potential slip circle.
N = total normal force, N = N' + ul, lb/ft (N/m)
N' = effective normal force, lb/ft (N/m)
P = external load, lb/ft (kN/m)
ql = soil surcharge, lb/ft2 (N/m2)
R = radius of the circular slip failure, ft (m)
S = ratio of horizontal offset to vertical rise between tiers of
slope
W = total weight of soil in slice plus surcharge if present, lb/
ft (N/m)
X1 = length of influence zone for upper tier, ft (m)
αe = orientation of the critical Coulomb failure surface
β = soil slope above top of wall, degrees
θ = toe angle, degrees
f = friction angle of soil, degrees
τavailable = maximum shear strength possessed by the soil on the
trial failure surface plus contributions from soil reinforcement,
lb/ft (N/m)
τmobilized = shear resistance necessary for equilibrium, lb/ft (N/m)

REFERENCES
1. ReSSA 1.0, ADAMA Engineering Inc., 2001.
2. SRWall 4.0, National Concrete Masonry Association, 2009.
3. NCMA Design Manual for Segmental Retaining Walls, 3rd edition. TR 127B. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2009.
4. McCarthy, David F. Essentials of Soil Mechanics and Foundations: Basic Geotechnics, Fourth Edition, Regents/Prentice Hall, 1993.

NCMA and the companies disseminating this technical information disclaim any and all responsibility and liability for the accuracy
and the application of the information contained in this publication.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION

13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171
www.ncma.org

To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index, contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900

4 NCMA TEK
An information series from the national
SEGMENTAL RETAINING
WALL DESIGN
INTRODUCTION
Segmental retaining walls (SRWs) function as gravity
structures by relying on self-weight to resist the destabilizing
forces due to retained soil (backfill) and surcharge loads. The
self-weight of the SRW system is either the weight of the SRW
units themselves including aggregate core fill if used (in the case
of conventional SRWs) or the combined weight of the units,
aggregate core fill if used and the reinforced soil mass (in the
case of soil-reinforced SRWs).
Stability is provided by a coherent mass with sufficient
width to prevent both sliding at the base and overturning about
the toe of the structure under the action of lateral earth forces.
SRWs are durable and long lasting retaining wall systems.
The typical size of SRW units, placed without mortar (dry-
stacked), permits the construction of walls in locations with
difficult access and allows the construction of tight curves or
other complex architectural layouts. Segmental retaining walls
are used in many applications, including landscaping walls,
structural walls for changes in grade, bridge abutments, stream
channelization, waterfront structures, tunnel access walls, wing
walls and parking area support. This TEK provides a general
overview of design considerations and the influences that
height, soil, loads and geometry have on structural stability,
based on Design Manual for Segmental Retaining Walls (ref.
1).
It is recommended that users of this TEK consult local
building codes to determine additional SRW requirements and
the engineering needs of their project. Where such specific
requirements do not exist, NCMA recommends an engineered
design performed by a registered professional on walls with
a total (design) height, H, exceeding 4 ft (1.21 m) (for further
detail, refer to TEK 18-11A, Inspection Guide for Segmental
Retaining Walls (ref. 3).
Related TEK: Keywords: geosynthetic reinforcement, retaining wall, segmental re-
15-3A, 15-4B, 18-11A taining wall, structural design
NCMA TEK 15-5B 1
authority on concrete masonry technology
TEK 15-5B
Structural (2010)
TYPES OF SEGMENTAL RETAINING WALLS
Conventional (Gravity) Segmental Retaining Walls
Conventional (gravity) SRWs retain soils solely through
the self-weight of the SRW units. They can be constructed
with either a single depth of unit or with multiple depths. The
maximum wall height achievable using a conventional SRW is
directly proportional to the unit’s weight, width, site geometry,
surcharge load and retained soil type. Table 1 illustrates the
effect of increasing the wall batter, unit width, unit's in-place
density (using either a solid unit or unit with aggregate core
fill), and better quality backfill on the maximum height of a
gravity wall.
Soil-Reinforced Segmental Retaining Walls
Soil-reinforced SRWs are composite systems consisting
of SRW units in combination with a mass of reinforced soil.
The soil is stabilized by horizontal layers of reinforcement,
typically a geosynthetic material. The reinforcement increases
the effective width and weight of the gravity system.
Geosynthetic reinforcement materials are high-tensile-
strength polymeric materials. They may be geogrids or geo-
textiles, although current SRW construction typically uses
geogrids. Figure 2 illustrates a typical soil-reinforced segmen-
tal retaining wall and current design terminology.
The geosynthetic reinforcement is placed between the units
and extended into the soil to create a composite gravity mass
structure. This mechanically stabilized wall system, comprised
of the SRW units and a reinforced soil mass, is designed to offer
the required resistance to external forces associated with taller
walls, surcharged structures, or more difficult soil conditions.
Soil-reinforced SRWs may also be referred to as mechanically
stabilized earth (MSE) walls, the generic term used to describe
all forms of reinforced soil structures.
 Table 1—Gravity SRW Design Heights for Various Unit, Soil and Wall Properties
(refer to cases on Figure 1 and design parameters on next page)

Level conditions w/50 psf surcharge—Cases 13 and 14

Unit f (deg) Retained unit weight = 110 pcf (1,762 kg/m3) Retained unit weight = 120 pcf (1,922 kg/m3)
width, in. Max. wall height, ft (m), for wall batter of: Max. wall height, ft (m), for wall batter of:
(mm)
5o 10o 15o 5o 10o 15o
12 (305) 28 2.0 (0.60) 2.0 (0.60) 2.6 (0.79) 1.3 (0.39) 2.0 (0.60) 2.0 (0.60)
24 (610) 28 4.6 (1.40) 5.3 (1.61) 6.6 (2.01) 4.6 (1.40) 5.3 (1.61) 6.0 (1.82)
12 (305) 34 2.6 (0.79) 3.3 (1.00) 4.0 (1.21) 2.6 (0.79) 3.3 (1.00) 4.0 (1.21)
24 (610) 34 6.0 (1.82) 7.3 (2.22) 8.0 (2.43) 6.0 (1.82) 7.3 (2.22) 8.0 (2.43)
Slope 3:1—Cases 15 and 16
Unit f (deg) Retained unit weight = 110 pcf (1,762 kg/m3) Retained unit weight = 120 pcf (1,922 kg/m3)
width, in. Max. wall height, ft (m), for wall batter of: Max. wall height, ft (m), for wall batter of:
(mm)
5o 10o 15o 5o 10o 15o
12 (305) 28 2.0 (0.60) 2.0 (0.60) 2.6 (0.79) 2.0 (0.60) 2.0 (0.60) 2.0 (0.60)
24 (610) 28 4.0 (1.21) 4.6 (1.40) 5.3 (1.61) 4.0 (1.21) 4.0 (1.21) 4.6 (1.40)
12 (305) 34 2.6 (0.79) 3.3 (1.00) 4.0 (1.21) 2.6 (0.79) 3.3 (1.00) 3.3 (1.00)
24 (610) 34 6.0 (1.82) 7.3 (2.22) 8.0 (2.43) 5.3 (1.61) 6.6 (2.01) 7.3 (2.22)

3
q=0 150 psf 250 psf 250 psf 1

= 3° = 120 r
= 120 pcf = 3° 120 pcf 120 pcf = 3° 120 pcf 120 pcf = 3° 120 pcf 130 pcf = 3° 120 pcf 120 pcf
i
pcf ö r = 28° 28° 28° 30° 30° 28° 28° 28° 28°
öi = 28°

= 120 pcf 120 pcf 120 pcf 130 pcf 120 pcf
f
öf = 28° 28° 30° 28° 28°
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4 Case 5
3 3 2 2
3 1 1
1 1 1

= 3° = 120 r
= 120 pcf = 3° 120 pcf 120 pcf = 3° 120 pcf 130 pcf = 3° 120 pcf 120 pcf = 3° 120 pcf 120 pcf
i
pcf ö r = 30° 34° 34° 28° 28° 28° 28° 30° 30°
öi = 30°
120 pcf 130 pcf 120 pcf 120 pcf
= 120 pcf 34° 28° 28°
f
öf = 30° 30°

Case 6 Case 7 Case 8 Case 9 Case 10

2 2 3
1 3
1 50 psf 50 psf 1 1

= 120
= 3°
i
pcf = 120 pcf * 120 pcf * 120 pcf * 120 pcf
r
ö r = 34° = 8° 120 pcf 120 pcf * 120 pcf
öi = 34° 28° 28° 28° 34° 34° 28°

f
= 120 pcf 120 pcf 120 pcf 120 pcf 120 pcf 120 pcf
öf = 34° 28° 28° 34° 34° 28°
Case 11 Case 12 Case 13 Case 14 Case 15 Case
16
* Cases 1 through 12 represent soil-reinforced SRW design cases. Cases 13 through 16 represent conventional SRW
design cases, where wall batter, w, varies: 5o, 10o or 15o

Figure 1—Design Cases Corresponding to Table 1 and Figures 3 through 5

2 NCMA TEK 15-5B

 Design Parameters for Table 1:
• Minimum factor of safety for base sliding, overturning and internal shear, 1.5
• Toe slope 0°
• Minimum masonry friction reduction factor, μb, between SRW unit and aggregate leveling pad, 0.7
• Minimum shear capacity between SRW units, 400 lb/ft (5.8 kN/m)
• Angle of friction between SRW units, 30o
• Live surcharge is initiated behind the face of the wall
• Required minimum embedment at toe, Hemb, 6 in. (152 mm)
• SRW unit weight, 120 pcf (1,922 kg/m3), includes aggregate core fill when used
• See Reference 1 for typical values of f for various soil types

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS and geosynthetic pullout. In some cases, the length of the
uppermost layer(s) is locally extended to provide adequate
Geosynthetic Length and Spacing anchorage (pullout capacity) for the geosynthetic layers. The
For soil-reinforced segmental retaining walls, geosyn- strength of the geosynthetic and the frictional interaction with
thetic reinforcement increases the mass of the composite SRW the surrounding soil may also affect the geosynthetic length
structure, and therefore increases its resistance to destabiliz- necessary to provide adequate pullout capacity. In addition, the
ing forces. Geosynthetic length (L) is typically controlled by required length to achieve minimum pullout capacity is affected
external stability or internal pullout capacity calculations. by soil shear strength, backslope geometry and surcharge load
Increasing the length of the geosynthetic layers increases the (dead or live).
SRW's resistance to overturning, base sliding, bearing failure The minimum geosynthetic length required to satisfy
external stability criteria is also a function of the soil shear
strength and structure geometry (including wall batter,
arge backslope, toe slope and surcharge). As the external driving
s urch force increases (as occurs with an increase in backslope
n iform
q-U angle, reduction in soil shear strength, or increase in
1 Backfill slope external surcharge load (dead or live)), the length of the
3 geosynthetic increases to satisfy minimum external stabil-
Geosynthetic ity requirements. Figures 3 through 5 illustrate the effect
Reinforced reinforcement of backslope geometry, surcharge, soil unit weight and
(infill) soil ,ö i
i soil shear strength on the minimum required geosynthetic
H' Hu
Gravel fill Retained length to satisfy base sliding (FS = 1.5), overturning (FS
H soil r ,ör = 1.5) and pullout (FS = 1.5). Regardless of the results
Wu
Toe Subdrain E (3) of external stability analyses for sliding and overturning,
slope system E (2) the geogrid length (L) should not be less than 0.6H. The
L E (1) purpose of this empirical constraint is to prevent the
Hemb
construction of unusually narrow reinforced retaining
Compacted aggregate walls. In addition, it is recommended that the absolute
Foundation soil ,ö minimum value for L be 4 ft (1.2 m).
f f
leveling pad
A sufficient number and strength of geosynthetic layers
E(n)E (n)= = elevation
elevation of geosynthetic
of geosynthetic reinforcement
reinforcement above top of level- must be used to satisfy horizontal equilibrium with soil
above top
ing pad, ft (m)of leveling pad
forces behind the wall and to maintain internal stability.
H H = =total total (design)
(design) height
height of wall
of wall, ft (m) In addition, the tension forces in the geosynthetic layers
H' = exposed height of
H' = exposed height of wall, ft (m)
wall
H = wall embedment depth must be less than the design strength of the geosynthetic
Hembemb = wall embedment depth, ft (m) and within the allowable connection strength between the
H = height of segmental retaining wall unit
Hu u= height of segmental retaining wall unit, ft (m) geosynthetic and the SRW unit. The optimum spacing of
L = minimum length of geosynthetic
L = minimum length of geosynthetic reinforcement, including these layers is typically determined iteratively, usually with
reinforcement, including facing connection
W u =facing widthconnection,
of segmentalft (m)
retaining wall unit the aid of a computer program. Typically, the vertical spac-
Wu = =width backslope angle retaining
of segmental wall unit, ft (m)
from horizontal ing decreases with depth below the top of the wall because
β = =backslope angle from
soil unit weight horizontal, degrees earth pressures increase linearly with depth.
g ö = =soilsoilunitfriction
weight,angle
pcf (kg/m3) Vertical spacing between geosynthetic layers should
f = =frictionwall angle of soil, degrees
batter be limited to prevent bulging of the wall face between
ω = wall batter, degrees geosynthetic connection points, to prevent exceeding the
shear capacity between SRW units, to decrease the load in
the soil reinforcement and at the geosynthetic-SRW unit
Figure 2—Soil Reinforced Segmental connection interface. Figure 6 shows that smaller vertical
Retaining Wall Components reinforcement spacings reduce the geosynthetic reinforce-

NCMA TEK 15-5B 3

 BOTTOM GRID LENGTH TOP GRID LENGTH

16.00 Case 2
14.00

12.00 Case 3
Wall Height,H (ft)

10.00
Case 4
8.00

6.00

4.00

2.00 Case 4
Cases 1, 2, 3
Case 1
0.00
0.50 0.70 0.90 1.10 1.30 0.50 0.70 0.90 1.10 1.30 1.50 1.70 1.90
Geogrid Length to Wall Height Ratio, L/H Geogrid Length to Wall Height Ratio, L/H

Figure 3—Flat Slope Cases, Varying f, g and q—Cases 1, 2, 3 and 4

BOTTOM GRID LENGTH TOP GRID LENGTH

16.00
Case 6
Case 5
14.00
Case 8
12.00
Wall Height,H (ft)

10.00

8.00
Case 5

6.00
Case 7
4.00
Cases 6, 7
2.00
Case 8
0.00
0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.20
Geogrid Length to Wall Height Ratio, L/H Geogrid Length to Wall Height Ratio, L/H

Note: The ICS analysis results suggested possible global stability problems due to the considerable top slope: the designer is encour-
aged to verify with the project’s geotechnical engineer all potential global instability problems.

Figure 4—3:1 Top Slope Cases, Varying f and g—Cases 5, 6, 7 and 8

ment tensile load. Even when all internal and facial stability
failure modes can be satisfied with larger spacings, however,
a maximum vertical spacing between reinforcement layers of
24 in. (609 mm) is suggested to reduce construction stability
issues. Note that some proprietary systems may be capable
of supporting larger spacings: a 32 in. (813 mm) maximum
spacing is suggested for these systems. This maximum spacing
limits construction issues and also ensures that the reinforced
soil mass behaves as a composite material, as intended by this
design methodology. For SRW units less than or equal to 10
in. (254 mm) in depth, it is recommended that the maximum
vertical spacing of the reinforcement layers be no more than
twice the depth of the unit. For example, the maximum vertical
spacing for a 9 in. (229 mm) deep modular block would be 18
in. (457 mm). Within these limits, the wall designer should
choose an appropriate maximum reinforcement spacing for
the proprietary system used.
Regardless of the reinforcement spacing, compaction of
the reinforced fill zone is generally limited to 6 to 8 in. (152
to 203 mm) (compacted height) in order to achieve the nec-
essary density and construction quality control. Compaction
lift thickness in the retained zone is typically limited to the
same height; however, thicker lifts can be accomplished if
the specified density can be achieved throughout the entire
lift thickness and it can be demonstrated that there are no
adverse affects to the wall system performance or aesthet-
ics. Regardless of the compaction method or equipment, the
specified densities should be met and any variation from
the approved specifications must be authorized by the SRW
design engineer of the project.

4 NCMA TEK 15-5B

 BOTTOM GRID LENGTH TOP GRID LENGTH

16.00 Case 11
Case 11
14.00
Case 10
* * * *
12.00 Case 10
Wall Height,H (ft)

10.00

8.00

6.00

4.00 Case 9 Case 9

2.00 Case 12 Case 12
0.00
0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50
Geogrid Length to Wall Height Ratio, L/H Geogrid Length to Wall Height Ratio, L/H
Note: The ICS analysis results suggested possible global stability problems due to the considerable top slope: the designer is encouraged to
verify with the project’s geotechnical engineer all potential global instability problems.

* The ICS factor of safety cannot be satisfied for this wall height due to the combination of slope and soil conditions. The failure is caused by
instability of the slope above the wall that may require further investigation in coordination with the project's geotechnical engineer.

Figure 5—2:1 Top Slope Cases, Varying f and w—Cases 9, 10, 11 and 12
Graph D: Influence of Reinforcement Vertical Spacing on
Calculated Reinforcement Tensile Load
10
9
Reinforcement Elevation
Above Leveling Pad, ft

8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Reinforcement Tensile Load, lb/ft
24 in. spacing 16 in. spacing 8 in. spacing

Figure 6—Influence of Reinforcement Vertical Spacing on Calculated Reinforcement Tensile Load

Design Parameters for Figures 3 through 6:

• Width of SRW unit, Wu, 12 in. (305 mm)
• SRW unit weight, 120 pcf (1,922 kg/m3), includes
aggregate core fill when used
• Wall batter, ω, 3° or 8°, as designated; toe slope 0°
• Angle of friction between SRW units and geosyn-
thetic, 40°
• Direct sliding coefficient, Cds, 0.95 (min.)
• Interaction coefficient, Ci, 0.7 (min.)
• Minimum shear capacity between SRW units, 400
lb/ft (5.8 kN/m)
• Angle of friction between SRW units, 30°
• Soil properties as designated. When different soil unit
weights (g) are considered, gr refers to the united weight
of the retained soil
• Live surcharge is initiated behind the face of the wall
• Required minimum embedment at toe, Hemb, 6 in. (152
mm)
• See Reference 1 for typical values of f for various soil
types

NCMA TEK 15-5B 5

Gravel Fill and Drainage Materials
Whenever possible, water should be directed away from
SRWs. However, when water does reach an SRW, proper drain-
age components should be provided to avoid erosion, migration
of fines, and hydrostatic pressure on the wall. Drainage features
of the SRW will depend on site-specific groundwater conditions.
The wall designer should provide adequate drainage features
to collect and evacuate water that may potentially seep at the
wall. The civil site engineer is typically responsible for the
design of surface drainage structures above, below and behind
the wall and the geotechnical engineer is typically responsible
for foundation preparation and subsurface drainage beneath
a wall. Reference 1 addresses in detail the drainage features
and materials required for various ground water conditions on
SRWs.
The gravel fill (formerly known as the drainage aggregate)
and drain pipe shown on Figure 2 should only be relied on to
remove incidental water—they are not meant to be the primary
drainage path of the system. The gravel fill acts mainly as a
compaction aid to reduce horizontal compaction stresses on
the back of the SRW units during construction. It also prevents
retained soils from washing through the face of the wall when
designed as a soil filter, and facilitates drainage of incidental
water, thereby relieving hydrostatic pressure or seepage forces.
The drain pipe collects and evacuates any water in the
system through weep holes (maximum 50 ft (15.2 m) o.c. spac-
ing) or directly to a drainage collection system. The elevation
and diameter of the drain pipe should be determined by the
wall designer depending on the specific site conditions.
The gravel fill should consist of at least 12 in. (305 mm)
of a free-draining aggregate installed behind of the SRW units,
and the drain pipe have a minimum diameter of 3 in. (75 mm).
Wall Batter
Segmental retaining walls are generally installed with a
small horizontal setback between units, creating a wall batter
into the retained soil (ω in Figure 2). The wall batter compen-
sates for any slight lateral movement of the SRW face due to
earth pressure and complements the aesthetic attributes of the
SRW system. For conventional (gravity) SRWs, increasing the
wall batter increases the wall system stability.
Unit Size and Shear Capacity
All SRW units provide a means of transferring lateral
forces from one course to the next. Shear capacity provides
lateral stability for the mortarless SRW system. SRW units
can develop shear capacity by shear keys, leading lips, trail-
ing lips, clips, pins or compacted columns of aggregate in
open cores. In conventional (gravity) SRWs, the stability of
the system depends primarily on the mass and shear capacity
of the SRW units: increasing the SRW unit width or weight
provides greater stability, larger frictional resistance, and
larger resisting moments. In soil-reinforced SRWs, heavier
and wider units may permit a greater vertical spacing between
layers of geosynthetic, minimize the potential for bulging
of the wall face. For design purposes, the unit weight of the
SRW units includes the gravel fill in the cores if it is used.
6 NCMA TEK
Wall Embedment
Wall embedment is the depth of the wall face below grade
(Hemb in Figure 2). The primary benefit of wall embedment is
to ensure the SRW is not undermined by soil erosion in front
of the wall. Increasing the depth of embedment also provides
greater stability when site conditions include weak bearing
capacity of underlying soils, steep slopes near the toe of the
wall, potential scour at the toe (particularly in waterfront or
submerged applications), seasonal soil volume changes or
seismic loads.
The embedment depth is determined based on the wall
height and toe slope conditions (see Table 2), although the
absolute minimum suggested Hemb is 6 in. (152 mm).
Surcharge Loadings
Often, vertical surcharge loadings (q in Figure 2) are
imposed behind the top of the wall in addition to load due to
the retained earth. These surcharges add to the lateral pressure
on the SRW structure and are classified as dead or live load
surcharges.
Live load surcharges are considered to be transient loadings
that may change in magnitude and may not be continuously
present over the service life of the structure. In this design
methodology, live load surcharges are considered to contribute
to destabilizing forces only, with no contribution to stabiliz-
ing the structure against external or internal failure modes.
Examples of live load surcharges are vehicular traffic and bulk
material storage facilities.
Dead load surcharges, on the other hand, are considered
to contribute to both destabilizing and stabilizing forces since
they are usually of constant magnitude and are present for
the life of the structure. The weight of a building or another
retaining wall (above and set back from the top of the wall)
are examples of dead load surcharges.
DESIGN RELATIONSHIPS
Table 1 summarizes the influence of increasing the wall
batter, increasing the unit width, increasing the unit's in-place
density, and using better quality backfill on the maximum
constructible height of a gravity SRW to satisfy sliding and
overturning.
Figures 3 through 5 summarize the influences wall geom-
etry, backslope and soil shear strength have on the minimum
required reinforcement length to satisfy base sliding, overturn-
Table 2—Minimum Wall Embedment Depth
Slope in front of wall Minimum Hemb, to top of
leveling padA
Horizontal (walls) H'/20, 6 in. (152 mm) min.
Horizontal (abutments) H'/10, 6 in. (152 mm) min.
3H : 1V H'/10, 6 in. (152 mm) min.
2H : 1V H'/7, 6 in. (152 mm) min.
A
H' is the exposed height of the SRW, see Figure 2
ing and pullout for a reinforced SRW.
These design relationships were generated using conserva-
tive, generic properties of SRW units. They are not a substitute
for project-specific design, since differences between properties
assumed in the tables and project-specific parameters can result
in large differences in final design dimensions or factors of
safety. Although wall heights up to 8 ft (2.44 m) for conventional
(gravity) walls and 14 ft (4.28 m) for soil-reinforced walls are
presented, properly engineered walls can exceed these heights.
For a detailed discussion of design and analysis parameters,
the Design Manual for Segmental Retaining Walls (ref. 1)
should be consulted. Design cases 1 through 16 are illustrated in
Figure 1. All results shown were calculated using the software
SRWall 4.0 (ref. 2) providing the appropriate geosynthetic
lengths to satisfy sliding, overturning, and pullout (reinforced
walls only) safety factors; or the maximum gravity wall height
to satisfy sliding, overturning and internal shear. The final
number, distribution and strength of the geogrids can only be
determined by a designer for each specific SRW unit-geogrid
combination to guarantee the appropriate safety factors for
internal, facial stability and Internal Compound Stability (ICS)
are met (for more detailed information, see Reference 1). The
ICS can be met by reducing the geogrid spacing or increasing
the grid length or strength: the examples presented here were
calculated by reducing the geogrid spacing and maintaining
the maximum and minimum geogrid lengths for convenience.
See TEK 15-4B, Segmental Retaining Wall Global Stability,
(ref. 4) for more detailed information.
Large or commercial SRWs might also require foundation
soil competency, settlement, and global stability analyses for
a final design in coordination with other professionals in the
project that are not addressed here (for more details on roles and
responsibilities see TEK 15-3A, Roles and Responsibilities on
Segmental Retaining Wall Projects (ref. 5)). If the foundation
and global analyses ultimately require a modification to the
wall design, this must be done in coordination with the SRW
designer.
EXAMPLE
A reinforced SRW is specified for a project that has the fol-
lowing characteristics:
H= 10 ft (3.0 m)
Backslope 3:1
Live surcharge= 0 psf
All soils f= 28° and g = 120 pcf (1,922 kg/m3)
NCMA TEK 15-5B 7
Determine the approximate geogrid lengths (L) at the bottom
and top of the retaining wall.
Solution
Determine the case that applies to this problem using Figure
1: Case 5 for this example. Using Figure 4 (3:1 backslope),
find L/H for the given soil conditions and for the design height
of 10 ft (3.0 m).
Bottom geogrid:
L/H= 0.71; Lbottom = 0.71 x 10 ft = 7.1 ft (2.2 m)
Top geogrid:
L/H= 0.92; Ltop = 0.92 x 10 ft = 9.2 ft (2.8 m)
For estimating purposes, the volume of excavation and
reinforced fill could be determined from the obtained data. The
number, strength and distribution of the geogrids can only be
determined by a designer for the specific SRW unit-geogrid
combination to comply with the appropriate safety factors for
internal, facial stability and ICS. The ICS is dependent on the
spacing, length and strength of the geogrids: the designer is
encouraged to perform the appropriate calculations to verify
the distribution of the geosynthetics.
NOTATIONS:
Cds = direct sliding coefficient
Ci = interaction coefficient
E(n) = elevation of geosynthetic reinforcement above top of
leveling pad, ft (m)
FS = factor of safety
H = total (design) height of wall, ft (m)
H' = exposed height of wall, ft (m)
Hemb = wall embedment depth, ft (m)
Hu = height of segmental retaining wall unit, ft (m)
L = minimum length of geosynthetic reinforcement, includ-
ing facing connection, ft (m)
q = vertical uniform surcharge load, lb/ft
Wu = width of segmental retaining wall unit, ft (m)
β = backslope angle from horizontal, degrees
g = soil unit weight, pcf (kg/m3)
gf = weight of foundation soil, pcf (kg/m3)
gi = weight of infill soil, pcf (kg/m3)
gr = weight of retained soil, pcf (kg/m3)
μb = minimum masonry friction reduction factor
f = friction angle of soil, degrees
ff = friction angle of foundation soil, degrees
fi = friction angle of infill soil, degrees
fr = friction angle of retained soil, degrees
ω = wall batter, degrees
REFERENCES
1. Design Manual for Segmental Retaining Walls, 3rd edition. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2009.
2. Design Software for Segmental Retaining Walls, SRWall 4.0. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2009.
3. Inspection Guide for Segmental Retaining Walls, TEK 18-11A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2010.
4. Segmental Retaining Wall Global Stability, TEK 15-4B. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2010.
5. Roles and Responsibilities on Segmental Retaining Wall Projects, TEK 15-3A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2010.

NCMA and the companies disseminating this technical information disclaim any and all responsibility and liability for the accuracy
and the application of the information contained in this publication.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION

13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171
www.ncma.org

To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index, contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900

8 NCMA TEK 15-5B


National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology
CONCRETE MASONRY
GRAVITY RETAINING WALLS
Keywords: allowable stress design, lateral loads, plain concrete
masonry, retaining wall, unreinforced concrete masonry
INTRODUCTION
Retaining walls support soil and other materials later-
ally. That is, retaining walls "retain" earth, keeping it from
sliding. Retaining walls must resist overturning and sliding,
and the pressure under the toe (front bottom edge of footing)
should not exceed the bearing capacity of the soil. Finally, the
wall must be strong enough to prevent failure at any point in
its height due to the pressure of the retained material.
Concrete masonry retaining walls meet these requirements
admirably.
Three different types of concrete masonry retaining walls
are illustrated in Figure 1. They are the simple unreinforced
vertical face gravity retaining wall, the steel reinforced
cantilever retaining wall, and the segmental retaining wall.
This TEK addresses unreinforced gravity retaining walls
only. Each of these retaining wall systems has its advantages,
and the choice may depend on a number of factors including
aesthetics, constructibility, cost, and suitability for a particu-
lar project. The gravity wall is much simpler in design and
construction, and can be an effective choice for smaller
projects. It is thicker at the base than cantilever and segmental
walls, and hence could cost more to construct on larger
projects. Gravity retaining walls resist sliding by means of
their large mass, whereas cantilever retaining walls are
Gravity retaining wall Cantilever retaining wall
Figure 1—Concrete Masonry Retaining Walls
TEK 15-6 © 1995 National Concrete Masonry Association
NCMA TEK
TEK 15-6
Structural (1995)
designed to resist sliding by using reinforcement. Because of
their large mass, gravity retaining walls may not be appropri-
ate for use on soils with low bearing capacities.
A qualified engineer who is familiar with local condi-
tions can assist in the choice of retaining wall type. Where
especially unfavorable soil conditions occur or where piling
is required under a retaining wall, the assistance of an
engineer is essential for design and construction.
DESIGN
The primary force acting on a retaining wall is the
pressure exerted by the retained material at the back of the
wall and on the heel of the footing. The magnitude and
direction of this pressure depends on the height and shape of
the surface and on the nature and properties of the backfill.
One common method of estimating backfill pressure is the
equivalent fluid pressure method. In this method, it is as-
sumed that the retained earth will act as a fluid in exerting
pressure on the wall. Assumed equivalent fluid pressures vary
with the type of soil. Representative soil types with their
equivalent fluid pressures are shown in Table 1.
Since the stability of the gravity-type retaining wall
depends mainly on its weight, the required thickness at the
base increases with height of backfill or wall height. Uplift
pressure at the back of the wall (the heel) is avoided by
designing the gravity retaining wall thick enough at the base
so that the resultant of all forces (overturning force and
vertical loads) falls within a zone called the kern, which
Segmental retaining wall
Table 1—Equivalent Fluid Pressures of Soils Width of Base, mm
0 203 406 609 812 1,015 1,218 1,421 1,624
Equivalent fluid 80 2,030
Soil description pressure, pcf (kN/m3) .5 .6
0 0

4
granular soil 30 (4.7) 72 = = 1,827

0.
3
/W /W

=
.2

0.
drained silty sand or silty clay 45 (7.1)

/W
Q Q

=0

=
64 1,624

Q
/W
clay soil 60 (9.4)

W
Height of Retaining Wall, in.

Height of Retaining Wall, mm

Q
Q/
56 1,421
is the middle one-third of the base. When the
resultant force is in the kern, the eccentricity 48 1,218
is equal to or less than one-sixth of the base 40 1,015
width. When the eccentricity, e, is equal to
one-sixth the base width exactly, the maxi- 32 812
mum footing pressure on the soil at the front
24 609
edge of the base (toe) will be twice the average
pressure on the soil. 16 406
The horizontal force of the retained mate-
rial causes an overturning moment on the grav- 8 203
ity retaining wall. For a given wall height, the 0 0
required thickness at the base will depend on the 0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64
equivalent fluid pressure of the retained soil. Width of Base, in.
The two forces act in opposition; the horizontal
force tends to overturn the wall, while the verti- Figure 2—Relationship of Gravity Retaining Wall Height to
cal forces tend to stabilize it via gravity. The Width at Base
ratio of wall height to base width varies with the ratio of
vertical pressure to horizontal pressure. More properly, the CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIALS
relationship between thickness of base and wall height can be
expressed: Each course of the retaining wall should be constructed
L 2
Q with full-size concrete masonry units, with an overlapping
2
= bond pattern between courses, as shown in Figure 3.
H W
Hollow or solid concrete masonry units used in grav-
where: H = height of gravity retaining wall, in. (mm) ity retaining walls should meet the requirements of ASTM
L = width of gravity retaining wall at base, in. (mm) C 90 (ref. 2) and preferably have an oven-dry density of
Q = equivalent fluid pressure of retained material acting 125 lb/ft3 (2002 kg/m3) or more. Cores of hollow units are
3
horizontally as overturning moment, pcf (kg/m ) typically filled to increase the weight of the wall. The fill
W = average weight of masonry, soil and other material should be granular in areas subject to freezing. Bond is
acting vertically to retain soil, pcf (kg/m3) important to ensure sufficient shear resistance to with-
stand the pressure exerted by the retained earth. Type M
This relationship between wall height and base width for or S mortars complying to ASTM C 270 (ref. 3) are
gravity retaining walls is shown in Figure 2 for different ratios recommended.
of horizontal to vertical unit loads. The relationship shown in Concrete footings should be placed on firm undisturbed
Figure 2 is em- soil. In areas where freezing is expected, the base of the
ployed in the selec- footing should be placed below the frost line. If the soil under
tion of dimensions the footing consists of soft or silty clay, it is usually advisable
for gravity retaining to place 4 to 6 in. (102 to 152 mm) of well compacted sand or
walls up to eight ft gravel under the footing before pouring the concrete. It is
(1.8 to 2.4 m) high. usually not necessary to reinforce the footing.
Having se- If heavy equipment is employed for backfilling, it should
lected the height- not be allowed to approach closer to the top of the wall than
base proportions a distance equal to the wall height. Care should also be taken
from Figure 2, the to avoid large impact forces on the wall as could occur by a
trial design is ana- large mass of moving earth.
lyzed for safety Provision should be made to prevent water accumula-
against overturning tion behind the retaining wall. Accumulated water causes
and sliding, bearing increased pressure, seepage, and, in areas subject to frost
pressure on the soil, action, an expansive force of considerable magnitude near
and flexural and the top of the wall. In most instances, weep holes located
Figure 3—Overlapping Bond shear stress in the at 4 to 10 ft (1.2 to 3 m) spacing along the base of the wall
Between Courses wall. are sufficient.
DESIGN EXAMPLES Element: Weight, lb (N) x Arm, ft (m) = Moment, ft-lb (N-m)
S1 89 (396) 1.33 (0.41) 118.5 (161)
1. 4-foot (1.2 m) high gravity retaining wall S2 179 (796) 2.00 (0.61) 357.8 (485)
equivalent fluid pressure of soil = 30 pcf (4.7 kN/m3) S3 132 (587) 2.50 (0.76) 330.0 (447)
soil weight = 100 pcf (15.7 kN/m3) M1 322 (1432) 0.67 (0.20) 215.5 (292)
soil friction coefficient = 0.55 M2 214 (952) 1.33 (0.41) 285.5 (387)
soil bearing capacity = 2000 lb/ft2 (0.096 MPa) M3 107 (476) 2.00 (0.61) 213.9 (290)
100% solid concrete masonry units, 120 pcf (18.9 kN/m3) F 268 (1192) 1.33 (0.41) 356.4 (483)
concrete footing, 150 pcf (23.6 kN/m3) Total 1311 (5832) 1878 (2546)

Determine the overturning moment about the base, M:

M = (P)(1/3 x total height of soil)
M = (327 lb/ft)(1/3 x 4.67 ft) = 509 ft-lb/ft (2.28 kN-m/m)

Check safety factors:

overturning moment safety factor = 1878/509 = 3.7
3.7 > 2 OK
sliding safety factor = (1311 lb)(0.55)/(327 lb/ft) = 2.2
2.2 > 1.5 OK

Check pressure on soil:

location of P and eccentricity, e:
arm = (1878 - 509 lb/ft)/(1311 lb) = 1.04 ft (0.32 m) from
the toe (within middle third)
e = 1/2 (2.67 ft) - 1.04 ft = 0.30 ft (0.09 m)
P 6 Pe 1311 lb 6(1311 lb )( 0. 30 ft )
f = ± 2
= ±
A bD (2. 67 ft)(1 ft) (1 ft )( 2. 67 ft ) 2
First, determine the width of the wall base: = 491 ± 331 lb / ft
f1 = 822 lb / ft (12 kN / m ) < 2000 lb / ft OK
Q 30
= = 0. 273
W (120 + 100 ) / 2 f2 = 160 lb / ft ( 2. 3 kN / m )

From Figure 2, the base of the wall is 24 in. (610 mm),
which can be accomplished using three 8-inch (203 mm)
block. Note that the footing weight was not included in
the calculation of average unit weight of the materials
acting vertically, so that the width determined from Figure
2 would be the width of the masonry wall at its base.
Determine overturning moment:
pressure at the base of the wall, p = total soil height x
equivalent fluid pressure of soil
p = (4.67 ft)(30 pcf) = 140 lb/ft2 (6703 Pa)
resultant pressure, P = 1/2 (p)(total soil height)
P = 1/2 (140 lb/ft2)(4.67 ft) = 327 lb/ft (4.8 kN/m)
Determine resisting moment (about the toe):
First, determine the weight of each element, then determine
the resisting moment of each weight, then sum the resisting
moments to determine the total resisting moment.
Element: Weight
S1 (0.67 ft)(1.33 ft)(100 pcf) = 89 lb (396 N)
S2 (0.67 ft)(2.67 ft)(100 pcf) = 179 lb (796 N)
S3 (0.33 ft)(4.0 ft)(100 pcf) = 132 lb (587 N)
M1 (0.67 ft)(4.0 ft)(120 pcf) = 322 lb (1432 N)
M2 (0.67 ft)(2.67 ft)(120 pcf) = 214 lb (952 N)
M3 (0.67 ft)(1.33 ft)(120 pcf) = 107 lb (476 N)
F (2.67 ft)(0.67 ft)(150 pcf) = 268 lb (1192 N)
Since the concrete masonry used in this example is
assumed solid or fully grouted, the calculations do not include
a check of shear stresses and flexural stresses in the wall.
Flexural and shear stresses are checked in the second design
example, and it is seen that the magnitudes are very low.
Flexural and shear stresses in gravity retaining walls will
almost always be of minor importance.
2. 6-foot (1.8 m) high gravity retaining wall
equivalent fluid pressure of soil = 40 pcf (7.1 kN/m3)
soil weight = 100 pcf (15.7 kN/m3)
soil friction coefficient = 0.55
soil bearing capacity = 2000 lb/ft2 (0.096 MPa)
hollow concrete masonry units, 130 pcf (20.4 kN/m3),
units will be filled with sand, resulting in a combined
weight of 115 pcf (18.1 kN/m3)
f'm = 1500 psi (10.3 MPa)
 Type S portland cement-lime mortar location of P and eccentricity, e:
concrete footing, 150 pcf (23.6 kN/m3) arm = (6766 - 1978 lb/ft)/(3008 lb) = 1.59 ft (0.49 m)
(within middle third)
First, determine the width of the wall base: e = 1/2 (4.17 ft) - 1.59 ft = 0.495 ft (0.015 m)
Q 40
= = 0. 372 P 6 Pe 3008 lb 6(3008 lb )( 0. 495 ft )
W (100 + 115) / 2 f = ± = ±
A bD2 (1 ft )( 4.17 ft) (1 ft )( 4.17 ft ) 2
From Figure 2, try a base width of 42 in. (1067 mm), with
a footing width of 50 in. (1270 mm) = 721 ± 514 lb / ft
Determine overturning moment: f1 = 1235 lb / ft (18. 0 kN / m ) < 2000 lb / ft OK
p = (6.67 ft)(40 pcf) = 267 lb/ft2 (0.013 MPa) f2 = 207 lb / ft (3. 0 kN / m )
P = 1/2 (267 lb/ft2)(6.67 ft) = 890 lb/ft (13 kN/m)
M = (890 lb/ft)(1/3 x 6.67 ft) = 1978 ft-lb/ft (8.81 kN-m/m) Check flexural stresses:
At 6 ft (1.8 m) depth:
Determine resisting moment (about the toe): P = 1/2 (6 ft)(40 pcf)(6 ft) = 720 lb (3203 N)
Element: Weight, lb (N) x Arm, ft (m) = Moment, ft-lb (N-m) M = (720 lb)(1/3 x 6 ft) = 1440 ft-lb (1952 N-m)
S1 22 (98) 1.50 (0.46) 33 (45)
S2 44 (196) 1.83 (0.56) 80 (108) Assume mortar bed is 50% of gross area:
S3 66 (294) 2.17 (0.66) 143 (194)
S4 88 (391) 2.50 (0.76) 220 (298)
S5 110 (489) 2.83 (0.86) 311 (422) Area, A = bD = ( 42 in. )(12 in. )( 0. 5) = 252 in.2 ( 0.16 m 2 )
S6 132 (587) 3.17 (0.97) 418 (566) P 720 lb
S7 154 (685) 3.50 (1.07) 539 (731) = = 2. 9 psi ( 0. 02 MPa )
A 252 in.2
S8 176 (783) 3.83 (1.17) 674 (914)
S9 198 (881) 4.17 (1.27) 826 (1120) bD2 (252 in.2 )( 42 in. )
M1 690 (3070) 0.83 (0.25) 575 (780)
Section modulus, S = =
6 6
M2 202 (899) 1.50 (0.46) 303 (411)
M3 177 (787) 1.83 (0.56) 325 (441) = 1764 in.3 (0.03 m 3 )
M4 152 (676) 2.17 (0.66) 329 (446) M (1440 ft − lb )(12 in. /ft )
M5 126 (560) 2.50 (0.76) 316 (428) ft = = = 9. 8 psi (0.07 MPa)
S 1764 in.3
M6 101 (449) 2.83 (0.86) 287 (389)
M7 76 (338) 3.17 (0.97) 241 (327)
M8 50 (222) 3.50 (1.07) 177 (240) Ft = 25 psi from Table 6.3.1.1 of ref. 1
M9 25 (111) 3.83 (1.17) 97 (132) Ft > 9.8 psi OK
F 419 (1864) 2.08 (0.63) 872 (1182)
Total 3008 (13,380) 6766 (9173) Check shear stresses:

Check safety factors: VQ 3V 3( 720 lb )

fv = ≈ = = 4. 3psi (0.03 MPa)
overturning moment safety factor = 6766/1978 = 3.4 Ib 2 A 2( 252 in.2 )
3.4 > 2 OK Fv = 1. 5 f ' m (ref. 1)
sliding safety factor = (3008 lb)(0.55)/(890 lb/ft) = 1.9
1.9 > 1.5 OK = 58 psi (0. 4 MPa)
Check pressure on soil: Fv > 4. 3 psi OK

REFERENCES
1. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, ACI 530-95/ASCE 5-95/TMS 402-95. Reported by the Masonry
Standards Joint Committee, 1995.
2. Standard Specification for Loadbearing Concrete Masonry Units, ASTM C 90-95. American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1995.
3. Standard Specification for Mortar for Unit Masonry, ASTM C 270-92a. American Society for Testing and Materials, 1992.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
2302 Horse Pen Road, Herndon, Virginia 20171-3499 contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
 NCMA TEK
National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology

CONCRETE MASONRY CANTILEVER TEK 15-7B

Structural (2005)
RETAINING WALLS
Keywords: allowable stress design, cantilever walls, design
example, footings, lateral loads, reinforced concrete masonry,
retaining walls, strength design, weep holes

INTRODUCTION
Mortar cap or
Using concrete masonry in retaining walls, abutments and other, as desired
Wall
other structural components designed primarily to resist lateral thickness
pressure permits the designer and builder to capitalize on
masonry's unique combination of structural and aesthetic Bond beam,
features—excellent compressive strength; proven durability; Masonry
as required
and a wide selection of colors, textures and patterns. The wall
addition of reinforcement to concrete masonry greatly in-
creases the tensile strength and ductility of a wall, providing
higher load resistance. Joint or
In cantilever retaining walls, the concrete base or footing horizontal
holds the vertical masonry wall in position and resists over- reinforcement, Vertical
turning and sliding caused by lateral soil loading. The rein- as required reinforcing bars,
forcement is placed vertically in the cores of the masonry units as required
to resist the tensile stresses developed by the lateral earth H
pressure.
Grout
DESIGN

Retaining walls should be designed to safely resist over-

turning and sliding due to the forces imposed by the retained Drains as
backfill. The factors of safety against overturning and sliding required* Filter fabric*
should be no less than 1.5 (ref. 7). In addition, the bearing Drain*
pressure under the footing or bottom of the retaining wall
should not exceed the allowable soil bearing pressure. Free draining
Recommended stem designs for reinforced cantilever re- material*
taining walls with no surcharge are contained in Tables 1 and Footing
2 for allowable stress design and strength design, respectively. thickness
These design methods are discussed in detail in Allowable
Dowels Reinforcing
Stress Design of Concrete Masonry, TEK 14-7A, andStrength
bars as required
Design of Concrete Masonry, TEK 14-4A (refs. 5, 6). Key as required Footing
Figure 1 illustrates typical cantilever retaining wall detail- * Optional
ing requirements.
Figure 1—Reinforced Cantilever
Retaining Wall Detailing

TEK 15-7B © 2005 National Concrete Masonry Association

DESIGN EXAMPLE

The following design example briefly illustrates some of Trial dimensions:

the basic steps used in the allowable stress design of a T =11.625 in. (0.29 m)
reinforced concrete masonry cantilever retaining wall. t = 1 ft (0.30 m)
B = 5 ft 4 in. (1.63 m)
T a =1 ft 8 in. (0.51 m)
Example: Design the reinforced concrete masonry cantile-
8 ft 8 in. γ = 120 pcf
ver retaining wall shown in Figure 2. Assume level backfill, (2.5 m) (1,922 kg/m 3)
no surcharge or seismic loading, active earth pressure and φ = 30°
masonry laid in running bond. The coefficient of friction
between the footing and foundation soil, k 1, is 0.25, and the
allowable soil bearing pressure is 2,000 psf (95.8 kPa) (ref. 7). Pa
a
8.67 + t
a. Design criteria: t 3
Wall thickness = 12 in. (305 mm) p
f'm = 1,500 psi (10.3 MPa)
B
Assumed weights:
x
Reinforced masonry: 130 pcf (2,082 kg/m3)
(solid grout to increase overturning and sliding Figure 2—Reinforced Cantilever Retaining Wall
resistance) Design Example
Reinforced concrete: 150 pcf (2,402 kg/m3)

Required factors of safety (ref. 7) (ΣW )k1 + Pp

F.S. (overturning) = 1.5 F .S .( sliding) =
Pa
F.S. (sliding) = 1.5

b. Rankine active earth pressure Pp = 1/2 D (soil lateral bearing pressure)

Pa = 1/2 γ (H + t)2 Ka set D = t = 1.0 ft (0.30 m)
where Ka = tan2 (45 - φ /2) = tan2 (45 - 30/2) soil lateral bearing pressure = 150 psf/ft below grade (ref. 7)
= 0.33 (4,692 lb / ft )(0.25 ) + 1 (1)(150 psf / ft )
2
Pa = 1/2 (120) (9.67)2 (0.33) = 1,851 lb/ft (27 kN/m) F . S.( sliding) =
1,851 lb / ft
Overturning moment = 1,248/1,851 = 0.67 < 1.5 N.G., need key
M = Pa (height/3)
= (1,851 lb/ft)(9.67 ft/3) = 5,966 ft-lb/ft (27 kN.m/m) e. Pressure on footing
Location of resultant force,
c. Resisting moment (about toe of footing) x = (10,228 ft-lb/ft)/(4,692 lb/ft)
Component weights: = 2.18 ft (0.6 m) (resultant falls in middle 1/3 of base)
masonry: (0.97)(8.67 ft)(130 pcf) = 1,093 lb/ft (16 kN/m) e = (5.33 ft/2) - 2.18 = 0.48 ft (0.15 m)
earth: (2.69)(8.67 ft)(120 pcf) = 2,799 lb/ft (41 kN/m)
W Mc W 6We
footing: (1.0)(5.33 ft)(150 pcf) = 800 lb/ft (12 kN/m) p= ± = ±
A I bd bd 2
Weight (lb/ft) x Arm (ft) = Moment (ft-lb/ft) 4,692 lb / ft 6(4,692 lb / ft )(0.48 ft )
p = ±
masonry: 1,093 x 2.67 = 2,918 (1 ft )(5. 33 ft ) (1 ft )(5.33 ft ) 2
earth: 2,799 x 3.98 = 11,140
footing: 800 x 2.67 = 2,136 p = 880 + 476
4,692 16,194 = 404 psf (19.3 kPa) and 1,356 psf (64.9 kPa)
< 2,000 psf (95.8 kPa) O.K.
Total resisting moment 16,194 ft-lb/ft
Overturning moment - 5,966 ft-lb/ft f. Determine size of key
10,228 ft-lb/ft (45.5 kN.m/m) Passive lateral soil resistance = 150 psf/ft of depth and may
be increased 150 psf for each additional foot of depth to a
d. Check factors of safety (F.S.) maximum of 15 times the designated value (ref. 7). The average
F.S. (overturning) soil pressure under the footing is: 1/2 (1,356 + 404) = 880 psf (42.1
= total resisting moment about toe/overturning moment kPa).
= 14,670/5,966 Equivalent soil depth: 880 psf/120 pcf = 7.33 ft (2.23 m)
= 2.4 > 1.5 O.K. Pp = (150 psf/ft)(7.33 ft) = 1,100 psf (52.7 kPa)
 For F.S. (sliding) = 1.5, the required total passive soil reinforcing steel based on the equivalent fluid weight of soil,
resistance is: 1.5(1,851 lb/ft) = 2,776 lb/ft (41 kN/m) wall thickness, and wall height. For this example, the equivalent
The shear key must provide for this value minus the fluid weight = (Ka)(γ) = 0.33 x 120 = 40 pcf (6.2 kN/m3).
frictional resistance: 2,776 - 1,248 = 1,528 lb/ft (22 kN/m). Using allowable stress design (Table 1) and the conserva-
Depth of shear key = (1,528 lb/ft)/(1,100 psf) = 1.39 ft (0.42 tive equivalent fluid weight of soil of 45 pcf (7.1 kN/m3), this wall
m), try 1.33 ft (0.41 m). requires No. 6 bars at 16 in. o.c. (M #19 at 406 mm o.c.). Using
At 1.33 ft, lateral resistance = strength design (Table 2), this wall requires No. 5 bars at 16 in.
(1,100 psf) + (150 psf/ft)(1.33 ft) = 1,300 lb/ft (19 kN/m) o.c. (M #16 at 406 mm o.c.).
Depth = (1,528 lb/ft)/[ 1/2 (1,100 + 1,300)]
= 1.27 ft (0.39 m) < 1.33 ft (0.41 m) O.K. h. Design of footing
The design of the reinforced concrete footing and key should
g. Design of masonry conform to American Concrete Institute requirements. For
Tables 1 and 2 can be used to estimate the required guidance, see ACI Standard 318 (ref. 2) or reinforced concrete
design handbooks.
Table 1—Allowable Stress Design: Vertical
CONSTRUCTION
Reinforcement for Cantilever Retaining Walls a, b
Materials and construction practices should comply with
Reinforcement size & spacing for
applicable requirements of Specification for Masonry Struc-
Wall Wall equivalent fluid weight of soil,
thickness, height, lb/ft 2/ft (kN/m2/m), of: Table 2—Strength Design: Vertical Reinforcement for
in. (mm) H, ft (m) 30 (4.7) 45 (7.1) 60 (9.4) Cantilever Retaining Walls a, b
8 (203) 4.0 (1.2) No.4 @ 88 in.c No.4 @ 56 in.c No.4 @ 40 in.
4.7 (1.4) No.4 @ 48 in. No.4 @ 32 in. No.4 @ 16 in. Reinforcement size & spacing for
5.3 (1.6) No.4 @ 32 in. No.4 @ 16 in. No.5 @ 24 in. Wall Wall equivalent fluid weight of soil,
6.0 (1.8) No.4 @ 16 in. No.5 @ 16 in. No.7 @ 16 in. thickness, height, lb/ft 2/ft (kN/m2/m), of:
6.7 (2.0) No.4 @ 16 in. No.7 @ 16 in. No.9 @ 8 in. in. (mm) H, ft (m) 30 (4.7) 45 (7.1) 60 (9.4)
8 (203) 4.0 (1.2) No.4 @ 120 in. No.4 @ 96 in. No.4 @ 64 in.
10 (254) 4.0 (1.2) No.4 @ 120 in.c No.4 @ 88 in.c No.4 @ 64 in.c 4.7 (1.4) No.4 @ 88 in. No.4 @ 56 in. No.4 @ 40 in.
4.7 (1.4) No.4 @ 88 in.c No.4 @ 48 in. No.4 @ 32 in. 5.3 (1.6) No.4 @ 56 in. No.4 @ 32 in. No.4 @ 24 in.
5.3 (1.6) No.4 @ 56 in. No.4 @ 32 in. No.4 @ 16 in. 6.0 (1.8) No.4 @ 32 in. No.4 @ 24 in. No.4 @ 16 in.
6.0 (1.8) No.4 @ 32 in. No.4 @ 16 in. No.5 @ 24 in. 6.7 (2.0) No.4 @ 24 in. No.4 @ 16 in. No.5 @ 16 in.
6.7 (2.0) No.4 @ 24 in. No.5 @ 16 in. No.5 @ 16 in.
7.3 (2.2) No.4 @ 16 in. No.5 @ 16 in. No.7 @ 16 in. 10 (254) 4.0 (1.2) No.4 @ 120 in. No.4 @ 120 in. No.4 @ 104 in.
8.0 (2.4) No.5 @ 16 in. No.7 @ 16 in. No.8 @ 8 in. 4.7 (1.4) No.4 @ 120 in. No.4 @ 88 in. No.4 @ 56 in.
5.3 (1.6) No.4 @ 96 in. No.4 @ 56 in. No.4 @ 40 in.
12 (305) 4.0 (1.2) No.4 @ 120 in.c No.4 @ 120 in.c No.4 @ 96 in.c 6.0 (1.8) No.4 @ 56 in. No.4 @ 32 in. No.4 @ 24 in.
4.7 (1.4) No.4 @ 120 in.c No.4 @ 72 in. No.4 @ 48 in. 6.7 (2.0) No.4 @ 40 in. No.4 @ 24 in. No.4 @ 16 in.
5.3 (1.6) No.4 @ 80 in.c No.4 @ 48 in. No.4 @ 32 in. 7.3 (2.2) No.4 @ 24 in. No.4 @ 16 in. No.5 @ 16 in.
6.0 (1.8) No.4 @ 48 in. No.4 @ 24 in. No.4 @ 16 in. 8.0 (2.4) No.4 @ 16 in. No.5 @ 16 in. No.6 @ 16 in.
6.7 (2.0) No.4 @ 32 in. No.4 @ 16 in. No.5 @ 16 in.
7.3 (2.2) No.4 @ 24 in. No.5 @ 16 in. No.5 @ 16 in. 12 (305) 4.0 (1.2) No.4 @ 120 in. No.4 @ 120 in. No.4 @ 120 in.
8.0 (2.4) No.4 @ 16 in. No.5 @ 16 in. No.6 @ 16 in. 4.7 (1.4) No.4 @ 120 in. No.4 @ 120 in. No.4 @ 88 in.
8.7 (2.7) No.5 @ 16 in. No.6 @ 16 in. No.8 @ 16 in. 5.3 (1.6) No.4 @ 120 in. No.4 @ 80 in. No.4 @ 56 in.
9.3 (2.8) No.5 @ 16 in. No.7 @ 16 in. No.8 @ 8 in. 6.0 (1.8) No.4 @ 88 in. No.4 @ 48 in. No.4 @ 32 in.
6.7 (2.0) No.4 @ 56 in. No.4 @ 32 in. No.4 @ 24 in.
a The reinforcement listed is designed to resist soil loads only. 7.3 (2.2) No.4 @ 40 in. No.4 @ 24 in. No.4 @ 16 in.
Other conditions, such as surcharges or seismic loads, also 8.0 (2.4) No.4 @ 24 in. No.4 @ 16 in. No.5 @ 16 in.
need to be considered where applicable. 8.7 (2.7) No.4 @ 16 in. No.5 @ 16 in. No.5 @ 16 in.
b based on: fully grouted masonry; f'm = 1500 psi (10.3 MPa); 9.3 (2.8) No.4 @ 16 in. No.5 @ 16 in. No.6 @ 16 in.
d = 5 in., 7 in. and 9 in. (127, 178, and 229 mm) for wall
thicknesses of 8, 10, and 12 in. (203, 254, and 305 mm), a The reinforcement listed is designed to resist soil loads only.
respectively; level backfill to top of wall Other conditions, such as surcharges or seismic loads, also
c The specified reinforcement spacing is greater than six times need to be considered where applicable.
the wall thickness. Prudent engineering practice dictates that b based on: fully grouted masonry; f'm = 1500 psi (10.3 MPa);
stresses in the unreinforced masonry spanning between the d = 5 in., 7 in. and 9 in. (127, 178, and 229 mm) for wall
reinforcing bars be designed to meet Building Code Re- thicknesses of 8, 10, and 12 in. (203, 254, and 305 mm),
quirements for Masonry Structures Section 2.2.3.2 (ref. 1). respectively; level backfill to top of wall
tures (ref. 4), or applicable local codes.
Footings should be placed on firm undisturbed soil, or on
adequately compacted fill material. In areas exposed to freezing
temperatures, the base of the footing should be placed below
the frost line. Backfilling against retaining walls should not be
permitted until the masonry has achieved sufficient strength or
the wall has been adequately braced. During backfilling, heavy
equipment should not approach closer to the top of the wall
than a distance equal to the height of the wall. Ideally, backfill
should be placed in 12 to 24 in. (305 to 610 mm) lifts, with each
lift being compacted by a hand tamper. During construction,
the soil and drainage layer, if provided, also needs to be
protected from saturation and erosion.
Provisions must be made to prevent the accumulation of
water behind the face of the wall and to reduce the possible
effects of frost action. Where heavy prolonged rains are
anticipated, a continuous longitudinal drain along the back of
the wall may be used in addition to through-wall drains.
Climate, soil conditions, exposure and type of construc-
tion determine the need for waterproofing the back face of
retaining walls. Waterproofing should be considered: in areas
subject to severe frost action; in areas of heavy rainfall; and
when the backfill material is relatively impermeable. The use of
integral and post-applied water repellents is also recommended.
The top of masonry retaining walls should be capped or
otherwise protected to prevent water entry.
REFERENCES
1. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures,
ACI 530-05/ASCE 5-05/TMS 402-05. Reported by the Ma-
sonry Standards Joint Committee, 2005.
2. Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and
Commentary, ACI 318-02. Detroit, MI: American Concrete
Institute, 2002.
Disclaimer: Although care has been taken to ensure the enclosed information is as accurate and complete as possible, NCMA
does not assume responsibility for errors or omissions resulting from the use of this TEK.
NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION
13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171
www.ncma.org
3. Das, B. M. Principles of Foundation Engineering. Bos-
ton, MA: PWS Publishers, 1984.
4. Specification for Masonry Structures, ACI 530.1-05/ASCE
6-05/TMS 602-05. Reported by the Masonry Standards
Joint Committee, 2005.
5. Allowable Stress Design of Concrete Masonry, TEK 14-
7A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2004.
6. Strength Design of Concrete Masonry, TEK 14-4A. Na-
tional Concrete Masonry Association, 2002.
7. 2003 International Building Code. International Code
Council, 2003.
NOTATIONS
a length of footing toe, in. (mm)
B width of footing, ft (m)
d distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of
tension reinforcement, in. (mm)
e eccentricity, in. (mm)
F.S. factor of safety
fm' specified compressive strength of masonry, psi (MPa)
H total height of backfill, ft (m)
I moment of inertia, ft 4 (m4)
Ka active earth pressure coefficient
k 1 coefficient of friction between footing and foundation soil
M maximum moment in section under consideration, ft-lb/ft
(kN.m/m)
Pa resultant lateral load due to soil, lb/ft (kN/m)
Pp passive earth pressure, lb/ft (N/m)
p pressure on footing, psf (MPa)
T thickness of wall, in. (mm)
t thickness of footing, in. (mm)
W vertical load, lb/ft (N/m)
x location of resultant force, ft (m)
γ density of soil, pcf (kg/m3)
φ angle of internal friction of soil, degrees
To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
An information series from the national
GUIDE TO SEGMENTAL
RETAINING WALLS
INTRODUCTION
Segmental retaining walls are modular block retaining
walls used for vertical grade change applications. The walls
are designed and constructed as either gravity retaining walls
(conventional) or reinforced soil retaining walls. The system
consists of dry-cast concrete units that are placed without mortar
(dry stacked) and rely on their unit to unit interface and mass
to resist overturning and sliding. Unit to unit interfaces include
friction, shear elements, and interlock. The systems may also
employ soil reinforcement that extends into the backfill and
allows for the construction of walls with significant height (e.g.
in excess of 50 ft (15.24 m)) that could not be accomplished
with the units alone.
Segmental retaining walls are considered flexible struc-
tures, so the footing does not need to be placed below the frost
line provided there is sufficient foundation bearing capacity.
SRW units are manufactured in conformance with industry
standards and specifications to assure that units delivered to a
project are uniform in weight, dimensional tolerances, strength,
and durability—features not necessarily provided in site cast
materials.
SYSTEM ADVANTAGES
Segmental retaining walls afford many advantages; among
which are design flexibility, aesthetics, economics, ease of
installation, performance and durability.
Design flexibility: The size and weight of SRW units make it
possible to construct walls on difficult topography or on limited
access sites. Curves and other unique layouts can be easily
accommodated. Segmental retaining walls have the ability to
function equally well in large-scale applications (highway walls,
Related TEK: Keywords: retaining walls, segmental retaining walls
2-4B, 15-4A,
15-5A, 15-9
NCMA TEK 15-8A 1
authority on concrete masonry technology
TEK 15-8A
Structural (2009)
bridge abutments, erosion control, parking area supports, etc.)
as well as smaller residential landscape projects.
Aesthetics: Since SRW units are available in a variety of sizes,
shapes, textures and colors, segmental retaining walls provide
designers and owners with both an attractive and a structurally
sound wall system.
Economics: SRWs provide an attractive, cost-effective alterna-
tive to other retaining walls. Savings are gained because most
on-site soils can usually be used eliminating costs associated
with importing fill and/or removing excavated materials, and
because there is no need for extensive formwork or heavy con-
struction equipment.
Ease of installation: Most SRW units are small enough to allow
placement by a single person. The dry stack method of laying
units without mortar allows erection of the wall to proceed rapidly.
Performance: Unlike rigid retaining wall structures, the flex-
ible nature of segmental retaining walls allows them to move
and adjust relative to one another. Segmental retaining walls
can readily accommodate differential settlements on the order
of 1/200.
Durability: Segmental units are manufactured of high compres-
sive strength, low absorption concrete, which helps make them
resistant to spalling, scour, abrasion, the effects of freeze-thaw
cycles, rot, and insect damage.
WALL TYPES
Segmental retaining walls can be designed as either con-
ventional or as reinforced soil, as illustrated in Figure 1. The
structural capacity of the SRW system will vary with the SRW
unit size, shape, batter, etc. Manufacturer’s recommendations
should be followed regarding the capacity of their particular
system for the soil loads under consideration.
Conventional
Conventional SRWs are constructed with either single or
multiple depths of units. For stability, the conventional SRW
structure must have sufficient mass to prevent both sliding at
the base and overturning about the toe of the structure. Since
the system consists of individual units dry stacked, shear ca-
pacity is an important component to assure that the units act
together as a coherent mass.
Shear capacity provides a means of transferring lateral
forces from each course to the succeeding one. This is provided
by the frictional resistance between SRW units; and in the
form of “keys”, leading/trailing lips; clips, pins, or compacted
columns of aggregate placed in the open cores (Figure 2).
Structural stability of the SRW can also be improved by
increasing the wall batter. Batter is achieved through the setback
between SRW units from one course to the next. In most cases,
the batter is controlled by the location of shear pins or leading/
trailing lips (Figure 2), however, some systems allow some
adjustment to the batter.
Taller walls can also be achieved by using multiple depths of
units, shown in Figure 1a. The multiple depths of units increase
the weight of the wall system and provide a more stable base
and greater resistance to soil pressures. Note that multi-depth
unit SRWs should always be designed by a qualified engineer.
Reinforced Soil
Reinforced soil walls should be specified when the
maximum height for conventional gravity walls is exceeded
or when lower structures are surcharged by sloping backfills,
live loads, and/or have poor foundations. A reinforced soil
SRW is designed and constructed with multiple layers of soil
Single depth Multiple depth
a. Conventional SRWs
Reinforced
soil zone
SRW unit Retained soil
Gravel fill
Soil
reinforcement
Leveling pad
b. Soil-reinforced SRW
Figure 1—Segmental Retaining Wall
Systems
2 NCMA TEK 15-8A
reinforcement placed between the SRW courses and extending
back into the soil behind the wall at designated heights and
lengths as shown in Figure 1b. The geosynthetic reinforcement
and the soil in the reinforced zone act as a composite material,
effectively increasing the size and weight of the wall system.
SYSTEM COMPONENTS
The basic elements of each segmental retaining wall system
are the foundation soil, leveling pad, segmental retaining wall
units, retained soil, gravel fill, and, for reinforced soil SRWs,
the soil reinforcement.
Foundation soil: The foundation soil supports the leveling pad
and the reinforced soil zone of a soil reinforced SRW system.
Leveling pad: The leveling pad is a level surface, consisting
of crushed stone or unreinforced concrete, which distributes
the weight of the SRW units over a wider area and provides a
working surface during construction. The leveling pad typically
extends 6 in. (152 mm) from the toe and heel of the lowermost
SRW unit and is at least 6 in. (152 mm) thick.
Segmental retaining wall units: Segmental retaining wall
units are concrete masonry units that are used to create the
mass necessary for structural stability, and to provide stabil-
ity, durability, and visual enhancement at the face of the wall.
Retained soil: Retained soil is the undisturbed soil for cut walls
or the common backfill soil compacted behind infill soils.
Gravel fill: Gravel fill is free-draining granular material placed
behind the facing units to facilitate the removal of incidental
groundwater and minimize buildup of hydrostatic pressure, and
to allow compaction to occur without large forces acting on the
SRW units. In units with open cores, gravel can be used to increase
the weight and shear capacity. In some cases, a geotextile filter
is installed between the gravel fill and the infill to protect the
gravel from clogging. The gravel fill should extend a minimum
of 12 in. (305 mm) behind the SRW units regardless of the type.
Reinforced soil: Reinforced soil is compacted structural fill
used behind soil-reinforced SRW units that contains horizontal
soil reinforcement. A variety of geosynthetic soil reinforcement
systems are available.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Typical designs and specifications for SRWs should be
prepared by a designer with technical knowledge of soil and
structural mechanics. Each SRW unit manufacturer can provide
design information tailored to their product, which will indicate
the wall heights and design conditions when an SRW should
be designed by a qualified engineer. In addition, unique design
conditions that may warrant special consideration include:
• structures will be subject to surcharge loads;
• walls will be subjected to live loads;
• walls will be founded on poor foundations; or
• the nature of the design conditions requires special con-
sideration.
 The following general site information should be provided:
• a wall profile, including the grade at the top and bottom of
the wall, the physical elevation of the top and bottom of the
structure to be retained, and the variation of the design section
along the height of the wall,
• a description of the infill, foundation, and retained soils,
• a wall plan, which should include geometry for curved wall
lengths and the proximity to any existing or proposed sur-
charges, structures, or utilities that may affect wall construction
or performance. Ends of the wall should be designed with
consideration of how surface water flow is directed around
the wall ends to prevent erosion.
This data should be sufficiently accurate to develop an
efficient, safe, and cost-effective structural design.
GUIDE SPECIFICATIONS
A guide specification for a materials specification (product/
method) for segmental retaining walls is available in standard
Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) format in the Design
Manual for Segmental Retaining Walls, (ref. 1).
The traditional product/method specification, designating
materials and installation requirements, stipulates that a site-
specific design be performed by the engineer. Designs should
be such that specified SRW and soil reinforcement properties
can be met by a number of manufacturers, and should include
properties of the on-site soil. SRW and soil reinforcement
properties are then specified as the minimum properties that
must be met.
Built-in mechanical
Flat interface
concrete interlocking segmental units
segmental units
(Pins/
dowels)
Clips
Figure 2—Shear Connectors for SRWs
NCMA TEK 15-8A 3
In addition, the specification for SRW units may be found
in ASTM C 1372, Standard Specification for Segmental Retain-
ing Wall Units (ref. 3).
CONSTRUCTION
The success of any segmental retaining wall installation
depends on complete and accurate field information, careful
planning and scheduling, the use of specified materials, proper
construction procedures, and inspection.
It is good practice to have the retaining wall location veri-
fied by the owner’s representative. Existing and proposed finish
grades shown on the drawings should be verified to ensure the
planned design heights are in agreement with the topographic
information from the project grading plan. The contractor should
coordinate the delivery and storage of materials at the site to
ensure unobstructed access to the work area and availability of
materials. Materials delivered to the site should be accompanied
by the manufacturer’s certification that the materials meet or
exceed the specified minimum requirements.
Construction occurs in the following sequence:
1. excavation and leveling pad construction,
2. setting and leveling the base course,
3. filling unit openings with gravel (if applicable) and placing
gravel fill behind the units ,
4. backfilling from the back of the gravel fill to the end of the
reinforcement (if applicable),
5. compaction of backfill to the specified density in lifts of
8 in. or less from the front of the wall to the back of the
reinforcement (if applicable),
6. placement of units, backfilling and compacting in succeed-
ing courses,
7. placement of soil reinforcement, securing with the next
course of blocks and the gravel fill before tensioning, and
backfilling (when required),
8. capping and finish grading.
As with any structure used to retain soil, careful attention
should be paid to the compaction equipment and procedures
used during construction. When compacting soil within 3 ft
(0.91 m) of the front face of a wall, compaction tools should be
limited to hand operated or walk-behind equipment, preferably
a vibrating plate compactor with a minimum weight of 250 lb
(113 kg). Reinforced soil behind the 3ft area can be compacted
with self-propelled riding compaction equipment.
REFERENCES
1. Design Manual for Segmental Retaining Walls, Third Edition. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2009.
2. Simac, M. R. and J. M. Simac, “Specifying Segmental Retaining Walls”, Landscape Architecture, March 1994.
3. Standard Specification for Segmental Retaining Wall Units, ASTM C 1372-04e2. ASTM International, 2004.

NCMA and the companies disseminating this technical information disclaim any and all responsibility and liability for the accuracy
and the application of the information contained in this publication.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION

13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171
www.ncma.org

To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index, contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900

4 NCMA TEK 15-8A

An information series from the national
SEISMIC DESIGN
OF SEGMENTAL
RETAINING WALLS
INTRODUCTION
This TEK describes a method of analysis and design for
conventional and geosynthetic-reinforced segmental retaining
walls (SRWs) under seismic loading. The methodology extends
the approach for structures under static loading to simple
structures that may be required to resist additional dynamic
loads due to earthquakes. The seismic design method described
briefly in this TEK, and in detail in the NCMA Design Manual
for Segmental Retaining Walls and SRWallv4 design software
(refs. 1, 2), adopts a pseudo-static approach and uses the
Mononobe-Okabe (M-O) method to calculate dynamic earth
forces. The methodology adopts many of the recommendations
contained in AASHTO/FHWA (refs. 3, 4) guidelines for the
design and analysis of mechanically stabilized earth (MSE)
structures subjected to earthquake loads. However, the NCMA
Design Manual for Segmental Retaining Walls goes beyond
the AASHTO/FHWA publications by addressing the unique
stability requirements of SRWs that are constructed with a
dry-stacked column of modular block units.
Properly designed reinforced SRWs subjected to seismic
and/or dynamic loading will in general perform well due to
their flexible nature and enhanced ductility. When an SRW
requires seismic analysis, that evaluation should be performed
in addition to the static analysis to satisfy all static and seismic
safety factors, as outlined in the Design Manual for Segmental
Retaining Walls. The project's geotechnical engineer should
select the ground acceleration design parameters considering the
local experience, state of practice and site conditions. NCMA’s
methodology uses a displacement approach that explicitly in-
corporates wall movement in the stability analysis, assuming
small outward displacements are allowed, and reduces the Peak
Ground Acceleration (PGA) following FHWA’s approach. It
should be noted that outward displacements caused by "near"
maximum probable magnitude earthquakes may bring SRWs
outside of tolerable batter deviations, thereby requiring miti-
gation. As with any other structure, the intent of the seismic
design is to prevent catastrophic failure (a failure leading to
Related TEK: Keywords: earthquake, geosynthetic reinforcement, Mononobe-Okabe,
2-4B, 15-3A, 15-4B, segmental retaining wall, seismic, structural design
15-5B, 15-8A, 18-11A
NCMA TEK 15-9A 1
authority on concrete masonry technology
TEK 15-9A
Structural (2010)
risk to life, limb, or property), and needs to be evaluated after
a near design event.
For satisfactory performance in the field, the designer
should specify the best construction and inspection practices,
adequately addressing items such as materials, installation,
compaction, and internal and external drainage (i.e., drain
tiles, chimney drains, swales, etc.). For more details refer to
TEK 15-8A, Guide to Segmental Retaining Walls (ref. 5), TEK
18-11A, Inspection Guide for Segmental Retaining Walls (ref.
6), and the NCMA Design Manual for Segmental Retaining
Walls.
DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS
The NCMA seismic design and analysis methodology
applies when the following conditions are met:
• SRW structures are free-standing and able to displace hori-
zontally at the base and yield laterally through the height of
the wall. This assumption is based on installation recom-
mendations of a system that is placed on soils and a flexible
leveling pad of well-compacted gravel or unreinforced weak
concrete that can crack if necessary.
• Reinforced and retained soils are cohesionless, unsaturated,
and homogeneous. Soil strength is described by the Mohr-
Coulomb failure criterion. The apparent cohesive strength
component reported under Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion is
ignored for conservatism. Adequate drainage details should
also accompany the design to ensure the soils remain un-
saturated and that the assumed design conditions are reached
and maintained.
• Vertical ground acceleration is zero (kv = 0). Vertical ground
acceleration is ignored based on the presumption that hori-
zontal and vertical accelerations associated with a seismic
event do not coincide.
• Geometry is limited to infinite or broken-backslope, and
constant horizontal foreslope angle.
• Live surcharges are ignored at the top of the soil surface
behind the facing column given their transient nature.
• Retained and reinforced soils are placed to a depth corre-
sponding to the full height of the SRW facing units (i.e. wall Table 1—Recommended Minimum Factors of Safety
design height, H). and Design Criteria for
• Cap units are ignored in the stability analysis and assumed Conventional/Reinforced SRWs
to be securely attached such that they cannot be dislodged Failure Modes: Wall Design Static Seismic
during ground shaking.
Base sliding, FSsl 1.5 1.1
• The stabilizing influence of the wall embedment is ignored
with the exception of bearing capacity analyses. Overturning, FSot 1.5/2.0 1.1/1.5
• No permanent surcharge or footing load exists within the Internal sliding, FSsc/FSsl(i) 1.5 1.1
active failure wedge. Tensile overstress, FSto 1.5 1.1
• Global stability involving failure of soil volumes beyond the
base of the SRW unit column and/or geosynthetic reinforced Pullout, FS po 1.5 1.1
fill zone is not considered. Connection, FScs 1.5 1.1
• SRW structures are built on competent foundations for Internal compound stability, Fcom 1.3 1.1
which excessive settlement, squeezing or liquefaction are
Failure Modes: Geotechnical Concerns Static Seismic
not potential sources of instability.
If there are more complex conditions, or for cases where Bearing capacity, FSbc 2.0 1.5
M-O formulation leads to unrealistic results, it is recom- Global stability, FSgl 1.3—1.5 1.1
mended that numerical procedures using the same principles
of M-O formulation be used. These include the well-known
graphical Culmann method, Coulomb’s trial wedge method,
or limit equilibrium slope stability programs that
are outside of the scope of the NCMA Design
Manual. Horizontal Movement
Rotation Rotation
A limitation of the pseudo-static seismic
design method presented here is that it can only
provide an estimate of the margins of safety against Tilt
SRW collapse or component failure, and does not
provide any direct estimate of anticipated wall Moment
deformations. This is a limitation common to all
limit-equilibrium design methods in geotechnical Base Sliding Overturning Bearing Capacity
engineering. A. External Stability

GEOSYNTHETIC REINFORCED Horizontal Movement Horizontal Movement

SEGMENTAL RETAINING WALLS—
MODES OF FAILURE
Movement
between
Stability analyses for geosynthetic reinforced courses
SRW systems under static and seismic loading Pullout Tensile Overstress Internal Sliding
conditions involve separate calculations to estab-
lish factors of safety against external, internal, B. Internal Stability
facing and internal compound modes of failure
(Figure 1).
External stability calculations consider the
reinforced soil zone and the facing column as a
monolithic gravity structure. The evaluation of
factors of safety against base sliding, overturning
Crest Toppling Facing Connection
about the toe, and foundation bearing capacity is
similar to that used for conventional reinforced C. Local Stability of SRW Units D. Internal Compound Stability
concrete masonry gravity structures.
Internal stability analyses for geosynthetic Rotation
reinforced soil walls are carried out to ensure that
the structural integrity of the reinforced zone is pre- Tilt
served with respect to reinforcement over-stressing Settlement
within the reinforced zone, pullout of geosynthetic
reinforcement layers from the anchorage zone, and
internal sliding along a reinforcement layer. Excessive Settlement Global/Slope Stability
Facing stability analyses are carried out to
E. Geotechnical Concerns
ensure that the facing column is stable at all eleva-
tions and connections between the facing units
and reinforcement layers are not over-stressed. Figure 1—SRW Failure Modes for Stability Analysis

2 NCMA TEK 15-9A

 Internal compound stability
analyzes the coherence of the ω ω ω
Lί
β
block-geogrid system through ω
potential compound slip circles hs
Wu Wrί h
that originate behind the soil- W'
W'β L' β

reinforced SRW and exit at the Hu

L"0.5H
face of the wall. Ps = γr Ka (Hext )
2
Pqd = (qd )Ka (Hext)
Minimum recommended Hext W'i
2
Pqd 0.5ΔPdyn
factors of safety (FS) of static and PqdV 0.5ΔPdynV
H P P P
seismic design of geosynthetic Ww
IR
Wrs r
W s
PsV
qdH 0.5ΔP dynH
W
reinforced SRW structures are PsH (Hext )/2
hIR (Hext )/2
given in Table 1. In general, FS (Hext )/3
for seismic design are taken as (δ e - ω) (δ e - ω) (δ e - ω)
75% of the values recommended Rs
for statically loaded structures 0.5H ) )]
(H ext γ(H ext
following AASHTO/FHWA L min < H Ka γ ΔK dyn
0.5
practice. Wr(s) e Lmin 0.5[
2 Static earth force Static earth force Dynamic earth force
Potential concerns such as
qa 2e due to soil due to dead load increment
settlement of reinforced SRW
structures due to compression, B'f
liquefaction, or squeezing of Q a
applied
foundation STATIC COMPONENT DYNAMIC INCREMENT
foundation soils is not considered pressure
here. Separate calculations for
foundation-induced deforma-
tions may be required by the Figure 2—External Stability Calculation Variables, Reinforced SRW Structures
designer. In addition, slope
instability involving volumes
of soil beyond and below the base of the facing column is not
considered. For global stability analysis, computer programs
are available that consider the effects of both the stabilizing
influence of reinforcement layers and destabilizing influence
of seismic-induced ground acceleration (ref. 7). D(n)

EXTERNAL STABILITY H Ac(n)

khint Ww(n) + Fgstat(n) + Fdyn (n) = Fi
External stability calculations are similar to those for
conventional static conditions, with the addition of the inertial ( i - ) ( i - ) ( i - )
force due to wall weight and the dynamic earth increment. Dy-
) (H )
namic earth pressure, shown in Figure 2, is used to calculate the (H K dyn
destabilizing forces in otherwise conventional expressions for Ka 0.5
the factor of safety against sliding along the foundation surface, Soil + Dead Surcha rge
overturning about the toe, and bearing capacity failure of the STATIC DYNAMIC
COMPONENT INCREMENT
foundations soils. By convention, only half of the dynamic earth
force increment is applied when calculating external seismic Figure 3—Geometry & Forces Used to
forces on conventional and reinforced SRWs. The simplified Calculate Reinforcement Loads for
geometry and forces shown in Figure 2 are used in external Reinforced SRW Structures
stability calculations.

INTERNAL STABILITY khint ΔWw(n) = wall inertial force increment

The contributory area approach (ref. 1, Sec. 7.5.2.2) used for
the static stability analysis of SRWs is extended to the dynamic
loading case (Figure 3). In this method, the reinforcement lay-
ers are modeled as tie-backs with the tensile force Fi in layer n
equal to the earth pressure integrated over the contributory area
Ac(n) at the back of the facing column plus the corresponding
wall inertial force increment. Hence:
Fi(n) = khint ΔWw(n) + Fgsta(n) + Fdyn(n)
where:
Fgsta(n) = static component of reinforcement load
Fdyn(n) = dynamic component of reinforcement load.
Internal stability calculations are also similar to those car-
ried out for conventional static conditions with the inclusion
of dynamic earth pressure. For reinforced SRWs, full dynamic
load is applied to internal stability with the exception of internal
sliding that employs half ΔPdyn. Figure 3 shows the static and
dynamic earth pressure distribution for internal stability cal-
culations. The calculations for internal stability are presented
in detail in Reference 1.

NCMA TEK 15-9A 3

FACING STABILITY R = radius of the slip surface P
Tavailable = available reinforcement β
Facing stability calculations are similar to those used for force at the location of the
the static analysis with the addition of the dynamic load. To intersection of the failure
evaluate the connection strength, the connection capacity at plane
each reinforcement elevation is compared to the tensile force Favailable = available facing force at ö,γ,c = 0 Soil
failure plane exit. slice
Fi already determined. The crest toppling is evaluated, deter-
mining the static, inertial and dynamic forces acting on the W
unreinforced top blocks. Only half of the dynamic load ΔPdyn FIELD PERFORMANCE kh W
is used to mirror the external overturning analysis.
SRW performance during
INTERNAL COMPOUND STABILITY earthquakes is generally considered
α S
to be excellent (refs. 8, 9). Obser- N
The consideration of seismic load for internal compound vations of SRWs within 31 miles
stability calculations is based on the addition of an inertial force (50 km) of the epicenter of both Figure 4—Soil Slice
(khW) associated with the mass of each soil slice (see Figure 4). the Loma Prieta and Northridge Showing Dynamic
The incorporation of an additional dynamic load or inertial earthquakes have shown that this Load
force is calculated as follows: type of retaining wall system can
withstand considerable horizontal and vertical accelerations
(W + P ) tan φ without experiencing unacceptable deformations. Similar to
∑ cos α + (sin α tan φ ) / FS + ∑ (T available cos α ) + Favailable other structures subject to "near" maximum probable magnitude
FS = earthquakes, the designer should be aware that SRWs may need
di
∑ (W + P) sin α + ∑ k W h
R
to be evaluated if damages are noticed, and repaired if necessary.
The design procedures presented in Design Manual for
where: Segmental Retaining Walls, 3rd ed., provide a rational, detailed
di = vertical distance from the gravity center of the soil design methodology which, if followed, will allow designers to
mass to the center of the slip surface take advantage of SRW technology to build safe and economical
retaining walls to withstand seismic forces.
REFERENCES
1. Design Manual for Segmental Retaining Walls (Third Edition), National Concrete Masonry Association, 2009.
2. SRWallv4, National Concrete Masonry Association, 2009.
3. Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes Design and Construction Guidelines, Elias, V., Christopher, B.R., and Berg,
R.R., FHWA NHI-00-043, 2001.
4. Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 17th edition. AASHTO, 2002.
5. Guide to Segmental Retaining Walls, TEK 15-8A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2009.
6. Inspection Guide for Segmental Retaining Walls, TEK 18-11A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2010.
7. Duncan, J.M., Low, B.K., and Shaeffer, V.R., STABGM: A Computer Program for Slope Stability Analysis of Reinforced Embankments, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute, 1985.
8. Field Observations of Reinforced Soil Structures Under Seismic Loading, Collin, J. G., Chouery-Curtis, V.E., and Berg, R. R., Proceedings
International Symposium on Earth Reinforcement Practice, Fukuoka, Japan, 1992.
9. Retaining Walls Stand Up to the Northridge Earthquake, Sandri, D., Geotechnical Fabrics Report 12 (4), 1994.

NCMA and the companies disseminating this technical information disclaim any and all responsibility and liability for the accuracy
and the application of the information contained in this publication.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION

13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171
www.ncma.org

To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index, contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900

4 NCMA TEK 15-9A


National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology
MULTIWYTHE
CONCRETE MASONRY WALLS
Keywords: adjustable ties, adjustable joint reinforcement
assemblies, cavity wall, composite, composite action, modular
ratio, moment of inertia, multiwythe, noncomposite, wall ties
INTRODUCTION
Multiwythe masonry walls can take one of several forms:
composite, noncomposite or veneer walls. The primary differ-
ences between these wall systems are in construction details
and how applied loads are assumed to be carried and distrib-
uted through the loadbearing system.
In composite masonry, multiwythe masonry members
act with composite action (refs. 1, 2). That is, composite walls
are designed so that the wythes act together as a single
structural member to resist loads. This requires that the
masonry wythes be connected by masonry headers (which are
rarely used due to cost and detailing restrictions) or by a
mortar- or grout-filled collar joint and wall ties to help ensure
adequate load transfer between wythes.
In contrast, each wythe of a noncomposite masonry wall
(also referred to as a cavity wall) is connected to the adjacent
wythe with metal wall ties, but they are designed such that each
wythe individually resists the loads imposed on it. Transverse
bending moments (flexure), such as those due to wind, are
distributed to each wythe in proportion to its relative stiffness.
Loads acting parallel to the plane of a noncomposite wall (in-
plane) are resisted only by the wythe on which the loads are
applied, neglecting stress transfer between wythes.
In a veneer wall, the backup wythe is designed as the load-
resisting system, with the veneer providing the architectural
wall finish. The anchored veneer transfers all out-of-plane
loads to the backup through wall ties, while supporting its own
weight in-plane. Veneer walls are not covered in this TEK.
Architectural detailing is covered in Concrete Masonry Ve-
neer Details, TEK 5-1B (ref. 3). Prescriptive design and
detailing requirements are included in Concrete Masonry
Veneers, TEK 3-6B, and (ref. 4), while engineered design
procedures are outlined in Structural Backup Systems for
Masonry Veneer, TEK 16-3A (ref. 5). Note that although
Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures defines
a cavity wall as a noncomposite masonry wall, the term cavity
wall is also commonly used to describe a veneer wall with
masonry backup.
Although Building Code Requirements for Masonry Struc-
TEK 16-1A © 2005 National Concrete Masonry Association (replaces TEK 16-1)
NCMA TEK
TEK 16-1A
Structural (2005)
tures includes design provisions for noncomposite and com-
posite masonry walls, these design approaches are rarely taken
with masonry walls, as they require two structural walls to be
constructed adjacent to one another. In other words, if the
structural design dictates the use of a 12-in. (305-mm) thick
wall, it is often easier and more cost effective to use a single 12-
in. (305-mm) wythe rather than a composite system consisting
of 4-in. and 8-in. (102- and 203-mm) units. The primary
advantage of using composite and noncomposite construction
is in applications where different architectural features are
desired on each side of a fully exposed concrete masonry wall.
Greater flexibility in moisture control and insulation, as well as
increased fire resistance rating and sound transmission class,
can also be realized when compared to single wythe walls.
Information on the allowable stress design method, the
strength design method and empirical design can be found in
references 6, 7 and 8, respectively. The criteria specific to
noncomposite and composite masonry walls are discussed in
this TEK. Design tables are included in Design of Concrete
Masonry Noncomposite (Cavity) Walls, TEK 16-4A, and
Structural Design of Unreinforced Composite Masonry, TEK
16-2B (refs. 9, 10).
NONCOMPOSITE WALLS
In noncomposite construction, the wythes are connected
by wall ties, as opposed to being rigidly bonded as in composite
walls. The joint between wythes of noncomposite walls are not
permitted to contain headers, grout or mortar.
With the exception of structural load paths and wall tie
spacing requirements, architectural details for noncomposite
masonry walls are nearly indistinguishable from those for
masonry veneer on masonry backup. See Concrete Masonry
Veneer Details, TEK 5-1B and Concrete Masonry Veneers,
TEK 3-6B (refs. 3, 4).
Structural Design
Noncomposite walls are designed as follows: imposed
vertical loads are carried by the wythe closest to the center of
span of the supported member; bending moments are distrib-
uted to each wythe in proportion to its relative stiffness; and
loads acting parallel to the plane of the wall (shear loads) are
carried only by the wythe affected. In addition, the cavity width
is limited to 4 1/2 in. (114 mm) unless a detailed wall tie analysis
is performed.
Transverse (out-of-plane) loads are distributed based on
the wythe flexural stiffness as indicated by the moment of
inertia, as follows:
 Em Ii   Em I o  load from floor slabs or the roof carried by the inner wythe of
Wi = wT   Wo = wT  
 Em I i + Em I o   Em I i + Em I o 
Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures
includes prescriptive wall tie spacing requirements to aid
compatible lateral deflection between wythes (see Figure 1).
Wire wall ties, which may also include cross wires of horizon-
tal joint reinforcement, are used to connect the wythes. Unless
a detailed analysis is performed, the prescriptive requirements
apply. In addition to the provisions shown in Figure 1, these
prescriptive requirements include:
• Collar joints may not contain headers, grout, or mortar.
• Where the cross wires of joint reinforcement are used as
ties, the joint reinforcement is required to be ladder-type or
tab-type, as the truss-type restricts differential in-plane
movement between the two wythes. Adjustable joint
reinforcement assemblies are also permitted, and are
considered to be a type of adjustable tie.
• Additional requirements for wall ties can be found inAnchors
and Ties for Masonry, TEK 12-1A (ref. 11).
COMPOSITE WALLS
Composite walls are multiwythe walls where both wythes
act structurally as one unit. They depend on sufficient stress
transfer across the joint between wythes for composite action.
In addition to the general design requirements to ensure
sufficient structural capacity that are applicable to all struc-
tural masonry walls, Building Code Requirements for Ma-
sonry Structures contains prescriptive requirements for bond-
ing the wythes of composite walls as well as allowable shear
stresses for the collar joint. While not prohibited by the code
Maximum horizontal tie spacing: 16 in. (406 mm)
for adjustable ties 36 in. (914 mm) for all other ties
Wall tie
Figure 1—Noncomposite Wall Detailing Requirements
(ref. 2), wythes of composite masonry walls should not be
constructed with dissimilar materials, such as clay and con-
crete masonry, as rigidly bonding such materials together does
not permit differential movement between wythes.
Composite walls are most often designed with the axial
masonry. The vertical joint between wythes may contain
either vertical or horizontal reinforcement, or reinforcement
may be placed in either wythe. The thickness of the joint
between adjacent wythes is not limited in thickness but is
typically sized to accommodate modular layout and any rein-
forcement that may be placed in the joint. Stresses in each
wythe due to axial load and flexure are calculated using the
modular ratio, n, to transform sections using elastic analysis
and assuming no slip at the collar joint, as shown in the
following example.
Example: Reinforced Composite Wall Transformed Section
and Neutral Axis
Consider a composite masonry wall constructed of 6-in.
(152-mm) concrete masonry, a 2-in. (51-mm) grouted collar
joint containing vertical No. 4 (M#13) bars at 48 in. (1,219
mm) on center, and 4-in. (102-mm) concrete brick. Moduli of
elasticity for the materials are:
concrete masonry: Em = 900 f'm = 900(1,500 psi)
= 1,350,000 psi (9,310 MPa)
grout: Eg = 500fg = 500(2,000 psi)
= 1,000,000 psi (6,890 MPa)
steel: Es = 29,000,000 psi (200 GPa)
The modular ratio, n, for grout and steel are:
n g = Eg /Em = 1,000,000/1,350,000 = 0.74
n s = Es /Em = 29,000,000/1,350,000 = 21.5
Using these modular ratios, equivalent areas of grout and steel
based on a 12-in. (305-mm) width of concrete masonry are:
n g Ag = 0.74 (2 in. x 12 in.) = 17.8 in.2 (11,480 mm2)
n s As = 21.5 (0.20 in.2/bar x 0.25 bar/ft) = 1.08 in.2 (697 mm2)
Maximum cavity width 4 1 2 in. (114 mm)
unless a detailed wall tie analysis is performed
Maximum vertical tie spacing:
16 in. (406 mm) for adjustable ties
24 in. (610 mm) for all other ties
Provide one W1.7 (MW 11) per 2 2 3 ft 2 (0.25 m 2 ) of wall.
Provide one W2.8 (MW 18) per 4 1 2 ft 2 (0.42 m 2 ) of wall.
Provide one adjustable tie per 1.77 ft2 (0.16 m2 ) of wall.
The resulting transformed section is shown in Figure 2.
Mcs
f s = ns
The net cross-sectional areas of the 6-in. (152-mm) and 4-in. I tr
(102-mm) concrete masonry wythes are 24.0 in.2/ft (0.051 m2/
m) and 43.5 in.2/ft (0.092 m2/m), respectively (ref. 12). Deter- Bonding the Wythes
mine the total transformed area, Atr: To ensure shear transfer, Building Code Requirements
Atr = 24 + 17.8 + 1.08 + 43.5 in.2/ft for Masonry Structures requires that the joint between
= 86.4 in.2/ft (0.18 m2/m) wythes either be filled with mortar or grout and connected
by wall ties or be crossed by connecting masonry headers.
Next, determine the neutral axis location of the transformed Wall tie spacing requirements are illustrated in Figure 3.
section, by calculating x , the distance from the neutral axis of Although allowed, the use of masonry headers is an
the 6-in. (152-mm) concrete masonry to the neutral axis of the outdated method of connecting masonry wythes and is not
transformed section. recommended for several reasons. Headers are less ductile
than metal wall ties, making accommodation for differential
x=
∑ A x = (17.8 × 3. 81) + (1.08 × 3.81) + (43. 5 × 6.625 )
n
movement a critical issue. Differential movement can shear
Atr 86 .4 the headers, effectively eliminating the composite action,
= 4.17 in. (106 mm) particularly with the combination of concrete masonry and
clay masonry wythes. Also, walls bonded by headers are also
Moments of inertia of the three wall elements are: more susceptible to water penetration.
(Icm)6-in. = 130.0 in.4/ft (1.78 x 108 mm4/m) (ref. 12)
Ig = (1/12) bh3 = (1/12)(8.9)(2)3 = 5.9 in.4/ft (8.10 x 107 mm4/m)
12 in.
Is = (1/12) bh3 = (1/12)(2.2)(0.5)3 = 0.023 in.4/ft (3.13 x 104 mm4/m)
(305 mm)
(Icm)4-in. = 47.6 in.4/ft (6.50 x 107 mm4/m) (ref. 12)
5.625 in.
Using the parallel axis theorem, the moment of inertia of the (143 mm)
transformed section, Itr, is: 3.81 in.
(
I tr = ∑ I o + Ad 2
) 2 in.
(51 mm) ns As
(97 mm) 6.63 in.
(168 mm)
= [130.3 + (24)(4.17)2] + [5.9 + (17.8)(4.17 - 3.81)2 ] 3.625 in.
+ [0.023 + (1.08)(4.17 - 3.81)2 ] (92 mm)
+ [47.6 + (43.5)(6.625 - 4.17)2 ]
= 865.8 in.4/ft (1.18 x 109 mm4/m) 8.9 in.
Stresses in each element are then determined using: the (226 mm)
12 in.
transformed moment of inertia, Itr: the modular ratio, n; the
(305 mm)
area of the transformed section, Atr; and the distance from the
extreme fiber to the neutral axis of the composite section, Figure 2—Transformed Section for Example
c. For example, the calculated tension in the steel due to (based on a 12-in. (305-mm) section)
flexure is:

Area of headers at least

Collar joint filled 4% of wall surface area
with mortar or grout
Maximum tie spacing
24 in. (610 mm) vertically

Minimum embedment
3 in. (76 mm)

Maximum tie spacing

36 in. (914 mm) horizontally

Provide one W1.7 (MW 11)

2
Wall Tie per 2 2 3 ft (0.25 m2 ) of wall.
Provide one W2.8 (MW 18) Composite Masonry Wall
Composite Masonry Wall Connected by per 4 1 2 ft 2 (0.42 m2 ) of wall. Connected with Headers
Wall Ties and Filled with Mortar or Grout
Figure 3—Composite Wall Detailing Requirements
 When headers are used, they must be uniformly spaced
and have a total cross-sectional area not less than four percent
of the total wall surface area. Headers are also required to be
embedded at least 3 in. (76 mm) into each wythe. See Figure 3.
Construction Considerations
In composite masonry construction, insulation and vapor
retarders, if required, can not be located in the joint between
wythes, as is commonly done in noncomposite construction.
Insulation can be located either in the cores of the inner wythe
or on the wall interior.
Because the two wythes of a composite wall act as one
structural unit, vertical movement joints, including fire-rated
control joints, should extend through both wythes at the same
location across the cavity joint.
NOTATIONS
An = net cross-sectional area of a wall element, in.2/ft (mm2/m)
Atr = area of the transformed section, in.2/ft (mm2/m)
c = the distance from the extreme fiber to the neutral axis of
the composite section, in. (mm)
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of
tension reinforcement, in. (mm)
Eg = modulus of elasticity of grout, psi (MPa)
Em = modulus of elasticity of masonry in compression, psi
(MPa)
Es = modulus of elasticity of steel, psi (MPa)
f'g = specified compressive strength of grout, psi (MPa)
f'm = specified compressive strength of masonry, psi (MPa)
fs = calculated tensile or compressive stress in reinforce-
ment, psi (MPa)
Icm = moment of inertia of concrete masonry, in.4/ft (mm4/m)
Ig = moment of inertia of the grout, in.4/ft (mm4/m)
Is = moment of inertia of the steel, in.4/ft (mm4/m)
I i = average moment of inertia of inner wythe, in.4/ft (mm4/m)
Io = average moment of inertia of outer wythe, in.4/ft (mm4/m)
It r = moment of inertia of transformed section, in.4/ft (mm4/m)
M = maximum moment at the section under consideration,
in-lb/ft (N-mm/m)
n = modular ratio
Wi = transverse load on inner wythe, psf (kPa)
Wo = transverse load on outer wythe, psf (kPa)
wT = total transverse load, psf (kPa)
x = distance from the neutral axis of an element to the
neutral axis of the transformed section, in. (mm)
x = distance from the neutral axis of the 6-in. (152-mm)
concrete masonry to the neutral axis of the transformed
section, in. (mm)

REFERENCES
1. International Building Code, 2003, With Commentary. International Code Council, Inc., 2004.
2. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, ACI 530-05/ASCE 5-05/TMS 402-05. Reported by the Masonry Standards
Joint Committee, 2005.
3. Concrete Masonry Veneer Details, TEK 5-1B. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2003.
4. Concrete Masonry Veneers, TEK 3-6B. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2005.
5. Structural Backup Systems for Masonry Veneer, TEK 16-3A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 1995.
6. Allowable Stress Design of Concrete Masonry, TEK 14-7A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2004.
7. Strength Design of Concrete Masonry, TEK 14-4A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2002.
8. Empirical Design of Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 14-8A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2001.
9. Design of Concrete Masonry Noncomposite (Cavity) Walls, TEK 16-4A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2004.
10. Structural Design of Unreinforced Composite Masonry, TEK 16-2B. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2002.
11. Anchors and Ties for Masonry, TEK 12-1A.National Concrete Masonry Association, 2001.
12. Section Properties of Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 14-1A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2003.

NCMA and the companies disseminating this technical information disclaim any and all responsibility and liability for the
accuracy and the application of the information contained in this publication.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171 contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
www.ncma.org
 NCMA TEK
National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF TEK 16-2B

UNREINFORCED COMPOSITE MASONRY
Keywords: allowable loads, bonding, concrete brick,
composite walls, flexural strength, multi-wythe walls
INTRODUCTION
Concrete masonry offers many textures, colors and sizes,
along with choices in bond patterns and joint treatment mak-
ing it an excellent choice for exterior and interior walls in
residential, commercial and public buildings. Concrete brick
can be used in both structural and veneer applications and is
economical, durable, easy to maintain, fire resistant, and re-
duces sound transmission.
Multi-wythe masonry walls are classified as either
composite or noncomposite depending on how the wythes
interact. Connections between wythes of composite walls are
designed to transfer stresses between the wythes, allowing the
wythes to act as a single member in resisting loads. In contrast,
for noncomposite or cavity walls each wythe individually re-
sists the loads imposed on it. Concrete brick are used both in
composite walls and as nonloadbearing veneer in cavity wall
construction. Requirements for concrete brick veneers are sum-
marized in Concrete Masonry Veneers, TEK 3-6A (ref. 1).
Standard Specification for Concrete Building Brick,
ASTM C 55 (ref. 2), governs concrete brick and similar solid
units. C 55 requirements are summarized in ASTM Specifi-
cations for Concrete Masonry Units, TEK 1-1C (ref. 3).
Structural (2001)
ments for Masonry Structures (ref. 4) and the following:
(1) specified compressive strength of masonry, f'm = 1500
psi (10.3 MPa),
(2) section modulus based on the minimum net area of the
composite wall cross section,
(3) faceshell and web dimensions based on ASTM C 90
(ref. 6) minimum requirements for hollow units,
(4) loads include 1/3 increase in allowable stress for load com-
binations including wind or seismic (where 1/3 increase
does not apply, multiply the Table values by 3/4), and
(5) allowable tensile stress in masonry, Ft, for hollow
ungrouted concrete masonry normal to the bed joints is
as noted in Table footnotes.
Concentric
axial load
Wall
height

STRUCTURAL DESIGN METHODS Horizontal load acting

perpendicular to face of wall
Composite wall structural design requirements are con- Figure 1—Concentric Axial and Lateral Loading
tained in Building Code Requirements for Masonry Struc-
tures (ref. 4) and the International Building Code (ref. 5). Table 1—Allowable Flexural Tension, psi (kPa) (ref. 4)
Allowable stress design of unreinforced compos-
ite walls is typically governed by the flexural tensile Mortar type: Portland Masonry cement
capacity of the masonry system (see Table 1), although cement/lime or air entrained
compression and shear must also be checked. Shear or mortar cement Portland cement/lime
stress in the plane of interface between wythes and collar Solid units: M or S N M or S N
joints is limited to 5 psi (34.5 kPa) for mortared collar Normal to bed joints 40 (276) 30 (207) 24 (166) 15 (103)
joints; 10 psi (68.9 kPa) for grouted collar joints; and the Parallel to bed joints
square root of the unit compressive strength of the header in running bond 80 (552) 60 (414) 48 (331) 30 (207)
(over the net area of the header) for headers. Ungrouted hollow units:
Tables 2 through 13, for lateral loads with or without Normal to bed joints 25 (172) 19 (131) 15 (103) 9 (62)
concentric axial loads (see Figure 1), are based on Chap- Parallel to bed joints
ter 2, Allowable Stress Design, of Building Code Require- in running bond 50 (345) 38 (262) 30 (207) 19 (131)

TEK 16-2B © 2001 National Concrete Masonry Association (replaces 16-2A)

 Type N Portland Cement/Lime or Mortar Cementa Type N Masonry Cement or Air Entrained Portland
Cement/Lime Mortarb
Table 2—Maximum Horizontal Load in psf (kPa ) Table 5—Maximum Horizontal Load in psf (kPa )
on Eight-inch (203 mm) Thick Composite Wall on Eight-inch (203 mm) Thick Composite Wall
8-in. (203 mm) composite wall composed of 4-in. (102 8-in. (203 mm) composite wall composed of 4-in. (102
mm) concrete brick and 4-in. (102 mm) hollow con- mm) concrete brick and 4-in. (102 mm) hollow con-
crete masonry units crete masonry units
Wall height, Axial load, lb/ft (kN/m) Wall height, Axial load, lb/ft (kN/m)
ft (m) 0 (0) 1,000 (14.6) 2,000 (29.2) ft (m) 0 (0) 1,000 (14.6) 2,000 (29.2)
8 (2.4) 16 (0.80) 26 (1.2) 36e (1.7) 8 (2.4) 7.9 (0.38) 18 (0.86) 28 (1.3)
9 (2.7) 13 (0.63) 21 (1.0) 29e (1.3) 9 (2.7) 6.3 (0.30) 14 (0.68) 22 (1.0)
10 (3.0) 10 (0.51) 17 (0.82) 23 (1.1) 10 (3.0) 5.1 (0.24) 11 (0.55) 18 (0.86)
11 (3.4) 8.9 (0.42) 14 (0.68) 19 (0.93) 11 (3.4) 4.2 (0.20) 9.5 (0.45) 14 (0.71)
12 (3.7) 7.5 (0.35) 11 (0.57) 16 (0.78) 12 (3.7) 3.5 (0.16) 8.0 (0.38) 12 (0.59)
13 (4.0) 6.4 (0.30) 10 (0.48) 14 (0.66) 13 (4.0) 3.0 (0.14) 6.8 (0.32) 10 (0.50)
14 (4.3) 5.5 (0.26) 8.8 (0.42) 12 (0.57) 14 (4.3) 2.6 (0.12) 5.9 (0.28) 9.2 (0.43)
15 (4.6) 4.8 (0.22) 7.6 (0.36) 10 (0.50) 15 (4.6) 2.3 (0.10) 5.1 (0.24) 8.0 (0.38)
16 (4.9) 4.2 (0.20) 6.7 (0.32) 9.2 (0.44) 16 (4.9) 2.0 (0.09) 4.5 (0.21) 7.0 (0.33)

Table 3—Maximum Horizontal Load in psf (kPa ) Table 6—Maximum Horizontal Load in psf (kPa )
on Ten-inch (254 mm) Thick Composite Wall on Ten-inch (254 mm) Thick Composite Wall

10-in. (254 mm) composite wall composed of 4-in. 10-in. (254 mm) composite wall composed of 4-in. (102
(102 mm) concrete brick and 6-in. (152 mm) hollow mm) concrete brick and 6-in. (152 mm) hollow con-
concrete masonry units crete masonry units
Wall height, Axial load, lb/ft (kN/m) Wall height, Axial load, lb/ft (kN/m)
ft (m) 0 (0) 1,000 (14.6) 2,000 (29.2) ft (m) 0 (0) 1,000 (14.6) 2,000 (29.2)
8 (2.4) 24 (1.1) 38 (1.8) 51e (2.4) 8 (2.4) 11 (0.56) 25 (1.2) 38 (1.8)
9 (2.7) 19 (0.93) 30 (1.4) 41e (1.9) 9 (2.7) 9.3 (0.44) 20 (0.95) 30 (1.4)
10 (3.0) 15 (0.75) 24 (1.1) 33 (1.5) 10 (3.0) 7.5 (0.35) 16 (0.77) 24 (1.1)
11 (3.4) 13 (0.62) 20 (0.97) 27 (1.3) 11 (3.4) 6.2 (0.29) 13 (0.64) 20 (0.98)
12 (3.7) 11 (0.52) 17 (0.81) 23 (1.1) 12 (3.7) 5.2 (0.24) 11 (0.53) 17 (0.82)
13 (4.0) 9.4 (0.44) 14 (0.69) 19 (0.94) 13 (4.0) 4.4 (0.21) 9.6 (0.45) 14 (0.70)
14 (4.3) 8.1 (0.38) 12 (0.59) 16 (0.81) 14 (4.3) 3.8 (0.18) 8.3 (0.39) 12 (0.60)
15 (4.6) 7.0 (0.33) 10 (0.52) 14 (0.70) 15 (4.6) 3.3 (0.15) 7.2 (0.34) 11 (0.52)
16 (4.9) 6.2 (0.29) 9.6 (0.45) 13 (0.62) 16 (4.9) 2.9 (0.14) 6.3 (0.30) 9.7 (0.46)
17 (5.2) 5.5 (0.26) 8.5 (0.40) 11 (0.55) 17 (5.2) 2.6 (0.12) 5.6 (0.26) 8.6 (0.41)
18 (5.5) 4.9 (0.23) 7.6 (0.36) 10 (0.49) 18 (5.5) 2.3 (0.11) 5.0 (0.23) 7.7 (0.36)
19 (5.8) 4.4 (0.21) 6.8 (0.32) 9.2 (0.44) 19 (5.8) 2.1 (0.099) 4.5 (0.21) 6.9 (0.33)
20 (6.1) 4.0 (0.18) 6.1 (0.29) 8.3 (0.39) 20 (6.1) 1.9 (0.090) 4.0 (0.19) 6.2 (0.29)

Table 4—Maximum Horizontal Load in psf (kPa ) Table 7—Maximum Horizontal Load in psf (kPa )
on Twelve-inch (305 mm) Thick Composite Wall on Twelve-inch (305 mm) Thick Composite Wall

12-in. (305 mm) composite wall composed of 4-in. 12-in. (305 mm) composite wall composed of 4-in.
(102 mm) concrete brick and 8-in. (203 mm) hollow (102 mm) concrete brick and 8-in. (203 mm) hollow
concrete masonry units concrete masonry units
Wall height, Axial load, lb/ft (kN/m) Wall height, Axial load, lb/ft (kN/m)
ft (m) 0 (0) 1,000 (14.6) 2,000 (29.2) ft (m) 0 (0) 1,000 (14.6) 2,000 (29.2)
8 (2.4) 43 (2.0) 65e (3.1) 88e (4.2) 8 (2.4) 20 (0.99) 42 (2.0) 65e (3.1)
e
9 (2.7) 34 (1.6) 52 (2.4) 69e (3.3) 9 (2.7) 16 (0.78) 33 (1.6) 51e (2.4)
10 (3.0) 28 (1.3) 42 (2.0) 56e (2.6) 10 (3.0) 13 (0.63) 27 (1.3) 41 (1.9)
11 (3.4) 23 (1.1) 34 (1.6) 46e (2.2) 11 (3.4) 10 (0.52) 22 (1.0) 34 (1.6)
12 (3.7) 19 (0.93) 29 (1.4) 39e (1.8) 12 (3.7) 9.2 (0.44) 19 (0.91) 28 (1.3)
13 (4.0) 16 (0.79) 24 (1.1) 33 (1.5) 13 (4.0) 7.8 (0.37) 16 (0.77) 24 (1.1)
14 (4.3) 14 (0.68) 21 (1.0) 28 (1.3) 14 (4.3) 6.8 (0.32) 14 (0.67) 21 (1.0)
15 (4.6) 12 (0.59) 18 (0.89) 25 (1.1) 15 (4.6) 5.9 (0.28) 12 (0.58) 18 (0.88)
16 (4.9) 10 (0.52) 16 (0.78) 22 (1.0) 16 (4.9) 5.2 (0.24) 10 (0.51) 16 (0.77)
17 (5.2) 9.7 (0.46) 14 (0.69) 19 (0.93) 17 (5.2) 4.6 (0.21) 9.5 (0.45) 14 (0.69)
18 (5.5) 8.6 (0.41) 13 (0.62) 17 (0.83) 18 (5.5) 4.1 (0.19) 8.5 (0.40) 12 (0.61)
19 (5.8) 7.7 (0.37) 11 (0.55) 15 (0.74) 19 (5.8) 3.7 (0.17) 7.6 (0.36) 11 (0.55)
20 (6.1) 7.0 (0.33) 10 (0.50) 14 (0.67) 20 (6.1) 3.3 (0.15) 6.9 (0.32) 10 (0.49)
a b
Ft = 19 psi (131 kPa) Ft = 9 psi (62 kPa)
e
Shear exceeds the allowable for collar joints crossed by connecting masonry headers, therefore wythes of these walls must be
connected via a collar joint filled with mortar or grout and connected by wall ties.
 Type M or S Portland Cement/Lime or Type M or S Masonry Cement or Air Entrained
Mortar Cementc Portland Cement/Lime Mortard
Table 8—Maximum Horizontal Load in psf (kPa ) Table 11—Maximum Horizontal Load in psf (kPa )
on Eight-inch (203 mm) Thick Composite Wall on Eight-inch (203 mm) Thick Composite Wall

8-in. (203 mm) composite wall composed of 4-in. (102 8-in. (203 mm) composite wall composed of 4-in. (102
mm) concrete brick and 4-in. (102 mm) hollow con- mm) concrete brick and 4-in. (102 mm) hollow con-
crete masonry units crete masonry units
Wall height, Axial load, lb/ft (kN/m) Wall height, Axial load, lb/ft (kN/m)
ft (m) 0 (0) 1,000 (14.6) 2,000 (29.2) ft (m) 0 (0) 1,000 (14.6) 2,000 (29.2)
8 (2.4) 22 (1.0) 32e (1.5) 42e (2.0) 8 (2.4) 13 (0.63) 23 (1.1) 33e (1.5)
9 (2.7) 17 (0.83) 25 (1.2) 33e (1.5) 9 (2.7) 10 (0.50) 18 (0.88) 26 (1.2)
10 (3.0) 14 (0.67) 20 (0.98) 27e (1.2) 10 (3.0) 8.5 (0.40) 14 (0.71) 21 (1.0)
11 (3.4) 11 (0.55) 17 (0.81) 22 (1.0) 11 (3.4) 7.0 (0.33) 12 (0.59) 17 (0.84)
12 (3.7) 9.8 (0.47) 14 (0.68) 18 (0.89) 12 (3.7) 5.9 (0.28) 10 (0.49) 14 (0.71)
13 (4.0) 8.4 (0.40) 12 (0.58) 16 (0.76) 13 (4.0) 5.0 (0.24) 8.8 (0.42) 12 (0.60)
14 (4.3) 7.2 (0.34) 10 (0.50) 13 (0.66) 14 (4.3) 4.3 (0.20) 7.6 (0.36) 10 (0.52)
15 (4.6) 6.3 (0.30) 9.1 (0.43) 12 (0.57) 15 (4.6) 3.8 (0.18) 6.6 (0.31) 9.5 (0.45)
16 (4.9) 5.5 (0.26) 8.0 (0.38) 10 (0.50) 16 (4.9) 3.3 (0.15) 5.8 (0.27) 8.3 (0.39)

Table 9—Maximum Horizontal Load in psf (kPa ) Table 12—Maximum Horizontal Load in psf (kPa )
on Ten-inch (254 mm) Thick Composite Wall on Ten-inch (254 mm) Thick Composite Wall
10-in. (254 mm) composite wall composed of 4-in. 10-in. (254 mm) composite wall composed of 4-in. (102
(102 mm) concrete brick and 6-in. (152 mm) hollow mm) concrete brick and 6-in. (152 mm) hollow con-
concrete masonry units crete masonry units
Wall height, Axial load, lb/ft (kN/m) Wall height, Axial load, lb/ft (kN/m)
ft (m) 0 (0) 1,000 (14.6) 2,000 (29.2) ft (m) 0 (0) 1,000 (14.6) 2,000 (29.2)
8 (2.4) 32 (1.5) 46e (2.2) 59e (2.8) 8 (2.4) 19 (0.93) 33 (1.5) 46e (2.2)
9 (2.7) 25 (1.2) 36 (1.7) 47e (2.2) 9 (2.7) 15 (0.73) 26 (1.2) 36 (1.7)
10 (3.0) 20 (0.99) 29 (1.4) 38e (1.8) 10 (3.0) 12 (0.59) 21 (1.0) 29 (1.4)
11 (3.4) 17 (0.82) 24 (1.1) 31e (1.5) 11 (3.4) 10 (0.49) 17 (0.83) 24 (1.1)
12 (3.7) 14 (0.69) 20 (0.98) 26 (1.2) 12 (3.7) 8.7 (0.41) 14 (0.70) 20 (0.99)
13 (4.0) 12 (0.59) 17 (0.83) 22 (1.0) 13 (4.0) 7.4 (0.35) 12 (0.60) 17 (0.84)
14 (4.3) 10 (0.50) 15 (0.72) 19 (0.93) 14 (4.3) 6.4 (0.30) 10 (0.51) 15 (0.73)
15 (4.6) 9.3 (0.44) 13 (0.62) 17 (0.81) 15 (4.6) 5.6 (0.26) 9.4 (0.45) 13 (0.63)
16 (4.9) 8.1 (0.38) 11 (0.55) 14 (0.71) 16 (4.9) 4.9 (0.23) 8.3 (0.39) 11 (0.55)
17 (5.2) 7.2 (0.34) 10 (0.48) 13 (0.63) 17 (5.2) 4.3 (0.20) 7.3 (0.35) 10 (0.49)
18 (5.5) 6.4 (0.30) 9.1 (0.43) 11 (0.56) 18 (5.5) 3.9 (0.18) 6.5 (0.31) 9.2 (0.44)
19 (5.8) 5.8 (0.27) 8.2 (0.39) 10 (0.50) 19 (5.8) 3.5 (0.16) 5.9 (0.28) 8.3 (0.39)
20 (6.1) 5.2 (0.24) 7.4 (0.35) 9.6(0.45) 20 (6.1) 3.1 (0.14) 5.3 (0.25) 7.5 (0.35)

Table 10—Maximum Horizontal Load in psf (kPa ) Table 13—Maximum Horizontal Load in psf (kPa )
on Twelve-inch (305 mm) Thick Composite Wall on Twelve-inch (305 mm) Thick Composite Wall

12-in. (305 mm) composite wall composed of 4-in. 12-in. (305 mm) composite wall composed of 4-in.
(102 mm) concrete brick and 8-in. (203 mm) hollow (102 mm) concrete brick and 8-in. (203 mm) hollow
concrete masonry units concrete masonry units
Wall height, Axial load, lb/ft (kN/m) Wall height, Axial load, lb/ft (kN/m)
ft (m) 0 (0) 1,000 (14.6) 2,000 (29.2) ft (m) 0 (0) 1,000 (14.6) 2,000 (29.2)
8 (2.4) 57e (2.7) 79e (3.8) 101e (4.8) 8 (2.4) 34 (1.6) 56e (2.7) 78e (3.7)
e
9 (2.7) 45 (2.1) 62 (3.0) 80e (3.8) 9 (2.7) 27 (1.3) 44 (2.1) 62e (2.9)
e
10 (3.0) 36 (1.7) 51 (2.4) 65e (3.1) 10 (3.0) 22 (1.0) 36 (1.7) 50e (2.4)
11 (3.4) 30 (1.4) 42e (2.0) 53e (2.5) 11 (3.4) 18 (0.87) 30 (1.4) 41e (1.9)
12 (3.7) 25 (1.2) 35 (1.6) 45e (2.1) 12 (3.7) 15 (0.73) 25 (1.2) 35 (1.6)
13 (4.0) 21 (1.0) 30 (1.4) 38e (1.8) 13 (4.0) 13 (0.62) 21 (1.0) 29 (1.4)
14 (4.3) 18 (0.89) 26 (1.2) 33e (1.5) 14 (4.3) 11 (0.53) 18 (0.88) 25 (1.2)
15 (4.6) 16 (0.78) 22 (1.0) 29 (1.3) 15 (4.6) 9.8 (0.47) 16 (0.77) 22 (1.0)
16 (4.9) 14 (0.68) 19 (0.95) 25 (1.2) 16 (4.9) 8.6 (0.41) 14 (0.67) 19 (0.94)
17 (5.2) 12 (0.61) 17 (0.84) 22 (1.0) 17 (5.2) 7.6 (0.36) 12 (0.60) 17 (0.83)
18 (5.5) 11 (0.54) 15 (0.75) 20 (0.96) 18 (5.5) 6.8 (0.32) 11 (0.53) 15 (0.74)
19 (5.8) 10 (0.48) 14 (0.67) 18 (0.86) 19 (5.8) 6.1 (0.29) 10 (0.48) 14 (0.66)
20 (6.1) 9.2 (0.44) 12 (0.61) 16 (0.78) 20 (6.1) 5.5 (0.26) 9.1 (0.43) 12 (0.60)
c d
Ft = 25 psi (172 kPa) Ft = 15 psi (103 kPa)
e
Shear exceeds the allowable for collar joints crossed by connecting masonry headers, therefore wythes of these walls must be
connected via a collar joint filled with mortar or grout and connected by wall ties.
 Maximum wall surface 24 in. (610 mm) posite walls bonded with corrosion resistant ties
area per tie a max. vertical spacing or wire and collar joints filled with mortar or
grout. Cross wires of joint reinforcement and
rectangular ties are commonly used as wall ties
for composite walls. Z-ties, however, are not per-
mitted with ungrouted hollow masonry (ref. 7).
For cavity wall construction, the following
construction recommendations apply:
Tie location • keep cavity substantially clean to allow free
36 in. (914 mm) water drainage,
max. horizontal spacing • install weep holes at 32 in. (813 mm) o. c.,
a
22/3 ft2 (0.25 m2) for cross wires of W1.7 (9 ga, 3.9 mm) joint reinforce- • install granular fill, mesh or other mortar
ment; 41/2 ft2 (0.42 m2) for W2.8 (3/16 in., 4.8 mm diameter) metal ties collection device in bottom of cavity to prevent
mortar droppings from blocking weep holes, and
Figure 2—Wall Tie Spacing for Composite Walls
• embed wall ties at least 11/2 in. (38 mm) into
the mortar bed of solid units.
CONSTRUCTION
REFERENCES
Concrete brick walls and wythes of concrete brick should 1. Concrete Masonry Veneers, TEK 3-6A. National Con-
be laid with full head and bed mortar joints. For composite crete Masonry Association, 2000.
construction, the collar joint (the vertical longitudinal joint 2. Standard Specification for Concrete Brick, ASTM C 55-
between wythes of masonry) is filled with grout or mortar to 01. American Society for Testing and Materials, 2001.
allow structural interaction between the wythes. 3. ASTM Specifications for Concrete Masonry Units, TEK
In composite walls, Building Code Requirements for 1-1C. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2000.
Masonry Structures (ref. 4) requires that concrete brick be 4. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures,
bonded to the backup wythe using either masonry headers or ACI 530-99/ASCE 5-99/TMS 402-99. Reported by the
wall tie and grout or mortar. These minimum requirements, Masonry Standards Joint Committee, 1999.
described below, help ensure that composite action is present 5. International Building Code. International Code Coun-
between the wythes. cil, 2000.
When bonded using masonry headers, the headers must 6. Standard Specification for Loadbearing Concrete Ma-
make up at least 4 percent of the wall surface and extend at sonry Units, ASTM C 90-01. American Society for Test-
least 3 in. (76 mm) into the backing. The shear stress devel- ing and Materials, 2001.
oped in the masonry header is limited to the square root of 7. Specification for Masonry Structures, ACI 530.1-99/
the unit compressive strength of the header (in psi (MPa) ASCE 6-99/TMS 602-99. Reported by the Masonry Stan-
over the net area of the header). dards Joint Committee, 1999.
Figure 2 illustrates wall tie spacing requirements for com-

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REINFORCED COMPOSITE
CONCRETE MASONRY WALLS
Keywords: allowable stress design, composite walls,
design examples, multiwythe walls, reinforced concrete
masonry, structural design
INTRODUCTION
Reinforced composite concrete masonry walls can pro-
vide geometric diversity. Composite walls consist of multiple
wythes of masonry connected such that they act as a single
structural member. There are prescriptive requirements in both
the International Building Code (ref. 1) and Building Code
Requirements for Masonry Structures (ref. 2) for connecting
the wythes. Reinforced composite masonry walls are designed
similarly to other reinforced masonry walls, and must meet the
same construction requirements for reinforcement and grout
placement, tolerances and workmanship.
General composite wall information is included in TEK
16-1A, Multiwythe Concrete Masonry Walls (ref. 3), which
is intended to be used with this TEK. Although composite
walls can be reinforced or unreinforced, this TEK discusses
the requirements for reinforced composite walls. Unreinforced
composite walls are discussed in TEK 16-2B, Structural Design
of Unreinforced Composite Masonry (ref. 4).
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Composite masonry is defined as “multicomponent ma-
sonry members acting with composite action” (ref. 2). For
a multiwythe wall section to act compositely, the wythes of
masonry must be adequately connected. Provisions for properly
bonding the wythes are discussed in TEK 16-1A. When wall
ties are used, the collar joint – the vertical space between the
two wythes of masonry – must be filled solid with grout or
mortar (refs. 1, 2). However, when reinforcement is placed
in the collar joint, grout must be used to fill the collar joint.
Considerations When Choosing a Cross Section
Unlike single wythe walls, where the geometric cross
section is set by the product as manufactured, the cross sec-
tion of a composite wall is determined by the combination of
units and collar joint which can theoretically be any thickness.
Practically speaking, code, structural and architectural require-
ments will narrow the options for wall sections. In addition to
TEK 16-3B © 2006 National Concrete Masonry Association (replaces TEK 16-3A)
NCMA TEK
TEK 16-3B
Structural (2006)
structural capacity, criteria specific to cross-section selection
for reinforced composite walls include: location of reinforce-
ment in collar joint or in unit cells; collar joint thickness; unit
selection for each wythe.
Structural Reinforcement Location
The engineer has the option of locating the structural
reinforcing steel in the collar joint or in one or both wythes.
While there is no direct prohibition against placing reinforce-
ment in both the collar joint and the unit cores, practically
speaking there is rarely a structural reason to complicate the
cross section with this configuration.
With some units, it may be easier to install reinforcement
in the collar joint, such as when both wythes are solid or lack
sufficient cell space for reinforcing bars. Depending on the units
selected, the collar joint may or may not provide the option
to center the reinforcement within the wall cross section. For
example, when the units are not the same thickness, the collar
joint does not necessarily span the center of the section.
Conversely, if off-set reinforcement is preferred, perhaps
to accommodate unbalanced lateral loads, it may be beneficial
to place the vertical bars in the unit cells. Placing reinforcement
in the unit cells permits a thinner collar joint and possibly a
thinner overall cross section. Unit cells may provide a larger and
less congested opening for the reinforcing bars and grout since
the collar joint will be crossed with connecting wall ties.
Reinforcement can also be placed in the cells of each wythe,
providing a double curtain of steel to resist lateral loads from
both directions, as in the case of wind pressure and suction.
Collar Joint Width
There are no prescriptive minimums or maximums explicit
to collar joint thickness in either Building Code Requirements
for Masonry Structures or the International Building Code,
however there are some practical limitations for constructabil-
ity and also code compliance in reinforcing and grouting that
effect the collar joint dimension. Many of these are covered in
TEK 16-1A but a few key points that are especially relevant
for reinforced composite masonry walls are:
• Wall tie length: Noncomposite cavity walls have a cavity
thickness limit of 41/2 in. (114 mm) unless a wall tie analysis
is performed. There is no such limitation on width for filled
collar joints in composite construction since the wall ties can
 be considered fully supported by the mortar or grout, thus
eliminating concern about local buckling of the ties. Practi-
cally speaking, since cavity wall construction is much more
prevalent, the availability of standard ties may dictate collar
joint thickness maximums close to 41/2 in. (114 mm).
• Grout pour and lift height: Collar joint width influences the
lift height. Narrow collar joints may lead to low lift or pour
heights which could impact cost and construction schedule.
See Table 1 in TEK 3-2A, Grouting Concrete Masonry Walls
(ref. 5) for more detailed information.
• Course or fine grout: Codes require a minimum clear dis-
tance of ¼-in. (6.3-mm) for fine grout and ½-in. (13-mm)
for coarse grout between reinforcing bars and any face of
the masonry unit.
• Grout or mortar fill: Although codes permit collar joints to be
filled with either mortar or grout, grout is preferred because
it helps ensure complete filling of the collar joint without
creating voids. Note that collar joints less than ¾ in. (19 mm),
unless otherwise required, are to be filled with mortar as the
wall is built. Increasing the slump of the mortar to achieve
a solidly filled joint is preferred. This effectively requires a
¾-in. (19-mm) minimum collar joint when reinforcement
is placed in the collar joint, because reinforcing bars must
be placed in grout.
• Reinforcing bar: The reinforcing bar diameter cannot exceed
one-half the least clear dimension of the collar joint.
• Horizontal bond beams: Bond beams may be required to meet
prescriptive code requirements such as seismic detailing.
The collar joint then must be wide enough to accommodate
the horizontal and vertical reinforcement along with the
accompanying clearances for embedment in grout.
Unit Selection for Each Wythe
Aesthetic criteria may play a primary role in unit selection
for reinforced composite walls. Designing the composite wall
to match modular dimensions may make detailing of interfaces
much easier. Window and door frames, foundations, connectors
and other accessories may coordinate better if typical masonry
wall thicknesses are maintained. Additional criteria that influence
the selection of units for reinforced composite walls include:
• Size and number of reinforcing bars to be used and the cell
space required to accommodate them.
• Cover requirements (see ref. 6) may come into play when
reinforcement is placed in the cells off-center. Cover require-
ments could affect unit selection, based on the desired bar
placement; face shell thickness and cell dimensions.
• If double curtains of vertical reinforcement are used, it is
preferable to use units of the same thickness to produce a
symmetrical cross section.
Structural Considerations
Some structural considerations were addressed earlier in
this TEK during the discussion of cross section determination.
Since reinforced composite masonry by definition acts as one
wall to resist loads, the design procedures are virtually the same
as for all reinforced masonry walls. TEK 14-7A, Allowable
Stress Design of Concrete Masonry (ref. 7) details design
procedures. A few key points should be stressed, however:
• Design and construction follow the same procedures as
all reinforced concrete masonry walls, however, empirical
design methods are not permitted to be used.
• Section properties must be calculated using the transformed
section method described in TEK 16-1A (ref. 3).
• Shear stress in the plane of interface between wythes and
collar joint is limited to 5 psi (34.5 kPa) for mortared collar
joints and 10 psi (68.9 kPa) for grouted collar joints.
DESIGN TABLES
Design tables for select reinforced composite walls are
included below. The tables include maximum bending mo-
ments and shear loads that can be sustained without exceeding
allowable stresses (refs. 1, 2). These can be compared to Tables
1 and 2 of TEK 14-19A, Allowable Stress Design Tables for
Reinforced Concrete Masonry Walls (ref. 8) for walls subject
to uniform lateral loads to ensure the wall under consideration
is not loaded beyond its design capacity.
The examples are based on the following criteria:
• Fb = 1/3 f’m Fs = 24,000 psi (165 MPa)
Fv = f 'm , 50 psi (0.35 MPa) maximum
• f’m = 1,500 psi (10.3 MPa)
• f’g = 2,000 psi (13.7 MPa) minimum
• Em= 900 f’m for concrete masonry = 1,350,000 psi (9,310
MPa)
• Eg= 500 f’g or 1,000,000 psi (6,890 MPa)
• Es = 29,000,000 psi (200,000 MPa)
• Type M or S mortar
• running bond or bond beams at 48 in. (1,219 mm) or less o.c.
• reinforcement spacing does not exceed the wall height
• where indicated, allowable stresses are increased by one-
third as prescribed in the IBC and the MSJC (refs. 1, 2) for
load combinations including wind or seismic
• wythes are bonded with wall ties and the collar joint is filled
solid with grout
• both wythes are concrete masonry units with the same f’m
In addition to these tables, it is important to check all code
requirements governing grout space dimensions and maximum
reinforcement size to ensure that the selected reinforcing bar
is not too large for the collar joint. The designer must also
check shear stress at the unit/grout interface to ensure it does
not exceed the code allowable stress for the design loading.
CONSTRUCTION AND DETAILING
REQUIREMENTS
Although two composite masonry wythes are not required
to be built at the same time unless the collar joint is less than
¾ in. (19 mm), practically speaking, it is easier to build both
wythes at the same time to facilitate placing grout in the collar
joint at the code-required pour heights.
Grouting composite walls may be more complex than
single wythe. For example, while the entire collar joint is
grouted, the unit cells may only need to be grouted at the
reinforcement locations. Installing reinforcement and grout
in the collar joint can also be more time-consuming because
of congestion due to the wall ties.
In addition, nonmodular composite wall sections require
more care at points where they interface with modular ele-
ments such as window and door frames, bonding at corners
and bonding with modular masonry walls.
 9.1875 in. (233 mm)
3 in. (19 mm)
4
4.812 in.
(122 mm)

Compression
face
Optional 2nd
bar location to
accomodate
negative wind
pressures
55 8 in. 55 8 in. 35 8 in. 23 8 in. 35 8 in.
(152 mm) (152 mm) (102 mm) (60 mm) (102 mm)
12 in.
95 8 in.
(305 mm) (254 mm)
Table 1 Table 2
Figure 1—Wall Sections for Tables 1 and 2

Table 1—Two 6-in. (152-mm) Wythes, Off-Center ReinforcementA

Not including wind or seismic Including wind or seismic

Bar spacing, As, in.2/ft Mr, in.-lb/ft Vr, lb/ft Mr, in.-lb/ft Vr, lb/ft
Bar size in. (mm) (mm2/m) (N.m/m) (kN/m) (N.m/m) (kN/m)
No. 7 (M#22) 8 (203) 0.9000 (1,903) 95,486 (35,377) 4,270 (62) 127,314 (47,169) 5,693(83)
No. 6 (M#19) 8 (203) 0.6600 (1,396) 86,781 (32,151) 4,270 (62) 115,707 (42,868) 5,693 (83)
No. 5 (M#16) 8 (203) 0.4650 (983) 77,242 (28,618) 4,270 (62) 102,990 (38,157) 5,693 (83)
No. 7 (M#22) 16 (406) 0.4500 (952) 76,372 (28,295) 4,270 (62) 101,829 (37,727) 5,693 (83)
No. 6 (M#19) 16 (406) 0.3300 (698) 65,488 (24,263) 4,270 (62) 87,317 (32,350) 5,693 (83)
No. 7 (M#22) 24 (610) 0.3000 (634) 59,790 (22,152) 4,270 (62) 79,720 (29,536) 5,693 (83)
No. 4 (M#13) 8 (203) 0.3000 (634) 59,790 (22,152) 4,270 (62) 79,720 (29,536) 5,693 (83)
No. 5 (M#16) 16 (406) 0.2325 (492) 46,839 (17,353) 4,270 (62) 62,452 (23,138) 5,693 (83)
No. 7 (M#22) 32 (813) 0.2250 (476) 45,387 (16,816) 4,270 (62) 60,516 (22,421) 5,693 (83)
No. 6 (M#19) 24 (610) 0.2200 (465) 44,418 (16,456) 4,270 (62) 59,224 (21,942) 5,693 (83)
No. 7 (M#22) 40 (1,016) 0.1800 (381) 36,619 (13,567) 4,270 (62) 48,826 (18,090) 5,693 (83)
No. 6 (M#19) 32 (813) 0.1650 (349) 33,673 (12,475) 4,270 (62) 44,897 (16,634) 5,693 (83)
No. 5 (M#16) 24 (610) 0.1550 (328) 31,701 (11,745) 4,270 (62) 42,267 (15,660) 5,693 (83)
No. 7 (M#22) 48 (1,219) 0.1500 (317) 30,712 (11,379) 4,270 (62) 40,950 (15,171) 5,693 (83)
No. 4 (M#13) 16 (406) 0.1500 (317) 30,712 (11,379) 4,270 (62) 40,950 (15,171) 5,693 (83)
No. 6 (M#19) 40 (1,016) 0.1320 (279) 27,141 (10,055) 4,270 (62) 36,188 (13,407) 5,693 (83)
No. 7 (M#22) 56 (1,422) 0.1286 (272) 26,458 (9,803) 4,270 (62) 35,278 (13,070) 5,693 (83)
No. 5 (M#16) 32 (813) 0.1163 (246) 23,998 (8,891) 4,270 (62) 31,997 (11,855) 5,693 (83)
No. 6 (M#19) 48 (1,219) 0.1100 (233) 22,745 (8,427) 4,270 (62) 30,327 (11,236) 5,693 (83)
No. 4 (M#13) 24 (610) 0.1000 (211) 20,735 (7,682) 4,270 (62) 27,647 (10,243) 5,693 (83)
No. 7 (M#22) 72 (1,829) 0.1000 (211) 20,735 (7,682) 4,270 (62) 27,647 (10,243) 5,693 (83)
No. 6 (M#19) 56 (1,422) 0.0943 (199) 19,583 (7,255) 4,270 (62) 26,110 (9,674) 5,693 (83)
No. 5 (M#16) 40 (1,016) 0.0930 (197) 19,323 (7,159) 4,270 (62) 25,764 (9,545) 5,693 (83)
No. 5 (M#16) 48 (1,219) 0.0775 (164) 16,181 (5,995) 4,270 (62) 21,575 (7,993) 5,693 (83)
No. 4 (M#13) 32 (813) 0.0750 (159) 15,672 (5,806) 4,270 (62) 20,896 (7,742) 5,693 (83)
No. 6 (M#19) 72 (1,829) 0.0733 (155) 15,333 (5,681) 4,270 (62) 20,443 (7,574) 5,693 (83)
No. 5 (M#16) 56 (1,422) 0.0664 (140) 13,923 (5,158) 4,270 (62) 18,563 (6,878) 5,693 (83)
No. 4 (M#13) 40 (1,016) 0.0600 (127) 12,605 (4,670) 4,270 (62) 16,807 (6,227) 5,693 (83)
No. 5 (M#16) 72 (1,829) 0.0517 (109) 10,891 (4,035) 4,270 (62) 14,521 (5,380) 5,693 (83)
No. 4 (M#13) 48 (1,219) 0.0500 (106) 10,547 (3,907) 4,270 (62) 14,062 (5,210) 5,693 (83)
No. 4 (M#13) 56 (1,422) 0.0429 (91) 9,068 (3,360) 4,270 (62) 12,091 (4,480) 5,693 (83)
No. 4 (M#13) 72 (1,829) 0.0333 (70) 7,086 (2,625) 4,270 (62) 9,448 (3,501) 5,693 (83)

A
Double curtain reinforcement option for wind loading: because wind loads can act in either direction, a bar must be in-
cluded in each wythe when using off-center reinforcement.
 Table 2—Two 4-in. (102-mm) Wythes, Reinforcement Centered in Collar Joint
Not including wind or seismic Including wind or seismic
Bar spacing, As, in.2/ft Mr, in.-lb/ft Vr, lb/ft Mr, in.-lb/ft Vr, lb/ft
Bar size in. (mm) (mm2/m) (N.m/m) (kN/m) (N.m/m) (kN/m)
No. 6 (M#19) 8 (203) 0.6600 (1,396) 28,810 (10,674) 2,237 (33) 38,413 (14,232) 2,982 (43)
No. 5 (M#16) 8 (203) 0.4650 (983) 26,093 (9,667) 2,237 (33) 34,790 (12,889) 2,982 (43)
No. 4 (M#13) 8 (203) 0.3000 (634) 22,737 (8,424) 2,237 (33) 30,317 (11,232) 2,982 (43)
No. 6 (M#19) 24 (610) 0.2200 (465) 20,456 (7,579) 2,237 (33) 27,275 (10,105) 2,982 (43)
No. 6 (M#19) 32 (813) 0.1650 (349) 17,188 (6,368) 2,237 (33) 22,917 (8,491) 2,982 (43)
No. 5 (M#16) 24 (610) 0.1550 (328) 16,191 (5,999) 2,237 (33) 21,588 (7,998) 2,982 (43)
No. 6 (M#19) 40 (1,016) 0.1320 (279) 13,884 (5,144) 2,237 (33) 18,511 (6,858) 2,982 (43)
No. 5 (M#16) 32 (813) 0.1163 (246) 12,290 (4,553) 2,237 (33) 16,387 (6,071) 2,982 (43)
No. 6 (M#19) 48 (1,219) 0.1100 (233) 11,654 (4,318) 2,237 (33) 15,539 (5,757) 2,982 (43)
No. 4 (M#13) 24 (610) 0.1000 (211) 10,633 (3,940) 2,237 (33) 14,178 (5,253) 2,982 (43)
No. 5 (M#16) 40 (1,016) 0.0930 (197) 9,915 (3,674) 2,237 (33) 13,221 (4,898) 2,982 (43)
No. 5 (M#16) 48 (1,219) 0.0775 (164) 8,316 (3,081) 2,237 (33) 11,088 (4,108) 2,982 (43)
No. 5 (M#16) 56 (1,422) 0.0664 (140) 7,164 (2,654) 2,237 (33) 9,552 (3,539) 2,982 (43)
No. 4 (M#13) 40 (1,016) 0.0600 (127) 6,491 (2,405) 2,237 (33) 8,654 (3,206) 2,982 (43)
No. 4 (M#13) 48 (1,219) 0.0500 (106) 5,438 (2,015) 2,237 (33) 7,250 (2,686) 2,982 (43)

NOTATIONS
As = effective cross-sectional area of reinforcement, in.2/ft (mm2/
m)
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of tension
reinforcement, in. (mm)
Eg = modulus of elasticity of grout, psi (MPa)
Em = modulus of elasticity of masonry in compression, psi (MPa)
Es = modulus of elasticity of steel, psi (MPa)
Fb = allowable compressive stress due to flexure only, psi (MPa)
Fs = allowable tensile or compressive stress in reinforcement, psi
(MPa)
Fv = allowable shear stress in masonry, psi (MPa)
f’g = specified compressive strength of grout, psi (MPa)
f’m = specified compressive strength of masonry, psi (MPa)
Mr = resisting moment of wall, in.-lb/ft (kNm/m)
Vr = resisting shear of wall, lb/ft (kN/m)

REFERENCES
1. International Building Code 2003. International Code Council, 2003.
2. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, ACI 530-05/ASCE 5-05/TMS 402-05. Reported by the Masonry Standards Joint
Committee, 2005.
3. Multiwythe Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 16-1A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2005.
4. Structural Design of Unreinforced Composite Masonry, TEK 16-2B. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2001.
5. Grouting Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 3-2A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2005.
6. Steel Reinforcement for Concrete Masonry, TEK 12-4C. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2002.
7. Allowable Stress Design of Concrete Masonry, TEK 14-7A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2002.
8. Allowable Stress Design Tables for Reinforced Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 14-19A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2005.

NCMA and the companies disseminating this technical information disclaim any and all responsibility and liability for the ac-
curacy and the application of the information contained in this publication.

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www.ncma.org

National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology
DESIGN OF CONCRETE MASONRY
NONCOMPOSITE (CAVITY) WALLS
Keywords: allowable stress design, cavity wall, design ex-
amples, empirical design, noncomposite, reinforced con-
crete masonry, unreinforced concrete masonry
INTRODUCTION
When selecting a building enclosure, concrete masonry
cavity walls are considered to be one of the best solutions
available for all types of buildings. From both an initial cost and
life-cycle cost perspective, cavity wall construction is highly
regarded as the prime choice in many applications.
Cavity walls typically consist of an inner wythe of con-
crete masonry units that are tied to an exterior wythe of
architectural masonry units. The cavity space between the
wythes is normally 2 to 41/2 in. (51 to 114 mm) wide, easily
accommodating rigid board insulation. The two wythes to-
gether provide a wall that is highly resistant to wind driven
rain, absorbs and reflects sound, provides good thermal perfor-
mance, and has excellent fire resistance characteristics.
Masonry walls constructed of two or more wythes can
technically be classified in one of three ways, depending on
how the wythes are designed and detailed. These wall types
include composite, noncomposite and veneer assemblies. In
noncomposite construction, covered in this TEK, each wythe
is connected to the adjacent wythe with metal wall ties, but
they are designed such that each wythe individually resists the
loads imposed on it. Composite walls are designed so that the
wythes act together as a single element to resist structural
loads. This requires the masonry wythes to be connected by
masonry headers or by a mortar- or grout-filled collar joint
and wall ties (see ref. 4). In a veneer wall, the backup wythe is
designed as the loadbearing system while the veneer provides
a nonloadbearing architectural wall finish that transfers loads
to the backup wythe through wall ties (see refs. 5, 6). Al-
though Building Code Requirements for Masonry Struc-
tures (ref. 1) defines a cavity wall as a noncomposite ma-
sonry wall, the term cavity wall is also commonly used to
describe a veneer wall with masonry backup.
This TEK illustrates the design of noncomposite concrete
masonry walls based on Building Code Requirements for
Masonry Structures (ref. 1), referred to here as the MSJC
code. Each wythe of a noncomposite wall system can be
TEK 16-4A © 2004 National Concrete Masonry Association (replaces TEK 16-4)
NCMA TEK
TEK 16-4A
Structural (2004)
designed to accommodate all types of loads, including gravity
loads from roofs, walls and floors, as well as lateral loads from
wind or earthquakes. The MSJC code design provisions are
used to size these masonry walls.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
The MSJC code includes noncomposite design provi-
sions for both allowable stress design (Chapter 2) and empirical
design (Chapter 5). The assumptions and relevant governing
equations for each of these design approaches is given in
references 2 and 3 respectively.
Concrete masonry cavity walls can be designed as either
reinforced or unreinforced walls. For unreinforced design,
flexural tensile stresses in masonry are resisted by bond devel-
oped between the masonry units and mortar; axial tension is not
permitted (ref. 1). If direct axial tension is encountered in a
design, reinforcement must be used. In reinforced masonry
design, all tension is assumed to be resisted by reinforcement.
Empirical Design
Empirical design can be an expedient approach for typical
loadbearing structures subjected to nominal wind loads (basic
wind speed < 110 mph, (177 km/h) (MSJC 5.1.2.2) and
located in areas of low seismic risk, as it cannot be used for the
design of seismic force resisting systems in SDC (Seismic
Design Category) B or higher (MSJC 5.1.2.1). Empirical design
utilizes prescriptive provisions, outlining criteria such as wall
height to thickness ratios, minimum wall thickness and maxi-
mum building height.
References 1 and 3 contain maximum length-to-thickness
or height-to-thickness ratios for empirically designed walls.
When using these ratios for noncomposite multiwythe walls,
the total wall thickness is taken as the sum of the nominal
thicknesses of each wythe, neglecting the presence of any
cavity thickness. Compressive stress is based on the gross
cross-sectional area of all wythes, including hollow cells but
not including the cavity between the wythes. When floor or
roof loads are carried on only one wythe, only the gross
cross-sectional area of that wythe is used to check the axial
capacity. In addition, these walls must meet the following
requirements for wall ties connecting the wythes:
• wall ties of wire size W2.8 (3/16 in., MW 18), or metal wire of
 equivalent stiffness, spaced at a maximum of 24 in. (610 mm)
o.c. vertically and 36 in. (914 mm) o.c. horizontally, with at
least one wall tie for each 41/2 ft2 (0.42 m2) of wall area,
• walls constructed with hollow units must use rectangular
ties,
• walls constructed with solid units must use Z-shaped ties
with hooks at least 2 in. (51 mm) long,
• wall ties may not have drips,
• additional ties are required within 12 in. (305 mm) of all
openings and must be spaced no more than 3 ft (914 mm)
apart around the perimeter of the opening.
Requirements for bonding with joint reinforcement are the
same as those for wall ties with the following exceptions: cross
wire size may not be smaller than W1.7 (9 gage, MW 11) and the
supported wall area per cross wire may not exceed 22/3 ft2 (0.25 m2).
In addition, the longitudinal wires must be embedded in mortar.
Allowable Stress Design
Similar to empirical design, MSJC allowable stress design
includes prescriptive requirements for bonding wythes of
noncomposite walls via wall ties, adjustable ties and joint
reinforcement.
For rectangular ties, Z ties (for use with other than hollow
units) and ladder or tab-type joint reinforcement, ties or cross
wires of joint reinforcement, ties must be placed with a maximum
spacing of 36 in. (914 mm) horizontally and 24 in. (610 mm)
vertically. The minimum number of ties is one per:
• 22/3 ft2 (0.25 m2) of wall for wire size W 1.7 (9 gage, MW 11), and
• 41/2 ft2 (0.42 m2) of wall for wire size W 2.8 (3/16 in., MW 18).
For adjustable ties, one tie must be provided for each 1.77
ft2 (0.16 m2) of wall; maximum horizontal and vertical spacing is
Provide one tie
per 1.77 ft 2 (0.16 m 2)
wall surface area
16 in. (406 mm) max
horizontal spacing
between ties
Figure 1 - Allowable Stress Design Noncomposite Adjustable Wall Tie Requirements
16 in. (406 mm); misalignment of bed joints from one wythe to
the other may not exceed 11/4 in. (31.8 mm); the maximum
clearance between connecting parts of the tie is 1/16 in. (1.6 mm);
and pintle ties must have at least two pintle legs of wire size
W2.8 (3/16 in., MW 18) (see also Figure 1).
For noncomposite masonry walls, the following additional
requirements apply.
• Collar joints are not to contain headers, or be filled with
mortar or grout.
• Gravity loads from supported horizontal members are to be
resisted by the wythe nearest the center of the span.
• Bending moments about the weak axis of the wall and
transverse loads are distributed to each wythe according to
relative stiffness. This can be determined by:
Wi = WT [EmIi/(EmIi + EmIo)]
Wo = WT [EmIo/(EmIi + EmIo)]
• Loads acting parallel to the wall are resisted by the wythe to
which they are applied.
• The cavity width between the wythes is limited to 41/2 in. (114
mm) unless a detailed wall tie analysis is performed.
DESIGN EXAMPLES
The following examples illustrate the use of
noncomposite masonry employing empirical and allowable
stress design methods. Although there are no specific provi-
sions in MSJC for noncomposite wall design using strength
design, strength design could be used provided the same load
distribution principles as presented for allowable stress design
are employed.
Max misalignment
between joints 1.25 in.
(32 mm)
Two leg W2.8
16 in. (406 mm) (MW 18) pintel tie
max vertical
spacing
between ties
Empirical Design Design Example: As = 0.31 in.2 (200 mm2)
Design the top story of a two-story noncomposite double ρ = As/bd = 0.31 in.2/(32 in. x 2.813 in.) = 0.00344
wythe masonry wall system supported on continuous foot- n = Es/Em = 21.48
ings. Note that the design of the lower story, though not
shown, is performed in the same manner, except that the floor k = ( ρn )2 + 2 ρn − ρn = 0.318
live and dead loads from the upper story are also accounted for. j = 1 - k/3 = 0.894
kd = 0.318 x 2.813 = 0.895 in. (23 mm) < 1 in. (25 mm) face shell
Given: (i.e. the neutral axis is in the face shell, therefore
unsupported wall height = 10 ft (3.01 m) analyze as a solid section rather than as a T-beam)
superimposed gravity dead load = 220 plf (3.2 kN/m) Mm = 1/2 Fb b d2 k j
superimposed gravity live load = 460 plf (6.7 kN/m) = 1/2 (1.333)(1,500 psi/3)(12 in./ft)(2.813 in.)2 (0.318)(0.894)
net superimposed uplift from wind = 120 plf (1.8 kN/m) = 8,996 lb-in./ft (3,333 N.m/m)
wind pressure = 24 psf (1,149 Pa)
eccentricity of all gravity loads = 0 Determine reinforcement needed for uplift at midheight:
f'm = 1,500 psi (10.3 MPa) uplift = 400 lb/ft - 34 lb/ft2 (18 ft/2) = 94 lb/ft (1.37 kN/m) (ref. 8)
Em = 1,350ksi(9,308MPa) reinforcement needed = [(94 lb/ft)(32 in.)/(12 in./ft)]/[1.333(24,000
psi)] = 0.0078 in.2
Wall lateral support requirement: l/t or h/t < 18, so minimum As available for flexure = 0.31 - 0.0078 = 0.3022 in.2
required wall thickness = h/18 Ms = FsAs jd = 1.333 (24,000 psi) (0.3022 in.2)(0.894)(2.813 in.)
= 10 ft (12 in./ft)/18 = 24,313 lb-in. for 32 in. width
= 6.7 in. (169 mm) = 9,117 lb-in./ft (3,378 N.m/m) > 8,996 lb-in./ft (3,333 N.m/
Try a 4-in. (102 mm) outer wythe and 6-in. (152 mm) inner wythe m), therefore Mm controls
(providing a total nominal wall thickness of 10 in. (254 mm)), and
check allowable axial compressive stress due to dead and live Determine applied moment:
loads (gravity loads are carried by the inner wythe only): Since the wythes are identical, each would carry 1/2 the lateral
dead: roof 220 lb/ft load or 1/2 (36 psf) = 18 psf (124 kPa)
wythe = 10 ft x 26 psf (ref. 8) 260 lb/ft M max = wl2/8 = (18 psf)(18 ft)2(12 in./ft)/8
live: roof 460 lb/ft = 8,748 lb-in./ft (3,241 N.m/m) < 8,996 lb-in./ft (3,333 N.m/m)
total load: 940 lb/ft (13.7 kN/m) OK

Gross area of 6-in. (152-mm) wythe = 67.5 in.2/ft (ref. 7) Check shear:
fa = 940 lb/ft/(67.5 in.2/ft) = 13.9 psi (0.096 MPa) Vmax = wl/2 = (18psf)(18 ft)/2 = 162 lb/ft (2.36 kN/m)
Fa = 75 psi (0.52 MPa) for Type M or S mortar, 70 psi (0.48 MPa) fv = Vmax/bd = 162 lb/ft/(12 in.)(2.813 in.) = 4.80 psi (33 kPa)
for Type N mortar (ref. 1) Fv = 37 x 1.333 = 51 psi (351 kPa)
fa < Fa (OK for all mortar types) 4.80 psi (33 kPa) < 51 psi (351 kPa) OK

Per MSJC code section 5.8.3.1, the net uplift on the roof must A quick check of the outside wythe shows that the same
be resisted by an anchorage system. Use a bond beam at the reinforcement schedule will work for it as well. Therefore, use
top of the inner wythe with vertical reinforcement to the two 6-in. (152-mm) wythes with No. 5 (M #16) vertical
foundation to provide this resistance. reinforcement at 32 in. (813 mm) o.c.
This wall could be designed using an unreinforced 4-in.
ASD Reinforced Design Example: (102 mm) outside wythe and a reinforced 8-in. (203-mm) inside
Given: wythe, with lateral loads distributed to each wythe according
unsupported wall height = 18 ft (5.5 m) to the uncracked stiffness per MSJC section 1.9.2. Experience
wind load, w = 36 psf (1,724 Pa) has shown, however, that the design would be severely limited
net roof uplift at top of wall = 400 plf (5.8 kN/m) ) by the capacity of the unreinforced outside wythe. Addition-
eccentricity of all vertical loads = 0 ally, such a design could be used only in SDC A or B since 4-
f'm = 1,500 psi (0.0718 MPa ) in. (102 mm) concrete masonry does not have cores large
unit density = 115 pcf (1,842 kg/m3) enough to reinforce.
Grade 60 reinforcement Another alternative would be to design this system
Note: The 36 psf (1,724 Pa) wind load is much higher than is treating the 4 in. (102 mm) outer wythe as a nonloadbearing
generally applicable when using empirical design. veneer. Designing this wall as a 4-in. (102 mm) veneer with an
8-in. (203 mm) reinforced structural backup wythe would result
in No. 5 bars at 16 in. (M #16 at 406 mm) on center. This is the
Design the inside wythe first, as it must resist the uplift
same amount of reinforcement used in the example above (two
in addition to the flexural loads. Try two 6-in. (152 mm) wythes
6-in. (152 mm) wythes with No. 5 (M #16) at 32 in. (813
with No. 5 (M #16) reinforcement at 32 in. (813 mm) o.c.
mm) on center). However, because the 6-in. (152 mm) units
d = 2.813 in. (71.5 mm)
have smaller cores, 30% less grout is required.
 The design using two 6-in. (152-mm) reinforced wythes
has the following advantages over veneer with structural
backup:
• no limitation on SDC as when a veneer or an unreinforced
outer wythe is used,
• no limitation on wind speed as with a veneer,
• equal mass on both sides of the wall permitting the use of
the prescriptive energy tables for integral insulation, and
• the flexibility of using units with different architectural
finishes on each side.
NOMENCLATURE
As = effective cross-sectional area of reinforcement, in.2 (mm2)
b = width of section, in. (mm)
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of
tension reinforcement, in. (mm)
Em = modulus of elasticity of masonry, psi (MPa)
Es = modulus of elasticity of steel, psi (MPa)
Fa = allowable compressive stress due to axial load only, psi
(kPa)
Fb = allowable compressive stress due to flexure only, psi (kPa)
Fs = allowable tensile or compressive stress in reinforce-
ment, psi (kPa)
F v = allowable shear stress in masonry, psi (MPa)
fa = calculated compressive stress in masonry due to axial
load only, psi (kPa)
f'm = specified compressive strength of masonry, psi (kPa)
h = effective height, in. (mm)
fv = calculated shear stress in masonry, psi (MPa)
Ii = average moment of inertia of inner wythe, in.4/ft (m4/m)
Io = average moment of inertia of outer wythe, in.4/ft (m4/m)
j = ratio of distance between centroid of flexural compres-
sive forces and centroid of tensile forces to depth d
k = ratio of distance between compression face of wall and
neutral axis to depth d
Disclaimer: Although care has been taken to ensure the enclosed information is as accurate and complete as possible, NCMA
does not assume responsibility for errors or omissions resulting from the use of this TEK.
NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION
13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171
www.ncma.org
l = clear span between supports, in. (mm)
M = moment at the section under consideration, in.-lb/ft
(N.m/m)
Mm = flexural capacity (resisting moment) when masonry
controls, in.-lb/ft (N.m/m)
Mmax= maximum moment at the section under consideration,
in.-lb/ft (N.m/m)
Ms = flexural capacity (resisting moment) when reinforce-
ment controls, in.-lb/ft (N.m/m)
t = nominal thickness of a member, in. (mm)
Vmax = maximum shear at the section under consideration,
lb/ft (kN/m)
Wi = percentage of transverse load on inner wythe
Wo = percentage of transverse load on outer wythe
WT = total transverse load
w = wind pressure, psf (Pa)
ρ = reinforcement ratio
REFERENCES
1. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, ACI
530-02/ASCE 5-02/TMS 402-02. Reported by the Masonry
Standards Joint Committee, 2002.
2. Allowable Stress Design of Concrete Masonry, TEK 14-
7A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2002.
3. Empirical Design of Concrete Masonry, TEK 14-8. Na-
tional Concrete Masonry Association, 2001.
4. Structural Design of Unreinforced Composite Masonry,
TEK 16-2B. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2001.
5. Concrete Masonry Veneers, TEK 3-6B. National Concrete
Masonry Association, 2003.
6. Structural Backup Systems for Masonry Veneer, TEK 16-
3A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 1995.
7. Section Properties of Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 14-
1A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2003.
8. Concrete Masonry Wall Weights, TEK 14-13A. National
Concrete Masonry Association, 2002.
To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
An information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology

ASD OF CONCRETE MASONRY

LINTELS BASED ON THE TEK 17-1D
2012 IBC/2011 MSJC Structural (2011)

INTRODUCTION dead weight of the masonry above, and any floor and roof
loads, dead and live loads supported by the masonry; and
Lintels and beams are horizontal structural members de- (2) concentrated loads from floor beams, roof joists, or other
signed to carry loads above openings. Although lintels may be beams framing into the wall. Axial load carried by lintels
constructed of grouted and reinforced concrete masonry units, is negligible.
precast or cast-in-place concrete, or structural steel, this TEK Most of these loads can be separated into the four types
addresses reinforced concrete masonry lintels only. Concrete illustrated in Figure 1: uniform load acting over the effective
masonry lintels have the advantages of easily maintaining the
bond pattern, color, and surface texture of the surrounding
masonry and being placed without need for special lifting
equipment.
Concrete masonry lintels are sometimes constructed as a
portion of a continuous bond beam. This construction provides Uniform load
several benefits: it is considered to be more advantageous in
high seismic areas or areas where high winds may be expected
to occur; control of wall movement due to shrinkage or tem-
perature differentials is more easily accomplished; and lintel Triangular load
deflection may be substantially reduced.
The content presented in this TEK is based on the require-
ments of the 2012 IBC (ref. 1a), which in turn references the Concentrated loads
2011 edition of the MSJC Code (ref. 2a). For designs based
on the 2006 or 2009 IBC (refs. 1b, 1c), which reference the
2005 and 2008 MSJC (refs. 2b, 2c), respectively, the reader Uniform load over
portion of span
is referred to TEK 17-1C (ref. 3).
Significant changes were made to the allowable stress
design (ASD) method between the 2009 and 2012 editions of Lintel
the IBC. These are described in detail in TEK 14-7C, Allowable
Stress Design of Concrete Masonry Based on the 2012 IBC & Clear span
2011 MSJC (ref. 4), along with a detailed presentation of all
of the allowable stress design provisions of the 2012 IBC. Effective span A

Effective span length is the center-to-center

A
DESIGN LOADS
distance between supports.
Vertical loads carried by lintels typically include:
(1) distributed loads from the dead weight of the lintel, the Figure 1—Typical Lintel Load
Components

Related TEK: Keywords: allowable stress design,arching, design examples, effective

14-7C, 14-13B, 17-1C, span, lintels, openings in walls
17-2A

NCMA TEK 17-1D 1

span; triangular load with apex at mid-span acting over the 3. The load is then resolved onto the lintel as a uniform load,
effective span; concentrated load; and uniform load acting with a magnitude determined by dividing the concentrated
over a portion of the effective span. load by this length. In most cases, this results in a uniform
The designer calculates the effects of each individual load load acting over a portion of the lintel span.
and then combines them using superposition to determine the The MSJC (ref. 2) does not address how to apply uniform
overall effect, typically by assuming the lintel is a simply loads that are applied within the 45o triangle. There are two
supported beam. schools of thought (see Figure 4):
1. Apply the full uniform load directly to the lintel without
Arching Action further distribution just as though there was no arching for
For some configurations, the masonry will distribute ap- those loads (ref. 7).
plied loads in such a manner that they do not act on the lintel. 2. Distribute the portions of uniform loads that are applied within
This is called arching action of masonry. Arching action can the 45o triangle to the lintel. These uniform loads within the
be assumed when the following conditions are met (see also 45o triangle may be dispersed and distributed at a 45o angle
Figure 2): onto the lintel (ref. 6).
• masonry wall laid in running bond, Lintels are required to be designed to have adequate stiff-
• sufficient wall height above the lintel to permit formation ness to limit deflections that would adversely affect strength or
of a symmetrical triangle with base angles of 45o from the serviceability. In addition, the deflection of lintels supporting
horizontal as shown in Figure 2,
• at least 8 in. (203 mm) of wall height Superimposed wall load
above the apex of the 45o triangle,
• minimum end bearing (4 in. (102 8 in. (203 mm) minimum
mm) typ.) is maintained,
• control joints are not located adja- h = effective span
cent to the lintel, and 45° 2
• sufficient masonry on each side of Wall
the opening to resist lateral thrust Lintel height
from the arching action.
End bearing
4 in. (102 mm)
Lintel Loading minimum (typ)
The loads supported by a lintel
depend on whether or not arching
action can occur. When arching is Clear opening
not present, the lintel self-weight, the Effective span (see Figure 1)
full weight of the wall section above
the lintel and superimposed loads are
considered. Self weight is a uniform Figure 2—Arching Action
load based on lintel weight (see Table
1).
When arching occurs, the wall
Table 1—Lintel Weights per Foot, Dlintel, lb/ft (kN/m)A
weight supported by the lintel is taken
Nominal Nominal wall thickness, in. (mm)
as the wall weight within the triangular
lintel height, 6 (152) 8 (203) 10 (254) 12 (305) 16 (406)
area below the apex (see Figure 2 and
in. (mm)
Table 2). This triangular load has a
Lightweight CMU
base equal to the effective span length
of the lintel and a height of half the 8 (203) 38 (0.56) 51 (0.75) 65 (0.95) 80 (1.2) 108 (1.6)
effective span. Any superimposed roof 16 (406) 76 (1.1) 103 (1.5) 131 (1.9) 160 (2.3) 216 (3.2)
and floor live and dead loads outside 24 (610) 114 (1.7) 154 (2.3) 196 (2.9) 240 (3.5) 324 (4.8)
this triangle are neglected, since they Normal weight CMU
are assumed to be distributed to the 8 (203) 43 (0.63) 58 (0.84) 73 (1.1) 88 (1.3) 118 (1.8)
masonry on either side of the lintel.
16 (406) 86 (1.3) 116 (1.7) 145 (2.1) 176 (2.6) 236 (3.5)
Loads applied within the triangle need
to be considered, however. 24 (610) 128 (1.9) 174 (2.5) 218 (3.2 264 (3.9) 354 (5.2)
Concentrated loads are assumed to A
Face shell mortar bedding. Unit weights: grout = 140 pcf (2,242 kg/m3); lightweight
be distributed as illustrated in Figure masonry units = 100 pcf (1602 kg/m3); normal weight units = 135 pcf (2,162 kg/m3).

2 NCMA TEK 17-1D

 Table 2—Wall WeightsA, B
Wall weight, lb/ft2 (kg/m3) for wall thicknesses, in. (mm), of:
Grouted Lightweight units Normal weight units
cell spac-
6 (152) 8 (203) 10 (254) 12 (305) 16 (406) 6 (152) 8 (203) 10 (254) 12 (305) 16 (406)
ing, in.
(mm) o.c.:
None 23 (112) 29 (142) 34 (166) 37 (181) 44 (215) 30 (147) 39 (191) 45 (220) 49 (239) 58 (283)
48 (1,219) 28 (137) 37 (181) 44 (215) 51 (249) 64 (313) 36 (176) 47 (230) 55 (269) 63 (308) 78 (381)
40 (1,016) 30 (147) 39 (191) 47 (230) 54 (264) 67 (327) 37 (181) 48 (235) 58 (283) 66 (323) 82 (401)
32 (812) 31 (151) 41 (200) 50 (244) 58 (283) 73 (357) 39 (191) 51 (249) 61 (298) 70 (342) 88 (430)
24 (610) 34 (166) 45 (220) 55 (269) 65 (318) 83 (406) 41 (200) 55 (269) 66 (323) 77 (376) 98 (479)
16 (406) 40 (195) 53 (259) 66 (323) 78 (381) 103 (503) 47 (230) 63 (308) 77 (376) 90 (440) 118 (577)
Full grout 57 (279) 77 (376) 98 (479) 120 (587) 163 (796) 64 (313) 86 (420) 109 (533) 132 (645) 177 (865)
A
Assumes face shell mortar bedding. Unit weights: grout = 140 pcf (2,242 kg/m3); lightweight masonry units = 100 pcf
(1,602 kg/m3); normal weight units = 135 pcf (2,162 kg/m3).
B
Additional wall weights can be found in TEK 14-13B (ref. 5).

unreinforced masonry is limited to the clear lintel span divided

a = concentrated load dispersion 2 by 600 to limit damage to the supported masonry (ref. 2).

DESIGN TABLES
Beam
P
Tables 3 and 4 present allowable shear and moment,
respectively, for various concrete masonry lintels, with vari-
ous amounts of reinforcement and bottom cover based on a
1 specified compressive strength of masonry, f'm = 1,500 psi
2 (10.3 MPa) and the allowable stress design provisions of the
2011 MSJC (ref. 2a) and the 2012 IBC (ref.1a). Allowable
shear and moment tables for f'm = 2,000 psi (13.8 MPa) and
f'm = 2,500 psi (17.2 MPa) can be found online at www.ncma.
org/teksupplements.
wp = P
a

Clear span
Lintel
Effective span

Notes:
1) The 2005 MSJC (ref. 2c) provides for the concentrated load
to be distributed at a 45o angle rather than at a 1:2 slope as
required by the 2008 and 2011 MSJC (refs. 2a and 2b).
2) For running bond, the concentrated load dispersion termi-
nates at: half the wall height; a movement joint; the end of
the wall; or an opening—whichever provides the smallest
length. For other than running bond, the concentrated load
is permitted to be distributed through the bond beam but
not across head joints below the bond beam.

Figure 3—Distribution of Concentrated Load for

Running Bond Construction

NCMA TEK 17-1D 3

 Design philosophy 1: Apply the load directly to the Design philosophy 2: Distribute the portion of load ap-
lintel as though there was no arching action (ref. 7). plied within the 45o triangle to the lintel at a 45o angle
onto the lintel (ref. 6).

Figure 4—Methods of Applying Uniform Loads that Occur Within the 45o Triangle

Table 3—Allowable Shear Capacities for Concrete Masonry LintelsA

Lintel size, in. (mm) Allowable shearB, C, lb (kN), for bottom cover, in. (mm):
(width x height):
1.5 (38) 2.0 (51) 2.5 (64) 3.0 (76)
6 x 8 (152 x 203) 919 (4.09) 796 (3.54) 673 (2.99) 551 (2.45)
6 x 16 (152 x 406) 3,369 (14.99) 3,247 (14.44) 3,124 (13.90) 3,002 (13.35)
6 x 24 (152 x 610) 5,330 (23.71) 5,208 (23.17) 5,085 (22.62) 4,963 (22.08)
8 x 8 (203 x 203) 1,910 (8.50) 1,744 (7.76) 1,578 (7.02) 1,411 (6.28)
8 x 16 (203 x 406) 4,568 (20.32) 4,402 (19.58) 4,235 (18.84) 4,069 (18.10)
8 x 24 (203 x 610) 7,225 (32.14) 7,059 (31.40) 6,893 (30.66) 6,727 (29.92)
10 x 8 (254 x 203) 2,411 (10.72) 2,201 (9.79) 1,992 (8.86) 1,782 (7.93)
10 x 16 (254 x 406) 5,766 (25.65) 5,556 (24.71) 5,346 (23.78) 5,137 (22.85)
10 x 24 (254 x 610) 9,121 (40.57) 8,911 (39.64) 8,701 (38.70) 8,492 (37.77)
12 x 8 (305 x 203) 2,912 (12.95) 2,659 (11.83) 2,405 (10.70) 2,152 (9.57)
12 x 16 (305 x 406) 6,964 (30.98) 6,711 (29.85) 6,458 (28.73) 6,204 (27.60)
12 x 24 (305 x 610) 11,016 (49.00) 10,763 (47.88) 10,510 (46.75) 10,256 (45.62)
16 x 8 (406 x 203) 3,914 (17.41) 3,574 (15.90) 3,233 (14.38) 2,893 (12.87)
16 x 16 (406 x 406) 9,360 (41.64) 9,020 (40.12) 8,680 (38.61) 8,339 (37.09)
A
Assumes no stirrups, i.e., shear resistance of the steel is neglected. f'm = 1,500 psi (10.3 MPa).
B
For M/Vd = 1 and effective shear area = bd, where d is calculated based on a No. 6 (M#19) bar.
C
Based on 2011 MSJC (ref. 2a) and 2012 IBC (ref. 1a) allowable stress design procedure.

4 NCMA TEK 17-1D

 Table 4—Allowable Moment, lb-in. (kN-m), Capacities for Concrete Masonry Lintels (width x height)A, C

Lintel size, in. Reinforcement No. of Bottom cover, in. (mm)

(mm) size bars 1.5 (38) 2 (51) 2.5 (64) 3 (76)
6x8 No. 4 (M#13) 1 22,533 (2.55) 19,398 (2.19) 16,445 (1.86) 13,683 (1.55)

NCMA TEK 17-1D

(152 x 203) No. 5 (M#16) 1 25,258 (2.85) 21,638 (2.44) 18,241 (2.06) 15,076 (1.70)
No. 6 (M#19) 1 27,235 (3.08) 23,225 (2.62) 19,475 (2.20) 15,997 (1.81)
6 x 16 No. 4 (M#13) 1 80,473 (9.09) 77,449 (8.75) 74,429 (8.41) 71,411 (8.07)
(152 x 406) No. 5 (M#16) 1 108,375 (12.24) 101,967 (11.52) 95,705 (10.81) 89,592 (10.12)
No. 6 (M#19) 1 120,999 (13.67) 113,709 (12.85) 106,591 (12.04) 99,649 (11.26)
6 x 24 No. 4 (M#13) 1 129,190 (14.60) 126,130 (14.25) 123,072 (13.91) 120,016 (13.56)
(152 x 610) No. 5 (M#16) 1 196,210 (22.17) 191,521 (21.64) 186,834 (21.11) 182,151 (20.58)
No. 6 (M#19) 1 259,090 (29.27) 249,360 (28.17) 239,768 (27.09) 230,316 (26.02)
8x8 No. 4 (M#13) 1 27,627 (3.12) 23,829 (2.69) 20,246 (2.29) 16,888 (1.91)
(203 x 203) No. 5 (M#16) 1 31,288 (3.54) 26,863 (3.04) 22,702 (2.56) 18,816 (2.13)
No. 6 (M#19) 1 34,046 (3.85) 29,103 (3.29) 24,469 (2.76) 20,159 (2.28)
No. 4 (M#13) 2B 34,383 (3.88) 29,519 (3.34) 24,949 (2.82) 20,687 (2.34)
No. 5 (M#16) 2B 37,992 (4.29) 32,449 (3.67) 27,263 (3.08) 22,448 (2.54)
8 x 16 No. 4 (M#13) 1 81,481 (9.21) 78,433 (8.86) 75,387 (8.52) 72,345 (8.17)
(203 x 406) No. 5 (M#16) 1 123,411 (13.94) 118,743 (13.42) 114,080 (12.89) 109,164 (12.33)
No. 6 (M#19) 1 148,153 (16.74) 139,337 (15.74) 130,723 (14.77) 122,316 (13.82)
No. 4 (M#13) 2B 145,474 (16.44) 136,929 (15.47) 128,576 (14.53) 120,420 (13.61)
No. 5 (M#16) 2B 167,351 (18.91) 157,298 (17.77) 147,484 (16.66) 137,911 (15.58)
8 x 24 No. 4 (M#13) 1 130,542 (14.75) 127,463 (14.40) 124,385 (14.05) 121,309 (13.71)
(203 x 610) No. 5 (M#16) 1 198,654 (22.44) 193,927 (21.91) 189,202 (21.38) 184,481 (20.84)
No. 6 (M#19) 1 277,106 (31.31) 270,459 (30.56) 263,816 (29.81) 257,178 (29.06)
No. 4 (M#13) 2B 254,466 (28.75) 248,406 (28.07) 242,350 (27.38) 236,297 (26.70)
No. 5 (M#16) 2B 357,742 (40.42) 344,327 (38.90) 331,103 (37.41) 318,071 (35.94)
10 x 8 No. 4 (M#13) 1 32,155 (3.63) 27,773 (3.14) 23,634 (2.67) 19,748 (2.23)
(254 x 203) No. 5 (M#16) 1 36,683 (4.14) 31,545 (3.56) 26,706 (3.02) 22,180 (2.51)
No. 6 (M#19) 1 40,181 (4.54) 34,406 (3.89) 28,985 (3.27) 23,933 (2.70)
No. 4 (M#13) 2 40,489 (4.57) 34,819 (3.93) 29,484 (3.33) 24,498 (2.77)
No. 5 (M#16) 2 45,131 (5.10) 38,617 (4.36) 32,511 (3.67) 26,831 (3.03)
10 x 16 No. 4 (M#13) 1 82,183 (9.29) 79,119 (8.94) 76,057 (8.59) 72,997 (8.25)
(254 x 406) No. 5 (M#16) 1 124,671 (14.09) 119,972 (13.56) 115,278 (13.02) 110,588 (12.49)
No. 6 (M#19) 1 172,276 (19.46) 162,114 (18.32) 152,181 (17.19) 142,481 (16.10)
No. 4 (M#13) 2 159,833 (18.06) 153,813 (17.38) 147,800 (16.70) 140,049 (15.82)
No. 5 (M#16) 2 195,635 (22.10) 183,997 (20.79) 172,627 (19.50) 161,532 (18.25)
10 x 24 No. 4 (M#13) 1 131,476 (14.85) 128,384 (14.51) 125,293 (14.16) 122,204 (13.81)
(254 x 610) No. 5 (M#16) 1 200,357 (22.64) 195,605 (22.10) 190,855 (21.56) 186,108 (21.03)

5
No. 6 (M#19) 1 279,829 (31.62) 273,140 (30.86) 266,454 (30.11) 259,773 (29.35)
No. 4 (M#13) 2 256,873 (29.02) 250,776 (28.33) 244,683 (27.65) 238,594 (26.96)
No. 5 (M#16) 2 389,720 (44.03) 380,383 (42.98) 371,052 (41.92) 361,729 (40.87)
 (254 x 203) No. 5 (M#16) 1 36,683 (4.14) 31,545 (3.56) 26,706 (3.02) 22,180 (2.51)
No. 6 (M#19) 1 40,181 (4.54) 34,406 (3.89) 28,985 (3.27) 23,933 (2.70)
No. 4 (M#13) 2 40,489 (4.57) 34,819 (3.93) 29,484 (3.33) 24,498 (2.77)
No. 5 (M#16) 2 45,131 (5.10) 38,617 (4.36) 32,511 (3.67) 26,831 (3.03)

6
10 x 16 Table 4—Allowable
No. 4 (M#13) Moment, 1 82,183 (9.29) 79,119 (8.94) 76,057 (8.59) A, C 72,997 (8.25)
lb-in. (kN-m), Capacities for Concrete Masonry Lintels (width x height) (continued)
(254 x 406) No. 5 (M#16) 1 124,671 (14.09) 119,972 (13.56) 115,278 (13.02) 110,588 (12.49)
No. 6 (M#19) 1 172,276 (19.46) 162,114 (18.32) 152,181 (17.19) 142,481 (16.10)
Lintel size, in. Reinforcement
No. 4 (M#13) No.2 of 159,833 (18.06) 153,813 (17.38)
Bottom cover, in.147,800
(mm) (16.70) 140,049 (15.82)
(mm) No. 5size
(M#16) bars 2 1.5 (38)
195,635 (22.10) 2 (51)
183,997 (20.79) 2.5 (64)
172,627 (19.50) 161,5323 (76)
(18.25)
8
106 x 24 No. 4 (M#13) 1 131,476 (2.55)
22,533 (14.85) 128,384 (2.19)
19,398 (14.51) 125,293 (1.86)
16,445 (14.16) 122,204 (1.55)
13,683 (13.81)
(254 203)
(152 x 610) No. 5 (M#16) 1 200,357 (2.85)
25,258 (22.64) 195,605 (2.44)
21,638 (22.10) 190,855 (2.06)
18,241 (21.56) 186,108 (1.70)
15,076 (21.03)
No. 6 (M#19) 1 279,829 (3.08)
27,235 (31.62) 273,140 (2.62)
23,225 (30.86) 266,454 (2.20)
19,475 (30.11) 259,773 (1.81)
15,997 (29.35)
6 x 16 No. 4 (M#13) 21 256,873 (9.09)
80,473 (29.02) 250,776 (8.75)
77,449 (28.33) 244,683 (8.41)
74,429 (27.65) 238,594 (8.07)
71,411 (26.96)
(152 x 406) No. 5 (M#16) 21 389,720 (12.24)
108,375 (44.03) 380,383 (11.52)
101,967 (42.98) 371,052 (10.81)
95,705 (41.92) 361,729 (10.12)
89,592 (40.87)
12 x 8 (M#19)
No. 46 (M#13) 1 120,999 (13.67)
33,873 (3.83) 113,709 (12.85)
30,863 (3.49) 106,591 (12.04)
26,719 (3.02) 22,356 (11.26)
99,649 (2.53)
6 x 24
(305 x 203) No. 4 (M#13)
5 (M#16) 1 129,190 (14.60)
41,611 (4.70) 126,130 (14.25)
35,826 (4.05) 123,072 (13.91)
30,372 (3.43) 120,016 (13.56)
25,264 (2.85)
(152 x 610) (M#16)
No. 65 (M#19) 1 196,210 (22.17)
45,809 (5.18) 191,521 (21.64)
39,279 (4.44) 186,834 (21.11)
33,140 (3.74) 182,151 (20.58)
27,411 (3.10)
(M#19)
No. 46 (M#13) 21 259,090 (29.27)
46,082 (5.21) 249,360 (28.17)
39,680 (4.48) 239,768 (27.09)
33,648 (3.80) 230,316 (26.02)
28,004 (3.16)
8x8 (M#13)
No. 54 (M#16) 21 51,714 (3.12)
27,627 (5.84) 44,313 (2.69)
23,829 (5.01) 37,366 (2.29)
20,246 (4.22) 30,894 (1.91)
16,888 (3.49)
(203 203)
12 x 16 (M#16)
No. 45 (M#13) 1 31,288 (3.54)
82,711 (9.35) 79,634 (3.04)
26,863 (9.00) 76,560 (2.56)
22,702 (8.65) 73,488 (2.13)
18,816 (8.30)
(305 x 406) (M#19)
No. 56 (M#16) 1 125,624 (3.85)
34,046 (14.19) 120,902 (3.29)
29,103 (13.66) 116,184 (2.76)
24,469 (13.13) 111,471 (2.28)
20,159 (12.59)
(M#13)
No. 64 (M#19) 21B 174,897 (3.88)
34,383 (19.76) 168,258 (3.34)
29,519 (19.01) 161,627 (2.82)
24,949 (18.26) 155,004 (2.34)
20,687 (17.51)
(M#16)
No. 45 (M#13) 22B 161,174 (4.29)
37,992 (18.21) 155,121 (3.67)
32,449 (17.53) 149,074 (3.08)
27,263 (16.84) 143,034 (2.54)
22,448 (16.16)
8 x 16 (M#13)
No. 54 (M#16) 21 221,425 (9.21)
81,481 (25.02) 208,349 (8.86)
78,433 (23.54) 195,570 (8.52)
75,387 (22.10) 183,095 (8.17)
72,345 (20.69)
(203 x
12 24 406) No. 5 (M#16)
4 (M#13) 1 123,411 (13.94)
132,174 (14.93) 118,743 (13.42)
129,072 (14.58) 114,080 (12.89)
125,971 (14.23) 109,164 (12.33)
122,872 (13.88)
(305 x 610) No. 6 (M#19)
5 (M#16) 1 148,153 (16.74)
201,635 (22.78) 139,337 (15.74)
196,865 (22.24) 130,723 (14.77)
192,096 (21.70) 122,316 (13.82)
187,330 (21.17)
B
(M#13)
No. 64 (M#19) 21 281,884 (16.44)
145,474 (31.85) 275,164 (15.47)
136,929 (31.09) 268,447 (14.53)
128,576 (30.33) 261,734 (13.61)
120,420 (29.57)
(M#16)
No. 45 (M#13) 22B 258,686 (18.91)
167,351 (29.23) 252,563 (17.77)
157,298 (28.54) 246,442 (16.66)
147,484 (27.84) 240,325 (15.58)
137,911 (27.15)
8 x 24 (M#13)
No. 54 (M#16) 21 392,972 (14.75)
130,542 (44.40) 383,584 (14.40)
127,463 (43.34) 374,202 (14.05)
124,385 (42.28) 364,827 (13.71)
121,309 (41.22)
(203
16xx610)
8 (M#16)
No. 45 (M#13) 1 198,654 (22.44)
34,307 (3.88) 193,927 (21.91)
31,272 (3.53) 189,202 (21.38)
28,244 (3.19) 184,481 (20.84)
25,225 (2.85)
(406 x 203) (M#19)
No. 56 (M#16) 1 277,106 (31.31)
50,450 (5.70) 270,459 (30.56)
43,512 (4.92) 263,816 (29.81)
36,961 (4.18) 257,178 (29.06)
30,816 (3.48)
(M#13)
No. 64 (M#19) 21B 254,466 (28.75)
55,949 (6.32) 248,406 (28.07)
48,069 (5.43) 242,350 (27.38)
40,647 (4.59) 236,297 (26.70)
33,706 (3.81)
(M#16)
No. 45 (M#13) 22B 357,742 (40.42)
56,145 (6.34) 344,327 (38.90)
48,435 (5.47) 331,103 (37.41)
41,159 (4.65) 318,071 (35.94)
34,338 (3.88)
10 x 8 (M#13)
No. 54 (M#16) 21 32,155 (3.63)
63,635 (7.19) 27,773 (3.14)
54,645 (6.17) 23,634 (2.67)
46,189 (5.22) 19,748 (2.23)
38,292 (4.33)
(254 x
16 16 203) No. 5 (M#16)
4 (M#13) 1 36,683 (4.14)
83,464 (9.43) 31,545 (3.56)
80,371 (9.08) 26,706 (3.02)
77,279 (8.73) 22,180 (2.51)
74,190 (8.38)
(406 x 406) No. 6 (M#19)
5 (M#16) 1 40,181 (4.54)
126,996 (14.35) 34,406 (3.89)
122,241 (13.81) 28,985 (3.27)
117,491 (13.27) 23,933
112,744 (2.70)
(12.74)
No. 46 (M#13)
(M#19) 21 40,489 (4.57)
177,087 (20.01) 34,819 (3.93)
170,394 (19.25) 29,484 (3.33)
163,708 (18.50) 24,498 (2.77)
157,029 (17.74)
No. 54 (M#16)
(M#13) 2 163,114 (5.10)
45,131 (18.43) 157,014 (4.36)
38,617 (17.74) 150,920 (3.67)
32,511 (17.05) 144,831 (3.03)
26,831 (16.36)
10 x 16 (M#13)
No. 54 (M#16) 21 247,094 (9.29)
82,183 (27.92) 237,751 (8.94)
79,119 (26.86) 228,419 (8.59)
76,057 (25.81) 219,098 (8.25)
72,997 (24.75)
(254 x 406) No. 5 (M#16) 1 124,671 (14.09) 119,972 (13.56) 115,278 (13.02) 110,588 (12.49)
No. 6 (M#19) 1 172,276 (19.46) 162,114 (18.32) 152,181 (17.19) 142,481 (16.10)
A
Grade 60 reinforcement. m = 1,500 psi (10.3
No. 4 f'(M#13) 2 MPa). 159,833 (18.06) 153,813 (17.38) 147,800 (16.70) 140,049 (15.82)
B
lintels
For 8 in. (204 mm)No. 5 (M#16)
with two bars,2 low lift grouting
195,635 is recommended
(22.10) adjacent jambs
for 183,997 to ensure proper
(20.79) grout flow
172,627 and consolidation.
(19.50) 161,532 (18.25)
C
Based
10 xon242011 MSJC
No.(ref.
4 (M#13) 1a) allowable
2a) and 20121IBC (ref.131,476 stress design procedure.
(14.85) 128,384 (14.51) 125,293 (14.16) 122,204 (13.81)
(254 x 610) No. 5 (M#16) 1 200,357 (22.64) 195,605 (22.10) 190,855 (21.56) 186,108 (21.03)

NCMA TEK 17-1D

No. 6 (M#19) 1 279,829 (31.62) 273,140 (30.86) 266,454 (30.11) 259,773 (29.35)
No. 4 (M#13) 2 256,873 (29.02) 250,776 (28.33) 244,683 (27.65) 238,594 (26.96)
No. 5 (M#16) 2 389,720 (44.03) 380,383 (42.98) 371,052 (41.92) 361,729 (40.87)
12 x 8 No. 4 (M#13) 1 33,873 (3.83) 30,863 (3.49) 26,719 (3.02) 22,356 (2.53)
(305 x 203) No. 5 (M#16) 1 41,611 (4.70) 35,826 (4.05) 30,372 (3.43) 25,264 (2.85)
DESIGN EXAMPLE
Design a lintel for a 12 in. (305 mm) normal weight concrete
masonry wall laid in running bond with vertical reinforcement
at 48 in. (1.2 m) o.c. The wall configuration is shown in Figure
5.
Case 1—Arching Action
Check for Arching Action. Determine the height of masonry
required for arching action. Assuming the lintel has at least 4
in. (102 mm) bearing on each end, the effective span is:
L = 5.33 + 0.33 = 5.67 ft (1.7 m).
The height of masonry above the lintel necessary for
arching to occur in the wall (from Figure 2) is h + 8 in. (203
mm) = L/2 + 8 in. = 3.5 ft (1.1 m).
Based on an 8-in. (203-mm) high lintel, there is 18.0 - (3.33
+ 4.0 + 0.67) = 10.0 ft (3.0 m) of masonry above the lintel.
Therefore, arching is assumed and the superimposed uniform
load is neglected.
Design Loads. Because arching occurs, only the lintel and wall
dead weights are considered. Lintel weight, from Table 1, for
12 in. (305 mm) normal weight concrete masonry units assum-
ing an 8 in. (203 mm) height is Dlintel = 88 lb/ft (1.3 kN/m).
For wall weight, only the triangular portion with a height
of 3.5 ft (1.1 m) is considered. From Table 2, wall dead load
is:
Dwall = 63 lb/ft2 (3.5 ft )
= 221 lb/ft (3.2 kN/m) at the apex.
Maximum moment and shear are determined using simply
supported beam relationships. The lintel dead weight is con-
sidered a uniform load, so the moment and shear are,
Mlintel = Dlintel L2/8
= (88)(5.7)2/8
= 357 lb-ft (0.48 kN-m)
Vlintel =Dlintel L/2
= (88)(5.7)/2 = 251 lb (1.1 kN)
For triangular wall load, moment and shear are,
Mwall =Dwall L /122
Structures (ref. 2) allows maximum shear to be calculated using
a distance d/2 from the face of the support.
Case 2—No Arching Action
Using the same example, recalculate assuming a 2 ft (0.6
m) height from the bottom of the lintel to the top of the wall.
For ease of construction, the entire 2 ft (0.6 m) would be grouted
solid, producing a 24 in. (610 mm) deep lintel.
Because the height of masonry above the lintel is less than
3.5 ft (1.1 m), arching cannot be assumed, and the superimposed
load must be accounted for.
Dlintel = 264 lb/ft (3.9 kN/m), from Table 1. Because the lintel
is 24 in. (610 mm) deep, there is no additional dead load due
to masonry above the lintel.
Wtotal = 264 lb/ft + 1,000 lb/ft
= 1,264 lb/ft (18.4 kN/m)
Mmax =wL2/8
= (1,264)(5.7)2/8 x 12 in./ft
= 61,601 lb-in (7.0 kN-m)
Vmax = wL/2 = (1,264)(5.7)/2
= 3,602 lb (16.0 kN)
From Tables 3 and 4, a 12 x 24 lintel with one No. 4 (M#13)
reinforcing bar and 3 in. (76 mm) or less bottom cover is ad-
equate (Mall = 122,872 lb-in. (13.88 kN-m) and Vall = 10,256
lb (45.62 kN).
NOTATIONS
b = width of lintel, in. (mm)
Dlintel = lintel dead load, lb/ft (kN/m)
Dwall = wall dead load, lb/ft (kN/m)
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to cen-
troid of tension reinforcement, in. (mm)
f'm = specified compressive strength of masonry, psi
(MPa)
h = half of the effective lintel span, L/2, ft (m)
L = effective lintel span, ft (m)
Mall = allowable moment, in.-lb (N.m)
Mlintel = maximum moment due to lintel dead load, in.-lb
(N.m)

= (221)(5.7)2/12
= 598 lb-ft (0.81 kN-m)
1,000 lb/ft (14.6 kN/m) superimposed live and dead uniform load
Vwall = Dwall L/4
= (221)(5.7)/4 = 315 lb (1.4 kN)
Because the maximum moments for the two loading 12 in. (305 mm) CMU
conditions occur in the same locations on the lintel (as fm = 1,500 psi (10.3 MPa)

well as the maximum shears), the moments and shears

are superimposed and summed:
Mmax = 357 + 598 18 ft
= 955 lb-ft = 11,460 lb-in (1.3 kN-m) (5.5 m)
Vmax = 251 + 315
= 566 lb (2.5 kN) 44 ftft (1.2
(1.2m)
m)
Window
Lintel Design. From Tables 3 and 4, a 12 x 8 lintel with
one No. 4 (M#13) bar and 3 in. (76 mm) or less bottom 33ftft44in.
in.(1.0
(1.0m)
m)
55ftft44in.
in.(1.6
(1.6m)
m)
cover has adequate strength (Mall = 22,356 lb-in. (2.53
kN-m) and Vall = 2,152 lb (9.57 kN)). In this example,
shear was conservatively computed at the end of the lin-
tel. However, Building Code Requirements for Masonry Figure 5—Wall Configuration for Design Example

NCMA TEK 17-1D 7

Mmax = maximum moment, in.-lb (N.m) Vmax = maximum shear, lb (N)
Mwall = maximum moment due to wall dead load mo- Vwall = maximum shear due to wall dead load, lb (N)
ment, in.-lb (N.m) Wtotal = total uniform live and dead load, lb/ft (kN/m)
Vall = allowable shear, lb (N) w = uniformly distributed load, lb/in. (N/mm)
Vlintel = maximum shear due to lintel dead load, lb (N)

REFERENCES
1. International Building Code. International Code Council.
a. 2012 Edition
b. 2009 Edition
c. 2006 Edition
2. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures. Reported by the Masonry Standards Joint Committee.
a. 2011 Edition: TMS 402-11/ACI 530-11/ASCE 5-11
b. 2008 Edition: TMS 402-08 /ACI 530-08/ASCE 5-08
c. 2005 Edition: ACI 530-05/ASCE 5-05/TMS 402-05
3. Allowable Stress Design of Concrete Masonry Lintels, TEK 17-1C. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2009.
4. Allowable Stress Design of Concrete Masonry Based on the 2012 IBC & 2011 MSJC, TEK 14-7C. National Concrete Masonry
Association, 2011.
5. Concrete Masonry Wall Weights, TEK 14-13B. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2008.
6. Openings in Concrete Masonry Walls (Part 1), Masonry Chronicles Winter 2008-09. Concrete Masonry Association of California
and Nevada, 2009.
7. Lintel Design Manual, TR91B. National Concrete Masonry Association, 2004.

NCMA and the companies disseminating this technical information disclaim any and all responsibility and liability for the accuracy
and the application of the information contained in this publication.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION

13750 Sunrise Valley Drive, Herndon, Virginia 20171
www.ncma.org

To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index, contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900

8 NCMA TEK 17-1D


National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology
PRECAST CONCRETE LINTELS FOR
CONCRETE MASONRY CONSTRUCTION
Keywords: flexural strength, lintels, strength design, struc-
tural properties
INTRODUCTION
Lintels function as beams to support the wall weight and
other loads over an opening, and to transfer these loads to the
adjacent masonry. Because of their rigidity, strength, durability,
fire resistance and aesthetics, the most common types of lintels
for concrete masonry construction are those manufactured of
precast reinforced concrete or reinforced concrete masonry
units (ref. 3). The color and surface texture of these lintels can
be used as an accent or to duplicate the surrounding masonry.
LINTEL DIMENSIONS
Precast lintel dimensions are illustrated in Figure 1.
Precast concrete lintels are manufactured to modular sizes,
having specified dimensions corresponding to the concrete
masonry units being used in the construction.
A modular lintel length should be specified, with a mini-
mum length of the clear span plus 8 in. (203 mm), to provide at
least 4 in. (102 mm) bearing at each end (ref. 1). Additionally,
if lintels are subjected to tensile stresses during storage, trans-
portation, handling, or placement, it is recommended that steel
reinforcement be provided in both the top and bottom to prevent
cracking. Minimum concrete cover over the steel should be
11/2 in. (13 mm). The lintel width, or width of the combination
of side-by-side lintels, should equal the width of the supported
masonry wythe.
Lintels should be clearly marked on the top whenever
possible to prevent the possibility of improper installation in
the wall. In the event the top of the lintel is not marked and
may be installed upside down, the same size bars should be
used in both the top and bottom.
LINTEL DESIGN
Precast concrete lintels are designed using the strength
design provisions of Building Code Requirements for Struc-
tural Concrete, ACI 318-99 (ref. 2). In strength design,
service loads are increased to account for variations in
anticipated loads, becoming factored loads. The lintel is then
TEK 17-2A © 2000 National Concrete Masonry Association (replaces TEK 17-2)
NCMA TEK
TEK 17-2A
Structural (2000)
Figure 1 - Precast Lintel Design Parameters
sized to provide sufficient design strength. Further informa-
tion on determining design loads for lintels is included in
Allowable Stress Design of Concrete Masonry Lintels, TEK
17-1A (ref. 3).
Nominal lintel strength is determined based on the
strength design provisions of ACI 318 and then reduced by
strength reduction factors, called phi (φ) factors. These
factors account for any variability in materials and construc-
tion practices. The resulting capacity needs to equal or exceed
the factored loads. Precast concrete strength reduction factors
are 0.9 and 0.85 for flexure and shear, respectively (ref. 2).
Tables 1 through 4 list design moment and shear strengths
for various precast lintel sizes and concrete strengths, based
on the following criteria (ref. 2).
Flexural strength:
φ Mn = φ [As fy(d-a/2)], φ = 0.9
Shear strength, no shear reinforcement:
φ Vn = φ (2) (f 'c)1/2 bd, φ = 0.85
ACI 318 contains requirements for minimum and maxi-
mum reinforcing steel areas to ensure a minimum level of
performance. Minimum reinforcement area for lintels is As min
= 3(f'c)1/2bd/fy but not less than 200bd/fy. In addition, the
reinforcement ratio is limited to 75% of the balanced rein-
forcement ratio, ρmax = 0.75ρb.
 Figure 2 - Strength Design Structural Model

Deflection criteria for lintels is based on controlling crack- Dlintel = 61 lb/ft (0.89 kN/m)
ing in the masonry being supported. Consequently, less deflec- Db beam= (77.9lb/ft2)(7.625/12 ft)= 50 lb/ft (0.31 kN/m)
tion is allowed when the lintel supports unreinforced masonry. Dtotal = (75 + 61 + 50) = 186 lb/ft (3.2 kN/m)
In this case, lintel deflection is limited to the effective span of the For deflection calculations use loads as given above. For
lintel (measured in inches) divided by 600 (L/600) (ref. 1). In strength design multiply live loads by 1.7 and dead loads by 1.4.
addition, ACI 318 limits precast lintel deflection to L/240 when Maximum moment and shear for strength design:
the element supported by the lintel is not likely to be damaged Mmax = wL2/8
by large deflections, and L/480 when the element supported by = {[(1.7)(300)+(1.4)( 186 ) lb/ft](101.9 in.)2/8}(ft/12 in.)
.
the lintel is likely to be damaged by large deflections. Lintel = 83,328 in.-lb (9.4 kN m)
deflection is calculated based on the effective moment of inertia, Vmax = wL/2 (at distance "d" from support) (ref.2)
Ie, as follows (ref. 2, Section 9.5.2.3). = [(1.7)(300)+(1.4)(186 lb/ft)](101.9/2-5.88 in.)(ft/12 in.)
Ie = (Mcr/Mmax uf )3Ig + [1- (Mcr/Mmax uf )3]Icr < Ig = 2,893 lb (12.9 kN)
Shrinkage and creep due to sustained loads cause addi- From Table 3, an 8 x 8 in. (203 x 203 mm) lintel with two No.
tional long-term deflections over and above those occurring 4 (13M) bars and f 'c = 4000 psi (20.7 MPa) has sufficient
when loads are first applied. ACI 318 requires that deflections strength.
due to shrinkage and creep are included, and provides an Check deflection: Deflection is determined using the effective
expression to estimate this additional deflection (ACI 318 moment of inertia of the lintel, Ie, calculated as follows (ref. 2).
Section 9.5.2.5): Ec = wc1.533(f'c)1/2 = (150 pcf)1.533(4000 psi)1/2
λ = ξ/(1+50ρ') = 3,834,000 psi (26,400 MPa)
where ξ = 2.0 for exposures of 5 years or more. fr = 7.5(f'c)1/2 = 474 psi (3.3 MPa)
yt = 7.625 in./2 = 3.81 in. (97 mm)
DESIGN EXAMPLE Ig = bh3/12 = (7.625 in.)(7.625 in.)3/12
= 282 in. (11,725 cm4)
4

The residential basement wall shown in Figure 3 needs Mcr = frIg/yt = 474 psi(282 psi)/3.81 in.
a lintel over the window opening. The floor live load is 400 = 35,083 in.-lb (4.0 kN.m)
lb (1.8 kN) per joist and the floor dead load is 100 lb (0.44 kN) Mmax uf= wL2/8 = [(300+186 lb/ft)(101.9 in.)2/8](ft/12 in.)
.
per joist. Consider the floor joist loads, spaced at 16 in. (406 = 52567 in.-lb (5.9 kN m)
mm) on center, as uniformly distributed. Use a lintel self- (Mcr/Mmax uf )3 = (35,083/52567)3 = 0.297
weight of 61 lb/ft (0.89 kN/m) and weight of 77.9 lb/ft2 (3.73 n = Es/Ec = 29,000,000/3,834,000 = 7.6
kPa) for the bond beam at the top of the wall over the lintel ρ = As /bd = 0.40 in.2/(7.625 in.)(5.88 in.) = 0.00892
(ref. 4). nρ = 7.6(0.00892) = 0.0678
c = nρd[(1 + 2/nρ)1/2 - 1]
Determine effective depth, d: Assuming an 8 in. (203 mm) = 0.0678(5.88 in.)[(1+ 2/0.0678)1/2-1] = 1.80 in. (45 mm)
high lintel with two No. 4 (13M) bars,
d = 7.625 in. - 1.5 in. - 0.5/2 in.
= 5.88 in. (149 mm)
Check for arching action: The effective span length, L = 96
+ 5.88 = 101.9 in. (2588 mm). Since the height of masonry
above the opening is less than L/2, arching of the masonry
over the opening cannot be assumed (see ref. 4 for detailed
information about determining arching action).
Determine design loads:
LL = (400 lb)(12/16 in.) = 300 lb/ft (4.4 kN/m)
Dead loads include floor, wall, and lintel self-weight.
Dfloor = 100 lb (12/16 in.) = 75 lb/ft (1.1 kN/m) Figure 3 - Wall Configuration for Design Example
Table 1 - Shear and Moment Capacity for 4 x 8 in. (102 x 203 mm) Reinforced Concrete Lintels
Reinforcing No. f 'c, psi (MPa)
bar size of 3000 (20.7) 3500 (24.1) 4000 (27.6)
(No.) bars φVn φMn φ Vn φM n φVn φMn
. . .
lb (kN) in.-lb (kN m) lb (kN) in.-lb (kN m) lb (kN) in.-lb (kN m)
3 (10M) 1 2,000 (8.9) 33,140 (3.75) 2,160 (9.6) 33,450 (3.78) 2,310 (10.3) 33,670 (3.81)
4 (13M) 1 1,980 (8.8) 56,440 (6.38) 2,140 (9.5) 57,440 (6.49) 2,290 (10.2) 58,190 (6.57)
5 (16M) 1 1,960 (8.7) 80,450 (9.09) 2,110 (9.4) 82,860 (9.36) 2,260 (10.1) 84,670 (9.57)

Table 2 - Shear and Moment Capacity for 6 x 8 in. (152 x 203 mm) Reinforced Concrete Lintels
Reinforcing No. f 'c, psi (MPa)
bar size of 3000 (20.7) 3500 (24.1) 4000 (27.6)
(No.) bars φVn φMn φ Vn φM n φVn φMn
. . .
lb (kN) in.-lb (kN m) lb (kN) in.-lb (kN m) lb (kN) in.-lb (kN m)
4 (13M) 1 3,070 (13.7) 58,930 (6.66) 3,320 (14.8) 59,570 (6.73) 3,550 (15.8) 60,060 (6.79)
5 (16M) 1 3,040 (13.5) 86,440 (9.77) 3,280 (14.6) 87,990 (9.94) 3,510 (15.6) 89,160 (10.1)
3 (10M) 2 3,110 (13.8) 65,070 (7.35) 3,350 (14.9) 65,850 (7.44) 3,590 (16.0) 66,430 (7.51)
4 (13M) 2 3,070 (13.7) 108,820 (12.3) 3,320 (14.8) 111,410 (12.6) 3,550 (15.8) 113,340 (12.8)
5 (16M) 2 [2] [2] [2] [2] 3,510 (15.6) 162,040 (18.3)

Table 3 - Shear and Moment Capacity for 8 x 8 in. (203 x 203 mm) Reinforced Concrete Lintels
Reinforcing No. f 'c, psi (MPa)
bar size of 3000 (20.7) 3500 (24.1) 4000 (27.6)
(No.) bars φVn φMn φ Vn φM n φVn φMn
. . .
lb (kN) in.-lb (kN m) lb (kN) in.-lb (kN m) lb (kN) in.-lb (kN m)
4 (13M) 1 4,170 (18.6) 60,110 (6.79) 4,500 (20.0) 60,590 (6.85) 4,810 (21.4) 60,950 (6.89)
5 (16M) 1 4,120 (18.4) 89,290 (10.1) 4,450 (19.8) 90,430 (10.2) 4,760 (21.2) 91,290 (10.3)
6 (19M) 1 4,080 (18.2) 120,490 (13.6) 4,410 (19.6) 122,790 (13.9) 4,710 (21.0) 124,520 (14.1)
4 (13M) 2 4,170 (18.6) 113,560 (12.8) 4,500 (20.0) 115,470 (13.0) 4,810 (21.4) 116,900 (13.2)
5 (16M) 2 4,120 (18.4) 162,570 (18.4) 4,450 (19.8) 167,150 (18.9) 4,760 (21.2) 170,580 (19.3)
6 (19M) 2 [2] [2] [2] [2] 4,710 (21.0) 224,840 (25.4)

Table 4 - Shear and Moment Capacity for 8 x 16 in. (203 x 406 mm) Reinforced Concrete Lintels3
Reinforcing No. f 'c, psi (MPa)
bar size of 3000 (20.7) 3500 (24.1) 4000 (27.6)
(No.) bars φVn φMn φ Vn φM n φVn φMn
. . .
lb (kN) in.-lb (kN m) lb (kN) in.-lb (kN m) lb (kN) in.-lb (kN m)
6 (19M) 1 9,760 (43.4) 310,570 (35.1) 10,540 (46.9) 312,870 (35.4) 11,270 (50.1) 314,600 (35.5)
4 (13M) 2 9,850 (43.8) 286,360 (32.4) 10,640 (47.3) 288,270 (32.6) 11,370 (50.6) 289,700 (32.7)
5 (16M) 2 9,800 (43.6) 430,410 (48.6) 10,590 (47.1) 434,990 (49.1) 11,320 (50.4) 438,420 (49.5)
6 (19M) 2 9,760 (43.4) 588,870 (66.5) 10,540 (46.9) 598,090 (67.6) 11,270 (50.1) 605,000 ( 68.4)

1. Tables based on strength design method as described in ref. 2, assuming 1.5 in. (38 mm) concrete cover and Grade 60
reinforcement, fy = 60,000 psi (413 MPa).
2. Reinforcement at listed effective depth exceeds the maximum reinforcing ratio of 0.75 ρb.
3. When determining minimum end bearing, the bearing stress of the masonry supporting the lintel should be checked to
ensure it does not exceed 0.25f'm (ref. 1).
Icr = bc3/3 + nAs(d - c)2
= 7.625 in.(1.8 in.)3/3 + 7.6(0.4 in.2)(5.88 - 1.8)2
= 65.4 in.4 (2714 cm4)
Ie = (Mcr/Mmax uf )3Ig + [1- (Mcr/Mmax uf )3]Icr
= 0.297(282) + [1-0.297]65.4 in.4
= 130 in.4 (5411 cm4) < Ig OK
For a simply supported beam under uniform load,
∆max = 5wL4/384EcIe
= 5(300 + 186 lb/ft)(101.9 in.)4/[384(3,834,000
psi)(130 in.4)]/(12 in./ft)
= 0.114 in. (2.9 mm)
Long-term deflection multiplier,
λ = ξ/(1+50ρ') = 2/[1 + 50(0)] = 2
Long-term deflection,
∆LT = λ∆max = 2(0.114 in.) = 0.228 in. (5.8 mm)
Total deflection,
∆tot = ∆max + ∆LT = 0.114 + 0.228 = 0.342 in. (8.7 mm)
Deflection limit for this case is L/240 = 101.9 in./240
= 0.42 in. (10.7 mm) > 0.342 in. (8.7 mm) OK
NOTATIONS
a = depth of equivalent rectangular stress block, in. (mm)
As = area of tension reinforcement, in.2 (mm2)
b = actual width of lintel, in. (mm)
c = distance from extreme compression fiber to neutral
axis, in. (mm)
C = resultant compressive force in concrete, lb (kN)
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid
of tension reinforcement, in. (mm)
Db beam= dead load of bond beam, lb/ft (kN/m)
Dfloor= dead load of floor, lb/ft (kN/m)
Dlintel= dead load of lintel, lb/ft (kN/m)
Dtot = total design dead load, lb/ft (kN/m)
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete, psi (MPa)
f 'c = specified compressive strength of concrete, psi (MPa)
f r = modulus of rupture of concrete, psi (MPa)
fy = specified yield strength of reinforcement, psi (MPa)
(60,000 psi, 413 MPa)
Icr = moment of inertia of cracked section transformed
to concrete, in.4 (cm4)
Ie = effective moment of inertia, in.4 (cm4)
NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION
2302 Horse Pen Road, Herndon, Virginia 20171-3499
www.ncma.org
Ig = moment of inertia of gross concrete section about
centroidal axis, in.4 (cm4)
L = effective length, clear span plus depth of member, not to
exceed the distance between center of supports, in. (mm)
LL = live load, lb/ft (kN/m)
Mcr = cracking moment, in.-lb (kN.m)
Mmax= maximum factored moment on section, in.-lb (kN.m)
Mmax uf= maximum unfactored moment on section, in.-lb (kN.m)
Mn = nominal moment strength, in.-lb/ft (kN.m/m)
n = modular ratio, Es/Ec
T = resultant tensile force in steel reinforcement, lb (kN)
Vmax = maximum factored shear on section, lb (kN)
Vn = nominal shear strength, lb (kN)
w = uniform load, lb/in. (kN/m)
wc = density of concrete, pcf (kN/m3)
yt = distance from centroidal axis of gross section to
extreme fiber in tension, in. (mm)
∆max = maximum immediate deflection, in. (mm)
∆LT = long-term deflection, in. (mm)
∆tot = total deflection, in. (mm)
εc = strain in concrete, in./in. (mm/mm)
εs = strain in steel reinforcement, in./in. (mm/mm)
ξ = time-dependent factor for sustained load
λ = multiplier for additional long-term deflection
φ = strength reduction factor
ρ = reinforcement ratio, As/bd
ρ' = reinforcement ratio for nonprestressed compression
reinforcement, As'/bd
ρb = reinforcement ratio producing balanced strain conditions
ρmax = limit on reinforcement ratio
REFERENCES
1. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures,
ACI 530-99/ASCE 5-99/TMS 402-99. Reported by the
Masonry Standards Joint Committee, 1999.
2. Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete,
ACI 318-99. American Concrete Institute, 1999.
3. Allowable Stress Design of Concrete Masonry Lintels, TEK
17-1A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 1997.
4. Design Tables for Concrete Masonry and Precast
Concrete Lintels, TR 91A. National Concrete Masonry
Association, 1996.
To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
 NCMA TEK
National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology

ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN OF TEK 17-3A

Structural (2001)
CONCRETE MASONRY COLUMNS
Keywords: allowable stress design, columns, design examples,
eccentric loads, axial strength, pilasters, reinforced concrete
masonry

INTRODUCTION

Masonry elements typically support both axial and lateral
loads. For structural elements that resist primarily lateral forces,
axial load can increase the element's flexural resistance. In this
case, axial load is often neglected as a conservative assumption
which simplifies the analysis. However, for elements carrying
significant axial loads, such as columns, the additional moment
due to lateral loads or eccentric axial loads typically reduces the
element's axial capacity. In this case, the design must consider
the interaction between axial load and moment.
By definition, a column is an isolated vertical member
whose horizontal dimension measured at right angles to its
thickness does not exceed three times its thickness and whose
height is greater than four times its thickness (ref. 1). Columns
function primarily as compression members when supporting
beams, girders, trusses or similar elements.
reduced in accordance with conventional design principles.
Eccentricity also affects the structural capacity of ma-
sonry columns. Eccentricity may be introduced by eccentric
axial loads, lateral loads, or a column that is out of plumb. As
a minimum, the Code requires that the design consider an
eccentricity of 0.1 times each side dimension, with each axis
considered independently. This minimum eccentricity is in-
tended to account for construction tolerances. If the actual
eccentricity exceeds this minimum, the actual eccentricity
should be used in the design.
Reinforcement
The Code (ref. 1) requires a minimum amount of vertical
column reinforcement as well as lateral ties to confine the

COLUMN REQUIREMENTS

Because a column failure has the potential to cause 135° MAX

collapse of other structural members, a series of special VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT:
4 BARS, MIN
requirements are imposed on columns in addition to the 0.0025 A n ≤ A st ≤ 0.04 A n

requirements for reinforced concrete masonry wall design. INCLUDED ANGLE, 135° MAX

LATERAL TIE, 1/4 IN. (6.4 mm)

DIAMETER, MIN
Slenderness
VERTICAL TIE SPACING IS HALVED
The capacity of columns may be reduced due to either CLEAR DISTANCE
6 IN. (152 mm) MAX BELOW THE LOWEST HORIZONTAL
REINFORCEMENT IN A BEAM,
buckling or to additional bending moment caused by deflec- GIRDER, SLAB OR DROP PANEL
ABOVE (SIMILAR REQUIREMENT
tion (P-D effects). In Building Code Requirements for AT COLUMN BASE)

Masonry Structures (ref. 1, referred to hereafter as the MAXIMUM LATERAL TIE SPACING
16 VERTICAL BAR
Code), slenderness effects are included in the calculation of DIAMETERS OR
48 LATERAL TIE BAR
OR WIRE DIAMETERS, OR
allowable compressive stress for reinforced masonry. For LEAST CROSS-SECTIONAL
DIMENSION OF THE MEMBER
columns, the Code also limits the effective height to thick-
ness ratio to 25, and requires a minimum nominal side
dimension of 8 in. (203 mm).
The effective height of a column is typically taken as the
clear height between supports. If the designer can demon-
Figure 1—Column Reinforcement and
strate that there is reliable restraint against both translation
Lateral Tie Requirements
and rotation at the supports, the effective height may be

TEK 17-3A © 2001 National Concrete Masonry Association (replaces TEK 17-3)
 Table 1—Allowable Column Reinforcement

Number of reinforcing bars permitted, based on 0.0025An < Ast < 0.04An, for bar sizes:
Column No. 4 No.5 No. 6 No. 7 No. 8 No. 9 No. 10 No. 11
size, in. (mm) (M 13) (M 16) (M 19) (M 22) (M 25) (M 29) (M 32) (M 36)
8 x 8 (203 x 203) 4 - 10 4 4 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
8 x 16 (203 x 406) 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 10 4-8 4-6 4 N/A N/A
8 x 24 (203 x 610) 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4-8 4-6 4 4
10 x 16 (254 x 406) 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 10 4-6 4-6 4 N/A
10 x 24 (254 x 610) 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 10 4-8 4-6 4
12 x 12 (305 x 305) 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4-8 4-6 4 4 N/A
12 x 16 (305 x 406) 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4-8 4-6 4 4
12 x 24 (305 x 610) 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 10 4-8 4-6
12 x 32 (305 x 813) 6 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 10 4-8
16 x 16 (406 x 406) 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4-8 4-6 4-8
16 x 24 (406 x 610) 6 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 10 4-8
16 x 32 (406 x 813) 8 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12
24 x 24 (610 x 610) 8 - 12 6 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12
24 x 32 (610 x 813) 10 - 12 8 - 12 6 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12
24 x 40 (610 x 1016) 12 8 - 12 6 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12 4 - 12

vertical steel. The basic requirements are illustrated in Figure
1. In addition, Table 1 lists allowable reinforcement for various
column sizes, based on the Code required minimum and maxi-
mum vertical steel area. The requirement for at least four vertical
bars allows the lateral ties to provide a confined core of
masonry.
Lateral ties enclose and support the vertical reinforce-
ment. The size and spacing requirements ensure the ties
prevent buckling of reinforcement acting in compression as
well as provide shear resistance to columns subjected to lateral
loads. Vertical lateral tie spacing is halved above the top of the
footing or slab in any story, as well as below the lowest
horizontal reinforcement in a beam, girder, slab, or drop panel
above. Where beams or brackets frame into a column from four
directions, the lateral ties must be placed within 3 in. (76 mm)
below the lowest reinforcement in the shallowest beam or
bracket.
The Code allows lateral ties to be placed in either mortar
or grout, although placement in grout more effectively pre-
vents buckling and results in more ductile behavior. For this
reason, the Code requires ties to be embedded in grout in
Seismic Performance Categories D and E.
When more than four vertical bars are used, additional
requirements apply. In this case, in addition to the requirement
for corner bars to be laterally supported by the corner of a lateral
tie, alternate bars must also be supported. In addition, bars not
supported by a lateral tie corner must be spaced 6 in. (152 mm)
or closer on each side along the lateral tie from the laterally
supported bar. Where the longitudinal bars are placed in a
circle, circular ties are permitted, provided they have a minimum
lap length of 48 tie diameters.
Additional Requirements in Seismic Performance
Categories (SPC) C, D and E
Columns in buildings that require higher levels of
seismic protection are subject to additional design require-
ments to help prevent structural failure during an earth-
quake. To ensure proper anchorage between columns and
horizontal structural elements, the Code requires connec-
tors to transfer forces in SPC C, D and E. Where anchor bolts
are used for this purpose, they must be enclosed by the
vertical reinforcement and lateral ties. In addition, at least
two No. 4 (M 13) lateral ties must be provided within the top
5 in. (127 mm) of the column.
Adequate lateral restraint is important for column rein-
forcement subjected to seismic forces. For this reason, in
SPC D and E 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) minimum diameter lateral ties
are required to be embedded in grout and spaced vertically
no more than 8 in. (203 mm) on center.
These requirements are illustrated in Figure 2.
DESIGN
Allowable stress design of concrete masonry columns
must comply with Section 2.3 of the Code, which governs
reinforced masonry design. Allowable forces and stresses are
as follows:
Fs = 24,000 psi (165.5 MPa) for Grade 60 steel
Pa = (0.25f'm An + 0.65Ast Fs)[1 - (h/140r)2 ], for h/r < 99
= (0.25f'm An + 0.65Ast Fs)(70r/h)2, for h/r > 99
Fb/a = 1/3 f'm
The allowable compressive force, Pa, includes the contri-
bution of vertical reinforcement in the term 0.65AstFs. This
assumes proper confinement of the vertical steel using lateral
ties, as described above.
Masonry columns may be connected to horizontal
elements of the structure and may rely on these connec-
tions for lateral support. Forces at the connection may be
transferred by masonry/mortar bond, mechanical anchor-
age, friction, bearing, or a combination of these. The col-
umns must be designed to resist all loads, moments and
 Table 2—Allowable Column Compressive Force for
Concentrically Loaded Concrete Masonry Columns
up to 20 ft (6.1 m) High1

135° MAX
Column Allowable column compressive
VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT:
4 BARS, MIN size, in. (mm) force, kip (kN)
0.0025 A n ≤ A st ≤ 0.04 A n

ANCHOR BOLTS
8 x 8 (203 x 203) 182 (80)
INCLUDED ANGLE, 135° MAX
8 x 16 (203 x 406) 372,3 (165)
8 x 24 (203 x 610) 562,4 (249)
CLEAR DISTANCE 10 x 16 (254 x 406) 465 (205)
6 IN. (152 mm) MAX TWO NO. 4 (M 13) LATERAL
TIES WITHIN TOP 5 IN. (127 mm) 10 x 24 (254 x 610) 716 (316)
OF COLUMN, ENCLOSING
ANCHOR BOLTS AND VERTICAL
REINFORCEMENT
12 x 12 (305 x 305) 42 (186)
12 x 16 (305 x 406) 56 (249)
8 IN. (203 mm) MAXIMUM
LATERAL TIE SPACING IN
SPC D AND E
12 x 24 (305 x 610) 85 (378)
12 x 32 (305 x 813) 114 (507)
16 x 16 (406 x 406) 76 (338)
16 x 24 (406 x 610) 115 (511)
16 x 32 (406 x 813) 154 (685)
24 x 24 (610 x 610) 174 (773)
24 x 32 (610 x 813) 233 (1030)
24 x 40 (610 x 1016) 292 (1300)
Figure 2—Additional Requirements for Column Notes:
Reinforcement in Buildings Assigned to SPC C, D and E 1
The table assumes the element is in pure compression, i.e., that the
axial load falls within the center one-third of the section, under a
shears applied at intersections with horizontal members, minimum design eccentricity of 0.1t for each axis as required by the
using a force of at least 1,000 lb (4.4 kN). Code. The designer must ensure the section is in compression prior
The design approach depends on the magnitude of the to using the table. f'm = 1500 psi (10.3 MPa). Fs = 24,000 psi (165
MPa) (Grade 60 steel). One kip = 1,000 lb (4.4 kN).
axial load relative to the bending moment. The section will
either be in pure compression, with the allowable axial load SLENDERNESS LIMITATIONS:
governed by Pa; be subject to combined axial load and
flexure with the allowable moment and allowable axial force 2
The maximum allowable height for 8 in. columns is 15.9 ft (4.8 m).
governed by the allowable flexural compressive stress in
masonry, Fb; or be subject to combined axial load and Height Number Bar Maximum load
flexure, but governed by the allowable tensile stress in the ft (m) of bars size kips (kN)
3
reinforcement, Fs. 15.1-15.9 (4.6-4.8) 4 No. 4 (M13) 34 (151)

4
14.0-15.9 (4.3-4.8) 4 No. 4 (M13) 48 (213)
Section in Compression
15.1-15.9 (4.6-4.8) 6 " 52 (231)
An eccentricity located within the kern (center one-third) 15.3-15.9 (4.6-4.8) 4 No. 5 (M16) 53 (236)
of the column places the entire section in compression. In this
case, capacity is determined by the equations for Pa listed 5
18.6-20 (5.6-6.1) 4 No. 4 (M13) 42 (186)
above, and Table 2 can be used for design for columns up to
6
20 ft (6.1 m) high. The table assumes the element is in pure 16.9-18 (5.1-5.5) 4 No. 4 (M13) 67 (298)
compression under a minimum design eccentricity of 0.1t for 18.0-20 (5.5-6.1) 4 " 60 (266)
each axis, as required by the Code. The designer is responsible 18.2-20 (5.5-6.1) 6 " 64 (284)
for confirming this. 19.3-20 (5.9-6.1) 8 " 68 (302)
18.3-20 (5.6-6.1) 4 No. 5 (M16) 64 (284)
The values in Table 2 are independent of vertical steel area
19.7-20 (6.0-6.1) 6 " 70 (311)
because in all cases except those noted in the table footnotes, 19.7-20 (6.0-6.1) 4 No. 6 (M19) 69 (307)
the allowable compressive stress in masonry governs the
column design.
Because the design eccentricity falls within the kern,
Design Example—Compression Only pure compression results and Table 2 can be used.
Design a 20-ft (6.1 m) high column to carry a concentric From Table 2, an 8 x 24 in. (203 x 610 mm) column has
axial force of 45,000 lb (200 kN), based on f'm = 1,500 psi (10 MPa) adequate capacity but is limited to 15.9 ft. Slenderness effects
and Grade 60 steel. of a 10 x 16 in. column (254 x 406 mm) with four No. 4 (M 13)
First, check the minimum eccentricity: reduce the capacity to 42 kips (186 kN) - not adequate. With
0.1t = 0.1(8 in.) = 0.8 in. (20 mm) four No. 5 (M 16), it can support 46 kips (205 kN) > 45 kips
At a minimum ( for an 8 x 8 in (203 x 203 mm) column), the (200 kN). Checking Table 1, four No. 5 (M 16) bars will meet
kern is bounded by t/6 = 8 in./6 = 1.3 in. (33 mm). the reinforcing area requirements. Use four No. 5 (M 16).
Combined Axial Compression and Flexure
For larger eccentricities, the section is subjected to
flexure, resulting in both net compression and tension.
Therefore, the interaction of the vertical load and the
bending moment must be accounted for, typically using
interaction diagrams or iterative computer solutions. Fur-
ther description of the design methodology, as well as
interaction diagrams for columns are contained the Ma-
sonry Designer's Guide (ref. 2).
NOTATIONS:
An = net cross-sectional area of masonry, in.2 (mm2)
Ast = total area of laterally tied longitudinal reinforcing steel in
a reinforced masonry column, in.2 (mm2)
e = eccentricity of axial load, in. (mm)
Fb = allowable compressive stress due to flexure only, psi
(MPa)
NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION
2302 Horse Pen Road, Herndon, Virginia 20171-3499
www.ncma.org
Fb/a= allowable compressive stress in masonry due to com-
bined flexure and axial load
Fs = allowable tensile stress in reinforcement, psi (MPa)
P = compressive force due to axial load, lb (N)
Pa = allowable compressive force in reinforced masonry due
to axial load, lb (N)
r = radius of gyration, in. (mm)
t = thickness of section, in. (mm)
D = deflection
REFERENCES
1. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, ACI
530-99/ASCE 5-99/TMS 402-99. Reported by the Masonry
Standards Joint Committee, 1999.
2. Masonry Designer's Guide. Matthys, John H., ed. The
Masonry Society and the American Concrete Institute,
1999.
To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
 NCMA TEK
National Concrete Masonry Association
an information series from the national authority on concrete masonry technology

ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN OF TEK 17-4B

Structural (2000)
CONCRETE MASONRY PILASTERS
Keywords: architectural details, allowable stress design,
columns, construction details, design examples, lateral any other single building material. Structurally, concrete
loads, pilasters, reinforced concrete masonry masonry walls for warehouses, foundations, loadbearing
walls, retaining walls, etc. can carry vertical loads as well as
lateral loads imposed by wind, soil, or earthquakes. Where these
INTRODUCTION loads are high or walls are especially tall, the use of pilasters may
be advantageous to allow thinner wall sections.
Concrete masonry walls provide benefits such as struc- A pilaster is a strengthened section that is designed to
tural integrity, fire resistance, thermal insulation and mass, provide lateral stability to the masonry wall. Pilasters can be
low maintenance, and an aesthetic versatility unmatched by the same thickness as the wall but most often project beyond
one or both wall faces. A bonded
pilaster may be constructed as an
integral part of the wall or, where
provisions for crack control are
provided such as with control joints,
TIES EMBEDDED
IN MORTAR JOINTS
they may be constructed as an
ALTERNATE COURSES ALTERNATE COURSES ALTERNATE COURSES ALTERNATE COURSES unbonded structural member where
lateral support is provided through
the use of suitable connections.
Typical construction details are
provided in Figures 1 and 2 which
UNDEFORMED
NO. 2 (6 M) show both bonded and unbonded
BARS BENT IN
16 x 12 in. 16 x 16 in. FORM OF U, 16 x 20 in. 16 x 24 in. pilasters. Other methods of pro-
(406 x 305 mm) (406 x 406 mm) GREASED AND (406 x 508 mm) (406 x 610 mm)
SPACED 16 IN.
viding load transfer across the con-
(406 mm) O.C. trol joint for the unbonded condi-
tion may be utilized than as de-
tailed in this TEK. See TEK 10-
UNBONDED 2A (ref. 2) for more options.

DESIGN
TIES EMBEDDED
IN MORTAR JOINTS Typically, pilasters are subject
to little or no vertical load other
ALTERNATE COURSES ALTERNATE COURSES ALTERNATE COURSES
than their own weight, and as such
serve as flexural members. Pilas-
ters required in this type of service
must be able to resist bending while
transferring the applied loads from
the walls to the roof and founda-
16 x 16 in. 16 x 20 in. 16 x 24 in.
(406 x 406 mm) (406 x 508 mm) (406 x 610 mm) tion system. While the primary
BONDED purpose of a pilaster is to provide
lateral support, in many cases it
may also be required to support
Figure 1—16 in. (406 mm) Pilaster Sections vertical loads such as those im-

TEK 17-4B © 2000 National Concrete Masonry Association (replaces TEK 17-4A)
 w = lateral load acting uniformly
on the wall, psf (Pa)
l = length of wall supported by
CAULKING NO. 2 (6 M)
BAR
pilasters (center-to-center spac-
ing of pilasters), ft (m)
TIES EMBEDDED
IN MORTAR JOINTS
DESIGN EXAMPLE
ALTERNATE COURSES ALTERNATE COURSES ALTERNATE COURSES

MORTAR CONTROL A warehouse requires 24 ft

JOINT
(7.3 m) of clear space between the
floor and ceiling for storage. The
applicable building code speci-
fies a minimum design wind load
of 15 psf (718 Pa). Determine the
24 x 20 in. 24 x 24 in. 24 x 24 in.
(610 X 508 mm) (610 x 610 mm) (610 x 610 mm) required pilaster size and spacing
UNBONDED for an 8 in. (203 mm) hollow
SPECIAL UNIT
unreinforced concrete masonry
wall, constructed with Type S
portland cement/lime or mortar
cement mortar.
TIES EMBEDDED
IN MORTAR JOINTS section modulus,
ALTERNATE COURSES ALTERNATE COURSES ALTERNATE COURSES S = 81 in.3/ft (4355 mm3/m) (ref. 4)

allowable flexural tension paral-

lel to the bed joints (Table 2.2.3.2
ref. 1, increased by 1/3 for load
combinations including wind),
Ft = 50 psi x 1.33
24 x 20 in. 24 x 24 in. 24 x 16 in.
(610 X 508 mm) (610 x 610 mm) (610 x 406 mm) = 66.5 psi (0.459 MPa) (ref. 1)
BONDED
allowable moment,
Figure 2—24 in. (610 mm) Pilaster Sections M = Ft x S
= (66.5 psi)(81 in.3/ft)
= 5386 in.-lb/ft (1996 N.m/m)
posed by beams or other framing members. When this occurs,
pilasters are designed as columns and function as primarily Assuming the wall is simply supported, the maximum mo-
as compression members. A chart for the selection of ment that must be supported is Mmax = wl2/8, or solving for l,
appropriate pilaster size and reinforcement for a variety of l2 = (3240 in.-lb/ft)(8)/[(15 psf)(12 in./ft)]
lateral loading conditions is presented in Table 1. l = 15.5 ft (4.72 m)
Table 1 is based on the provisions of Building Code Choose the next lower modular spacing for the pilasters, 15' - 4"
Requirements For Masonry Structures (ref. 1). The values in (4.67 m).
the table include the capacity of the tensile reinforcement
only. If lateral ties are provided in accordance with ref. 1, the The lateral load that must be resisted by each pilaster is:
capacity of the compressive reinforcement may also be con- wp = w x l
sidered as shown in Figure 3. = 15 psf x 15.33 ft
Pilaster spacing is a function of the wall thickness, the = 230 lb/ft (3356 N/m)
magnitude of lateral loads, and the distribution of the lateral
load to the vertical and horizontal supports. A relationship Assuming the pilaster is simply supported at top and bottom,
exists between the ratio of pilaster spacing to wall height and the maximum shear and moment on the pilaster are:
load distribution. Figures illustrating this relationship are Vmax = wp h/2
available in Designing Concrete Masonry Walls For Wind = (230 lb/ft)(24 ft)/2
Loads (ref. 3). Once the wall panel dimensions have been = 2760 lb (12.3 kN)
determined, the lateral load which must be resisted by the Mmax = wp l2/8
pilasters may be calculated as follows: = [(230 lb/ft)(24 ft)2/8](12 in./ft)
wp = w x l = 198720 in.-lb (22.5 kN.m)
where: From Table 1, choose a 16 x 16 in. (406 x 406 mm) pilaster
wp = load on pilaster, lb/ft (N/m) reinforced with four #5 bars.
 Table 1—Pilaster Selection Charta,b

1
No increase in allowable stresses Allowable stresses increased by /3 for load
combinations including wind or seismic
Nominal Size, in. (mm) Shear strength, Reinforcing Moment capacity, Shear strength, Reinforcing Moment capacity,
Width Depth V r , lb (kN) bar size M r , in.-lb (kN·m) V r , lb (kN) bar size M r , in.-lb (kN·m)
16 (406) 12 (305) No. 4 (13 M) 66,155 (7.5) No. 4 (13 M) 88,185 (10.0)
16 (406) 12 (305) No. 5 (16 M) 77,381 (8.7) No. 5 (16 M) 103,149 (11.7)
16 (406) 12 (305) 4,732 (21) No. 6 (19 M) 86,940 (9.8) 6,307 (28) No. 6 (19 M) 115,891 (13.1)
16 (406) 12 (305) No. 7 (22 M) 95,173 (10.8) No. 7 (22 M) 126,865 (14.3)
16 (406) 12 (305) No. 8 (25 M) 102,278 (11.6) No. 8 (25 M) 136,336 (15.4)
16 (406) 12 (305) No. 9 (29 M) 108,424 (12.3) No. 9 (29 M) 144,529 (16.3)
16 (406) 16 (406) No. 4 (13 M) 101,788 (11.5) No. 4 (13 M) 135,683 (15.3)
16 (406) 16 (406) No. 5 (16 M) 153,154 (17.3) No. 5 (16 M) 204,154 (23.1)
16 (406) 16 (406) 7,150 (32) No. 6 (19 M) 173,884 (19.6) 9,532 (42) No. 6 (19 M) 231,788 (26.2)
16 (406) 16 (406) No. 7 (22 M) 192,213 (21.7) No. 7 (22 M) 256,220 (28.9)
16 (406) 16 (406) No. 8 (25 M) 208,437 (23.6) No. 8 (25 M) 277,847 (31.4)
16 (406) 16 (406) No. 9 (29 M) 222,817 (25.2) No. 9 (29 M) 297,014 (33.6)
16 (406) 20 (508) No. 4 (13 M) 137,743 (15.6) No. 4 (13 M) 183,611 (20.7)
16 (406) 20 (508) No. 5 (16 M) 211,477 (23.9) No. 5 (16 M) 281,899 (31.9)
16 (406) 20 (508) 9,569 (43) No. 6 (19 M) 281,572 (31.8) 12,756 (57) No. 6 (19 M) 375,335 (42.4)
16 (406) 20 (508) No. 7 (22 M) 313,192 (35.4) No. 7 (22 M) 417,485 (47.2)
16 (406) 20 (508) No. 8 (25 M) 341,622 (38.6) No. 8 (25 M) 455,382 (51.5)
16 (406) 20 (508) No. 9 (29 M) 367,204 (41.5) No. 9 (29 M) 489,483 (55.3)
16 (406) 24 (610) No. 4 (13 M) 173,903 (19.6) No. 4 (13 M) 231,813 (26.2)
16 (406) 24 (610) No. 5 (16 M) 267,391 (30.2) No. 5 (16 M) 356,432 (40.3)
16 (406) 24 (610) 11,988 (53) No. 6 (19 M) 379,177 (42.8) 15,980 (71) No. 6 (19 M) 505,444 (57.1)
16 (406) 24 (610) No. 7 (22 M) 455,020 (51.4) No. 7 (22 M) 606,541 (68.5)
16 (406) 24 (610) No. 8 (25 M) 498,413 (56.3) No. 8 (25 M) 664,385 (75.1)
16 (406) 24 (610) No. 9 (29 M) 537,877 (60.8) No. 9 (29 M) 716,990 (81.0)
24 (610) 12 (305) No. 4 (13 M) 67,358 (7.6) No. 4 (13 M) 89,788 (10.1)
24 (610) 12 (305) No. 5 (16 M) 101,382 (11.5) No. 5 (16 M) 135,142 (15.3)
24 (610) 12 (305) 7,154 (32) No. 6 (19 M) 115,106 (13.0) 9,537 (42) No. 6 (19 M) 153,437 (17.3)
24 (610) 12 (305) No. 7 (22 M) 127,241 (14.4) No. 7 (22 M) 169,612 (19.2)
24 (610) 12 (305) No. 8 (25 M) 137,983 (15.6) No. 8 (25 M) 183,931 (20.8)
24 (610) 12 (305) No. 9 (29 M) 147,503 (16.7) No. 9 (29 M) 196,622 (22.2)
24 (610) 16 (406) No. 4 (13 M) 103,369 (11.7) No. 4 (13 M) 137,791 (15.6)
24 (610) 16 (406) No. 5 (16 M) 158,832 (17.9) No. 5 (16 M) 211,723 (23.9)
24 (610) 16 (406) 10,811 (48) No. 6 (19 M) 225,100 (25.4) 14,412 (64) No. 6 (19 M) 300,058 (33.9)
24 (610) 16 (406) No. 7 (22 M) 253,691 (28.7) No. 7 (22 M) 338,170 (38.2)
24 (610) 16 (406) No. 8 (25 M) 277,360 (31.3) No. 8 (25 M) 369,721 (41.8)
24 (610) 16 (406) No. 9 (29 M) 298,784 (33.8) No. 9 (29 M) 398,279 (45.0)
24 (610) 20 (508) No. 4 (13 M) 139,644 (15.8) No. 4 (13 M) 186,146 (21.0)
24 (610) 20 (508) No. 5 (16 M) 214,967 (24.3) No. 5 (16 M) 286,550 (32.4)
24 (610) 20 (508) 14,469 (64) No. 6 (19 M) 305,158 (34.5) 19,287 (86) No. 6 (19 M) 406,775 (46.0)
24 (610) 20 (508) No. 7 (22 M) 409,702 (46.3) No. 7 (22 M) 546,132 (61.7)
24 (610) 20 (508) No. 8 (25 M) 450,566 (50.9) No. 8 (25 M) 600,605 (67.9)
24 (610) 20 (508) No. 9 (29 M) 487,768 (55.1) No. 9 (29 M) 650,195 (73.5)
24 (610) 24 (610) No. 4 (13 M) 176,089 (19.9) No. 4 (13 M) 234,727 (26.5)
24 (610) 24 (610) No. 5 (16 M) 271,429 (30.7) No. 5 (16 M) 361,815 (40.9)
24 (610) 24 (610) 18,126 (81) No. 6 (19 M) 385,775 (43.6) 24,162 (107) No. 6 (19 M) 514,238 (58.1)
24 (610) 24 (610) No. 7 (22 M) 518,503 (58.6) No. 7 (22 M) 691,164 (78.1)
24 (610) 24 (610) No. 8 (25 M) 653,192 (73.8) No. 8 (25 M) 870,705 (98.4)
24 (610) 24 (610) No. 9 (29 M) 709,619 (80.2) No. 9 (29 M) 945,922 (106.9)
24 (610) 28 (711) No. 4 (13 M) 212,654 (24.0) No. 4 (13 M) 283,468 (32.0)
24 (610) 28 (711) No. 5 (16 M) 328,124 (37.1) No. 5 (16 M) 437,389 (49.4)
24 (610) 28 (711) 21,783 (97) No. 6 (19 M) 466,790 (52.7) 29,037 (129) No. 6 (19 M) 622,231 (70.3)
24 (610) 28 (711) No. 7 (22 M) 627,931 (70.9) No. 7 (22 M) 837,032 (94.6)
24 (610) 28 (711) No. 8 (25 M) 810,896 (91.6) No. 8 (25 M) 1,080,924 (122.1)
24 (610) 28 (711) No. 9 (29 M) 960,993 (108.6) No. 9 (29 M) 1,281,004 (144.7)

a
Based on four reinforcing bars per pilaster.
b
Assumes f'm = 1500 psi (10.3 MPa), Fs = 24,000 psi (165 MPa). Compression reinforcement is neglected.
 WIDTH
Design expressions:
fb
m
Stress:
kd/3
s
Cm Es = fs /εs

kd
M Cs
fs Em = fb /εs
Force equilibrium:
DEPTH

N.A.
d Cm + C's - T = 0
T where:
s
Cm = 1/2 fbbkd
PILASTER STRAIN STRESS-FORCE
C's = f's A's
CROSS SECTION DIAGRAM DIAGRAM T = fs As

Requirements for lateral ties (ref. 1):

1. 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) minimum diameter.
2. Vertical spacing not to exceed the lesser of: 16 longitudinal bar diameters, 48 lateral tie bar or wire diameters; or the least
cross-sectional dimension of the member.
3. Every corner and alternate longitudinal bars must be supported by the corner of a lateral tie which has an included angle
of not more than 135o. Longitudinal bars farther than 6 in. (152 mm) from a laterally supported longitudinal bar must also
be supported. Lateral ties must be placed in either a mortar joint or in grout.
4. Located not more than 1/2 the lateral tie spacing above the top of the footing or slab in any story, and not more than 1/2 a
lateral tie spacing below the lowest horizontal reinforcement in a beam, girder, slab, or drop panel above.

Figure 3—Pilaster Design Including Compression Reinforcement

REFERENCES
1. Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures, ACI 530-99/ASCE 5-99/TMS 402-99. Reported by the Masonry
Standards Joint Committee, 1999.
2. Control Joints for Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 10-2A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 1998.
3. Designing Concrete Masonry Walls For Wind Loads, TEK 14-3A. National Concrete Masonry Association, 1995.
4. Section Properties of Concrete Masonry Walls, TEK 14-1. National Concrete Masonry Association, 1993.

NATIONAL CONCRETE MASONRY ASSOCIATION To order a complete TEK Manual or TEK Index,
2302 Horse Pen Road, Herndon, Virginia 20171-3499 contact NCMA Publications (703) 713-1900
www.ncma.org