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2. DEEP FOUNDATIONS
In the following pages, a very brief description of the various types of piles according to their
composition will be given. For detailed treatment the reader is recommended to refer to[2], [12].
[29], [35].
P P
Frictional
weak force
soil
H
Loose granuar
material
Tension
Compacted zone
Lock
Hydrostatic uplift
Anchorage
A timber pile is a trunk of a tree which is free from structural defects and properly trimmed.
Since timber is vulnerable to moisture change, it should be treated with a special preservative
(mostly creosote oil) to prevent decay. Untreated pile embedded below ground water table
permanently has a long life. However, if it is exposed above the water table it is subjected to
decay.
These piles are cast in a casting yard and transported to the construction site. They are often
made of uniform sections with pointed tips and often have a square or octagonal cross-section.
The cross-sectional area and reinforcement of these piles depend on the envisaged loading as
well as the handling stresses. The handling stresses is turn depend upon the method of lifting
and the location of the points of support. Depending upon the length of the pile the number of
the supporting points varies. Typical detail of pre-cast pile is given in Fig. 8.2. As it may be
seen from the figure, the pitch of the ties is smaller at both ends of the pile than at other areas.
This is to avoid damage due to driving. If hard driving is anticipated, driving shoes should be
provided at the tip of the pile.
8.1.2.2.2 Cast-in-place
These piles are made by pouring concrete in a prepared bore hole. Generally such piles are
divided into three categories.
A. Shell Type (Cased Type)
This type is produced by first driving a steel shell – which may be made up of a corrugated steel
or pipe – into the ground to a desired depth. The concrete is then poured in the shell. Along its
length the steel shell may be either tapered or straight [2], [12}, {35] (Fig. 8.3).
B. Shell-Less Type (Uncased Type)
In this type or pile, the shell is withdrawn while the concrete is being poured (Fig.. 8.3)
C. Pedestal Type
This type of pile has as enlarged bulb or pedestal. The pile may be cased or uncased (Fig. 8.3).
15
Deep Foundations
8 2.5 2.5 8
2D D
L
Square piles
15
0.29D
0.29D
0.42D 8
8 2D
D
L
Octagonal piles
L ( cm ) = up to 760 760 - 1070
1070 - 1530
Fig . 8.2 : Typical detail of precast piles [ 35 ] min . D( cm) = 30 36
41
Recomnended longitudinal reinforcement = 1.25 % 1.5 %
2%
Page 4
Shell type piles
Deep Foundations
30m
45m
Page 5
Deep Foundations
Composite piles consist of two different materials that are connected together. Normally the
joint between the two materials is the weak link and as a result should be properly designed. The
common types of composite piles are timber and concrete or steel and concrete.
A Timber and Concrete
In this combination the timber part is placed below the ground water level and the concrete is
then poured at the top.
B. Steel and Concrete
This type of pile is used for depths where cast-in-place piles may not easily be constructed. Steel
pipes or H-piles are driven to the required depth and then concrete is cast at the top end of the
piles.
Table 8.1: General characteristics and use of piles adapted from Teng[35]
The loading test gives reliable results. Essentially, it consists of loading one pile and recording
the load and the corresponding settlement data. One then plots the load settlement curve, from
which one determines the allowable load on the foundation. The detailed procedure for the pile
loading test is given in EBCS-7 [14].
In a very few cases, the load settlement curve may show a marked limiting value. But in most
cases the load settlement curves do not distinctly show the limiting load. As a result there are
numerous suggestions for determining the limiting load.
The limiting load is read from load-total settlement or from load-plastic settlement curves.
A . From Load Total Settlement Curves (Fig. 8.4)
The limiting pile load may be determined from one of the following methods:
(i) The point at which the end tangents of the load-settlement curve meet
(Mansur/Kaufmann 1956[27]
(ii) The point at which the curve begins to show a steeper slope (DIN 1054[8]
(iii) The point at which the curve manifests the steepest slope i.e., ds/dQ= max
(Vesic 1963[39].
(iv) ) For a total settlement of 0.1d(Terzaghi/Peck 1961[37]).
) For a total settlement of 50mm(Terzaghi/Peck 1948[36])
) For a total settlement of 25mm(New York City Building Law [quoted in 31]
) For a total settlement of 20mm(Muhs 1959, 1963[27]
Suggested limiting
loads loads Q ( MN )
Plastic
Total settlement
1
Plastic settlement
Total settlement
elastic
20
7
25
6
0.1d
4
2
settlement
50
elastic
1 Masur / kaufmann [ 22 ]
Total settlements ( mm )
2 DIN 1054 [ 8 ]
3 Vesic [ 39 ]
4 Terzaghi / Peck [ 37 ]
5 Terzaghi / Peck [ 37 ]
The allowable pile load is obtained by dividing the appropriate limiting pile load by a factor of
safety. The magnitude of the factor of safety, which ranges from 1.3 to 2.0, is dependent on the
load type and number of load tests performed. A factor of safety of 2.0 is generally accepted.
For details one is referred to EBCS-7[14]
Based on several years of experience, some codes give allowable bearing capacity for piles.
EBCS-7 does not as yet provide users with allowable values for different foundations. One may,
however, use the allowable values as recommended by the German Standards, DIN 4014[9] and
DIN 4026[11] for preliminary design.
Load Q ( MN )
Plastic settlement
Settlement ( mm )
Total
settlement
0.020d
2
6.5 4
0.025d 1
8.0
3
Plastic settlement ( mm )
1 DIN 4026 [ 11 ]
2 USA
3 Magnel [ 21 ]
4 American Association of State Highway Officials [ 1 ]
Compacted dense
sand
or semi - staff clay
t
There are numerous methods for estimating pile capacity from sounding tests[31]. Here the
methods of de Beer[6,7], USSR Code (SNi PII –B.S -67)[32], and that of Meyerhof[23, 24, 25]
will be discussed. The principles underlying the methods are presented in Fig. 8.6, 8.7 and 8.8
respectively and are self-explanatory. The method of de Beer uses the concept of limiting
depths, while the methods of the USSR Code and Meyerhof take the areas of the respective point
resistances. Meyerhof uses the results of the Standard Penetration tests, while de Beer and the
USSR Code use the results of Static Penetrometers.
Due to the relative ease of operation and low cost involved, sounding tests are preferred over
other methods. Nevertheless sounding tests do not replace loading tests. If sounding tests are
judiciously interpreted, the results they offer are reliable.
The ultimate bearing capacity obtained should be divided by a factor of safety to obtain the
allowable load. Unless dictated by prevailing codes, one may use the following factors of safety:
= 2 for piles without base
= 2.5 for piles with base
= 1.7 for wooden piles.
C dp
t gs
S1
tE
s ( t )
depth ( m )
S sb tgp
Pile
Point resistance s (2 kN /m )
dp
S1
S2
S3
8.0d
s2
S4
s1
0.7 - 4.0d
Depth t ( m )
8.1.3.4.1 General
The bearing capacity of piles may be estimated from pile-driving formulas. Basically, the
formulas use the concept of conservation of momentum and give the dynamic resistance of
penetration. Because of the swift application of the loads, the dynamic pile driving formulas are
applicable in non-cohesive soils where pore water pressures do not develop. There are numerous
formulas for estimating the dynamic resistance of piles. All of them may be classified into two
main categories, namely formulas which use the permanent set (Sp) and formulas which use both
the permanent set (Sp) and the elastic compression of the pile and soil (Se) (Table 8.7). These
quantities could be directly measured while driving the pile in question. This is done by holding
or clamping a piece of paper or board on the pile and moving a pencil horizontally across the
edge of the paper or board. A curve will be traced showing elastic compression of pile and soil
and a permanent set (Fig. 8.9). Those formulas which use Sp and Se are considered to be more
reliable.
se
sp
direction of pencil
hammer blow
movement
direction of
Clamp
Pencil
pencil
The allowable load will then be determined by dividing the ultimate dynamic resistance by a
factor of safety of 3.
It should be stated at this stage that EBCS-7 explicitly states that pile-driving formulas should
not be used without correlating the results with soil borings and loading tests or local experience.
The movement of the pile head is registered with a fast rotating drum. A pen or any other
appropriate marker is attached to the pile and is made to trace the exact movement of the pile as
the drum rotates with 50 to 100 revolutions per second, thus giving the time-deformation curve
(Fig. 8.10).
driving guide
hammer
electric motor
pen
rotating drum
pile
1
time t ( 100 sec )
first blow
pile deformation ( mm )
Sp
movement of pile
From the time deformation curve one plots the time velocity curve (Fig. 8.11b), from which the
time acceleration curve is drawn (Fig. 8.11c). Using the concept that force is equal to mass
multiplied by acceleration, one plots the variation of the dynamic resistance (Fig. 8.11d), from
which the mean dynamic resistance is calculated.
v
v6 t6
Penetration velocity ( v )
first blow
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 Time t
v5 t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 Time t
?t
movement of pile ( s )
S0 v4
?v
S1 ?t v3 ds
v = tan dt
=
S2
sp
v2
hammer ( vibration )
?s
S3 v1
S4,6 se
S5
Time w = m.b
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 w0 wdm wd max Time
b0,6 S0
b5
b4 S1
b3 A
sp
S2
b2
acceleration ( b )
dv S3 A
b = tan
dt= wdm =sp
In general the ultimate bearing capacity of a pile (Pu) equals the point resistance (Ppr) plus the
combined effect of friction and cohesions (Psf).
P u Ppr Psf A p tt c(t 1) cot
(8.1)
t
Ut m c a
where 2
Ap = cross-sectional area of pile
U = perimeter of pile
t = t vt
t = p e 2 tan (Rf. Fig. 1.15 for the definition of )
vt = shape factor (Art. 1.3.2.2.2)
p = tan2 (45 +/2)
= unit weight of the soil
t = depth of penetration of pile
c = cohesion
ca = adhesion of soil on the pile c
= angle of internal friction
m, = coefficients [34].
Considering the point resistance separately, one observes in Eq. (8.1) that the cohesion
component does not directly depend on the depth of penetration of the pile. On the other hand
the friction component is dependent on the depth t. As discussed in Art. 1.3.2.2.1, the influence
of the depth becomes negligible after the limiting depth has been reached.
It is in the analysis of Eq. (8.1) that the various authors differ. For the sake of comparison the
well-known methods have been presented (Table 8.8)
In general, the ultimate bearing capacity (Pu) may also be determined from the following
relationship:
Pu fAs qAb
(8.2)
where
f = average skin friction or adhesion per unit area of the shaft at the condition of full
mobilization of frictional resistance
q = ultimate value of the resistance per unit area of the base due to the shearing
strength of the soil
As = surface area of pile shaft
Ab = plan area of the base.
The values of f and q are either determined from full-scale tests or estimated from tests on soil
samples either in the laboratory or in situ. For the latest stand one is refer to EBCS-7[14].
The analytical approach of Eq. (8.1) attempts to show the mechanics involved as failure
progresses in the soil mass, while Eq. (8.2), does not show this. Nevertheless, since Eq. (8.2) is
partly supported by test results, it should give a better estimate of the ultimate bearing capacity.
Table 8.8: Some Suggestions for Estimating the Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Piles (quoted in 34]
t
pu p pr p sf A p [t t c(t 1) cot ] U t[ m c a ]
2
No. Author t t vt Remarks m Remarks
1 Meyer/ 2p p tan 2 (45 / 2) For sand
Peter 1 0.4 till 0.5 For clay const.
skin friction
2 Krey p ( p ) ( p ) is introduced
1 tan = wall friction
when the failure
surface is fully
mobilized
3 Dörr p 1 1 1 = angle of internal
1 tan 2 1 sin 21 above the level
cos 2 1 2 of the pile toe