Impulsive Consumer Buying as a Result of

Emotions
Peter Weinberg and Wolfgang Gottwald. I/nil-ersig c$Pderbortt

7711, 1'onl'l'pI of Ilrrplrl.sc~ blr~illg i.\ rlr.slMsr1l trrrcl l~lrll,.trl~ll’,~i,c~ll a\ c~lll~o,ll/~lr.\.silrg

plrr1hlr.sc~., Will! llr,qll l’rlloliorr1ll trl~ri\~lrrrl~lr. IOll~ c’o<f.vrrrru’ lwIlro/. llrrll 1, Icrrgl4~ r’PlllYi~‘l~

hch~~ior. A .vIfrdx i.\ i~o~rtllrcYrd 10 oIw.Uipll~ b~herlrer r~wliotf,s c~tru.sin~qirnprrlsi, buJi/r,g

can be identijiedempiricully by interview &a and observation oj’the mimicul expression
cfhuyers und nonbuyers. The results support the vu/id@ of‘the techniques employed.

Definition of Impulsive Buying Decisions

In classifications of consumer decision behavior one finds such concepts

as impulse buying 1261, spontaneous action 1371, or stimulus buying
1491, to mention only a few. These concepts cover decisions made
neither rationally nor habitually, a kind of decision behavior that cannot
be characterized by the extent ofcognitions alone.
Historically, paramount importance was assigned to the definition of
impulse buying on the basis of unplanned purchases: impulse buying is
the difference between actually concluded and previously planned
purchases. This is the predominant definition 12, 3, 15,28, 29, 35,481.
Some authors define impulsive purchases as thoughtless actions
characterized by quick acting. They are stimulated by motivation and
perception, the stimulation having to be strong enough to overcome
restraints. Measuring impulse buying as an unplanned purchase thus is
no longer sufficient 16, 23. 3 I, 441.
Kroeber-Riel [30] views impulsive consumer behavior as a directly
stimulus-controlled and therefore reactive behavior. The consumer
largely reacts to stimuli in the buying situation. Impulsive behavior also
depends on the personality of the consumer. If one views impulse
behavior as reactive. the stimuli directly control the buying decision.
Consumers’ cognitive control is limited (they do not act, only react),
whereas their affective involvement may attain different states.

.~d~i~c~ss
corrcspondc~lce to Peter Weinberg, University of’ Paderborn, Warburger Str.
100. D-4 790 Padcrhorn. Wesr Gertllany.

JOURNAL OFBUSINESSR~~EARCH~~,~~-~~ (1982)

@ Elsevier Science Publishing Co., Inc., 1982 43
52 Vanderbilt Ave., New York, NY 10017 014a-2963ia2/01043-lss2.75
44 Peter Weinberg and !Vol,@atzg Gottwald

Linking the existing definitions together [47], we see that impulsive

buying decisions can be defined on the basis of affective, cognitive, and
reactive determinants of consumer behavior:
uJktive: high activation of the consumer,
cognitive: little intellectual control of the buying decision,
rractive:largely automatic behavior actuated by a special stimulus
situation.
Thus impulsive buying decisions are “unplanned” in the sense of
“thoughtless,” but not all unplanned purchases are impulsively
decided. Unplanned purchases may be made absolutely rationally.
In order to delineate impulsive decisions, one has to look for variables
that characterize decision behavior on the three dimensions mentioned
above. Therefore it is necessary to decide at which stage of the decision
process impulsive buying decisions occur.
A buying process can be dissected into several stages, each of which
may be characterized by a higher or lesser degree of impulsivity. If one is
interested in the process of impulsive decision making, it appears
feasible to consider decision and behavior separately. The focus is on
activation and stimulus situation, and the stages in the buying decision
process of particular interest are the buying intention and/or the
purchase.
It is important to record the activation and the stimulus situation,
especially in such buying decisions or buying acts where cognitive
control is minimal. This is essential to delineate them from limited and
extensive problem solving. Since under the definition applied here,
impulsive buying decisions are accompanied by strong emotions, an
attempt must be made to determine the direction, intensity, and quality
of the stimulus pattern.

Measuring Impulsive Buying Behavior

The degree of uctivutiotz can be measured physiologically in a laboratory

and by observation in the field. In the first case, measuring galvanic skin
reaction (GSR) is especially appropriate, in the second the observation of
mimic expressions, gestures, and actions. GSR measurements as
laboratory results do not allow assertions about the purchase itself, but
record the activation that accompanies the buying decision. Obser-
vation, on the other hand, may concentrate on the specific mimic
expressions and gestures in the buying situation that characterize the
impulsivity of the buying decision and the spontaneous buying act in the
real situation.
Impulsive Buying 45

According to the definition chosen, impulse purchases are char-

acterized by the fact that cognitive processes have only little influence
upon the result of the decision. As cognitive processes occur con-
sciously, the interview is best for the collection of data. The instrument
of interviewing has been employed particularly in empirical inves-
tigations to measure unplanned purchases. The target of the interviews
was mostly the planning process. We are concerned with those buying
decisions where information processing is minimal.
Concentrating on the affective processes involved in impulse buying,
we feel it appropriate to inquire into the cognitive self-assessment of
consumers by asking for the direction, intensity, and quality of the
emotions perceived.
For the recording of the reactive processes, the combined use of
observation and interview is possible. Besides inquiring into individual
perception of the stimulus situation, one must observe the extent to
which specific stimuli trigger automatic stimulus reactions. By com-
paring the results obtained from interviewing and observation, we can
determine to which stimuli the consumer responds thoughtlessly.

An Empirical Study

Aims of the Study The following was attempted:

To record the activation that accompanies the buying decision and the
purchase by observation of the minimal expressions (affective process);
to ascertain by interview the information processing concerning the
buying decision (cognitive process), as well as the self-perception of the
emotions;
to create a stimulus situation that causes the test persons to decide
spontaneously on a purchase (reactive process).
For this purpose an artificial buying situation was created with unknown
products. This eliminated the problem of having to differentiate between
unplanned and impulsive purchases. Furthermore, the experiment was
set up in such a way that buying decision and purchase occurred at the
same time. The following questions were to be clarified:
Is it possible to ascertain various emotions by interview (self-perception)
and to observe them in the test persons’ mimical expressions (external
perception)‘?
Can impulse buyers be distinguished from nonbuyers in their emotions‘?
What are the relations between self-perception and external perception
of impulsive decision behavior’?
46 Peter Weinberg and Wolfgang Gottwald

The focus of the investigation was thus on the emotions of the test
persons that were to be revealed from the mimical expressions and by
interviewing. Measuring motoric indicators such as mimical expressions
is a nonreactive method when the observation remains unnoticed by the
test person. These measuring methods seem noteworthy for market
research when verbal or physiological methods cannot be applied (e.g.,
when the affective process occurring during the buying process or the
trial of new goods in a store is to be determined).
Origin of the Data Sample The present study was conducted at the
University of Paderbom in 1979. During four days of June a sale of
self-designed decals took place at special stands inside the university
buildings. The test persons (buyers/nonbuyers of the decals) were
secretly filmed by a video camera. The point of sale changed daily to
avoid repeat purchases as much as possible.
After the test persons left the sales stand, they were interviewed with a
standardized questionnaire by trained interviewers. They were now told
that they had been filmed during their purchase/nonpurchase and were
given the option of granting or refusing their consent for a scientific
study of the film material together with the interviews. Almost all
persons interviewed granted their consent. Fourty-seven buyers and 154
nonbuyers could be recorded.
Fifteen sequences of buyers and 15 sequences of nonbuyers were
selected from the film material and spliced together to a new film. The
criterion for selection was the quality of the pictures. The length of the
individual sequences varied between 3 and 17 seconds. This film was
then shown to 35 persons who did not belong to the test persons. Prior to
the presentation they were only informed that the film was about the sale
of decals.
They did not know which sequence showed a buyer and which a
nonbuyer. After each sequence the film was stopped and the observers
were asked to enter their impressions in a questionnaire. This part of the
investigation produced a total of 1020 individual assessments.
Psychology of Facial Expressions Mental processes, in particular
emotions, can become manifest in various ways (e.g., through changes
in skin resistance blood pressure, pulse frequency, and so on). Besides
these reactions that can be observed only with the aid of annaratuses.
directly observable indicators (e.g., mimical expressions and gestures)
can be recorded as well. Nonreactive measurements of this kind have
been tested repeatedly.
Education [22,38] is concerned with these indicators under the aspect
of teacher-student interaction, and psychiatry [X] under the aspect of
diagnosis and therapy. Social psychology [ 19,401 devotes its interests to
Impulsive Buying 47

these indicators with regard to interpersonal communication [4]. There

has also been basic research on mimical expression and gestures [5,27],
and the issue has even been treated in the popular literature [ 16,341.
Since the present investigation examined particularly mimical ex-
pression, the following refers exclusively to that aspect of nonverbal
communication. Other aspects, such as gestures and body posture, may
also provide information on mental processes, but to date facial
expression has been investigated in most cases, since it is considered a
particularly reliable indicator of emotional processes.
The investigation of how the various forms of mimical expression
come about and what mental processes are hidden behind them has a
long tradition of research. Based on findings from intercultural studies,
Darwin [7] already alleged in 1872 that the mimical expression of
emotions is predominatly genetically determined. Meanwhile we have
considerable empirical evidence for the correctness of his statement [9,
10,251.
Ekman [lo] assumes that there are genetic programs for emotions that
determine emotional expression, including the interplay of facial muscles
in specific emotions, and are fairly similar with all people. Cultural
differences in emotional expression can be attributed to conventions
that codetermine the degree to which an emotion may be shown or
has to be masked. Similarly, the consequences of emotional expressions
differ from culture to culture. These examples show that it is of particular
importance to record acts of emotional expression unobtrusively.
Up to now investigations dealt mainly with the question of how many
distinguishable emotions become manifest in facial expression. For this
purpose so-called evaluation or decoding studies were carried out in
which test persons were presented stimuli (usually potographs in which
actors displayed specific emotions) whose emotional content they were
asked either to describe freely or to classify in preconceived categories.
Thus the facial expression represented in the photographs was the
independent variable and the observers’ reaction to it the dependent
variable.
The partly contradictory results can be attributed, to a large extent, to
the difficulties in the semantic delineation of the various categories. The
same facial expressions were frequently described by different terms.
On the one hand this indicates that the verbal description of facial
expression may have been ambiguous; on the other hand, the observers
might have had different opinions of the semantic content of the given
terms. But despite these and other methodological difficulties and
inaccuracies, seven categories of emotion could be distinguished in
various investigations. Research will have to show whether further
48 Peter Weinberg and Wolfgang Gottwald

categories can be found. Ekman, Friesen, and Ellsworth [ 131 summarize

categories of emotion and possible synonyms from various studies.
Woodworth [50] realized that six different categories were frequently
confounded in various ways. He organized his categories on a 6-point
scale according to the frequency of confusion. The two categories
confounded the least were “happiness” and “contempt,” and they
therefore marked the two extreme points of his scale. The remaining
categories were arranged in accordance with their frequency of
confusion.
But Schlosberg [4 I], who continued the investigations and arrived at
similar results, found out that even the two extreme points of the scale
were often mistaken for each other. From this he concluded [42] that a
circular order similar to that of the color disk might exist for qualities of
mimical expression. He arranged the six categories in a circle and
intuitively chose two dimensions that, according to him, fit into this
order. He named the two extremes of one dimension “pleasure-
listlessness” and those of the other dimension “devotion-rejection.”
Based on these dimensions he rated the same photographs that, in 194 1,
had led him to assume the circular order. He then compared the results.
The correlation thus determined was greater than 0.9. In a later study
[43] Schlosberg added a third dimension, which he named “sleep
tension, ’ ’ or more generally, “activity level.”
In other projects the dimensions were not determined intuitively but
by improved methodological approaches. The preferred method in these
experiments was the semantic differential [ 1, 17, 20, 24, 36, 451. A
verying number of dimensions was found, but it became obvious that
two dimensions predominated: direction (pleasure-listlessness) and
strength (intensity or activity level) of an emotion.
When analyzing the qualities of mimical expression by component
and/or encoding studies, the methodological aproach is a different one.
The face is no longer regarded as an entity, but is segmented into
individual components (e.g., forehead, eye, and mouth areas). The
independent variable is not the facial expression but the emotion of the
individual on which the mimical expression depends. The individual
components of the face are then examined to find out to what extent
emotions are being expressed and change.
Various authors have investigated different types of emotions and
components in this way [ 18, 2 I, 32, 33, 461. A particularly promising
approach stems from Ekman [ 11, 12, 141. Using the FAST technique
(Facial Affect Scoring Technique), he subdivides the face into three
independent components (eyebrows/forehead, eyes/eyelids, and the
lower part of the face) each of which is assessed separately by trained
Impulsive Buying 49

observers using comparative photographs. Owing to its systematic

approach, this method seems likely to become an important tool for the
investigation of facial language in the future.

Measurement of the Variables For this empirical study a dimen-

sional/categorizing approach was chosen that draws on Reykowski [39]
who differentiates between several aspects of emotions:
strength (intensity of an emotion),
direction (directional symptom of an emotion),
quality (content of an emotion).
Based on past investigations, we selected items rated on 6-point scales
labeled from “no” through “less” to “more” and that could be
arranged as follows:
strength: stimulating, exciting, inspiring enthusiasm,
direction: amusing, pleasant, delightful,
quality: interest, boredom, surprise, astonishment, curiosity, indif-
ference, anger, enthusiasm, joy, glee, doubt.
These 17 items were used for self-perception (i.e., buyers of the decals
and nonbuyers were interviewed after leaving the point of purchase) as
well as for external perception (i.e., the evaluation of filmed test
persons’ mimical expressions by observers). In addition the observers of
the film sequences were asked to indicate whether or not, in their
opinion, the person shown in the sequence had purchased a decal. This
made it possible to distinguish between actual und presumed “impulse
buyers” on the basis of the opinions expressed by the observers.
Strength, direction, and quality of the emotions were thus recorded by
means of verbal and motoric indicators. Consequently, special at-
tention could be paid to the validity of the results.
In addition to the external perception and self-perception of the
emotions involved in the buying decision, cognitive information
processing was recorded. After the buying decision, buyers and
nonbuyers were asked what they had thought until they decided to buy or
not to buy the product. The test persons were given the option of several
answers.
Results of the Study The structure of the variables was first explored
by factor analysis. The correlation matrices were factorized separately
for adjectival and substantival items for interviews (self-perception), as
well as for film evaluations (external perception). The data were
generated by varimax rotation, and with one exception only those factors
with an eigenvalue of more than 1.O were taken into consideration.
50 Peter Weinberg and Wolfkang Gottwald

Table 1: Factor Structure of Adjectival Items

Type of
Investigation
Self-Perception External Perception
F-1 F2 Fl F2

Amusing -0.02 0.32 0.73 0.38

Stimulating 0.59 0.12 0.40 0. 76
Pleasant 0.54 0.31 0. 72 0.47
Exciting 0.61 -0.01 0.32 0. 74
Delightful 0.40 0. 74 0.87 0.30
Inspiring 0.55 0.50 0.68 0.42
enthusiasm
Eigenvalue 1.47 1.01 2.53 1.76

Tables 1 and 2 show the resulting factor structures. Table 3 assigns

hypothetical names to the dimensions thus obtained and compares them
with those found in the literature. Only variables having factor loads
greater than .50 are considered.
The results of the factor analysis can be summarized as follows (see
Table 3):

Table 2: Factor Structure of Substantival Items

Type of
Investigation
Self-Perception External Perception
FI F2 F3 Fl F2 F3
X
Interest 0.31 0.17 0.56 0.60 0.27 0.33
Boredom -0.04 0.11 -0.36 -0.60 -0.24 -0.08
Surprise 0.14 0. 71 0.15 0.15 0.27 0.72
Astonishment -0.02 0.61 -0.05 -0.01 0.08 0.73
Curiositp 0.06 0.25 0.32 0.50 0.22 0.47
Indifference -0.10 0.01 -0.51 -0.69 -0.21 --0.19
Anger 0.04 0.15 -0.02 -0.41 -0.17 0.21
Enthusiasm 0.60 -0.04 0.24 0.37 0.63 0.27
Joy 0. 79 0.13 0.08 0.26 0.82 0.32
Glee 0.30 0.18 0.19 0.24 0. 78 0.24
Doubt 0.05 0.17 0.10 -0.32 --0.4 1 0.11
Eigenvalue 1.21 1.08 0.94 1.99 2.16 1.71
Impulsive Buying 51

Table 3: Hypothetical Dimensions

Hypothetical Nomenclature Variables Variables External

Dimension in literature Self-perception Perception

Strength of attentive exciting stimulating

emotions activity stimulating exciting
inspiring
enthusiasm
(uleasant)
Direction Pleasure- delightful delightful
of emotions listlessness (inspiring amusing
enthusiasm) pleasant
(inspiring
enthusiasm)
Quality of glee joy joy
emotions enthusiasm glee
joy enthusiasm
surprise surprise surprise astonishment
astonishment surprise
interest interest interest -indifference
indifference interest
-boredom
curiosity

Identical hypothetical dimensions can be found for external perception

and self-perception.
The nomenclature chosen corresponds to that reported in the literature
[131.
In self-perception as well as in external perception, a distinction can be
made between the strength and the direction of emotions.
The items can be grouped according to three factors indicating the
qualities of emotions: joy, surprise, interest. Such items as doubt and
anger remain unclear. In view of their negative emotional direction it
could be expected that these categories would remain unoccupied.
The results of the factor analysis show that it is possible to record
different emotions by interview and to observe them in the mimical
expression of the test persons. Apparently, in both tests the results reflect
the same emotional dimensions. It now seems of interest to find out
whether the buyers under examination reflect the characteristics of
impulse buyers and how they can be distinguished from nonbuyers.
Tables 4 and 5 show mean ratings for the 17 items for buyers and
52 Peter Weinberg and Wolfgang Gottwald

Table 4: Mean Ratings Obtained from Self-perception

f
Actual Buyers Actual Nonbuyers
Item (n = 47) (n q 154) Difference 5

Amusing 3.74 3.09 +0.65ad

Stimulating 1.89 1.66 +0.23
Pleasant 2.89 2.48 +0.41
Exciting 1.45 1.32 +0.13
Delightful 3.49 2.89 +0.6OaC
Inspiring enthusiasm 2.55 1.75 +0.80bd
Interest 3.57 2.46 +J.l Jbd
Boredom 0.23 0.49 -0.26
Surprise 1.60 1.90 -0.30
Astonishment 0.89 1.51 -0.62bc
Curiosity 2.66 2.91 -0.25
Indifference 0.32 0.94 -0.62ad
Anger 0.00 0.16 -0.16=
Enthusiasm 1.89 0.71 +l.l8bd
Joy 1.79 0.92 +0.87bd
Glee 3.28 2.52 +0.76bd
Doubt 0.57 0.79 -0.22

(1 Significant 01< 0.05

b Significant (Y< 0.01 X2-test
C Significant OL$ 0.05 I_test
d Significant OL4 0.01

nonbuyers for external perception and self perception. T-tests as well as

chi-square tests for the self-perception data show that the buyers assess
themselves as significantly more amused, more delighted, and more
enthusiastic than nonbuyers. They perceived the direction and strength
of their emotions more distinctly than did nonbuyers.
In addition, buyers experienced significantly more interest, enthu-
siasm, joy, and glee, but less astonishment and indifference than
nonbuyers. These qualities of emotions thus also allow us to discriminate
between buyers and nonbuyers on the basis of their self-perception.
Comparing these results with the most essential characteristics of
impulsive decision behavior (here, significant stimulus situation and
strong activation), we may consider the buyers examined to be impulsive
buyers (i.e., such buyers who have impulsively decided to buy). The
self-perception of their emotional behavior differed significantly from
nonbuyers.
Table 5: Mean Ratings Obtained from External Perception 3
-ci
E
k
act. buyers act. nonbuyers ?’
(rl = 5 1OI.j. (n = 5 lo)./. k
X, F2 pres. buyers pres. nonbuyers G
-.
Actual Actual Presumed Presumed (II = 318) (II = 702)
S
Buyers Nonbuyers Difference Buyers Nonbuyers Difference Difference Difference
Item (n =-5 10) (fi = sio) fl (n z-318) (n = 702) x2 f3 xq

Amusing 3.06 2.25 +0.81b“ 3.33 2.34 +o.!W’d -o.wd -0.09

Stimulating 2.49 2.07 +o.4zbd 2.94 1.98 +&96bd -o.dW +0.09
Pleasant 2.69 2.21 +0.48bd 3.26 2.09 +1.17bd -o.s7bd +0.12
Exciting 2.18 1.11 +0.4 1bd 2.48 1.74 +o.74bd -o.joad +0.03
Delightful 2.86 2.19 +0.67bd 3.36 2.15 +1.21bd -o.sobd +0.04
Inspiring
enthusiasm 2.20 1.73 +o.47bd 2.70 1.63 +l.o7bd -osobd +0.10
Interest 3.08 2.68 +o.Wd 3.70 2.51 +l.lW -0.6 2bd +o.l7bc
Boredom 1.52 1.92 -0.4obd 0.97 2.06 -1.09bd +o.W’d -0.14
Surprise 2.63 2.38 +o.wd 2.83 2.36 +o.b-Ibd -0.20” +0.02
Astonishment 2.49 2.53 -0.04 2.50 2.52 -0.02b -0.01 +0.01
Curiosity 2.90 2.61 +o.29 3.32 2.50 +0.82b‘f -o.42bd +0.11
Indifference 1.60 1.89 -0.2Pd 0.90 2.13 -1.2W +o.Tobd -0.24
Anger 0.86 0.97 -0.11 0.49 1.10 -0.6 lbd +o.37bd -0.13
Enthusiasm 2.04 1.61 +0.43 2.58 1.49 +l.o9d -o.sW +0.12
Joy 2.43 1.78 +0.6@ 2.95 1.72 +1.2W -os2bd +0.06
Glee 2.86 2.02 +o.S4bd 3.35 2.03 +1.32bd -o.M’d -0.01
Doubt 2.18 2.60 -o.42bd 1.47 2.8 1 -1.Wd +o.Tlbd -0.21c

4 Significant OLQ 0.05

b Significant (YQ 0.01 X2-test
c Significant a < 0.05
r-test
d Significant (I < 0.01
54 Peter Weinberg and Wolfgang Gottwald

The t- and chi-square test for the external perception data show that,
except for “astonishment” and “anger,” actual buyers are perceived as
more emotionalized than actual nonbuyers (cf. X1). This shows that
mimical expression serves as a useful indicator in the discrimination
between purchase and nonpurchase.
Since the observers had to indicate, after each film sequence, whether
in their opinion the persons shown had been buyers or nonbuyers, groups
of presumed buyers and presumed nonbuyers could be distinguished.
From the total of 1020 statements, 3 18 indicated presumed buyers and
702 presumed nonbuyers. In all items presumed buyers were classified
as significantly more emotionalized than presumed nonbuyers (cf. X2).
The results concerning cognitive information processing confirm that
there is a significant (Q 5 0.05) relationship between the buying decision
made and the contributing cognitive factor “intended use of the decals. ”
But these relationships are relatively weak (a,,,, < 0.3), so that we can
say that purchases are only moderately controlled by the uses intended.
In addition, the influence of price was spontaneously rated as “less
interesting” by most buyers.
This finding about the buyers’ low cognitive involvement is supported
by their self-reported global emotional involvement, which was re-
corded for control purposes ( aCO, > 0.6). In interpreting these results,
we must give additional consideration to the fact that the interview may
have provoked post hoc justifications for the purchase. On the whole, it
appears highly problematic to record the cognitive control of impulse
purchases by interviewing.

Summary of Findings

The most essential results of this study are summarized as follows:

Impulse buyers assess themselves as being more emotionalized than
nonbuyers.
Impulse buyers differ significantly in their mimical expressions from
nonbuyers.
Information processing plays a part in the buying decision. But despite
the possibility of laterjustification of the buying behavior, its influence is
smaller than that of the emotional engagement.
The data are not representative but methodologically oriented to test
whether and how emotions in impulsive buying decisions can be
recorded. Identical factor structures could be found for external and
self-perception. The “facial language” of people seems to be a valid
indicator for emotions in impulse buying decisions.
Impulsive Buying 55

References

1. Abelson, Robert P., and Sermat, Vello, Multidimensional Scaling of Facial Expres-
sions, J. Experimental Psy. 63, No. 6 (1962): 546-554.

2. Applebaum, William, Studying Customer Behavior in Retail Stores, J. Marketing

16 (1951): 172-178.

3. Bellenger, Danny N., Robertson, Dan H., and Hirschmann, Elizabeth C., Impulse
Buying Varies by Product, J. Advertising Rex 18 (December 1978): 15-18.

4. Birdwhistell, Ray L., Inrroduction to Kinesics. University of Louisville Press,

Louisville, Ky., 1952.

5. Buser, Remo,Ausdruckspsychologie. Reinhardt, Munich, 1973.

6. Dahlhoff, Hans-Dieter, Ungeplante und impulsive Kaufentscheidungen, working

paper no. 19, Institute for Marketing, University of Mlinster, Mlinster, 1979.

7. Darwin, Charles, The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals. Murray,

London, 1872.

8. Dietrich, R., Psychodiagnostik. Reinhardt, Munich, 1973.

9. Eibl-Eibesfeld, Irenjius, Der vorprogrammierte Mensch, 2nd ed., dtv, Munich,

1977.

10. Ekman, Paul, ed., Darwin and Facial Expression: A Century of Research in Re-
view. Academic Press, New York, 1973.

11. Ekman, Paul, and Friesen, Wallace V., Unmasking the Face. Prentice Hall, Engle-
wood Cliffs, N.J., 1975.

12. Ekman, Paul, and Friesen, Wallace V., The Facial Action Code: A Manual for the
Measurement of Facial Movement. The Consulting Psychologists’ Press, Palo Alto,
Cal., 1978.

13. Ekman, Paul, Friesen, Wallace V., and Ellsworth, P., Emotion in the Human Face.
Pergamon Press, New York, 1972.

14. Ekman, Paul, Friesen, Wallace V., and Tomkins, Silvan S., Facial Affect Scoring
Technique: A First Validity Study,Semiorica 3, No. 1 (1971): 37-58.

15. Engel, James F., Blackwell, Roger D., and Kollat, David T., Consumer Behavior,
3rd ed. Dryden Press, Hillsdale, 1978.
16. Fast, Julius, Kiirpersprache. Rowohlt, Reinbek, 1972.
17. Frijda, Nice H., and Philipszoon, Els, Dimensions of Recagnitian of Emotion, J.
Abnormal Sot. Psy. 66, No. 1 (1963): 45-51.
18. Fulcher, J. S., Voluntary Facial Expression in Blind and Seeing Children, Archives
of Psy. 38, No. 272 (1942).
19. Graumann, Carl F., Interaktion und Kommunikation, inHandbuch derPsychologie,
7th Vol. 2. Halbband. Carl F. Graumann, ed., Hogrefe, Gottingen, 1972, p. 1109-
1262.
20. Hastorf, Albert H., Osgood, Charles E., and Ono, Hiroshi, The Semantics of Facial
Expressions and the Prediction of the Meanings of Stereoscopically Fused Facial
Expressions, Scandinavian J. Psy. 7 (1966): 179-189.
56 Peter Weinberg and Wolfgang Gottwald

21. Heimann, H., and Lukacs, G., Eine Methode zur quantitativen Analyse der mimi-
schen Bewegung, Archiv fur die gesamte Psychologie 118, No. 1 (1966): l-17.
22. Heinemann, Peter, Grundrip einer Padagogik der nonverbaien Kommunikation.
Univ.- und Schulbuchverlag, Kastellaun, 1976.

23. Hoepfner, Friedrich G., Beeinflussung des Verbraucherverhaltens. Goldmann,

Munich, 1975.

24. Hofstatter, Peter F., Dimensionen des mimischen Ausdrucks, Zeitschrift fu.r ex-
perimentelle und angewandte Psychologie 3 (1955): 505-529.

25. Izard, Canoll E., The Face o,fEmotion. Appleton, New York, 1971.

26. Katona, George, The Powerful Consumer, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1960.

27. Kirchhoff, Robert, ed., Handbuch der Psychologie, 5th ed., Ausdruckspsycho-
logie, 2nd ed., Hogrefe, Gdttingen, 1972.

28. Kollat, David T., and Willet, Ronald P., Customer Impulse Purchasing Behavior.
LMarketingRes. 4 (February 1967): 21-31.

29. Kollat, David T., and Willet, Ronald P., Is Impulse Purchasing Really a Useful
Concept for Marketing Decisions?, J. Marketing 33 (January 1969): 79-83.

30. Kroeber-Riel, Werner, Konsumentenverhalten, 2nd ed. Vahlen, Munich, 1980.

31. Kuhlmann, Eberhard, Impulsives Kaufverhalten, working paper 26 of the Institut

fir Konsum- und Verhaltensforschung der Universitat des Saarlandes, Saarbriicken,
1974.

32. Landis, Carney, and Hunt, W. A., The Startle Pattern, Johnson Repr., New York,
1939.

33. Leonhard, Karl, Der menschliche Ausdruck in Mimik. Gestik und Phonik. Barth,
Leipzig, 1976.

34. Morris, Desmond, Der Mensch mit dem wir leben, Droemer-Knaur, Munich, 1978.

35. Neske, Fritz, and Heuer, Gerd F., Handlexikon Werbung und Marketing. Fischer,
Frankfurt, 1973.

36. Osgood, Charles E., Dimensionality of the Semantic Space for Communication via
Facial Expressions, Scandinavian J. Psy. 7 (1966): I-30.

31. Raffle, Hans, Konsumenteninformation und Beschaffungsentscheidung des pri-

vaten Haushalts. Poeschel, Stuttgart, 1969.

38. Reinert, Gerd-Bodo, and Thiele, Joachim, Nonverbale padagogische Kommuni-

kation. Ehrenwirth, Munich, 1977.

39. Reykowski, Janusz, Psychologie der Emotionen. Auer, Donauworth, 1973.

40. Scherer, Klaus R., and Wallbott, Harald D., eds., Nonverbale Kommunikation:
Forschungsberichte sum Interaktionsverhalten. Beltz, Weinheim, 1979.

41. Schlosberg, Harold, A Scale for the Judgment of Facial Expression, J. Experi-
mentalPsy. 29 (1951): 497-510.
42. Schlosberg, Harold, The Description of Facial Expressions in Two Dimensions,
J. ExperimentalPsy. 44, No. 4 (1952): 229-237.
Impulsive Buying 57

43. Schlosberg, Harold, Three Dimensions of Emotion, Psychol. Rev. 61, No. 2
(1954): 81-88.
44. Stern, Hawkins, Significance of Impulse Buying Today, J. Marketing 26 (April
1962): 59-62.
45. Sweeny, D. R., Tindling, D. C., and Schmale, A. H., Dimensions of Affective Ex-
pression in Four Expressive Modes, Behav. Sci. 15 (September 1970): 393-407.
46. Thompson, J., Development of Facial Expression of Emotion in Blind and Seeing
Children,Archives Psy. 37, No. 264 (1941).
4-l. Weinberg, Peter, Vereinfachung von Kaufentscheidungen bei Konsumgtitern,
Marketing-Zeitschrift ftir Forschung und Praxis 2 (1980): 87-94.

48. West, John C., Results of Two Years of Study into Impulse Buying, J. Marketing
15 (1951): 362-363.

49. Wiswede, Giinter, Motivation und Verbraucherverhalten, 2nd ed. Reinhardt,

Munich, 1973.

50. Woodworth, Robert S., Experimental Psychology, Holt, Reinhart and Winston,
New York, 1938.