c

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c
c
Science and Engineering Technology depends on the
technique of measurement for a significant achievement
in research and production.
The human senses cannot provide exact quantitative
information about the events occuring in our environment
and thus scienctific instruments are employed to enable
human to observe and measure aspects of ph ysical
universe beyond the range and precision of an unaided
human senses.
J
 
are the essential extensions of human
sensing and perception without which scientific
exploration of nature would be impossible. Basic to all
engineering is design and basic to all design is the
measurements. Whatever exists, exists in some amounts
and thus needs to be quantified. If an engineer or
scientist were to be deprived of his measuring devices, his
discorveries or intellectual works would be reduced to
guessing and speculation.
 ccan be defined as a means for describing
the various physical and chemical parameters of
materials in quantitative terms. It is the process by which
one can convert physical parameters to meaningful
number. The result of measurement is expressed as:




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For example; 10cm lenght implies that the object is 10

times as large as 1cm (standard) . For consistence and
quantitative comparison of physical parameters, certain
standards of mass, length, time, temperature and
electrical quantities have been established.

c  c c
The standard measure of each kind of physical quantity is
the Unit; the number of times the unit oc curs in any
given amount of the same quantity is the number of
measure. Without the unit, the number of measure has
no physical meaning.
The very first measurement units were those used in
barter trade to quantify the amounts being exchanged
and to establish clear rules about the relative values of
different commodities. The early establishment of
standards for the measurement of physical quantities
proceeded in several countries at broadly parallel times,
and in consequence, several sets of units emerged for
measuring the same physical variable. For instance,
length can be measured in yards, meters, or several other
units. Apart from the major units of length, subdivisions
of standard units exist such as feet, inches, centimeters
and millimeters, with a fixed relationship between each
fundamental unit and its subdivisions.
Yards, feet and inches belong to the Imperial System of
units, which is characterized by having varying and
cumbersome multiplication factors relating fundamental
units to subdivisions suc h as 1760 (miles to yards), 3

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(yards to feet) and 12 (feet to inches). The metric system
is an alternative set of units, which includes for instance
the unit of the meter and its centimeter and millimeter
subdivisions for measuring length.
All multiples and subdivisions of basic metric units are
related to the base by factors of ten and such units are
therefore much easier to use than Imperial units.
However, in the case of derived units such as velocity, the
number of alternative ways in which these can be
expressed in the metric system can lead to confusion. As
a result of this, an internationally agreed set of standard
units (SI units or Syst`emes Internationals d·Unit´es) has
been defined, and strong efforts are being made to
encourage the adoption of this system throughout the
world. In support of this effort, the SI system of units will
be used exclusively in this book. However, it should be
noted that the Imperial system is still widely used,
particularly in America and Britain. The European Union
has just deferred planned legislation to ban the use of
Imperial units in Europe in the near future, and the latest
proposal is to introduce such legislation to take effect
from the year 2010

c ccc c
To measure an unknonwn we must have acceptable unit
standard for the property that is to be assessed. Since
there are virtually hundreds of different quantities that
man is called upon to measure, it would seem that
hundreds of different standard units would be required.

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Fortunately, this is not the case. By choosing a small

number of basic quantities as standards, we can define
all the other in terms of these few.
The basic units are called fundamentals, while all the
others which can be expressed in terms of fundamental
units are called derived units, and formed by multiplying
or dividing fundamental units. The primary fundamental
units which most commonly used are lenght, mass, and
time, while measurement of certain physical quantities in
thermal, electrical, and illumination discip line are also
represented by fundamental units. These units are used
only when these particular classes are involved, and they
may therefore be defined as auxiliary fundamental units.
Every derived unit originates from some physical law
defining that unit. For example, the voltage [volt]:

¬
 
   
 ¬ {
 



 
  

 
    






  
¬

 













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  ´





 





  


  

 

This is the basic S.I units of volt.

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¬ 
 
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Table 1.1 below shows the six basic S.I quantity and
units of measurement, with their unit symbol:
›

  
 
 
 
 

 

   
    
› 
 
   
›    
     
  

   
!
"   #
   
 
 
 
 

$   
  


  
  

!" 
 
 
 
 
 




Area Square metre m2

Volume cubic metre m3
Velocity metre per second m/s
Acceleration metre per second squared m/s2
Angular velocity radian per second rad/s
Angular acceleration radian per second squared rad/s2
Density kilogram per cubic meter kg/m3
Specific volume cubic metre per kilogram m3/kg
Mass flow rate Kilogram per second kg/s
Volume flow rate cubic metre per second m3/s
Force newton N Kgm/s2
Pressure newton per square metre N/m2
Torque newton meter Nm
Momentum kilogram meter per second kgm/s

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¬ 
 
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Moment of inertia kilogram meter squared kgm2

Kinematic viscosity Square meter per second m2/s
Dynamic viscosity newton second per square meter Ns/m2
Work, energy, heat Joule J Nm
Specific energy Joule per cubic meter J/m3
Power Watt W J/s
Thermal conductivity Watt per meter kelvin W/mK
Electric charge Coulombs C As
Voltage, emf, p.d Volt V W/A
Electric field strength volt per meter V/m
Electric resistance Ohms º V/A
Electric capacitance Farad F As/V
Electric inductance Henry H Vs/A
Electric conductance Siemen S A/V
Resistivity Ohm meter ºm
Permitivity farad per meter F/m
Permeability Henry per meter H/m
Current density Ampere per square metre A/m2
Magnetic flux Webber Wb Vs
Magnetic flux density Tesla T Wb/m2
Magnetic field strenght Ampere per metre A/m
Frequency Hertz Hz s-1
Luminous flux Lumen lm cdsr
Luminance candela per square metre cd/m 2

Illumination Lux lx lm/m2

Molar volume Cubic metre per mole m3/mol
Molarity Mole per kilogram mol/kg
Molar energy joule per mole J/mol

A derived unit is recongnized by its dimensions, which

can be defined as the complete algebraic formula for the
derived unit. The dimentsional symbols for the
fundamental units of lenght, mass and time are U c cand

c c
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, respectively. So the dimensional symbol for the derived
!

unit of voltage as analysed is: "  ´
 ! 

›
 .
 › 

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The units in actual use are divided into submultiples for
the purpose of measuring quantities smaller than the unit
itself. Futhermore, multiples of units are designated and
named so that measurement of quantities much larger
than the unit is facilitated. Table 1.1 lists the decimal
multiples and submultiples of units.
›

Name Symbol Equivalent
Tetra T 1012
Giga G 109
Mega M 106
Kilo K 103
Milli m 10-3
Micro  10-6
Nano n 10-9
Pico p 10-12

cc cc c

A standard of measurement is a physical representation
of a unit of measurement. A unit is realized by reference
to an arbitrary material standard or to natural
phenonmena including physical and atomic con stants.

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Standard of measurement classified by their function and
application in the following categories:
1.c International standards
2.c Primary Standards
3.c Secondary standards
4.c working standards
› 
   

 
are defined by
international agreement. They represent certain units of
measurements to the closest pos sible accuracy that
production and measurement technology allow. These
standards are maintained at the International Bureau of
weights and measures in America and not available to the
ordinary user of measuring instruments.
› 




 
are maintained by
national standards laboratories in different parts of the
world. The National Bureau of standards (NBS) in
America, National Physical Laboratory (NPL) in Britain,
and Physikalisch Technische in Germany. The primary
standards represent the fundamental units and some of
the derived mechanical and electrical units. Primary
standards are not available for use outside the national
laboratories. One of the main functions of primary
standards is the verification and calibration of secondary
standards.
 

 
are the basic reference standards
used in industrial measurement laboratories. These
standards are maintained by the particularly involved
industry and are generally sent to the national standards

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laboratories (primary) on a periodic basis for caliberation

and comparison.
!"c  are the principal tools of a
measurement laboratory. They are used to check and
caliberate general laboratory instrument for accuracy and
performance or to perform comparison measurements in
industrial applications. A manufacturer of precision
resistances, for example, may use a standard resistor (a
working standard) in the quality control department of his
plant to check his testing equipment.

#c $c
cEvery measuring instruments has a scale w hich has
been appropriately graduated to indicate the magnitude of
the variable or quantity under measurement. For digital
instrument the numerical value is indicated or displayed
straight away at the 
     of the instrument but
for analogue instruments we have basically two types of
scale ² Linear scale and non-linear scale.
Uc $c c Shown in figure 1.1 bellow, where the
divisions or graduation are evenly space d. The voltmeter
shown has a range 0-100V, i.e. a full-scale deflection
(f.s.d) of 100V.

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c

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A % scale is shown below in figure 1.2 below.
The scale is cramped at the begining and the graduation
are uneven throughout the range. The ammeter shown
has a f.s.d. of 15A.

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Today, the techniques of measurement are of immense
importance in most facets of human civilization. Present
day applications of measuring instruments can be
classified into three major areas.
The first of these is their use in regulating trade, applying
instruments that measure physical quantities such as
length, volume and mass in terms of standard units.
The second application area of measuring instruments is
in monitoring functions. These provide information that
enables human beings to take some p rescribed action
accordingly.c For example, regular study of a barometer
allows us to decide whether we should take our umbrellas
if we are planning to go out for a few hours. Whilst there
are thus many uses of instrumentation in our normal
domestic lives. The majority of monitoring functions of
instrumentation exist to provide the information
necessary to allow a human being to control some
industrial operation or process. In a chemical process for
instance, the progress of chemical reactions is indicated

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by the measurement of temperatures and pressures at
various points, and such measurements allow the
operator to take correct decisions regarding the electrical
supply to heaters, cooling water flows, valve positions etc.
The third application of measurement instrumentation is
in its use as part of automatic feedback control systems.
Figure 1.1 shows a functional block diagram of a simple
temperature control system in which the temperature Ta
of a room is maintained at a reference value T d. The value
of the controlled variable T a, as determined by a
temperature-measuring device, is compared with the
reference value T d, and the difference e is applied as an
error signal to the heater. The heater then modifies the
room temperature until T a = Td.

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($ $c c
1.c Define Measurement and discuss its importance
in engineering and scientific works.
2.c Explain the term 
of measurement.
3.c Analyse the unit of the following Physica l
quantities and write their basic S.I Units and
dimension; i. Pressure ii. Torque, iii. Density.
4.c What do you understand by Standard of
measurement? Explain four types of Standards
that you know.
5.c Discuss the application of measurement
techniqes in;
i.c Trade regulation
ii.c Our day to day activities.
iii.c Industrial process.
iv.c Automatic feedback control system.

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There are certain characteristics of instruments that
influences the choice we make for our measurement.
Depending of the quantity or variable we want to measur e
certain attribute like accuracy, cost, range, sensitivity
e.t.c of measuring instruments affects our choice of
choice of them. These influencial factors are described in
the following section.c

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c$$$)c
It represent how $ ) an  c "c
approaches the c c of the variable being
measured. The deviation of the measured value from the
true value is the indication of how accurate the reading
is. In practice, it is more usual to quote the    
figure rather than the accuracy figure for an instrument.
Inaccuracy is the extent to which a reading might be
wrong, and is often quoted as a percentage of the full -
scale (f.s.) reading of an instrument. If, for example, a
pressure gauge of range 0²10 bar has a quoted
inaccuracy of 1.0% f.s. (1% of fullscale reading), then the
maximum error to be expected in any reading is 0.1 bar.
This means that when the instrument is reading 1.0 bar,

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the possible error is 10% of this value. The knowledge of
the accuracy figure of an instrument will provide us the
estimate of the expected error of measurement using such
instrument.
For example:
 %  &%'       # ( # #  

  ›   !"  )
   * *  
   +,'       ! 
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It is defined as that region enclosed by the limits within
which a particular quantity is measured. Choice of range
is very important in measurement, if you choose a range
too small for the signal being measured, it may damage
the instrument and if the range chosen is too large the
percentage expected error is increased. Thus the range

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that will be chosen for a particular measurement should
be such that the indication is close to the full scale
deflection specification of the instrument.

For 60V the error is:

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Õ


 

Õ  

Õ 
Õ
›
 

And for 30V

›



Õ


â

Õ â

Õ â Õ
›
 

The range 0-150V is too large for the true value of the
measured voltage and thus the percentage error increases
as the measure value decreases. The the choice of range
should be such that the measured value will be close to
the full scale deflection of the range.


cc
It is algebraic difference of the upper and lower limits of
the range. For example The span of a (0 to10) voltmeter is
Span= 10-0=10 state. But the span for (-10 to +10)
voltmeter is Span= 10-(-10) =20 state


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It·s the change of circuit parameter, characteristic, or
behaviour due to instrument operation without
maintainance.


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It represents the ratio of output signal to a change in
input, or it represent the response output of the

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instrument to a change of its input. It is a measure of the
change in instrument output that occurs when the
quantity being measured changes by a given amount.
Thus if the value of the measured quantity is plotted
against the output value of an instrument, the sensitivity
of the instrument is given by the slope of the straight line
graph.
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Graphical representation of instrument
sensitivity.


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The smallest change in input that the instrument can
respond to, or the ratio of output to smallest change in
input.


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The deviation of the measured value from the true value.
c

cc c
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The complete statement of any measurement result has
three elements: the   in terms of which the result is
stated; a  which states the magnitude of the result
in terms of the chosen unit; and its     1the

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experimenter·s estimate of the range wit hin which the
result may differ from the actual value of the quantity.
Any physical measurement is uncertain to some extent,
and errors are present in all phases of the measurement
process.
No measurement can be made with perfect accuracy, but
its important to find out what the accuracy actually is ,
and how different errors have entered to the
measurement. So study of error is a first steps in finding
ways to reduce them. Errors may come from different
sources and are usually classified under two main
heading:


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These are types of errors that have known reasons, and
can be avoided, reduced or eliminated, and estimated.
These errors are subdivided into:
,c- c./,c c
,cMisreading of instruments and observation errors.
,c Improper choice of instrument, or the range of
instrument.
,cIncorrect adjustment or forgetting to zero.
,c Erroneous calculations, computation mistakes, and
estimation errors.
,cNeglect of loading effects.
,cWrong positioning of the user.
,c
 c.0,c c
,c Damaged equipment such as defective due to loading
effect or worn-out parts.

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,cCalibration errors.
,cBearing friction or loose gears.
,cComponent nonlinearities.
,cLoss during transmission.
,cinproper position of equipment (vertical or horizontal).
,cerror due to static charge.
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,cChange in temperature, pressure and Humidity.
,cStray electric and magnetic fields.
,cMechanical vibration.
,cWeather variations (day, night, and four s easons).


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cis an act or process of making adjustments
or marking on an index scale so that the readings of a
measuring device conform to an accepted and certified
standard. Errors that can generate from these process are
classified as  
  1types of which are
discussed as follows:
i. uc : This occur when the pointer or indication
of the instrument does not read zero when no input signal
is applied to it. If the indicated reading from instrument
with Zero error is plotted compared with the correct
reading from a standard guage the graph will be as shown
in figure 2.2a.
ii. "c : In the effect of Range error, the
instrument may be correct at the minimum (i.e zero
reading, when there is no input signal), but it deviates
from the actual value in the range of the instrument. The

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graph of the indicated reading compared with the correct
reading from a standard guage is shown in figure 2.2b.
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(a) (b)
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iii. /)   : Hysteresis is produced when the

displayed values are too small for increasing signals and
too large for decreasing signals. This is commonly caused
in mechanical instruments by loose gears and friction.
iv. %c: The calibration may be correct at
the maximum and minimum values of the range but the
graph joining them may not be a straight line (when it
ought to be). The graph of readings from an instrument
with Hysteresis and Non-linear error compared with
readings from a standard guage is shown in figure 2.3a
and 2.3b respectively.

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(a) (b)
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These are errors due to causes that can not be directly

established because of unknown events that cause small
variation in measurement. They are quite random and
cannot be explained. We can reduce this type of errors
after addressing the systematic errors by taking many
readings and applying statistical methods to determine
the best true estimate of measuremen t readings.
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These errors are due to unknown causes and occur even
when all systematic errors have been accounted for. In
well designed experiments few random errors usually
occur, but they become important in high accuracy work.
The only way to offset these errors is by increasing the
number of readings and using statistical means to obtain
the best approximation of the true value of the quantity
under measurement.
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To make statistical methods useful, the systematic errors

should be small compared with random errors because
statistical treatment can not improve the accuracy of
measurement.
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It·s the value that lies in the medial number of measured

variable and represents the most accurate measured
value for the true value. Arithmetic mean is given by:

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È  ( 
, where Xi is the reading values taken, and F i
È 

is the number of times that each reading occur in the

measurements, or the frequency number of each reading.
2. ccc.,c
Deviation is the departure of a given reading from the
mean value. It·s given by:

  >
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The deviation from the mean may have a positive or a

negative value and the algebraic su m of all the deviation
must be zero in symmetrical curve.
3 "cc.,c
The average deviation is the sum of the absolute values of
deviations divided by the number of readings.
ë D ¬  ë 
)â where   
and n=number of all readings.
D

4. c.1,c
It is the root mean square deviation and the standard
deviation represents the variation of the reading from the
mean value, for a finite number of reading.

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It is defined as mean square stand ard deviation
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It is the maximum chance (50%) that any given
measurement will have a random error not greater than

r. Probable error 
is given by

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The following readings were recorded for voltage

measurement:

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& c2
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c2
& c2
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Calculate:
1. Arithmetic mean (X)
2. Deviation from the mean (d)
3. Average deviation (D)
4. standard deviation (ǔ)
5. Variance (V)
6. probable error (±r) 
 

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9.7 3 40.1
9.6 2 -0.2
10.2 1 0.4

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1.c Briefly describe eight (8) factors that affects the
choice of instrument to be used for a measurment.
2.c A thermometer has a range from -20 to 1500C. The
accuracy is guaranteed to ±3% f.s.d. If the true
value under measurement is 90 0C, determine the
possible values that can be indicated by th e
thermometer.
3.c Defferentiate between the range and the span of an
instrument. Explain how the choice of range in a
measurement affects the readings from such
measurment.
4.c A digital thermometer reads from -120 to + 300 0C.
The accuracy is guaranteed to plus or minus 2%
f.s.d. Determine the possible true values of the
measured temperature if the thermometer reads
800C.
5.c In an experiment involving temperature
mesurement, the following readings were recorded
in 0C: 20.1, 19.8, 20.3, 20.1, 19.7. 20.1,19.8, 19.6,
19.7, 20.1.
Calculate:
i. Arithmetic mean (X)
ii. Deviation from the mean (d)
iii. Average deviation (D)
iv. standard deviation (ǔ)
v. Variance (V)
vi. probable error (±r)

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6.c The table below shows the correponding change in

the resistance of a platinum resistance
thermometer to temperature. Plot the graph of
Temperature against resistance and hence,
determine the measurement sensitivity of the
instrument in ohms/°C. If the temperature changes
by 3000C, what is the change in resistance of the
thermometer? Also determine the temperature
when the instruments reading is 295º.
2  (º) ›  (°C)
307 200
314 230
321 260
328 290
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Electrical indicating and test instruments can be
classified under the following headings;
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The measuring instrument that use mechanical

movement of electromagnetic meter to measure voltage,
current, power, etc. is called 
measuring
instrument, so the heart of these instruments was the
d·Arsonval meter, while any measurement system that
uses d·Arsonval meter with amplifiers to increase the
sensitivity of measurements is called  

instrument.
c" 
 

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An  
instrument are the instrument that use
analogue signal (signal varying in continuous fashion and
take on an infinite number of values in any given range)
to display the magnitude of quantity under measurement.
The 
instrument use digital sign al (signal which
vary in discrete steps and take up only finite different
values in a given range, (like binary signal which take
only two levels zero and one) to indicate the results of
measurement in digital form.
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In 

instrument the measured value is given in
term of instrument constants and the deflection of one
part of the instrument e.g. tangent galvanometer, and
Rayliegh current balance. In these instruments no
calibrated scale is necessary. While in
 

instruments, the quantity of the measured values is

obtained by observing the output indicated by these
instruments.
These classes of instruments are interweaven as a digital
instrument can be classified as an electronic instrument,
an analogue instrument can be classified under electrical
instrument both can be futher classified as an absolute or
secondary instrument. In the next section we will discribe
Measuring instrument in terms of digital and analogue
instrument and in the discussion further classifications
will be identified and discussed.

c "c c
All types of digital meter are basically modified forms of
the digital voltmeter (DVM), irrespective of the quantity
that they are designed to measure. Digital meters
designed to measure quantities other than voltage are in
fact digital voltmeters that contain appropriate electrical
circuits to convert the measured quantities into voltage
signals.    are also essentially digital
voltmeters that contain several conversion c ircuits, thus
allowing the measurement of voltage, current and
resistance within one instrument.

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Digital meters have been developed to satisfy a need for
higher measurement accuracies and a faster speed of
response to voltage changes than can be achieve d with
analogue instruments.
The binary nature of its output reading can be readily
applied to a display that is in the form of discrete
numerals. It also has a very high input impedance (10Mƺ
compared with 1² 20 kƺ for analogue meters).
The ability to measure signals of frequency up to 1MHz
and the common inclusion of features such as automatic
ranging, which prevents overload and reverse polarity
connection etc. are the advantages of Digital meters over
analogue.
Moreover, the greater cost of digital meters due to the
higher manufacturing costs compared with analogue
meters makes the analogue meter preferable in a
situation where cost is of importance .
The block diagram of a simple digital meter is shown in
figure 3.1 below:



{cc
^c c {c  c {c { c
{ c

{c

 {c  {c

{c
c

Figure 3.1 A block diagram of digital meter

c
As shown in Figure 2.14, a pulse generator generates a
pulse whose width is directly proportional to the input

c
c
signal. The output of the pulse generator is one of the
inputs of an AND gate circuit. The output of the pulse
generator is a train of pulses. The output of the AND gate
is, thus, a positive trigger train of duration T second and
the NOT circuit changes it into a negative trigger train.
The counter, then, starts counting the number of triggers
in T seconds which is proportio nal to the magnitude of
signal to be measured. The counter can be calibrated
according to the type of signal been measured say voltage
or current.
Thus, it can be observed from the above description that
the digital meter described above, is basically, an analog-
to digital converter (ADC) which converts an analog signal
into a train of pulses, the number of which is proportional
to the magnitude of the input signal. With appropriate
signal conditioning of the input signal, digital meter can
be used to measure many electrical and physical
quantities such as a.c. voltages, d.c. and a.c. current,
resistance, temperature, pressure, etc.
c

c  U-c
c
Analogue meters are relatively simple and inexpensive
and are often used instead of digital instruments,
especially when cost is of particular concern.
Whilst digital instruments have the advantage of greater
accuracy and much higher input impedance, analogue
instruments suffer less from noise and isolation
problems. Because analogue instruments are usually
passive instruments that do not need a power supply,

c
c
| 


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 |


this is often very useful in measurement applications

where a suitable mains power supply is not readily
available.
Analogue meters are electromechanical devices that drive
a pointer against a scale. They are prone to measurement
errors from a number of sources that include inaccurate
scale marking during manufacture, bearing friction, bent
pointers and ambient temperature variations. Inaccuracy
figures are between (0.1% and 3%.)
All analogue electrical indicating instruments require
three essential devices:
(a) A $"cc"c$. A mechanical force
is produced by the current or voltage which causes the
pointer to deflect from its zero position.
(b) c $"c $. The controlling force acts in
opposition to the deflecting force and ensures that the
deflection shown on the meter is always the same for a
given measured quantity. It also prevents the pointer
always going to the maximu m deflection. There are two
main types of controlling device³spring control and
gravity control.
(c) c"c$. The damping force ensures that
the pointer comes to rest in its final position quickly and
without undue oscillation. There are three main types of
damping used³eddy-current damping, air-friction
damping and fluid-friction damping.c
Analogue meter can be designed using two basic types of
instruments namely, # 
  


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# 
   The principle of operation of
these instrument are discussed in detail in the following
section.

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A moving-coil meter is a very commonly used form of
analogue voltmeter because of its sensitivity, accuracy
and linear scale, although it only responds to d.c. signals.
Moving-coil instruments also called ^  
# 

# 
 (PMMC) meter or (D·Arsonval) meter or
galvanometer all are the same instrument, a coil of fine
wire is suspended in a magnetic field produced by
permanet magnet. According to the fundamental law of
electromagnetic force, the coil will rotate in the magnetic
field when it carries an electric current by electromagnetic
(EM) torque effect. A pointer which is attached to the
movable coil will deflect according to the amount of
current to be measured which is applied to the coil. The
(EM) torque is counter balanced by the mechanical torque
of control springs attached to the movable coil also. When
the torques are balanced the moving coil will stop and its
angular deflection represent the amount of electrical
current to be measured against a fixed reference, called
scale. If the permanent magnet field is uniform and the
spring linear, then the pointer deflection is also linear.
If a current I is being carried by the coil, the force F
applied to the conductor by the magnetic field of flux B is
given by:
cc3c4
U.

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If the flux density B is made constant (by using
parmanent magnets) and the conductor is a fixed lenght
(say, a coil) then the force will depend only on the current
flowing in the conductor.
In the design of a moving-coil instrument a coil is placed
centrally in the gap between shaped pole pieces. The coil
is supported by steel pivots, resting in jewel bearings, on
a cylindrical iron core. Current is led into and out of the
coil by two phosphor broze spiral hairsprings which are
wound in opposite directions to minimize the effect of
temperature change and to limit the coil swing (i.e to
control the movement) and return the movement to zero
position when no current flows. Current flowing in the
coil produces forces, the direction being obtained by
Fleming·s left-hand-rule. The two forces, FA and FB,
produce a torque which will move the coil in a clockwise
direction, i.e move the pointer from the left to right. Since
the force produced is proportional to the input current,
then the scale is linear (see figure 2.0).

^
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c
c c
c c
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{c


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(a) (b)
Figure 3.2 Moving-coil Instrument

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c
As well as measuring d.c. signals, the moving-iron meter
can also measure a.c. signals at frequencies up to 125Hz.
It is the cheapest form of meter available and,
consequently, this type of meter is also commonly used
for measuring voltage signals. The signal to be measured
is applied to a stationary coil, and the associated field
produced is often amplified by the presence of an iron
structure associated with the fixed coil. The moving
element in the instrument consists of an iron vane that is
suspended within the field of the fixed coil. When the
fixed coil is excited, the iron vane turns in a direction that
increases the flux through it.
The majority of moving-iron instruments are either of the
attraction type or of the repulsion type. c
An attraction type of moving-iron instrument is shown in
Figure 3.9a below. When current flows in the solenoid, it
becomes magnetic and a pivoted soft-iron disc is attracted
towards the solenoid and the movement cause a pointer
to move across a scale.
In the repulsion type moving-iron instrument as shown in
Figure 3.9b, two pieces of iron are placed inside the
solenoid, one being fixed, and the other attached to the
spindle carrying the pointer. When current passes
through the solenoid, the two pieces of iron are
magnetized in the same direction and therefore repel each
other. The pointer thus move across the scale.

c c
| 


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*





For an excitation current I, the torque produced that
causes the vane to turn is given by:

!
›

V
where  is the mutual inductance and V is the angular
deflection. Rotation is opposed by the controlling spring
as shown in figure 3.9, that produces a backwards torque
given by:
› â ùV

At equilibrium, T = Ts, and V is therefore given by:


!
V

 V

The instrument thus has a square -law response where

the deflection is proportional to the square of the signal
being measured, i.e. the output reading is a root-mean
squared (r.m.s.) quantity.
The instrument can typically measure voltages in the
range of 0 to 30 volts.
However, it can be modified to measure higher voltages by
placing a resistance in series with it, as in the case of
moving-coil meters. The scale, however, is non linear.
 c

^
{c


{c
{ c
^{c
c

{
c

c


{
c 

c

(a)c {c
c Attraction type


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^
{c
^{c
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{
c


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(b) Repulsion Type

Figure 3.9 Moving-iron instrument

&ccU
5 
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This instrument is suitable for the measurement of direct
and alternating current up to frequency 2kHz, it can also
measure voltage and power.
The instrument has a moving circular coil that is
mounted in the magnetic field produced by two separately
wound, series-connected, circular stator coils.
The torque is dependent upon the mutual inductance
between the coils and is given by:
!
›   

V
where I1 and I2 are the currents flowing in the fixed and
moving coils, M is the mutual inductance and V
represents the angular displacement between the coils.
When used as an ammeter, the measured current is
applied to both coils. The torque is thus proportional to J .
By suitable drawing of the scale, the position of the

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| 


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¬




pointer shows the squared root of this value, i.e. the
r.m.s. current.
Electrodynamic meters are typically expensive but have
the advantage of being more accurate than moving -coil
and moving-iron instruments. Voltage, current and power
can all be measured if the fixed and moving -coils are
connected appropriately.

c
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! 
#


*c "%$c$c  c

One major limitation in using analogue meters for a.c.
voltage measurement is that the maximum frequency
measurable directly is low, 2kHz for the dynamometer
voltmeter and only 100 Hz in the case of the moving-iron
instrument. A partial solution to this limitation is to
rectify the voltage signal and then apply it to a moving -
coil meter, as shown in Figure 3.12. This extends the
upper measurable frequency limit to 20 kHz.

c c
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Types of Moving-coil Moving-iron Moving-coil
instrument rectifier
Frequency - 20-200Hz 20-100kHz
limits
Advantages 1. Linear scale. 1. Robust 1. Linear scale
2. High construction. 2. High
sensitivity 2. Relatively sensitivity
3. Well shielded cheap 3. Well shielded
from stray 3. Measures dc from stray
magnetic fields. and ac magnetic fields
4. Lower power 4. In frequency 4. Low power
consumption. range 20- consumption
100Hz reads 5. Good
rms correctly frequency
regardless of range.
supply wave-
form.
Disadvantages 1. Only suitable 1. Non-linear 1. More
for dc scale expensive that
2. More 2. Affected by moving iron
expensive then stray magnetic type
moving iron fields 2. Errors
type 3. Hysteresis caused when
3 Easily errors in dc supply is non-
damaged circuits sinusoidal
4 Liable to

c c
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#
 




temperature
errors
5. Due to the
inductance of
the solenoid,
readings can
be affected by
variation of
frequency.


+c$ cc"c  c

Due to its non linear scale, moving-iron instrument and
applied in more specialised measurement and its scale
graduation and caliberation involves more complex
calculation than moving -coil instrument, thus the latter
is often employed as an ammeter, voltmeter, ohmeter,
multirange meters and multimeters. The application of
moving-coil meters as mentioned are discussed in the
following sections. However, moving-iron instrument can
also be used in all the applications discussed below.

+
cc$ cc"%$c 

Moving coil instrument operates at low current levels of
one milliamp or so, it is only suitable for measuring low
current arround 1-2mA. If there is a requirement to
measure higher currents, the measuring range of the
instrument can be increased by placing a resistance in
parallel with the coil, so that only a fraction of the total
current will pass through the meter. In this situation the
added resistance is known as a
 


.
Also, a moving coil instrument can be designed to
measure voltage signal, in this case a resistance is
connected in series with the instrument. This series

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| 


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¬

resistance should be much larger than the impedance of
the circuit being measured and also usually much larger
than the internal resistance of the moving coil
instrument. Resistor used in this situation is called a
#c

+
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$ccc  
c
In figure 3.3 below, a moving coil instrument with an
internal resistance r a, designed as an ammeter to
measure a full-Scale-deflection current of Ia. Its range of
measurement is increased to measure a higher current of
I, by connecting a
 1 Rs. Is is the value of the diverted
current by the shunt resistor R s. The value of the resistor
2 for any desired current J, can be calculated by equation
3.1.

c ^c c c c
c
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c

c

c c
,,
VPQ = VRS
Iara = ISRS
 

  ............................ equation 3.1


 -J   #  

2-› 

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| 

¬

(c
c
1. A moving-coil instrument gives a f.s.d when the
current is 40mA and its resistance is 25ƺ. Calculate the
value of the shunt to be connected in paralled with the
meter to enable it to be used as an ammeter for
measuring currents up to 50A.
›* 
*0
 ccc
c
 
c
c
c
c c

c

Where ra = resistance of instrument = 25ƺ.

Rs = resistance of shunt,
Ia = maximum permissible current flowing in instrument
= 40mA = 0.04A,
Is = current flowing in shunt
I = total circuit current required to give f.s.d = 50A
Since I = Ia + Is then Is = I ² Ia = 50 ² 0.04 = 49.96A
V = Iara = IsRs





Hence, ' â â â


º â



º
   

Thus for the moving-coil instrument to be used as an

ammeter with a range 0-50A, a resistance of value
20.02mƺ needs to be connected in paralled with the
instrument.
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| 

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$c
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When using a moving-coil instrument as a voltmeter it is
always connected in parallel with the element being
measured, and measures the voltage between the points
across which it is connected. A moving coil instrument
(galvanometer) can be converted into a voltmeter by
connecting a high value resitance (ca lled ) in
series with it as shown in figure 3.4 below.
c
c
c
c c

cc

Figure 3.4
The Voltage range desired to be measured by the
instrument is given as ', Ia is the f.s.d current of the
moving coil instrument, ra is the internal resistance of
the instrument, Rm is the required  for the
instrument the measure the desired voltage range, while
the Im is the curent that passes through the resistor Rm.
In this case the resistor Rm is in series with the moving
coil instrument, therefore Ia = Im, the shunt resistor Rm
can thus be calculated by equation 3.2
V = Va + Vm
= Iara + ImRm
Ia = Im (since and r a and Rm are in series)
V = Iara + IaRm

c  c
| 


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| 

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V = Ia (ra + Rm)

' â Ë
.............................. equation 3.2

(c 
: A moving-coil instrument having a
resistance of 10ƺ, gives a f.s.d when the current is 8mA.
Calculate the value of multiplier to be connected in series
with the instrument so that it can be used as a voltmeter
for measuring p.d up to 100V.
›
  * 
*0
  c
ccc c
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c | c



c

Where ra = resistance of instrument = 10ƺ
RM = resistance of mutiplier.
I = toal permissible instrument current = 8mA = 0.008A.
V = total p.d required to give f.s.d = 100V
V = Va + Vm = Ira + IRM
i.e. 100 = (0.008) (10) + (0.008)R M


thus RM = 

º 
 º




Hence for the moving-coil instrument to be used as a
voltmeter with a range 0 ² 100 V, a resistance of value
12.49kƺ needs to be connected in series with the
instrument.

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ccc"c
cc
A moving coil instrument (or galvanometer) can be
designed to measure D.C Signals like current (ammeter),
Voltage (voltmeter), Resistance (ohmeter) etc., of different
ranges, by connecting different values of shunt or
multiplier as the case may be. The sections below
describes how these can be achieved.

cc"ccc
The current range of d.c ammeter can be further extended
by a number of shunts selected by a range switch; such
ammeter is called a multirange ammeter. This can be
designed by Direct or Indirect Method. c

c$cc
In direct method, the circuit design is shown in figure 3.5
below, the shunt resistors R s1, Rs2 and Rs3 are connected
parallel to the galvanometer an also parallel to one
another. When one is connec ted the other two are
disconnected, and thus each of the three resistor presents
different ranges of current measurements I s1, Is2 and Is3 in
the instrument.
The value of each of the shunt resistors R s1, Rs2 and Rs3
can be calculated independently using e quation 3.3.
c
c 
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Figure 3.5

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cccccccccccccc   cccc





















ccequation 3.3
   
•
  
 •


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An example of indirect method of multirange ammeter
design is shown in figure 3.6 below; the resistors Ra, Rb
and Rc are connected in series with one another and they
are all connected in parallel with the galvanometer. In
this case the shunt value at any given range I 1, I2 and I3
can be a resultant of one, two or the three of the resistors
Ra, Rb and Rc, depending on the range va lue on which the
range switch is on. For the example in figure 3.6, when
the range switch is on the current range I1, the value of
the shunt Rs1, is equal to the sum of Ra+Rb+Rc, when the
switch is on range I 2, the shunt value R s2, is equal to
Rb+Rc, while Ra is disconneted and when the switch is on
range I 3, the shunt value R s3, is only equal to R c, while the
other two resistors Ra and Rb is disconneted. R s1, Rs2 and
Rs3 can be calculated using equation 3.3 above. R a and Rb
is calculated using equation 3.4 and 3.5 respectively,
while Rc is equal to R s3

c
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c c c

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Figure 3.6

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For Range I 1:
Rs1 = Ra + Rb +Rc
For Range I 2:
Rs2 = Rb +Rc
i.e; Ra = Rs1 ² Rs2 ...................................... (3.4)
For Range I 3:
Rs3 = Rc
Rb = Rs2 ² Rs3 ....................................... (3.5)
(c
c
Design a multirange ammeter by using 
 
to
give the following ranges 10mA, 100 mA, 1A, 10A, and
100A. If d·Arsonval meter have internal resistance of 10 º
and full scale current of 1mA.
c
The circuit design is shown below.

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' â
 

    
 •

 



c     º


 




Ë 

c '
â â

º c


Ë
 
Ë

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º c





 



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º c





 

 

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º c




(c
c
Design an ammeter by $c c to provide an
ammeter with current ranges 1A, 5A, and 10A, with a
PMMC meter of internal resistance 50º and full scale
current of 1mA.
c
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c
c
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c
c
c

The circuit is designed as shown above.

ra=50º Ia=1mA
c"c c
Shunt resistor Rs1 = Ra + Rb + Rc
  •
• 



   



 º
   
 • 
 

 
 â



 º ⠕    
c

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c"c#c





 



 

 
'
â '  ' â


' â '  '

' â ' Ë '

' â

 Ë


' â

º
c"c c


Ë



' â Ë
â â


º c

Ë  
 
   




   
c
  


 





 


º
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clc

cc$cc
In this method each series resistance of multirange
voltmeter is connected directly with Moving -coil meter to
give the desired Voltage range as shown in figure 3.7. The
various multipliers can be calculated using equation 3.6.

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c
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c

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Figure 3.7

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"
 

• .............................. equation 3.6c
•
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cc
$cc
In this method one or more series resistance of
multirange voltmeter is connected with Moving -coil meter
to give the desired range as shown in figure 3.8. The
series resistance can be calculated using equation 3.7,
3.8 and 3.9 eliminatively.c
c c c

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Figure 3.8
At range V1:
! Ë

' â â' ....................... (3.7)


At range V2:
"

 •
•


  •   ........................ (3.8)
•
At range V3:
" 
 •
•

   •     ............... (3.9)
•


2c  U-cU


c
The analogue multimeter is a multi -function instrument
that can measure current and resistance as well as d.c.
and a.c. voltage signals. Basically, the instrument
consists of a moving -coil meter with a switchable bridge

c c
| 


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 | 

rectifier (as discussed in moving -coil rectifier instrument)
to allow it to measure a.c. signals, as shown in Figure
3.11. A set of rotary switches allows the selection of
various multiplier and shunt resistors, which make the
instrument capable of measuring both voltage and
current over a number of ranges. An internal power
source is also provided to allow it to measure resistances
as well. Whilst this instrument is very useful for giving an
indication of voltage levels, the comprom ises in its design
that enable it to measure so many different quantities
necessarily mean that its accuracy is not as good as
instruments that are purposely designed to measure just
one quantity over a single measuring range.

cc
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cc"cc
c

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c
Electronic voltmeters differ from all other forms of
analogue voltmeters in being active rather than passive
instruments. They have important advantages compared
with other analogue instruments. Firstly, they have a
high input impedance that avoids the circuit loading

c  c
| 


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  #

problems associated with many applications of
electromechanical instruments.
Secondly, they have an amplification capability that
enables them to measure small signal levels accurately.
The standard electronic voltmeter for d.c. measurements
consists of a simple direct coupled amplifier and a
moving-coil meter, as shown in Figure 3.14 (a). For
measurement
of very low-level voltages of a few microvolts, a more
sophisticated circuit, known as a chopper amplifier, is
used, as shown in Figure 3.14(b). In this, the d.c. input is
chopped at a low frequency of around 250 Hz, passed
through a blocking capacitor, amplified, passed through
another blocking capacitor to remove drift, demodulated,
filtered and applied to a moving-coil meter.
Three versions of electronic voltmeter exist for measuring
a.c. signals. The   
    is essentially a
direct-coupled d.c. electronic voltmeter with an additional
rectifying stage at the input. The output is a measure of
the average value of the measured voltage waveform. The
second form, known as a  4
   , has a
half-wave rectifier at the input followed by a capacitor.
The final part of the circuit consists of an amplifier and
moving-coil meter. The capacitor is charged to the peak
value of the input signal, and therefore the amplified
signal applied to the moving-coil meter gives a reading of
the peak voltage in the input waveform.

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Finally, a third type is available, known as an 4

    , which gives an output reading in terms
of the r.m.s. value of the input waveform. This type is
essentially a thermocouple meter in which an
amplification stage has been inserted at the input.
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The standard device and methods available for measur ing
change in resitance, which is measured in units of 
(º), include the d.c bridge circuit, the voltmeter-ammeter
method, the resitance-substitution method, the digital
voltmeter and the ohmmeter. Apart from the ohmmeter,
these instruments are normally only used to measure
medium values of the resistance in the range of 1 º to
1Mº. Special instruments are available for obtaining

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high-accuracy resistance measurements outside this
range.


c l%cc
The voltmeter²ammeter method consists of applying a
measured d.c. voltage across the unknown resistance and
measuring the current flowing. Two alternatives exist for
connecting the two meters, as shown in Figure 3.15. In
Figure 3.15(a), the ammeter measures the current flowing
in both the voltmeter and the resistance. The error due to
this is minimized when the measured resistance is small
relative to the voltmeter resistance.
In the alternative form of connection, Figure 3.15(b), the
voltmeter measures the voltage drop across the unknown
resistance and the ammeter. Here, the measurement
error is minimized when the unknown resistance is large
with respect to the ammeter resistance. Thus, method (a)
is best for measurement of small resistances and method
(b) for large ones.
Having thus measured the voltage and current, the value
of the resistance is then calculated very simply by Ohm·s
law. This is a suitable method wherever the measurement
inaccuracy of up to
1% that it gives is acceptable.

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In the voltmeter²ammeter method above, either the
voltmeter is measuring the voltage across the ammeter as
well as across the resistance, or the ammeter is
measuring the current flow through the voltmeter as well
as through the resistance. The measurement error caused
by this is avoided in the r esistance-substitution
technique. In this method, note the voltmeter and the
ammeter readings with the unknown resistance in the
circuit, then temporarily replaced it by a variable
resistance. Adjust the variable resistance until the
measured circuit voltage and current are the same as
existed with the unknown resistance in place. The
variable resistance at this point is equal in value to the
unknown resistance.



cc
The ohmmeter is a simple instrument in which a battery
applies a known voltage across a combination of the
unknown resistance and a known resistance in series, as
shown in Figure 3.16. Measurement of the voltage, Vm,
across the known resistance, R, allows the unknown
resistance, Ru, to be calculated from:
' % Ë % 
' â
%
Where Vb is the battery voltage.
Ohmmeters are used to measure resistances over a wide
range from a few milliohms up to 50M º. The

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measurement inaccuracy is
2% or greater, and

ohmmeters are therefore more suitable for use as test
equipment rather than in applications where high
accuracy is required. Most of the available versions
contain a switchable set of standard resistances, so that
measurements of reasonable accuracy over a number of
ranges can be made.
Most
 
  contain circuitry of
the same form as in an ohmmeter, and hence can be
similarly used to obtain approximate measurements of
resistance.

c
Œ
.

Ohmmeter


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A c c c  c is a simple, accurate
and widely used method which depends on an instrument
reading being adjusted to read zero current only. The
method assumes:

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if there is any deflection at all, then some current is
flowing and if there is no deflection, then no current flows
(i.e null condition).
Examples where the method is used are in the
Wheatstone bridge and in the d.c potentiometer



cc c"c

Figure 3.17 shows a Wheatstone bridge circuit which

compares an unknown resistance Rx with others of
known values, i.e. R 1 and R2, which have fixed values,
c

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Figure 3.17

and R3, which is variable. A d.c voltage V i is applied

across the points BD and the Resistance R3 is varied until
zero deflection is obtained on the galvanometer G. No
curent then flows through the meter. To analyse the
Wheatstone bridge, define the current flowing in each arm
to be I1...I4 as shown in figure 3.17. Normally, if a high
impedance voltage -measuring instrument is used, the

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current Im drawn by the measuring instrument will be

very small and can be approximated to zero. If this
assumption is made, then, for I m=0:

I1 = I3 and I2 = I4

Looking at path CAD, we have a voltage Vi applied across

a resistance R 1 + R3 and by Ohm·s law:

'
 â
'  '

Similarly for path CBD:

"



 

Now we can calculate the voltage drop across CB and BD:

)' *'
)(+ â 
'
â 
; *+ â  ' â  .
'
 '  '  '

In the figure 3.17, the potential at point C is Vi and the

potential at point A is V i-VCA. Likewise the potential at
point B is Vi-VCB.

Thus, the voltage drop across the galvanometer V AB is

given by:

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".-  "
".
"
"- 


".  "-

Thus, VAB can be calculated as;

/ ' / '

/+ â Ë 
'  ' '
 ' 

At null point VAB = 0, So;

' '

â
'  ' '
 ' 

Inverting both sides, we have:

 
    

 i.e  or  



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The 
$ccis a null-balance instrument used
for determining values of e.m.f·s and p.d·s by comaprison
with a known e.m.f or p.d. In Figure 1.13, using a
standard cell of known e.m.f, E 1, the slider S is moved
along the slide wire until balance is obtained (as
explained in the earlier in the wheatstone bridge), shown
as length l 1.
The standard cell is now replaced by a cell of unknown
e.m.f. E2 (see figure 2.13b) and again balance is obtained
(shown as l 2).

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Since E1Yl1 and E2Yl2,
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â & 
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1. Define digital and analogue instrument. Hence
explain with an appropriate block diagram, the principle
of operation of a Digital meter.
2. A moving-coil instrument gives a f.s.d when the
current is 40mA and its resistance is 25ƺ. Calculate the
value of the shunt to be connected in paralled with the
meter to enable it to be used as an ammeter for
measuring currents up to 50A.
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3. A moving-coil instrument has a coil resistance of 100ƺ
and gives a full-scale deflection (FSD) for a current of
500Ǎ. Determine the value of shunt resistance required
if the instrument is to be employed as an ammeter with a
FSD of 5A.c
4. A moving-coil meter with a coil resistance 100ƺ and a
full scale deflection current of 100 Ǎ is to be used in the
voltmeter circuit as shown in figure below. The voltmeter
ranges are to be 50. Determine the required value of
resistances for each range.
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5. With a diagram illustration, describe the principle of

operation of a moving-coil instrument and a Moving coil
rectifier instrument. Also explain briefly the advantage of
the latter over the former.
6. With the help of a suitable diagram, differentiate
between the Attraction and the Repulsion type of a
Moving- Iron Instrument.
7. Define the following; i. A voltmeter ii. An ammeter
iii. An Ohmmeter iv. A multirange meter v. A multimeter.
Discribe the principle of resistance measurement using
i. voltmeter-ammeter methods and ii. Ohmmeter.
8. Design d.c voltmeter by using direct method with
d·Arsonval meter of 100ƺ and full scale def lection of
100ǍA to give the following ranges: 10mV, 1V, and 100V.
9. In a wheatstone bridge ABCD, a galvanometer is
c
connected between A and C, and a battery between B and
D, A resistor of unknown value is connected between A
and B. When the bridge is balanced, the resistance
between B and C is 100ƺ, that between C and D is 10ƺ
and that between D and A is 400 ƺ. Calculate the value of
the unknown resistance.
10. In a d.c potentiometer, balance is obtained at a
length of 400mm when using a standard cell o f 1.0186
volts. Determine the e.m.f of a dry cell if balance is
obtained with a length of 650mm

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The  




* '
is a device that
allows the 
of electrical signals, weather they
are voltage, current; power, etc., to be displayed primarily
as a function of . The oscilloscope depends on the
movement of an electron beam, which is then made
visible by allowing the beam to impinge on a phosphor
surface, which produces a visible spot.
The cathode ray oscilloscope is probably the most
versatile and useful instrument available for signal
measurement. In its basic form, it is an analogue
instrument and is often called an  to
distinguish it from digital storage oscilloscopes which
have emerged more recently.
The analogue oscilloscope is widely used for voltage
measurement, especially as an item of test equipment for
circuit fault-finding, and it is able to measure a very wide
range of both a.c. and d.c. voltage signals. Besides
measuring voltage levels, it can also measure other
quantities such as the frequency and phase of a signal. It
can also indicate the nature and magnitude of noise that
may be corrupting the measurement signal. The more
expensive models can measure signals at frequencies up
to 500MHz and even the cheapest models can measure
signals up to 20 MHz. One particularly strong merit of the
oscilloscope is its high input impedance, typically 1M º,

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which means that the instrument has a negligible loading
effect in most measurement situations. As a test
instrument, it is often required to measure voltages whose
frequency and magnitude are totally unknown. The set of
rotary switches that alter its timebase so easily, and the
circuitry that protects it from damage when high voltages
are applied to it on the wrong range, make it ideally
suited for such applications. However, it is not a
particularly accurate instrument and is best used where
only an approximate measurement is required. In the best
instruments, inaccuracy can be limited to
1% of the
reading but inaccuracy can approach
10% in the
cheapest instruments. Further disadvantages of
oscilloscopes include their fragility (being built around a
cathode ray tube) and their moderately high cos t.

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General oscilloscope consists of the following parts:

1. Cathode ray tube (CRT)
2. Vertical deflection stage
3. Horizontal deflection stage
4. Power supply

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: General purpose oscilloscope

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The cathode ray tube, shown in Figure 4.2, is the

fundamental part of an oscilloscope. The cathode consists
of a barium and strontium oxide coated, thin, heated
filament from which a stream of electrons are emitted.
The stream of electrons is focused onto a well defined
spot on a fluorescent screen by an electrostatic focusing
system that consists of a series of metal discs and
cylinders charged at various potentials. Adjustment of
this focusing mechanism is provided by controls on the
front panel of an oscilloscope.
An     control varies the cathode heater current and
therefore the rate of emission of electrons, and thus
adjusts the intensity of the display on the screen. These
and other typical controls are shown in the illustration of
the front panel of a simple oscilloscope given in Figure
4.3.

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: Cathode ray tube

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"c
cControls of a simple Oscilloscope

Application of potentials to two sets of deflector plates
mounted at right angles to one a nother within the tube
provide for deflection of the stream of electrons, such that
the spot where the electrons are focused on the screen is
moved. The two sets of deflector plates are normally

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known as the horizontal and vertical deflection plates,

according to the respective motion caused to the spot on
the screen. The magnitude of any signal applied to the
deflector plates can be calculated by measuring the
deflection of the spot against a crossed -wire graticule
etched on the screen.
In the oscilloscope·s most common mode of usage
measuring time-varying signals, the unknown signal is
applied, via an amplifier, to the y-axis (vertical) deflector
plates and a timebase to the x-axis (horizontal) deflector
plates. In this mode of operation, the display on t he
oscilloscope screen is in the form of a graph with the
magnitude of the unknown signal on the vertical axis and
time on the horizontal axis.c
c


ccccc
One channel describes the basic subsystem of an electron
source, focusing system and deflector plates. This
subsystem is often duplicated one or more times within
the cathode ray tube to provide a capability of displaying
two or more signals at the same time on the screen. The
common oscilloscope configuration with two channels can
therefore display two separate signals simultaneously.


cccc"%cc
This type of input only has one input terminal plus a
ground terminal per oscilloscope channel and,
consequently, only allows signal voltages to be measured
relative to ground. It is normally only used in simple
oscilloscopes.

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This type of input is provided on more expensive
oscilloscopes. Two input terminals plus a ground terminal
are provided for each channel, which allows the potentials
at two non-grounded points in a circuit to be compared.
This type of input can also be used in single -ended mode
to measure a signal relative to ground by using just one of
the input terminals plus ground.c


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The purpose of a timebase is to apply a volta ge to the
horizontal deflector plates such that the horizontal
position of the spot is proportional to time. This voltage,
in the form of a ramp known as a sweep waveform, must
be applied repetitively, such that the motion of the spot
across the screen appears as a straight line when a d.c.
level is applied to the input channel. Furthermore, this
timebase voltage must be synchronized with the input
signal in the general case of a time-varying signal, such
that a steady picture is obtained on the oscilloscop e
screen. The length of time taken for the spot
to traverse the screen is controlled by a 5
 switch,
which sets the length of time taken by the spot to travel
between two marked divisions on the screen, thereby
allowing signals at a wide range of frequencies to be
measured.
Each cycle of the sweep waveform is initiated by a pulse
from a pulse generator. The input to the pulse generator
is a sinusoidal signal known as a triggering signal, with a
pulse being generated every time the triggering signal

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crosses a preselected slope and voltage level condition.
This condition is defined by the   and 
 switches. The former selects the voltage level on the
trigger signal, commonly zero, at which a pulse is
generated, whilst the latter selects whether pulsing
occurs on a positive - or negative-going part of the
triggering waveform.
Synchronization of the sweep waveform with the
measured signal is most easily achieved by deriving the
trigger signal from the measured signal, a procedure that
is known as      . Alternatively, ) 
  can be applied if the frequencies of the
triggering signal and measured signals are related by an
integer constant such that the display is stationary.
External triggering is necessary wh en the amplitude of
the measured signal is too small to drive the pulse
generator, and it is also used in applications where there
is a requirement to measure the phase difference between
two sinusoidal signals of the same frequency. It is very
convenient to use the 50 Hz line voltage for external
triggering when measuring signals at mains frequency,
and this is often given the name    .


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This consists of a series of attenuators and pre -amplifiers
at the input to the oscilloscope.
These condition the measured signal to the optimum
magnitude for input to the mainamplifier and vertical
deflection plates, thus enabling the instrument to
measure a very wide range of different signal magnitudes.

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Selection of the appropriate input amplifier/attenuator is
made by setting a 5
 control associated with each
oscilloscope channel. This defines the magnitude of the
input signal that will cause a deflection of one division on
the screen.


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This allows the position at which a signal is displayed on
the screen to be controlled in two ways. The horizontal
position is adjusted by a 6     knob on the
oscilloscope front panel and similarly a    
knob controls the vertical position. These controls adjust
the position of the display by biasing the measured signal
with d.c. voltage levels. c

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Digital storage oscilloscopes consist of a conventional
analogue cathode ray oscilloscope with t he added facility
that the measured analogue signal can be converted to
digital format and stored in computer memory within the
instrument. This stored data can then be reconverted to
analogue form at the frequency necessary to refresh the
analogue display on the screen. This produces a non -
fading display of the signal on the screen.
The signal displayed by a digital oscilloscope consists of a
sequence of individual dots rather than a continuous line
as displayed by an analogue oscilloscope. However, as the
density of dots increases, the display becomes closer and
closer to a continuous line, and the best instruments
have displays that look very much like continuous traces.

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The density of the dots is entirely dependent upon the
sampling rate at which the analogue signal is digitized
and the rate at which the memory contents are read to
reconstruct the original signal. Inevitably, the speed of
sampling etc. is a function of cost, and the most
expensive instruments give the best performance in terms
of dot density and the accuracy with which the analogue
signal is recorded and represented. Besides their ability to
display the magnitude of voltage signals and other
parameters such as signal phase and frequency, some
digital oscilloscopes can also compute signal parameters
such as peak values, mean values and r.m.s. values. They
are also ideally suited to capturing transient signals when
set to single-sweep mode. This avoids the problem of the
very careful synchronization that is necessary to capture
such signals on an analogue oscilloscope. In addition,
digital oscilloscopes often have facilities to output
analogue signals to devices like chart recorders and
output digital signals in a form that is compatible with
standard interfaces like IEEE488 and RS232.

ccccc"c c6c

c

For examining periodic waveforms the electron beam is
deflected horizontally (i.e. in the X direction) by a
sawtooth generator acting as a timebase. The signal to be
examined is applied to the vertical deflection system (Y
direction) usually after amplification.
Oscilloscopes normally have a transparent grid of 10mm
by 10mm squares in front of the screen, called a

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graticule. Among the timebase controls is a ¶variable·
switch which gives the sweep speed as time per
centimeter, This may be in s/cm ro s/cm, a large
number of switch positions being available. Also on the
front panel of a c.r.o is a amplifier switch marked in volts
per centimeter, with a large number of available switch
positions.
(i) with $c"c  conly the Y amplifier
¶volts/cm· switch on the c.r.o is used. With no voltage
applied to the Y plates the position of the spot trace on
the screen is noted. When a direct voltage is applied to
the Y plates the new position of the spot trace is an
indication of the magnitude of the voltage. For example,
in Figure 4.1 with no voltgae applied to the Y plates, the
spot trace is in the centre of the screen (initial position)
and then the spot trace moves 2.5cm to the final position
shown on application of a d.c voltage. With the ¶volt/cm·
switch on 10 volts/cm the magnitude of the direct voltage
is 2.5 x 10 volts/cm. i.e. 25volts.


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With "c "c   c let a

sinusoidal waveform be displayed on a c.r.o screen as
shown in figure 4.2. If the time/cm switch is on, say, 5
ms/cm then the periodic time T of the sinewave is
5ms/cm x 4cm (4cm is the width of one complete cycle),
i.e 20ms or 0.03s

Since frequency f = 1/T = 1/0.02 = 50Hz

If the ¶volts/cm· switch is on, say, 20 volts/cm then the

amplitude or peak value of the sinewave is 20 volts/cm x
4cm (Peak-to-peak value is 4cm), i.e. 80V.

• •
Since r.m.s Voltage =

r.m.s voltage = 



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Describe how a simpe c.r.o is adjusted to give (a) a spot
trace, (b) a continous horixontal trace on the screen,
explaining the function of the various controls.

(a) To obtain a spot trace on a typical c.r.o screen:

i. Switch on the c.r.o.

ii. Switch the time base control to off. This control is

calibrated in time per centimeters ² for example, 6ms/cm
or 100s/cm. Turning it to zero ensures no signal is
applied to the X-plates. The Y-plate input is left open -
circuited.

iii.c Set the intensity, X-shift and Y-shift controls to

about the mid-range positions.

iv. A spot trace should not be observed on the screen.

If not, adjust either or both of the X and Y-shift controls.
The X-shift control varies the position of the spot trace in
horizontal direction whilst the Y-shift control varies it
vertical position.

v. Use the X and Y-shift controls to bring the spot to

the centre of the screen and use the focus control to focus
the electron beam into a small circular spot.

(b) To obtain a continous horizontal trace on the screen

the same procedure as in (a) is initially adopted. Then the
timebase control is switched to a suitalbel position,
initially the millisecond timebase range, to ensure that

c 
c
the repetition rate of the sawtooth is sufficient for the
persistence of the vision time of the sc reen phosphor to
hold a given tance.

2. For the c.r.o square voltage waveform shown in the

figure 4.6 below determine (a) the periodic time, (b) the
frequency and (c) the peak-to-peak voltage. The ¶time/cm·
(or timebase control) switch is on 100s/cm and the
¶volts/cm· (or amplitude control) switch is on 20V/cm.

(    3  *    # /7  


"

(a) The width of one complet cycle is 5.3cm

Hence the period time, T = 5.2cm x 100 x 10 -6 s/cm

= 0.52ms

(b) Frequency, f = â â 
,-
›


Ë

(c) The peak-to-peak height of the display is 3.6cm, hence

the peak-to-peak voltage = 3.6cm x 20V/cm = 72V.

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3. For the c.r.o display of a pulse waveform shown in
figure 4.4 the ¶time/cm· switch is on 50ms/cm and the
¶volts/cm· switch is on 0.2V/cm. Determine (a) the
periodic time, (b) the frequency, (c) the magnitude of the
pulse voltage.

(a) The width of one complete cycle is 4.0cm

Hence the period time, T = 4.0cm x 50ms/cm = 200ms

(b) Frequence, f =    G-
›


(c) The height of a pulse is 3.2cm hence the magnitude of

the pulse voltage = 3.2 x 0.2V/cm = 0.64V.

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c

The cathode ray oscilloscope ca n be used in two ways to

measure frequency. Firstly, the internal timebase can be
adjusted until the distance between two successive cycles
of the measured signal can be read against the calibrated
graticule on the screen as described in earlier section .

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The alternative way of using an oscilloscope x to measure
frequency is to generate  8    . These are
produced by applying a known reference -frequency sine
wave to the y input (vertical deflection plates) of the
oscilloscope and the unknown frequ ency sinusoidal signal
to the x input (horizontal deflection plates). A pattern is
produced on the screen according to the frequency ratio
between the two signals, and if the numerator and
denominator in the ratio of the two signals both represent
an integral number of cycles, the pattern is stationary.
Examples of these patterns are shown in Figure 5.3,
which also shows that phase difference between the
waveforms has an effect on the shape. Frequency
measurement proceeds by adjusting the reference
frequency until a steady pattern is obtained on the screen
and then calculating the unknown frequency according to
the frequency ratio that the pattern obtained represents. c

"c
&: Lsajous Patterns.

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A signal generator is an electronic device that generates
repeating or non-repeating electronic signals (in either the
analog or digital domains). They are generally used in
designing, testing, troubleshooting, and repairing
electronic or electroacoustic devices. There are man y
different types of signal generators, with different
purposes and aplications.

&
cc$c" cc
It is a general purpose generator, a device which produce
simple repetitive waveforms. Such device contain an
electronic oscillator, a circuit that is capable of creating a
repetitive waveform. The most common waveform is a sine
wave, but sawtooth, step (pulse), square, and triangular
waveform oscillators are commonly available. Function
generators are typically used in simple electronics repair
and design; where they are used to stimulate a circuit
under test. A device such as an oscilloscope is then used
to measure the circuit·s output.

&
ccc'$ccc" c
A pitch generator is a type of signal generator optimized
for use in audio and acoustics applications. Pitch
generators typically include sine waves over the audio
frequency range (20Hz-20kHz). Pitch generator are
typically used in conjunction with sound level meters,
when measuring the acoustics of a room or a sound
reproduction system, and/or with oscilloscope or
specialized audio analyzers.

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A video signal generator is a device which outputs
predetermined video and/or television waveforms, and
other signals used to stimulate faults in, or aid in
parametric measurements of, television and video
systems. There are several different types of video signal
generators in widespread use. Regardless of the specific
type, the output of a video generator will generally contain
synchronization signals appropria te for television,
including horizontal and vertical synchronized pulses (in
digital).

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($ $c c
1. In general electronics use, when measuring AC voltage
signals, what do the two axis (horizontal and vertical) of
the oscilloscope screen represent?
2. The core of an analog oscilloscope is a special type of
vacuum tube known as a Cathode Ray Tube, or CRT.
With a suitable diagram explain how a CRT functions.
What goes on inside the tube to produce waveform
displays on the screen?
3. With the aid of a suitable block diagram, describe an
Oscilloscope.
4. For the square voltage waveform displayed on a
cathode ray oscilloscope shown in the figure bellow, the
volt/cm switch is on 40volt/cm and the time/cm switch
is on 5ms find (a) its frequency, (b) its peak-to-peak
voltage.

c
5 For the sinusoidal waveform shown in figure (b), the
Volt/cm switch is on 50volts/cm and time/cm switch is
on 5ms determine (a) its frequency, (b) the peak -to-peak
voltage, (c) the r.m.s. ! 
))"

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7.c What is a signal generator as it applies to electronic

design and trouble shooting techniques.
8.c Describe the the following types of Signal generator,
stating their properties and uses;
i.c Function generator
ii.c Audio generator
iii.c Vedio generator.

c  c
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The earlier chapters in this book have been essentially
concerned with describing ways of producing high -
quality, error-free data at the output of a measurement
system. Having got the data, the next consideration is
how to present it in a form where it can be readil used
and analysed. This chapter therefore stats by covering the
techniques available to either display measurement data
for current use or record it for future use. Following this,
standards of good prectice for presenting data in either
graphical or tabular form are covered, using either paper
or a computer monitor screen as the display medium.
#
c 
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Measurement signals in the form of varying electrical
voltage can be displayed either by an oscilloscope or else
by any of the electrical me ters described in the earlier
chapters of this book. However, if signals are converted to
digital form, other display options apart from meters
become possible, such as electronic output displa ys or
using a computer monitor.
#

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Electronic displays enable a parameter value to be read
immediately, thus allowing for any necessary response to
be made immediately. The main requirement for displays
is that they should be clear and unambiguous. Two
common types of character formart used in displays are,
seven-segment and 7 x 5 dot matrix, are shown in figure

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5.1 below. Both types of display have the advantage of

being able to display alphabetic as well as numeric
information, although the seven-segment format can only
display a limited nine -letter subset of the full 26 -letter
alphabet. This allows added meaning to be given to the
number displayed by including a word or letter code. It
also allow a single display unit to send information about
several parameter value, cycling through each in turn and
including alphabetic information to indicate the nature of
the variable currently displayed.
Electronic output units usually consist of a number of
side-by-side cells, where eac h cell displays one character.
Generally, these accept either serial or paralled digital
input signals, and the input format can be either binary-
coded decimal (BCD) or ASCII. Technologies used for the
individual elements in the diplay are either light-emitting
diodes (LEDs) or liquid-crystal elements.
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Now that computer are part of the furniture in most
homes, the ability of computer to display information is
widely understood and appreciated. Computers are now

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both cheap and highly reliable, and they provide an

excellent mechanism for both displaying and storing
information. As well as alphanumeric displays of
industrial plant variable and status data, for which the
plant operator can vary the size of font used to display the
information at will, it is also relatively easy to display
other information such as plant layout diagrams, process
flow layouts etc. This allows not only the value of
prameters that go outside control limits to be displayed,
but also their location on a schematic map of the plant.
However, this poses a difficulty when there is a
requirement to display the variable·s behaviour over a
long period of time since the length of the time axis is
contrained by the size of the monitor·s screen. To
overcome this, the display resolution has to decrease as
the time period of the display increases.
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Many techniques now exist for recording measurement
data in a form that permits subsequent analysis,
particularly for looking at the historical behaviour of
measured parameters in fault diagnosis procedures. The
earliest recording instruments used were various forms of
mechanical chart recorder. Whilst many of these remain
in use, most modern form of chart recorder exist in
hybrid forms in which microprocessors are incorporated
to improve performance.
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Mechanical chart recorder are a long -established means
of making permanent records of electrical signals in a
simple, cheap and reliable way. Mechanical chart
recorders are either of the galvanometric type or
potentiometric type. Both of these work on the same
principle of driving chart paper at a constant speed past a
pen whose deflection is a function of the magnitude of the
measured signal. This produces a time history of the
measured signal.
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These work on the same principle as a moving -coil meter
except that the pointer draws an ink trace on paper, as
illustrated in Figure 5.2, instead of merely moving against
a scale. The measured signal is applied to the coil, and
the angular deflection of this and its attached pointer is
proportional to the magnitude of the signal applied.
Inspection of Figure 5.3(a) shows that the displacement y
of the pen across the chart recorder is given by
y = R Sin V.

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This relationship is non-linear and brings a percentage of
error into the measurement. Also due to pen moving in an
arc it is difficult to relate the magnitude of deflection with
the time axis. One way of ove rcoming this is to print a
grid on the chart paper in the form of circular arcs, as
illustrated in Figure 5.3(b). Unfortunately, measurement
errors often occur in reading this type of chart, as
interpolation of points drawn between the curved grid line
is difficult. An alternative solution is to use heat -sensitive
chart paper directed over a knife-edge, and to replace the
pen by a heated stylus, as illustrated in Figure 5.4. The
input-output relationship is still non-linear, with the
deflection y being proportional to tan V as shown in
Figure 5.5(a), and the reading error for excursion of
10 0
is still 0.7%. However, the rectilinearly scaled chart paper
now required, as shown in Figure 5.5(b), allows much
easier interpolation between grid lines.

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Potentiometric recorders have much better specifications
than galvanometric recorders, with a typical inaccuracy of
š0.1% of full scale and measurement resolution of 0.2%
f.s. being achievable. Such instruments employ a servo
system, as shown in Figure 5.6, in which the pen is
driven by a servomotor, and a potentiometer on the pen

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feeds back a signal proportional to pen position. This

position signal is compared with the measured signal,
and the difference is applied as an error signal that drives
the motor.
However, a consequence of this electromechanical
balancing mechanism is to give the instrument a slow
response time in the range 0.2²2.0 seconds. This means
that potentiometric recorders are only suitable for
measuring d.c. and slowly time -varying signals.
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galvanometric recorders concluded are restricted by its
systems moment of inertia and spring constants reduces
and limit the maximum bandwidth to about 100 Hz.
Ultra-violet recorders work on very similar principles to
standard galvanometric chart recorders, but achieve a
very significant reduction in system inertia and spring
constants by mounting a narrow mirror rather than a pen
system on the moving coil. This mirror reflects a beam of
ultra-violet light onto ultra-violet sensitive paper. It is
usual to find several of these mirror -galvanometer
systems mounted in parallel within one instrument to
provide a multi-channel recording capability, as

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illustrated in Figure 5.7. This arrangement enables
signals at frequencies up to 13 kHz to be recorded with a
typical inaccuracy of
2% f.s. Whilst it is possible to
obtain satisfactory permanent signal recordings by this
method, special precautions are necessary to protect the
ultra-violet-sensitive paper from light before use and to
spray a fixing lacquer on it after recording. Such
instruments must also be handled with extreme care,
because the mirror galvanometers and their delicate .

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The two formats available for presenting data on paper
tabular and graphical one and the relative merits of these
are compared below. In some circumstances, it is clearly
best to use only one or other of these two alternatives
alone. However, in many data collection exercises, part of
the measurements and calculations are expressed in
tabular form and part graphically, so making best use of
the merits of each technique.
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A tabular presentation allows data values to be recorded
in a precise way that exactly maintains the accuracy to
which the data values were measured. In other words, the
data values are written down exactly as measured.
Besides recording the raw data values as measured,
tables often also contain further values calculated from
the raw data. An example of a tabular data presentation
is given in Table 5.1. This records the results of an
experiment to determine the strain induced in a bar of
material that is subjected to a range of stresses. Data
were obtained by applying a sequence of forces to the end
of the bar and using an extensometer to measure the
change in length. Values of the stress and strain in the
bar are calculated from these measurements and are also
included in the table. The final row, which is of crucial
importance in any tabular presentation, is the estimate of
possible error in each calculated result. A table of
measurements and calculations should conform to
several rules as illustrated in Table 5.1:c

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(i) The table should have a title that explains what

data are being presented within the table.

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(ii) Each column of figures in the table should refer to
the measurements or calculations associated with one
quantity only.
(iii) Each column of figures should be headed by a title
that identifies the data values contained in the column.
(iv) The units in which quantities in each column are
measured should be stated at the top of the column.
(v) All headings and columns should be separated by
bold horizontal (and sometimes vertical) lines.
(vi) The errors associated with each data value quoted
in the table should be given. The form shown in Table 5.1
is a suitable way to do this when the error level is the
same for all data values in a particular column. However,
if error levels vary, then it is preferable to write the error
boundaries alongside each entry in the table.

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Presentation of data in graphical form involves some
compromise in the accuracy to which the data are
recorded, as the exact values of measurements are lost.
However, graphical presentation has important
advantages over tabular presentation.
(i) Graphs provide a pictorial representa tion of results
that is more readily comprehended than a set of tabular
results.
(ii) Graphs are particularly useful for expressing the
quantitative significance of results and showing whether a
linear relationship exists between two variables.
Figure 5.8 shows a graph drawn from the stress and
strain values given in the Table 5.1. Construction of the
graph involves first of all marking the points
corresponding to the stress and strain values. The next
step is to draw some lines through these data points th at
best represents the relationship between the two
variables. This line will normally be either a straight one
or a smooth curve. The data points will not usually lie
exactly on this line but instead will lie on either side of it.
The magnitude of the excursions of the data points from
the line drawn will depend on the magnitude of the
random measurement errors associated with the data.
(iii) Graphs can sometimes show up a data point that is
clearly outside the straight line or curve that seems to fit
the rest of the data points. Such a data point is probably
due either to a human mistake in reading an instrument
or else to a momentary malfunction in the measuring

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instrument itself. If the graph shows such a data point

where a human mistake or instrument malfunction is
suspected, the proper course of action is to repeat that
particular measurement and then discard the original
data point if the mistake or malfunction is confirmed.
Like tables, the proper representation of data in graphical
form has to conform to certain rules:
(i) The graph should have a title or caption that explains
what data are being presented in the graph.
(ii) Both axes of the graph should be labelled to express
clearly what variable is associated with each axis and to
define the units in which the variables are expressed.

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(iii) The number of points marked along each axis should
be kept reasonably small ² about five divisions is often a
suitable number.

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(iv) No attempt should be made to draw the graph outside
the boundaries corresponding to the maximum and
minimum data values measured, i.e. in Figure 5.8, the
graph stops at a point corresponding to the highest
measured stress value of 108. 5.
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The procedure of drawing a straight line or smooth curve
as appropriate that passes close to all data points on a
graph, rather than joining the data points by a jagged line
that passes through each data point, is justified on
account of the random errors that are known to affect
measurements. Any line between the data points is
mathematically acceptable as a graphical representation
of the data if the maximum deviation of any data point
from the line is within the boundaries of the identified
level of possible measurement errors. However, within the
range of possible lines that could be drawn, only one will
be the optimum one. This optimum line is where the sum
of negative errors in data points on one side of the line is
balanced by the sum of positive errors in data points on
the other side of the line. The nature of the data points is
often such that a perfectly acceptable approximation to
the optimum can be obtained by drawing a line through
the data points by eye.



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1.c Explain the advantage(s) of electronic digital
display over analogue one.
2.c Compare the principle of a Moving-coil recorder
with that of an Ultra-violet recorder, dicussing
the advantages of the latter over the former.
3.c Differentiate between a tabular and graphical
representation of data. Enumerating the merits
and demerit of each one.

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Temperature measurement is very important in all
spheres of life and especially so in the process industries.
However, it poses particular problems, since temperature
measurement cannot be related to a fundamental
standard of temperature in the same way that the
measurement of other quantities can be related to th e
primary standards of mass, length and time. If two bodies
of lengths l1 and l2 are connected together end to end, the
result is a body of length l1 + l2. A similar relationship
exists between separate masses and separate times.
However, if two bodies at the same temperature are
connected together, the joined body has the same
temperature as each of the original bodies.
This is a root cause of the fundamental difficulties that
exist in establishing an absolute standard for
temperature in the form of a relationship between it and
other measurable quantities for which a primary standard
unit exists. In the absence of such a relationship, it is
necessary to establish fixed, reproducible reference points
for temperature in the form of freezing and boiling points
of substances where the transition between solid, liquid
and gaseous states is sharply defined. The J   
$   ›    (IPTS) uses this philosophy
and defines six    #)
   for reference
temperatures in terms of:

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the triple point of equilibrium hydrogen -

259.34°C
the boiling point of oxygen -182.962°C
the boiling point of water 100.0°C
the freezing point of zinc 419.58°C
the freezing point of silver 961.93°C
the freezing point of gold 1064.43°C
(all at standard atmospheric pressure)
Instruments to measure temperature can be divided into
seperate classes according to the physical principle on
which they operate. The main principles discussed in this
book are:
1.c Thermoelectric effect
2.c Resistance Thermometer
3.c Sensitivity of semiconductor device (Thermistor).
4.c Thermal Expansion method.
5.c Acoustic Thermometer.
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Thermoelectric effect sensors rely on the physical
principle that, when any two different metals are
connected together, an e.m.f, which is a function of the
temperature, is generated at the junctoin between the
metals.
A thermocouple is a device based upon these principle,
which was discorvered by SEEBECK (1821). He showed
that a small electric will flow in a circuit composed of two
dissimilar conductors when their junctions are kept at
different temperatures. The electromotive force (emf)

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produced under these conditions is known as the

HSeebeck emfµ. The pair of conductors that constitute the
thermoelectric circuit is called thermocouple. The output
of a thermocouple circuit is a voltage, and there is a
definite relationship between this voltage, and
temperatures of the junctions that make up the
thermocouple circuit.

The reading V 0 of the voltmeter in figure 6.1 below is

given by:

"
  ó›

› ................. equation 6.1

C is the sensitivity of the thermocouple circuit.

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c c U6c c /" c  : A thermoelectric
current cannot be sustained in a circuit of a single
homogeneous material by the application of heat alone,
regardless of how it might vary in cross section.

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ccU6cc
c : The algebraic sum of

the thermoelectric forces in a cir cuit composed of any
number of dissimilar materials is zero if all of the circuit
is at a uniform temperature.

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If two dissimilar homogeneous materials produce thermal
# when the junctions are at › and ›  and produce
thermal #   when the junctions are at ›  and ›, , the
# generated when the junctions are at ›and ›, will be
#+# 

It is important to note that thermocouple measure the

temperature difference between two points, not absolute
temperature.

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A thermocouple was found to have linear calibration
between 00 C and 4000C with emf at maximum
temperature (reference junction temperature 0 0C) equal to
20.68 mV.
a) Determine the correction which must be made to the
indicated emf if the cold junction temperature is 25 0C.
b) If the indicated emf is 8.82 mV in the thermocouple
circuit, determine the temperature of the hot junction.


(a) Sensitivity of the thermocouple C is given by

C = 20.68/(400-0)
= 0.0517 mV/0C

Since the thermocouple is calibrated at the reference

junction of 0 0C and is being used at 25 0C, then the

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correction which must be made, corr between 0 0C and

250C
corr = 0.0517 x 25
corrr = 1.293 mV

(b) Indicated emf V0 between the hot junction T2 and

reference junction T1 at 25 0C = 8.92 mV

V0 = C(T2 ² T1)

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Since the reference junction temperature T1 is 25 0C, hot

junction temperature T2 is given by;

T2 = 172.53 + 25 = 197.530C.
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Resistance thermometer, also called resistance
temperature detector (RTDs), are temperature sensors
that exploit the predictable change in electrical resistance
of some metals with changing temperature. The
resistance ideally varies linearly with temperature
according to the relationship:
'›  â '›
   è›  
è›
   è›     
è›


This equation is non-linear and so is inconvenient for

measurement purpose. The equation beco mes linear if all
the terms in Y2T2 and higher powers of T are negligible
such that the resistance and temperature are related
according to:

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›   ›
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è› # T1<T<T2

R(T) = approximation of resistance at temperature T.

R(T0) = resistance at temperature T 0
Y0 = fractional change in resistance per degree of the
temperature at T0.
ƦT = T ² T0
This equation is approximately true over a limited
temperature range for some metals, notably platinum,
copper and nickel.
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Straight line equation

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â  
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Ë › .............. equation 6.2

R2 = resistance at T 2
R1 = resistance at T 1
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A sample of metal resistance versus temperature has the
following measured values:
T(0F) R(º)
60 106.0
65 107.6
70 109.1
75 110.2
80 111.1
85 111.7
90 112.2

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Find the linear approximation of resistance versus
temperature between 60 0 and 90 0F.
c
Since 75 0F is the midpoint, this will be used for T 0 so the
R0 = 110.2º, Then the slope can be found from equation
5.2:







 


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Thus, the linear approximation for resistance is
R(T)= 110.2[1+0.001875(T-75)]º

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These are semiconductor resitance sensors, unlike
metals, thermistors respond negatively to temperature.
That is, as the temperature of the semiconductor material
is increased their resistance decreases. The symbol of
thermistor is shown in figure 6.3 below

Œ
. Symbol of Thermistor

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Thermal expansion methods of temperature measurement
make use of the fact that the dimensions of all
substances whether solids, liquids or gases, change with
temperature. Instruments operating on this physical
principle include the liquid-in-glass thermometer, the
bimetallic thermometer and the pressure thermometer.

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The liquid-in-glass thermometer is a well -known
temperature-measuring instrument that is used in a wide
range of applications. The fluid used is usually either
mercury or coloured alcohol, and this is contained within
a bulb and capillary tube, as shown in Figure 6.4. As the
temperature rises, the fluid expands along the capillary
tube and the meniscus level is read against a calibrated
scale etched on the tube.

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The bimetallic principle is probably more commonly
known in connection with its use in thermostats. It is

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based on the fact that if two strips of different metals are

bonded together, any temperature change will cause the
strip to bend, as this is the only way in which the
differing rates of change of length of each metal in the
bonded strip can be accommodated. In the bimetallic
thermostat, this is used as a switch in the contol
applications. If the magnitude of bending is measured,
the bimetallic device becomes a thermometer. For such
purposes, the strip is often arranged in a spiral or helical
configuration, as shown in Figure 5.4b.

"c&
 Bimetallic strip

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The principle of acoustic thermometry was dicovered as
long ago as 1873 and uses the fact that the velocity of
sound through a gas varies with temperature according to
the equation:

   › !! ................. equation 6.3

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Where v is the sound velocity, T is the gas temperature, M

is the molecular weight of the gas and both R and Y are
constants. Until very recently, it had only been used for
measuring cryogenic (very low) temperatures, but it is
now also used for measuring higher temperature and can
potentially measure right up to 20, 000 0C.

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1. The table below shows the hot junction temperatures
T2 of a thermocouple when the reference junction
temperature T1 is maintained at 0 0C with the
corresponding outputs e.m.f E 0 in mV. Plot the graph of
T2-T1 against E 0. Hence find the sensitivity of the
thermocouple.

E0 (mV) T2-T1(0C)
10 156
20 312
30 468
40 623
50 780

2.c If the output of the thermocouple in 1 above it

6.41mV, when the reference junction temperature
is maintained at 0 0C and the hot junction is
immersed in a fluid. Determine the temperature of
the fluid.
3.c Define thermocouple and explain the Laws that
governs its principle of operation.
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Pressure measurement is a very common requirement for
most industrial process control systems and many
different types of pressure-sensing and pressure -
measurement systems are available. However, before
considering these in detail, it is important to explain some
terms used in pressure measurement and to define the
difference between absolute pressure, guage pressure and
differential pressure.
 c  c This is the difference between t he
pressure of a fluid and the absolute zero of pressure.
-"c  c c This describes the difference between
the pressure of a fluid and atmospheric pressure.
Absolute and guage pressure are therefore related by the
expression:
Absoulte pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure
Thus, guage pressure varies as the atmospheric pressure
changes and is therefore not a fixed quantity.
 



This term is used to describe the
difference between two absolute pressure values, such as
the pressures at two different points within the same
fluid.
In most applications, the typical values of pressure
measured range from 1.013 bar (the mean atmospheric
pressure) up to 7000bar. This is considered to be the
normal pressure range, and a large number of pressure
sensors are available that can measure pressures in this

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range. Measurement requirements outside this range are

much less common. Whilst some of the pressure sensors
developed for the ¶normal· range can also measure
pressures that are either lower or higher that this, it is
preferable to use special instruments that have been
specially designed to satisfy such low -and high-pressure
measurement requirements.
The discussion below summarize the main types of
pressure sensor that are in use. This discussion is
primarily concerned only with the measurement of static
pressure, because the measurement of dynamic pressure
is a very specialized area that is not of general interest.

*
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The diaphragm, shown schematically in figure 7.1, is one
of three types of elesatic element pressure transducer.
Applied pressure causes displacement of the diaphragm
and this movement is measured by a displacement
transducer. Different versions of diaphragm sensors can
measure both absolute pressure (up to 50bar) and guage
pressure (up to 2000bar) according to whether the space
on one side of the diaphragm is respectivel y evacuated or
is open to the atmosphere. A diaphragm can also be used
to measure differential pressure (up to 2.5 bar) by
applying the two pressures to the two sides of the
diaphragm. The diaphragm can be either plastic, metal
alloy, stainless steel or ceramic. Plastic diaphragm s are
cheapest, but metal diaphragms give better accuracy.
Stainless steel is normally used in high temperature or

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corrosive environments. Ceramic diaphragms are
resistant even to strong acids and alkalis, and are used
when the operating environment is particularl harsh.

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The bellows, schematically inllustrated in figurre 7.2, is
another elastic-element type of pressure sensor that
operates on very similar principles to the diaphragm
pressure sensor. Pressure changes within the bellows,
which is typically fabricated as a seamless tube of either
metal or metal alloy, produce traslational motion of the
end of the bellows that can be measured by capacitive,
inductive or potentiometric transducers. Differe nt
versions can messure either absolute pressure up to (2. 5
bar) or guage pressure (up to 150 bar).

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The Bourdon tube is also an elastic element type of
pressure transducer. It is relatively cheap and is
commonly used for measuring the guage pressure of both
gaseous and liquid fluids. It consists of a specially shaped
piece of ova-section, flexible, metal tube that is fixe d at
one end and free to move at the other end. When pressure
is applied at the open, fixed end of the tube, the oval
cross-section becomes more circular. In consequence,
there is a displacement of the free end of the tube. This
displacement is measured by some form of displacement
transducer, which is commonly a potentiometer.
The three common shapes of Bourdon tube are shown in
figure 7.3. The maximum possible deflection of the free
end of the tube is propostional to the angle subtended by
the arec through which the tube is bent. For a C -type
tube, the maximum value for this arc is somewhat less
that 360 0. Where greater measurement sensitivity and
resolution are required, spiral and helical tubes are used.
These both give a much greater deflection at the free end
for a given applied pressure. However, this increased
measurement performance is only gained at the expense

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of a sustantial increase in manufacturing difficult and

cost compared with C-type tubes, and is also associated
with a large decrease in the maximum pressure that can
be measured. Spiral and hlical types are sometimes
provided with a rotating pointer that moves against a
scale to give visual indication of the measured pressure.

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Manometers are passive instruments that give a visual
indication of pressure values. Various types exist.
The U-tube manometer, shown in Figure 7.4a, is the most
common form of manometer. Applied pressure causes a
displacement of liquid inside the U -shaped glass tube,
and the output pressure reading P is made by observing
the difference  between the level of liquid in the two
halves of the tube A and B, according to the equation
^ l
 Where l is the specific gravity of the fluid. If an

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unknown presure is applied to side A, and side B is open
to the atmosphere, the output reading is guage pressure.
Alternativel, if the side B of the tube is sealed and
evacuated, the output reading is absolute pressure. The
U-tube manometer also measures the differential
pressure (4 ", according to the expression ( 4 "=l1if
two unknown pressures 
  , are applied
respectively to sides A and B of the tube.
Output readings from U-tube manometers are subject to
error, principally because it is very difficult to judge
exactly where the meniscus levels of the liquid are in the
two halves of the tube. In absolute pressure
measurement, an addition error occurs because it is
impossible to totall evacuate the closed end of the tube.
U-tube manometers are typically used to measure ga uge
and differential pressures up to about 2 bar. The type of
liquid used in the instrument depends on the pressure
and characteristics of the fluid being measured. Water is
a cheap and convenient choice, but it evaporates easil
and is difficult to see. Nevertheless, it is used extensively,
with the major obstacles to its use being overcome by
useing coloured water and by regularl topping up the
tube to counteract eveporation. However, water is
definitely not used when measureing the pressure of
fluids that react with or dissolve in water. Water is also
unsuitable when high-pressure measurements are
required. In such circumstances liquids such as aniline,
carbon tetrachloride, bromoform, mercur or transformer
oil are used instead.

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The well-type or critern manometer, shown in figure
7.4(b), is similar to a U-tube manometer but one halt of
the tube is made very large so that it forms a well. The
change in the level of the well as the measured pressure
varies is negligible. Therefore, the liquid level in only one
tube has to be measured, which makes the instrument
much easier to use than the U -tube manometer. If an
unknown pressure P1 is applied to port A, and port B is
open to the atmosphere, the guage pressure is given by
P1=hl. It might appear that the instrument would give a
better measurement accurac than the U-tube manometer
because the need to subtract two liquid level
measurements in order to assive at the pressure value is
avoided. However, this benefit is swamped by errors that
arise due to the typical cross-sectional area variations in
the glass used to make the tube. Such variations do not

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affect the accuracy of the U-tube manometer to the same

extent.
The inclined manometer or draft guage, shown in figure
7.4(c), is a variation on the well-type manometer in which
one leg of the tube in inclined to increase measurement
sensitivity. However, similar comments to those above
apply about accuracy.

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($ $c*c
1.c Define the following; i. Absolute pressure, ii.
Guage pressure and iii. Differential pressure, as
they apply to pressure measurement.
2.c Relating their principle of operation, differentiate
between the a diaphragm and a manometer in
pressure measurement.
3.c Describe how a diaphragm can be employed to
measure Absolute, guage and differential
pressure.

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A very important measurement in many liquid chemical
processes (industrial, pharmaceutical, manufacturing,
food production, etc.) is that of pH.
pH is a parameter that quantifies the level of acidity or
akalinity in a chemical solution. It defines the
concentration of hydrogen atoms in the solution in
grams/litre and is expressed as:
pH = log 10[1/H+]
where H+ is the hydrogen ion conc entration in the
solution.
The value of pH can range from 0, which describes
extreme acidity, to 14, which describes extreme akalinity.
Pure water has a pH of 7.
The common pH scale extends from 0 (strong acid) to 14
(strong caustic), with 7 in the middle representing pure
water (neutral) (figure 5.1):

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In its most common interpretation, pH is used to specify
the degree of acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution.

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pH is defined as follows: the lower -case letter "p" in pH
stands for the negative common (base ten) logarithm,
while the upper-case letter "H" stands for the element
hydrogen. Thus, pH is a logarithmic measurement of the
number of moles of hydrogen ions (H +) per liter of
solution. Incidentally, the "p" prefix is also used with
other types of chemical measurements where a
logarithmic scale is desired, pCO 2 (Carbon Dioxide) and
pO2 (Oxygen) being two such examples.
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The logarithmic pH scale works like this: a solution with
10-12 moles of H+ ions per liter has a pH of 12; a solution
with 10-3 moles of H+ ions per liter has a pH of 3. While
very uncommon, there is such a thing as an acid with a
pH measurement below 0 and a caustic with a pH above
14. Such solutions, understandably, are quite
concentrated and ) reactive.

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Electrochemical measurement of pH utilizes devices that
transduce the chemical activity of the hydrogen ion into
an electronic signal, such as an electrical potential
difference or a change in electrical conductance. This
section review electrochemical pH measurement, with
emphasis on the glass membrane electrode.
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The most widely used method for measuring pH is the
glass membrane electrode. As illustrated schematically in
Figure 8.2, a pH meter measures the electrical potential
difference (voltage) that develops between a glass
membrane pH indicator electrode and a reference
electrode immersed in the sample to be tested. The
indicator and reference electrode are commonl y combined
into a single, functionally equivalent, probe, referred to as
a combination electrode. The glass membrane of th e
indicator electrode develops a pH -dependent potential, as
as a result of ion-exchange between hydrogen ion in
solution and univalent cations in the glass membrane.
The sensitivity of the glass electrode membrane potential
to changes in pH is small, so a suitably designed
reference electrode and a high input impedance meter are
required in order for the potential to be precisely
measured.

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Great care is necessary in the use of the glass electrode

type of pH probe. Firstly, the measuring probe ha s a very
high resistance (typically 108 º) and a very low output.
Hence, the output signal from the probes must be
electrically screened to prevent any stray pick -up and
electrical insulation of the assemble must be very high.
The assembly must also be very efficiently sealed to
prevent the ingress of moisture.
A second problem with the glass electrode is the
deterioration in accuracy that occurs as the glass
membrane becomes coated with various substances it is
exposed to in the measured solution. Cleaning at
prescribed intervals is therefore necessary and this must
be carried out carefully, using the correct procedures, to
avoid damaging the delicate galss membrane at the end of
the probe. The best cleaning procedure varies according
to the nature of the contamination. In some cases, careful
brushing or wiping is adequate, whereas in other cases
spraying with chemical solvents is neccessary. Ultrasonic
cleaing is often a useful technique, though it tends to be
expensive. Steam cleaning should not be attempte d, as
this damages the pH-sensitive membrane. Mention must
also be made about storage. The glass electrode must not
be allowed to dry out during storage, as this would cause
serious damage to the pH-sensitive layer. c
Finally, caution must be taken about the response time of
the instrument. The glass electrode has a relatively large
time constant of one to two minutes, and so it must be
left to settle for a long time before the reading is taken. If

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this causes serious difficulties, special forms of low -
resistivity glass electrode are now available that have
smaller time constants.

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The pH meter pictured in Figure 8.2 measured the
potential developed between the pH indicator and
reference electrodes, from which the pH of the sample is
determined using a previously established calibration and
possibly the sample temperature. The measurement of
the potential, which may range in magnitude up to a few
hundred milivots, is complicated by the large electrical
resistance presented by the glass memebrane. This may
range from 100Mº to greater than 1000Mº, and
necessitates the use of high input impedance amplifiers
with FET input stages if the glass membrane potential is
to be accurately measured. While the relatively low cost
and high performance of commerciall available meters
obviates the need for amplifier construction, Figure 8.2(d)
presents a simple amplifier suitable for use with a glass
electrode. The amplifier circuitr of commercial pH meters
incorporates additional functions to imp rove the accuracy
and stabilit of the measurement, such as a driven shield
to reduce noise pickup and chopper stabilization to
reduce drift.
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Calibration of pH meter is usually reffered to as pH
electrode calibration. To calibrate the electrode you need

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at least two solutions of knonw pH. Most commonly used
commercially available calibration buffers (
##
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   #      " have pH of 4.01, 7.00
and 10.00.
1. The first step to take is usually related to temperature
correction. The pH meter must be able to measure
temperature or use external temperature probe because
the butter pH changes with temperature.
2. The next step is to put the electrode into pH 7.00
buffer. Take care not to hit the bottom of the beaker with
the electrode. Wait for the reading to stabilize. Rinse the
electrode with distilled water from a wash bottle into an
empty beaker before immersing it into new solution.
3. The next step will depend on the solution you want
your pH meter to measure. If you plan to measure pH in
acidic solutions, use pH=4.01 buffer. If you plan to
measure high pH use pH=10.00 buffer.
4. After you are ready, then you can take yo ur
measurement.

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1. Define pH and with a simple sketch, describe a pH
scale.
2. Determine the number of moles of H + ions per liter of
a solution with pH of 8.6.
3. What is pH meter; With a suitable diagram briefly
describe the function of pH electrode in pH meter.
4. Explain the basic steps involved in calibration of a pH
meter.

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A device that transfer electric energy from a source to a
load using electronic circuit is called power supply unit
(PSU). A typical application of power supplies is to
convert a utility AC input voltage into regulated DC
voltage(s) required for electronic equipment. A power
supply could be something as simple as a 9V battery or it
could be as complex as a precission laboratory power
supply.
Most electronic circuits need a DC supply such as a
battery to power them. Since the main supply is AC it has
to be converted to DC to be useful in electronics. This is
what a power supply does.

Figure 9.1: Block diagram of a power supply unit.

First the AC mains supply passes through an isolating
switch and safety fuse before it enters the power supply
unit.
In most cases the high voltage mains supply is too high
for the electronic circuitry. It is therefore stepped down to

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a lower value by means of a Transformer. The main
voltage can be stepped up where high DC voltages are
required.
From the transformer the AC voltage is fed to a rectifier
circuit consisting of one or more diodes. The recti fier
converts AC voltage to DC voltate.
This DC is not steady as from a battery. It is pulsating.
The pulsations are smoothed out by passing them
through a smoothing circuit called a filter. In its spmples
form the filter is a capacitor and resistor. Any remaining
small variations can, if necessary, be removed by a
regulator circuit which gives out a very steady voltage.
This regulator also removes an variations in the DC
voltage output caused by the AC mains voltage changing
in value. Regulators are available in the form of integrated
circuits with only three connections.
2
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Rectification is an electronic circuit process of converting
an AC signal into a DC signal, this is done by a rectifier. A
rectifier (or simply called a diode) is a semic onductor that
conducts electricity in just one direction. Rectifier circuits
generally take the form of either half-wave rectification or
full-wave rectification. › 
1
 circuit is
the simplest circuit, consisting of a single diode
connected in series with the source. This type of circuit
converts wave or cycle of the AC source into a DC supply.

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(a) (b) (c)
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Figure 9.2: ! " * #!
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< #4* #
The voltage at point A does the opposite of that at point B.
When A is increasing in a positive direction, B is
increasing in a negative direction. It is rather like the two
ends of a see-saw.
During the firs half cycle of the waveform shown in figure
9.1a, A is positive and B is negative. The diode is forward
biased and current flows around the circuit formed by the
diode, the transform winding and the load.
Since the current through the load, and the voltage
across the load are in the same proportions, then the
voltage across the load is as shown in the figure 9.2(b),
during the first half cycle. During the second half cycle, A
and the anode are negative, B and the cathode are
positive. The diode is reverse biased and no current flows
This is idicated by the horixontal in figure 9.2(b). The
diode only conducts on every other half cycle. The diode
only conducts during half the cycle, Hence, half -wave
rectification.
› 
1
 circuit is the most efficient
method of producing a DC supply from an AC source as it

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converts both half cycles of the AC into a DC supply.
Although there are several methods available, the most
common circuit is that of the bridge rectifier which uses
four individual rectifying diodes connected in a Sbridgedµ
configuration to produce the DC output.

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(d) (e)
Figure 9.3: ! "   
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Figure 9.3(d) is the waveform of the input voltage. The
voltages at points A and B on the transformer are
changing in opposite directions. When A is increasing in a
positive direction, B is increasing negatively. During the
first half ccle, A is positive and B is negative, D1 has
positive on its anode, D2 has negative on its cathode.
Both are forward biased.
Current flows around the circuit formed by these diodes,
the load and the transformer winding, as shown in figure
9.3 (b). During the next half cycle, A is negative and B is
positive D4 has positive on its anode, D3 has negative on
its cathode. Both are forward biased Current flows
around the circuit as shown in figure 9.3(c). Since the full
cycle is used this circuit is called a full -wave rectifier and
the ouput waveform of the current that flows in the
circuit is as shown in figure 9.3(e).
2
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Thiscis the process of locating and repairing malfunctions
in equipment by means of systematic analysis and
testing. For you to become a good electronics tech nician
or troubleshooter you will need to have a thorough
understanding of electronics, test equipment,
troubleshooting techniques, and system repair. All
scientist does not need to be an electronic technician, but
if you make use of electronic equipment in the laboratory
it is require of you to have the basic knowledge of what
goes wrong when you equipment malfunction so that you
can inform the electronic technician appropriately in a

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technical term what goes wrong with your equipment or
instrument.
2
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Use the following as a guide to help you find and repair
basic electronic/electrical circuits.
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Before you attempt to repair a piece of equipment be sure
you understand how the equipment operates. Refer to
operator·s manuals, technical manuals, and any other
documentation that applies to the equipment that seems
to be faulty in some way. A lot of technicians bypass this
step and go directly to in -depth troubleshooting just to
find out that the real problem was user error.
Familiarize yourself with the circuit or system operation;
this will help you determine what functions work and
what functions seem to be Tnot working properlyµ. Make
sure you obtain as much information as you can fro m the
person reporting the fault so as to understand if there is;
1. Circuit failure ² A malfunction or failure in a
component or circuit or
2. User Error ² Incorrect use of controls, system or
circuit.
ccccc ccc)c$$c$! c
Refer to the equipment system diagram and list all the
likely circuit blocks that you feel may be the cause of the
malfunction that you have isolated during step 1.
ccU$cc)c$$c$!c
A THalf-Split Methodµc.
  3

  #  
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   # # "ccan be used
here to isolate the faulty circuit block. As an example a
system may have a good input signal and a bad output
signal. Instead of checking every circuit block a test point
is chosen midway in the system between i nput and
output. If the signal is bad that means the problem will
likely be in the first half of the system.
cAlways look for the obvious, for example; power not
connected, input disconnected (i.e. cable from an
antenna).
Use your senses; sight, sou nd and smell. Check for burnt
components, crackling connections etc.
If it looks like the whole system is dead and you have
checked for the obvious (fuses, power source ² 220 VAC)
then you probably have a power supply problem. Use a
voltmeter to measure the ac input and the dc outputs of
the power supply.
c cU$cc)c$. ,c
Having found the faulty circuit block the next step will be
to find the faulty component(s)
c Most equipment
manufactures will include a troubleshooting guide as a
part of their operating/service manual. These guides will
often point directly at circuits in the circuit block that
may be the cause of the problem. Manufacturers
troubleshooting guides may also include voltage, current
and waveform information to assist you in
troubleshooting.

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Troubleshooting and repair of a system in most cases
must be completed quickly as equipment failure (down
time) can cost considerable loss of money due to l ost
productivity. There are two techniques often used to
expedite repair.
4c c  cis a method of troubleshooting
often used in the industry to expedite repair. This rapire
technique requires that the service tech nician be totally
familiar with the system operation. The technician would
quite simply power down the system, pull out the faulty
component and replace it with an equal known good
component.
c Uc   is a method of
troubleshooting that may lessen the repair time. In this
method the service technolog ist/technician would have
located the faulty circuit (general area of the fault). The
technician would replace components in the circuit, one
at a time with known good comonents (having the same
electrical ratings) until the problem is resolved. This
method may seem to take time, but it can save time for
hard to find problems.
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Completing the repair might be easy ² changing a fuse.
Replacing a power cord. Usually repair will require the
removal and replacement of a component. Your
knowledge of desoldering and soldering techniques will
make the repair process much easier.

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It is very important to make a sketch of the circuit you
are working on, to record the placement and orientation
of the component and any wiring prior to removing it.
This sketch will assist you when you go to replace the
component to make sure you position it properly. Also be
sure to handle static sensitive components carefully .
If you believe you have completed the repa ir to the system
you will need to test it to be sure it perform s properly
according to specification given by the manufacturer.
Following the testing and verification of the system you
will need to complete a Uservice reportµ.
These are some reasons to fil l out a service report:
1.c To create a historical record for a piece of
equipment
2.c To record the repair to assist with any future
repairs.
3.c To show reliability of the equipment over time.
4.c To maintain a record of repair time and cost.
5.c To record contacts with off site service perso nel.
6.c To identify a manufacturers design flaw.
7.c To supply a service report to the owner.
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;
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1.c What is a power supply unit? Explain its important
in electronic instruments and equipments.
2.c Describe with the block diagram the components of
a simple power supply units, explain the
importance of each component to the operation of
the PSU.
3.c What is Rectification? Discuss with a suitable
diagram, the difference between an half -wave
rectifier and a full-wave rectifier.
4.c Define trouble shooting, as it applies to electronic
instruments.
5.c Discuss in detail, the basic steps involve in
troubleshooting an electronic device.
6.c As an electronic techicia, design a service report for
a device you just repaired.
c
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 c c &'c A course in Electrical & Electronic
Measurements & Instrumentation;    2  =  
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c ('c Electrical Measurements & Measuring

Instruments. ;$
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Dekker A.J; Electrical Engineering Materials; $ 

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John Bird; Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology;

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R S Khandpur; Troubleshooting Electronic Equipment;

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Orna, Mary Virginia, Stock, John (1989);

Electrochemistry, past and present; 
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Wahl (2005); XA Short History of Electrochemistryµ;

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ANSIC12.1-2001; Code for Electricity Metering;
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ASTM; Manual on the Use of Thermocouples in

Temperature Measurements;$
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Beckwith, T. G.; Mechanical Measurements; 2

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Pressure and Flow Measurements 3rd ed;
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Berkeley Physics; Electricity and Magnetism, vol. II;
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Doeblin, Ernest O.; Measurement Systems and Design ;

*A0@ *4<1>>/

Fowler, Richard J.; Electricity Principles and Applications :

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Harris, Forest K.; Electrical Measurements;
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IEEE Transactions; Instrumentation and Measurement

(periodical);
*A0J1 %%&.

Keast, D. H.; Measurements in Mechanical Dynamics :

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Keithley, Joseph, F.; The Story of Electrical and Magnetic

Measurements 0From 500 B.C. to the 1940s :
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Mangum, B. W., and Furukawa, G. T.; Guidelines for

Realizing the International Temperature Scale of 1990 ;

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Thompson, Lawrence M.; Electrical Measurements and

Calibration: Fundamentals and Applications ;2 
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Tunbridge, Paul; Lord Kelvin, His Influence on Electrical

Measurements and Units;
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Webster, John G., ed.; Electrical Measurement, Signa l

Processing, and Displays;x2  02$1 %%,

Hickman, I. (1997); Digital Storage Oscilloscopes ;

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Brookes, C. (1985); Nicrosil²nisil thermocouples; ? 

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Dixon, J. (1987); Industrial radiation thermometry;

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Johnson, J.S. (1994); Optical sensors: the OCSA

experience;   
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Michalski, L., Eckersdorf, K. and McGhee, J. (1991);

Temperature Measurement; ?  ;   #
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Topping, J. (1972); Errors of Observation and their

Treatment;   
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Benson, I.B. (1989); Industrial applications of near

infrared reflectance for the measurement of moisture;
  
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Gimson, C. (1989); Using the capacitance charge transfer

principle for water content measurement;   
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Miller, J.T. (ed.) (1975b); The Instrument Manual;  


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hygrometer;   
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Slight, H.A. (1989); Further thoughts on moisture

measurement;   
 1££1+&B+7

Thompson, F. (1989); Moisture measurement using

microwaves;   
 1££1 %B &.

Wiltshire, M.P. (1989); Ultrasonic moisture measurement;

  
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Young, L. (1989); Moisture measurement using low

resolution nuclear magnetic resonance,   

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