cmutsvangwa:, Wastewater Engineering, Dept. of Civil and Water Eng.

, NUST9/20/2006 2-1

Chapter 2
WASTEWATER CHARACTERISATION

Wastewater is composed of domestic, industrial wastewater and agricultural wastes

Domestic wastewater
Domestic wastewater is composed of:
• human body wastes (faeces and urine)
• sullage (laundry and kitchen wastes)

A greater percentage of the wastewater is water (99.9%) and the remainder 0.1%
are solids. The composition of the wastewater and human wastes are given in
Tables 2.1 and Fig. 2.1 respectively.

Fig. 1: Composition of wastewater

Source: Mara D., (1986), sewage treatment in hot climates

Table 2.1: Composition of human faeces and urine

n/n Component Unit Faeces Urine

1 Quantity (wet) per person per day g 135-270 1000-1300
2 Quantity (dry solids) per person per day 35-70 50-70
3 Moisture % 66-80 93-96
4 Organic matter % 88-97 65-85
5 Nitrogen % 5-7 15-19
6 Phosphorous ( as P205) % 3-5.4 2.5-5
7 Potassium (as K2O) % 1-2.5 3-4.5
8 Carbon % 44-55 11-17
8 Calcium (as CaO) % 4.5 4.5-6

Source: Mara D., (1986), sewage treatment in hot climates

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Chapter 3A: Wastewater characterisation

cmutsvangwa:, Wastewater Engineering, Dept. of Civil and Water Eng., NUST9/20/2006 2-2

Wastewater characterisation
The wastewater components include:
• organic material
• inorganic material
• microbial content

Organic material
These are the carbonaceous compounds in wastewater which are oxidised both
chemically and biologically to yield energy and CO2+H2O. The energy is necessary
for microorganisms for growth, e.g.

C 6 H 12 O6 + 6O2 → CO2 + H 2 0 + energy + small molecules

The above oxidation reactions are carried out both microbial and by use of chemical
oxidation agents, and indicate the amount of organic material present in a
wastewater. If biological oxidation is employed, the test is called BOD and for
chemical oxidation is COD. Other tests for the organic material are the
Permanganate value (PV) and the Total O2 Demand (TOD).

Definition of BOD
Quantity of oxygen utilised by a mixed population f microorganisms in the aerobic
oxidation of organic matter in a sample of wastewater at a temperature of 20oC.

It is the most commonly used parameter to:

• to define the strength of municipal or organic industrial wastewater.
• to measure the waste loadings to treatment plants
• to determine the relative oxygen requirement of treated effluents and polluted
waters
• to determine compliance with wastewater discharge permits

BOD test
Reaction takes place in closed bottle so that the O2 utilised can be measured. A
typical BOD bottle is 300ml (Fig. 2.2).
• The wastewater sample is mixed with a seed comprising a large number of
microorganisms which are capable of oxidising the wastewater being tested.
Seeding of the wastewater many not be necessary if the wastewater contains
enough microorganisms like domestic wastewater, unlike industrial
wastewaters which require an acclimated seed.
• a dilution solution containing MgSO4, CaCl2 and FeCl3 aerated to saturation with
oxygen is required.
• the saturated dilution is added into the BOD bottle and the bottle is filled to
the top
• the bottle is then tightly closed to ensure that no oxygen enters from the
atmosphere
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Chapter 3A: Wastewater characterisation

cmutsvangwa:, Wastewater Engineering, Dept. of Civil and Water Eng., NUST9/20/2006 2-3

• the closed bottle is placed in an incubator, in the dark at 20oC.

• a blank is also required which contains a seed and dilution water only
• changes in the dissolved oxygen content are measured by suitable
electrodes at intervals
• rapid oxidation of BOD occurs with the first 7 days

Fig. 2.2 Typical BOD bottle

Process taking place in a BOD bottle

• Catabolism
This is the first oxidation of the carbonaceous material into smaller molecules
to provide energy which is used in the synthesis of new cellular material.
CHON + O2 → CO2 + H 2 O + small molecules + energy

organic material

• Anabolism
It is the second stage and is the resynthesis of the small molecules into the
cell components required by the growing organisms, utilising the energy
generated in the first reaction:

Chapter 3A: Wastewater characterisation

cmutsvangwa:, Wastewater Engineering, Dept. of Civil and Water Eng., NUST9/20/2006 2-4

Small molecules + O2 + Energy → C 5 H 7 O2 N + H 2 O

• Metabolism
The stage at the end of the incubation period when the amount of
biodegradable organic material is very low. The starving microorganisms are
forced to oxidise their cellular carbonaceous material in order to provide the
energy for viability.

C 5 H 7 O2 N + O2 → CO2 + NH 3 + H 2 O + energy

The oxidation continues for approximate 28 days to give the ultimate BOD (BODu).
At this stage all the biological oxidation has ceased and any organic material left
remaining in the wastewater is resistant to biological oxidation and may be safely
discharged into the water course without fear of exerting any further oxygen
demand. The BOD test is performed in the presence of a nitrifying inhibitor to stop
the following reaction, which takes place in the presence of ammonia:

NH 4+ + 2O2 → NO3− + H 2 O + 2 H +
To minimise errors, a shorter period of incubation instead of 28 days is employed.
Normally 5 days at 20oC. The hypothetical carbonaceous and nitrification demand
is illustrated in Fig. 2.3.

BOD removal

Fig. 2.3 Hypothetical carbonaceous and nitrification demand

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Chapter 3A: Wastewater characterisation

cmutsvangwa:, Wastewater Engineering, Dept. of Civil and Water Eng., NUST9/20/2006 2-5

Computation of BOD for unseeded wastewater

D1 − D2
BOD = , mg/l
P

Where; D1 =initial DO of diluted buffer wastewater (phosphate buffer,

MgSO4, CaCl2, FeCl3 and wastewater), mg/l
D2 =final DO of diluted wastewater after incubation for 5 days, mg/l
P =decimal fraction of wastewater sample
ml (volume) of wastewater sample
=
ml (volume) of BOD bottle

Computation of BOD for seeded wastewater

(D1 − D2 ) − (B1 − B2 ) f
BOD =
P

Where; D1 =DO of diluted wastewater sample about 15 after preparation

D2 =DO of diluted wastewater sample after incubation
B1 =DO of seeded diluted sample after 15 preparation
B2 =DO of seeded diluted sample after incubation
f =ratio of seed volume in seeded wastewater test to seed
volume in BOD test on seed
% or ml of seed in D1
f =
% or ml of seed in B1
P =decimal fraction of wastewater sample used
ml of wastewater sample
=
ml volume of BOD bottle

BOD TEST limitations

• test provide measure of the oxygen consumed in the biological oxidation of
carbonaceous material in a sample over 5 days at 20oC
• at the end of the 5 days, some of the biological carbonaceous material
originally present in the sample remains unbiodegradable, and therefore
remain not assessed.
• not possible to perform a mass balance
• a high concentration of active acclimated seed bacteria is required
• pre-treatment is needed when dealing with toxic wastes
• nitrifying organisms must be reduce because nitrification may begin during
the test
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Chapter 3A: Wastewater characterisation

cmutsvangwa:, Wastewater Engineering, Dept. of Civil and Water Eng., NUST9/20/2006 2-6

• long period of time needed to obtain results

• the 5 day may not correspond to the point where the soluble organic mater
that is present has been used

The 5 day BOD has now been the standard reference used internationally by
engineers and regulatory agencies. It originated from the United Kingdom
conditions. It was recommend in the UK at the beginning of the century that 5
day BOD at 18.3oC value be used as a reference in Britain (Tchobanoglous et
al, 1985). The reason being that British rivers do not have flow time to the sea
greater than 5 days and average summer temperature do not exceed 18.3oC.
The temperature has been rounded upwards to 20oC and this has remained the
universal scientific and legal reference. Therefore it can be concluded that the
BOD5 has no a clear theoretical meaning and the basis of its adoption is also
inappropriate, nevertheless it has remained unchanged.

Some of the following relationships can be used to estimated BOD or COD.

= (1.5 − 3.0)
COD
for raw domestic wastewater (Metcalf and Eddy)
BOD

= (3.0 − 4.0)
COD
for industrial wastewater (Metcalf and Eddy)
BOD

Chemical oxygen demand (COD)

It is one of the parameters like BOD which is widely used to characterise the
organic strength of the wastewater and pollution of natural waters.

Definition
It is the amount off oxygen required for chemical oxidation of organic matter to
carbon dioxide. The value of COD in wastewater is greater than BOD, because
chemical oxidation decomposes more compounds than biological, and even the
non-biodegradable organic matter is oxidised. Also COD is greater because BOD5
is not the ultimate BOD.

COD TEST
• A strong oxidising chemical agent is use and normally potassium dichromate
in an acid medium.
• known diluted volumes of wastewater are put into a graduated flask and
diluted with pure water
• a known quantity of standard potassium dichromate solution, sulphuric acid
reagent containing silver sulphate, are added to the sample
• the mixture is vaporised and condensed for 2 hours and organics are mostly
destroyed:
organics + Cr2 O7 + H + ⎯heat
⎯ CO2 + H 2 O + 2Cr + +
⎯→
• after cooling, the mixture is diluted with distilled water
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Chapter 3A: Wastewater characterisation

cmutsvangwa:, Wastewater Engineering, Dept. of Civil and Water Eng., NUST9/20/2006 2-7

• the dichromate remaining in the specimen is titrated with standard ferrous

ammonium sulphate using ferroin indicator to determine the COD
• ferrous ion reacts with dichromate ion with an end point colour change from
blue-green to reddish brown
⎡ ⎤
COD = ⎢ml blank ml sample titrant ⎥ × normalityFe( NH 4 )2 SO4 × 800
⎣ ⎦

Characterisation of inorganic compounds

• Unlike organic material, there is no test like oxygen demand
• inorganic compounds which pose a threat or serous pollution are limited and
it is not feasible to perform all the tests
• individual tests are conducted for those compounds most likely to prove
trouble some e.g. nitrogen, phosphorous, heavy metals and pesticides.

Characterisation of microorganisms
These are the diseases causing organisms which are tested and should satisfy the
disposal standards for health reasons and the most common are the Ecoli.

Table: 2.2 Comparison of tests for organic material

Test Advantage Disadvantage

BOD • simple and popular
• used in majority of design equation
• familiar to most engineers
• produces information on both
carbonaceous and nitrogenous
oxygen demand
COD • simple and inexpensive
• comparatively rapid (data available
within 3hr)
• gives an accurate indication of the
fraction of the wastewater amenable
to biodegradation
• good reproducibility ( ± 5-10%)
PV • simple inexpensive apparatus
required
• rapid (results available within 40
min)
• ideal for field testing
• good reproducibility ( ± 6%)
TOC • very rapid (data available in
minutes)
• may be readily automated
• reproducibility excellent ( ± 3-6%)
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• long period of incubation
• reproducibility poor ( ± 15%)
• susceptible to inhibition by
many industrial wastes
• does not oxidise ammonia
• many non-biodegradable
organic compounds exert an
oxygen demand
• interference from high
concentrations of chloride
ions
• many organic compounds
are not oxidised by the mild
conditions.
• certain inorganic compounds
may contribute a high
oxygen demand
• expensive apparatus and
skilled technicians needed
• little comparative data
available

Chapter 3A: Wastewater characterisation

cmutsvangwa:, Wastewater Engineering, Dept. of Civil and Water Eng., NUST9/20/2006 2-8

Characterisation of wastewater solids content

They are either soluble or insoluble:
• suspended solids
• dissolved solids
• volatile suspended solids

The characterisation of solids content is illustrated in Fig. 2.4 and 2.5.

Definitions of solids
Total solids: all matter that remains as residue after evaporation at 103-
1050C. They exclude settleable solids that will settle to the bottom of a con-
shaped container called the Imhoff cone after 60 minutes if settlement.
Settleable solids expresses as ml/l are an approximate measure of the
quantity of sludge that can be removed by primary sedimentation.

Total solids =suspended (non-filterable) +filterable (filtrate)

Filtrate
Colloidal particles and dissolved solids that will pass through the filter paper
called the Whatman (GF/C), with a nominal pore size of 1.2µm. The colloidal
particles range from 0.001-2 µm. The dissolved solids include both the
organic and inorganic ions.

Volatile solids
This is the part of the organic matter that is destroyed at 550-600oC, and what
remains as ash is the non-volatile solids or fixed solids (FS). The VS and FS are
found in both the filtrated and suspended solids (Fig. 2.4).

Chapter 3A: Wastewater characterisation

cmutsvangwa:, Wastewater Engineering, Dept. of Civil and Water Eng., NUST9/20/2006 2-9

Chapter 3A: Wastewater characterisation

cmutsvangwa:, Wastewater Engineering, Dept. of Civil and Water Eng., NUST9/20/2006 2-10

Fig. 2.4: Wastewater characterisation of solid content

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Chapter 3A: Wastewater characterisation

cmutsvangwa:, Wastewater Engineering, Dept. of Civil and Water Eng., NUST9/20/2006 2-11

Table2.3: Physical, chemical and biological characteristics of wastewater

Source: Metcalf and Eddy, (1995), Wastewater engineering, treatment, disposal and
reuse, McGraw Hill, New York, USA

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Chapter 3A: Wastewater characterisation

cmutsvangwa:, Wastewater Engineering, Dept. of Civil and Water Eng., NUST9/20/2006 2-12

Table 2.4

Source: Metcalf and Eddy, (1995), Wastewater engineering, treatment, disposal and
reuse, McGraw Hill, New York, USA
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Chapter 3A: Wastewater characterisation

cmutsvangwa:, Wastewater Engineering, Dept. of Civil and Water Eng., NUST9/20/2006 2-13

Table 2.5

Source: Metcalf and Eddy, (1995), Wastewater engineering, treatment, disposal and
reuse, McGraw Hill, New York, USA

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Chapter 3A: Wastewater characterisation

cmutsvangwa:, Wastewater Engineering, Dept. of Civil and Water Eng., NUST9/20/2006 2-14

Table 2.6

Source: Metcalf and Eddy, (1995), Wastewater engineering, treatment, disposal and
reuse, McGraw Hill, New York, USA

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Chapter 3A: Wastewater characterisation

cmutsvangwa:, Wastewater Engineering, Dept. of Civil and Water Eng., NUST9/20/2006 2-15

Table 2.6

Source: Metcalf and Eddy, (1995), Wastewater engineering, treatment, disposal and
reuse, McGraw Hill, New York, USA

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Chapter 3A: Wastewater characterisation

cmutsvangwa:, Wastewater Engineering, Dept. of Civil and Water Eng., NUST9/20/2006 2-16

Table 2.8

Source: Metcalf and Eddy, (1995), Wastewater engineering, treatment, disposal and
reuse, McGraw Hill, New York, USA
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Chapter 3A: Wastewater characterisation

cmutsvangwa:, Wastewater Engineering, Dept. of Civil and Water Eng., NUST9/20/2006 2-17

Fig. 2.4: Wastewater characterisation of solid content

Source: Metcalf and Eddy, (1995), Wastewater engineering, treatment, disposal and
reuse, McGraw Hill, New York, USA

1. Mara D., (1976), Sewage Treatment in Hot Climates, John Wiley, UK

2. Mara D., (1997), Design of Waste Stabilisation Ponds in India, Lagoon
Technology, UK
3. Hammer M. J., (1986), Water and wastewater technology, Prentice Hall, USA
4. Mara D, D, Sewage treatment in hot climates
5. Metcalf and Eddy, (1995), Wastewater engineering, treatment, disposal and
reuse, McGraw Hill, New York, USA
6. Schroeder E.D., (1971), Water and wastewater treatment, McGraw Hill, New
York, USA
7. Tchobanoglous and Schroeder Water Quality

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Chapter 3A: Wastewater characterisation