cmutsvangwa: Wastewater Engineering, Dept. of Civil & Water Eng.

, NUST 19/10/2006 14-1

Chapter 14

ON SITE SANITATION

On site sanitation
This is the treatment and disposal of wastewater at the point of production without
conveyance of the wastewater through a sewer reticulation system. However,
some on site systems have facilities to remove the wastewater (off-site disposal)
like the bucket latrines, vaults and sea disposal). The technology is suitable to
small communities and especially in the rural areas where the population density is
low and hence construction of a water-borne sewerage becomes uneconomic.
However the technology should create opportunities for the spread of diseases and
should be culturally acceptable to the community. Other advantages include:

• Minimum construction and operation costs

• Simple to design and construct. The users can design and construct such
facilities on their own
• Affordable and sustainable to many low-income communities
• No need for reliable water supply
• No pumping costs
• No or limited effluents are discharged to water bodies thereby reducing
pollution

Disadvantages

• Not suitable where population densities are high

• There is possibility of groundwater pollution
• The technology may not be acceptable to some communities
• Possible problems of odours with some technologies
• Some technologies require water-borne sewage like septic tanks

Examples of on site technologies are:

• Septic tanks
• aqua privy
• Pit latrines
• Eco-san
• Vacuum systems
• Container systems (bucket and Vaults)
• Sea disposal
• open defection or ground surface disposal

Chapter 14 On site sanitation

cmutsvangwa: Wastewater Engineering, Dept. of Civil & Water Eng., NUST 19/10/2006 14-2

Open defecation
Excreta are deposited on the ground and is not recommended because of the high
health risks. A small improvement is achieve by digging a very shallow pit before
defecation and then covering the excreta with soil, but although the fly and smell
nuisance may be reduced, there is still risk of transmission of hookworm.

Septic tanks
Rectangular chambers, below ground level which receive waterborne wastewater
(toilet waste and household sullage). The septic tank is separated from the
household and receives water-borne sewage. The wastewater is retained for 1-3
days and during this retention period solids settle to the bottom of the tank and are
digested anaerobically (consolidation and stabilization of sludge). A thick scum is
formed at the surface and this help to maintain anaerobic conditions i.e. growth of
microorganisms in the tank. The treatment in a septic tank is partial and therefore
the effluent stills a health hazard and still needs further treatment before disposal.
The disposal is sometimes discharged to soakaways but no longer recommended
practice. Desludging is necessary approximately in 1-5 years. In general septic
tanks are suitable for individual households.

The schematic illustration of the layout of a septic tank system is shown in Fig. 1.0
and the cross-section of the septic tank is illustrated in Fig. 2.

Application
• Septic tanks are slightly expensive compared to pit-latrines
• Suitable to medium or low-density housing areas with large plot sizes
because more space is needed for disposal of effluent.

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Fig.1: Schematic illustration of the layout of a septic tank system

Processes that take place within a septic tank

• Separation of solids dense material settles as the sludge
• Light material float as scum
• In between is liquid liquor which contains material in solution and fine particle
in suspension. The suspended solids may coagulate and settle out as
sludge
• Scum and sludge are partially digested anaerobically by bacteria producing
water, methane and carbon dioxide
• Stabilization of the organic material in the liquor is partially by the anaerobic
bacteria
• Consideration of the sludge occurs due to its weight i.e. there is gravity
thickening and this reduce the water content
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cmutsvangwa: Wastewater Engineering, Dept. of Civil & Water Eng., NUST 19/10/2006 14-4

Fig. 2: Cross-section of a septic tank

Design aspects (Fig.)

• Two compartments generally preferred to prevent turbulence resulting in less
SS in the effluent. The efficiency of the treatment process is reduced if the
tank contents are disturbed, but some mixing is inevitable because of gas
production and flow of liquid through the tank. The first compartment is twice
the second in length and the liquid depth is about 1-2m and depth of 1.5m is
most preferable. There should be an air space of about 0.5m between the
liquor and the tank roof. Tanks with more than one compartment should
have openings through the dividing walls at liquor level (No. 6 in Fig. ).
• The length to breadth ratio ranges from 2-3 to 1 (2:1 to 3:1)
• Storage of accumulated sludge and scum takes place in 2/3 of the tank
volume
• A gentle flow at inlet is required and the wastewater inlet to be below liquid
level (No.2 in Fig. ). A barrier at the outlet is provided to avoid discharging
sludge or scum (No. 3 in Fig. ), alternatively a Tee pipe or scum board can
be used. A slight slope of the tank makes desludging easier (No. 5 in Fig. )/
• A vent pipe is provided for releasing gases and odours (No.1 in Fig. ).
• Provide access for maintenance and desludging through manholes (No. 4 in
Fig. ).
• It is recommended not to disinfect the tank because this may kill the
microorganisms responsible for the stabilisation of the waste and never
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completely empty the tank. This will disrupt the microorganisms system and
maturation time of the microorganisms will be required.
• The septic tank should be located away from wells, streams, embankments,
water table to avoid water pollution.

Fig. Illustration of the design considerations

Some of the guidelines for location of septic tanks are summarised in Table 1.

Table 1: Guidelines on the location of septic tanks

Distance septic tank(m) drain field (m)

Buildings 1.5 3
Property boundaries 1.5 1.5
Wells 30 30
Streams 7.5-60 30-60
Embankments 7.5-60 30-60
Pools 3 7.5
Water pipes 3 3
Paths 1.5 1.5
Large trees 3 3
Water shed area 60 60

Tank volume (1st approach)

Tank volume = V = Q × n × t

Where; Q =wastewater flow, m3/ca.day

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n =population
t =retention time, t ≅ 3 days

Tank volume (2nd approach)

V = pq

Where: P =population for each tank

q =average daily volume of wastewater per person, m3/ca.day

Septic tank with full plumbing q=50-120l/ca.day

Septic tank without plumbing q=15-40l/day

Sludge and scum capacity

w = Pnfs

Where: n =number of years between desludging

f =factor relating to rate at which the sludge is digested (Table 2)
s =rate at which sludge accumulate, m3/ca.year

The total volume of the tank is equal to the scum, sludge and liquid volumes:

Total tan k volume = V + w

Or Total tan k volume = 1.5w ; which ever is the greater.

Table 2: Values for f

Interval between >20oC throughout >10oC throughout <10oC during the

desludging the year the year winter months
(years)
1 1.3 1.5 2.5
2 1 1.15 1.5
3 1 1 1.27
4 1 1 1.15
5 1 1 1.06
6 1 1 1

Chapter 14 On site sanitation

cmutsvangwa: Wastewater Engineering, Dept. of Civil & Water Eng., NUST 19/10/2006 14-7

Table 3: s values

Material used Flush toilet wastes only Domestic sullage and wastes
Water, soft paper 25 40
Leaves, hard paper 40 55
Sand, stone, earth 55 70

Desludging frequency
The tank is empted when it is approximately 1/3 full of sludge:
1
V
t= 3
sludge accumulation × n

The sludge accumulation is in m3/ca.day

Also t can be estimated from:

waste flow waste(m 3 / ca ⋅ day )

t=
(
sludge accumulation m 3 / ca. yr )
Rate of sludge accumulation is temperature related and for Southern Africa a value
of 0.04m3/ca.yr can be used.

Disposal of effluent
The effluent is still a health hazard and still needs further treatment before disposal.
Also, the effluent should not be discharged into sewers because it is anaerobic.
The hydrogen sulphide will be converted to sulphuric acid which will attack the
sewers. The effluent is sometimes discharged to soakaways but it is no longer a
recommended practice. Other options of disposal are:

• soakaways
• small bore sewers
• evapotranspiration beds
• upflow filters
• wastewater stabilisation ponds for large population
• flood irrigation
• Nearest conventional sewer reticulation or wastewater treatment plant (but
note that it is septic and may affect the sewer pipes), small bore sewers.

Soakaways
These are subsurface drainage trenches filled with rocks of 20 to 50mm or even
more. The soil must be course and permeable and the infiltration rate should be
above 10l/day/m2. There should be provision for future replacement of drainfield
due to clogging.
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Chapter 14 On site sanitation

cmutsvangwa: Wastewater Engineering, Dept. of Civil & Water Eng., NUST 19/10/2006 14-9

Fig. 3: Cross-section of a soak-away

Septic tank with upflow filter

The effluent enters at the base, and flows upwards through a layer of coarse
aggregate. The top aggregate is about 3-6mm. Anaerobic bacteria grow on the
surface of the aggregate and oxidise the effluent as it passes through the media.
The head loss in the media is low and about 0.03-0.15m with and a 70% BOD
reduction can be expected. The average filter capacity is about 0.05m3/ca.day and
is backwash by clean water. The filtered effluent is discharged into water bodies,
drain field trenches, and evaporation beds and as flood irrigation. The upflow filters
are illustrated in Figs.

Chapter 14 On site sanitation

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Effluent

Septic 0.5m
tank Filter

(a)

(b)
Fig. 4: Septic tanks with upflow filters

Evapotranspiration bed
It consists of a top layer of sand and gravel, and a bottom layer of top soil with a fast
growing grass. The effluent is lost due to evapotranspiration from the grass. The
organic fraction is converted to grass and is periodically cut.

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Coarse sand
and gravel
0.2-0.5m

1m Top soil with fast

growing grass

Grass

Aquaprivy
An aqua privy is similar to a septic tank but the difference is that it is located
directly below the house (Fig, ), and only water is needed to maintain the water level
in the tank this will control flies and smells. The water level is controlled by
downward projection of a pipe from the bowl to below the water level in the tank.
The amount of wastewater treated is less than in a septic tank.

Fig. : Aqua privy

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Fig.: Aqua-privy showing the components

A = squatting plate B =drop pipe C =effluent pipe; D =vent pipe

Design aspects
The tank is designed similar to the septic tank. The average inflow is about 5-
18l/ca. day.

Vacuum systems
The excreta is transported by suction and air pressure but are expensive and are
rarely used.

Container system (bucket)

The excreta is collected in a container which is usually water tight. The contents
are emptied in bigger containers which are transported by carts or vehicles. There
are health risks because the waste is just being removed from point to another,
unless it is transported to a wastewater treatment plant. Also the system is not
popular.

Fig.: Bucket system

Container system (Vault )

A larger water tight container (cesspit) is used and is emptied after a period of time
like a few weeks by buckets, scoops, or more hygienically by vacuum trucks for
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disposal. Can also be served by pour flush systems or a squatting hole can be
directly located above the tank.

Sea disposal
The pit latrine discharges directly over the sea or into a river (over hung latrine).
The system can be considered as off-site. This type of disposal has health hazards
since if the water is to be used by the communities.

Fig. Over-hung latrine for sea disposal

PIT LATRINES
A pit is dug and excreta is disposed in the pit. Common types are:
• simple
• pits with sealed lids
• ventilated improved (VIP)
• pour flush

Simple pits
The hole is directly above the squatting hole, which receives the wastes and
decomposition takes place in the pit. They could be single pit, alternate double pit
and multiple pits. There is super structure above the hole. It takes all anal
cleansing material and minimum water requirements. Its disadvantage are:
• odours and flies
• shortage of space for relocation if pit is full
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• potential of groundwater pollution

• difficult to construct in rock or boulder laden subsoil

Ventilated improved (VIP)

This pit latrine is similar to the simple pit but has a darkened super structure with a
vent to control flies and odours. The darkness will result in flies being attracted to
the light from top of the vent. The tope of the vent should never be sealed,
otherwise no light will enter and no flies will be caught. It therefore needs a roof and
door which should be closed after use or a spiral wall design which does not needs
a door. If a spiral wall is used then the open end should face the prevailing wind
direction so that air escapes through the vent.

A fly screen is fitted on the top of the vent pipe to prevent flies entering the pit (Fig.
), hence minimal risk to health compared to the simple pit. The ideal mesh wire is of
stainless steel because of the corrosive nature of the gases through the vent and of
size 1.5mm x 1.5mm. Plastic meshes deteriorate due to sunlight but nylon coated
glass fibre is also acceptable. Internal diameter of the vent should be 150mm for
smooth pipe; 225 for a reed and cement mortar; or 225mm square brick. It must
project at least 300mm above the highest point of the roof. Wind blowing across the
top of the vent sucks air out of the pit.

Ideally a smooth concrete slab for ease of cleaning sloping towards the squatting
hole. The squatting should not be larger that 350mm x 180mm with a key hole
shape. Children might fall in if its is big hole and if it is too small it is easily fouled.
Seats can be designed for comfort ability. The slab should raise for about 150mm
to prevent debris entering the pit. The pit should lined for its full length unless the
foundation is stable. In all the soils the top 500mm must be lined to prevent rodents
entering the pit. The bottom part of the pit should be permeable and hence no lining
to allow the waste to infiltrate into the ground. Circular shapes of pits are more
stable than rectangular.

Fig. Ventilated improved pit latrine

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Pour flash latrines

It is a pit latrine with a U-trap and water seal to control exit of smells and flies from
the pit. It requires use of water and soft paper for anal cleansing. At least 3 litres of
water must be poured down the pan after use to flush the solids through the trap.
The pit can be may be directly under the pan or offset from it. Double pits can be
used where emptying is feasible.

Fig. : Pour flush pit latrine

Fig. : Combined pan and water seal for direct pour-flush latrine

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Fig. : Pan and seal for pour-flush latrine

The decision tree for selection of on-site sanitation is illustrated in Fig.

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Fig.: Decision tree for selection of on-site sanitation

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MEASUREMENT OF SOIL PERMEABILITY

1. Dig one trail pit about 500mm deep, and clean out the base.

2. In the base of the pit, carefully dig a hole about 300 mm in diameter and
about 300mm. deep.

3. Roughen the sides of the hole.

4. Measure and record the actual size of this hole (Diameter and Depth).

5. Place gravel in the bottom of the hole to a depth of about 50mm.

6. Pour water into the hole, without washing the sides of the hole, until the
water level is just below the base of the trail pit.

7. Over a period of four hours keep topping up the water level to replace the
water that drains away.

8. Check and record the actual diameter of the hole once again. The diameter
may have changed from that measured earlier.

9. Allow the water level to drop until it is about 150mm below the top of the
hole.

10. Lay a straight edge across the top of the hole.

11. Measure the depth from the underside of the straight edge to the water
surface at intervals of 15 minutes over a period of at least one hour and for a
total measured change of level of 30 mm. Record the depths and the times
of measurement.

12. Deepen the trail pit tot a total depth of about 1500mm.

13. Repeat steps 2 to 11 as described above.

14. When the percolation tests have been completed, and the description and
levels of the various soil levels in the trail pit have been recorded, fill in the
trial pit.

Notes.
1. Try not to leave a trail pit open overnight. If this cannot be avoided, provide
safety barriers around the trail pit.
2. Percolation through the base of the hole is ignored; only the perimeter of the
hole is assumed to allow percolation.

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Example
Design a septic tank for a family of 12 which has a water consumption of
100l/household per day. The effluent disposal is to be subsurface irrigation in a
drain field. Return flow is 80% of water consumption and allowing 3 day detention
start0up.

Solution

Tank volume:
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References

1. Mara D., (1976), Sewage Treatment in Hot Climates, John Wiley, UK

2. Mara D., (1997), Design of Waste Stabilisation Ponds in India, Lagoon
Technology, UK
3. Metcalf and Eddy, (1991), Wastewater Engineering, Treatment, Disposal and
Reuse, McGraw Hill, US

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Chapter 14 On site sanitation