Teknik Pengolahan Pangan: Chemical or Biological Changes in The Feed Product. Manufacturing Steps

9/17/2017
TMB324: Teknik Pengolahan Pangan TMB324: Teknik Pengolahan Pangan
TEKNIK PENGOLAHAN PANGAN
Usman Ahmad
Divisi Teknik Biosistem
Departemen Teknik Mesin dan Biosistem
Institut Pertanian Bogor
Teknik Biosistem 1 Teknik Biosistem 4
Introduction
Two major categories of process might be
A process may be thought of as a sequence of considered; those which ensure food safety, that
operations which take place in one or more pieces is the preservation techniques such as freezing or
of equipment, giving rise to a series of physical, sterilization, which usually involve the transfer of
chemical or biological changes in the feed heat and changes microbiological populations, and
material and results in a useful or desirable those which may be classified as food
product. manufacturing steps.
Process engineering is concerned with developing Examples of the latter include the addition of
an understanding of these operations and with components in mixing, the separation of
the prediction and quantifying of the resultant components in filtration or centrifugation or the
changes to feed materials (such as composition formation of particles in spray drying.
and physical behavior).
Material properties
This understanding leads in turn to the
specification of the dimensions of process Although foods are always liquid or solid in form,
equipment and the temperatures, pressures and many foods are aerated (e.g. ice cream), many
other conditions required to achieve the processes utilize gases or vapors (e.g. steam as a
necessary output of product. heat source) and many storage procedures require
gases of a particular composition.
It is a quantitative science in which accuracy and
precision, measurement, mathematical reasoning, It is important to understand the properties and
modeling and prediction are all important. behavior of gases, liquids and solids. Transfer of
heat, mass and momentum in fluids and an
Food process engineering is about the operation understanding of the behavior of solids, especially
of processes in which food is manufactured, particulate solids, form the basis of food
modified and packaged. processing technology, and the concept of the unit
operation.
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The principles which underlie drying, extraction,

evaporation, mixing and sterilization are The correct design of such processes is possible
independent of the material which is being only as a result of the development of
processed. mathematical models which incorporate the
relevant mechanisms.
Once
understood, Thus it is important to understand the chemical,
these structural and microbiological aspects of food in
principles can so far as they contribute to an understanding of the
be applied to process, that is, how to develop, design, operate
a wide range and improve the process to give better performance
of products. at reduced cost and, above all, improved safety and
quality.
Process design The first step in the design of a process is the

conception stage. What is the product to be
The overall purpose of food process engineering manufactured? What steps will be needed in order
then is to design processes which result in safe to manufacture it?
food products with specific properties and structure. In some cases the necessary steps may be very
Foods, of course, have their own particular and well known and there is no particular innovation
peculiar properties: most food liquids are non- required
Newtonian; structures are often complex and manufacture of ice cream: while individual
multiphase; non-isotropic properties are common. products may be innovative to a degree, the
In addition to this, hygiene is of paramount essential production steps are well known: mixing
importance in all manufacturing steps. the solid and liquid ingredients followed by
pasteurization, storage or ageing, freezing and
finally filling and packaging.
Type of process
For many food products there is an established

way of doing things and there may be no realistic
alternative. In other cases it may be the final
process design will look like.
In each case a simple flow sheet of the process
should be prepared. At this point it is likely to
become apparent whether the process is to be
batch or continuous.
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In continuous process, material flows through a

A batch process is one in which a given mass of series of operations and individual items of
material is subject to a series of operations in a equipment, undergoing a continuous change
particular sequence. without manual handling.
For example a batch of liquid may be heated, a Once running, a continuous process should run for
second component added, the mixture agitated a long period under steady-state conditions, that is
and then the resultant liquid cooled, all within a the composition, flow rate, temperature or any
single vessel. other measurable quantity should remain constant
Alternatively the sequence of operations may at any given point in the process gives a more
involve a number of pieces of equipment. In a consistent product.
simple mixing operation, or where a chemical The mathematical analysis of a process also
reaction occurs, the composition of the batch highlights an important difference between batch
changes with time. and continuous operation.
Continuous, steady-state processes are usually

considerably simpler to analyze than are unsteady-
If a liquid is heated in a stirred vessel the
state batch processes because the latter involve
temperature of the liquid will be uniform throughout
changes in composition or temperature with time.
the vessel, provided the agitation is adequate, but
will change with time. However, the difference between batch and
continuous may not always be clear-cut; many
Batch processes generally have two
individual operations in the food industry are batch
disadvantages: labor intensive because of the
(often because of the scale of operation required)
bulk handling of material, large number of individual
but are placed between other continuous
operations which are likely to be used, and the
operations.
quality of the product may well vary from batch to
batch. Thus the entire process, or a major section of it, is
then best described as either semi-batch or semi-
continuous.
Ingredient 1
Ingredient 1 Ingredient 2 Ingredient 3
Ingredient 2
By product
Main
Ingredient 3
product
Main
product
By product
By product
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Analysis of the process
The second stage of the design process may be

called process analysis and this entails establishing
both a material balance and an energy balance.
The material balance aims to answer the question:
What quantities of material are involved? What flow
rates of ingredients are needed? In many cases
this will be simply a case of establishing the
masses of components to be added to a batch
mixer.
Design of equipment
In others it will require the determination of flow
rates of multi-component streams at several A third stage comprises the specification of each
points in a complex process covering a large factory operation and the design of individual pieces of
unit. equipment. Prevailing physical mechanisms must
be understood as well as the nature and extent of
In food processing the energy balance assumes any chemical and biochemical reaction and the
enormous significance; sterilization, pasteurization, kinetics of microbiological growth and death.
cooking, freezing, drying and evaporation all involve
the addition of heat to, or removal of heat from the Specification of the size of heat transfer process
product. equipment depends upon being able to predict the
rate at which heat is transferred to a food stream
Establishing the necessary heat flows with accuracy being sterilized. In turn this requires knowledge of
is therefore of crucial importance for reasons both of the physical behavior of the fluid, in short an
food safety and of process efficiency. understanding of fluid flow and rheology.
This allows judgment to be made about how best to

exploit the flow of material, for example whether
the flow should be co-current or counter-current.
Crucial to any process design is knowledge of
equilibrium and kinetics. Equilibrium sets the
boundaries of what is possible.
For example, in operations involving heat transfer
knowledge of thermal equilibrium (the heat capacity
and the final temperatures required) allows the
calculation of the quantities of heat to be removed
or added.
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Equipment and processes can be sized only if the 2. Energy Efficiency

rate at which heat is transferred is known. Energy efficiency has been buzzing for a while among
Each rate process encountered in food engineering consumers, and in 2015, it continues to attract the
spotlight in the food processing realm. This is driven in
follows the same kind of law: where molecular
large part by a shift in consumers who are concerned with
diffusion is responsible for transfer, the rate of the environment and what they’re putting into their
transfer of heat, mass or momentum is dependent bodies.
upon the product of a gradient in temperature, Food manufacturers need to examine sustainability
concentration or velocity, respectively, and a programs and how they can reduce energy consumption
diffusivity – a physical property which characterizes to not only appeal to consumers, but to drive costs down,
the particular system under investigation. as well. By reducing energy consumption, food
manufacturers are reducing costs and increasing
margins.
Where artificial convection currents are 3. Healthier, Natural Foods

introduced, by the use of agitation, then an Along that same phenomenon, because consumers have
empirical coefficient must be used in conjunction become more aware of what they’re eating, there’s been
with gradient term; little progress can be made in increasing interest in organic and natural foods. From a
the application of heat transfer in food processing manufacturing standpoint, this presents more challenges in
terms of equipment types and how materials are processed.
without a knowledge of the relevant heat transfer
The handling is different for these products, impacting how
coefficient. lines are set up and operated.
The overall design of the food process now moves If a bakery is gluten free, for example, the processing is
onto the specification of instrumentation and entirely different than if you were to use standard
process control procedures, to detailed costing ingredients due to concerns over ingredient separation and
and economic calculations, to detailed mechanical cross contamination.
design and to plant layout.
5 Food Processing Industry Trends for 2015 4. A Refrigeration Strategy

Todd Allsup, VP, Food & Beverage Facility Services, Stellar (Sept. 2015)
Companies want to take an active role in developing a
1. Innovative Solutions refrigeration strategy for 2015, driven by Occupation Safety
and Health Administration (OSHA) mandates. Due to its
Food manufacturers search for more cost-effective means of
damage to the atmosphere, food manufacturers must phase
manufacturing, standardizing equipment and exploring
automation to minimize labor costs. out R-22 refrigerants and move toward natural options such
as CO2 by the year 2020.
Southwest Airlines’ business model: it has kept its costs down
by only flying Boeing 737s, which reduces spending in areas Right now, food manufacturers are making plans for the shift.
such as training and spare parts. There are new technologies and developments emerging
around refrigeration and distribution such as skid-mounted
Food manufacturers can move towards innovation and the
refrigeration systems that embrace CO2 instead of ammonia.
standardization of certain product categories to lower costs.
First, food processors must rethink their manufacturing While ammonia is an environmentally friendly refrigerant,
strategies, optimizing and developing a new cost model. In the we’ve noticed clients asking for ways they can reduce their
long run, they need to have the flexibility to run products with ammonia charge to reduce costs associated with process
higher margins. safety management (PSM) compliance.
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9/17/2017
TMB324: Teknik Pengolahan Pangan
5. China: A Potential Growth Vehicle

Due to the emergence of its middle class, large food and
beverage companies are now seeing China as a potential
growth vehicle. This can also be attributed to the Chinese
population’s food safety concerns, including fears about
contamination and ingredients from Chinese companies.
Because U.S. companies have respected reputations
regarding food safety and product quality, Chinese
consumers are willing to pay premiums for their products.
Many multinational companies are now capitalizing on
this opportunity to move into the Chinese market.
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9/17/2017

TMB324: Teknik Pengolahan Pangan TMB324: Teknik Pengolahan Pangan