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MALAYSIANINSTITUTE'OF
NON-DESCTRUCTIVE
TESTING
(MrNDr)
Trainingand CertificationSdn. Bhd
(s97764-M)

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Ultrasonic

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 CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

I Introduction l
2 Sounds 2
3 WavePropagation 3
4 SoundGeneration 4
5 SoundBeam 5
6 TheAcousticImpcdanae 6
7 Reflection& Snell'sLaw 7
8 PulseLength 8
9 Equipment 9
l0 Decibel l0
ll CathodeRay Tube ll
t2 Attenuation,AbsorytionAnd Scattering 12
l3 Calibration l3
14 Temperature
Effect t4
l5 Resolution 15
t6 ProbeSelection t6
17 Couplant t7
18 ScanningPattems 18
t9 BasicEchodynamic
PattemsOf Reflectors l9
20 ControlCheckOf UltrasonicEquipment 20
 2t A-ScanPresenlation 21
22 PlotlingDefectBy Ctalculatiou 22
23 UltmsonicTestProcedure
For Weld Tosting 23
24 C d .ri n grn d for ginp 24
25 Refere1lceLitefature 25

.
 1.0 HISTORY OF ULTRASONIC

Tle generatioanddetection ofsuirableuh.asonicwaveshasbcenmadepossjble by rhe

discoverlofthe piezoelecr.iceffeclof certainmateiiat.Thjs,vasrnad;
by rhe iurie
brotle.sin 1880.They found tharifthe slabsare cut in a panjcutarwry
iio,"
crystal,willproduced
an etectricatpotentjat
whensubj.ctedro mechanicatpressure."",tr;"
(e.g.
gasxghtet

T.ponr"n!heo'i/eorharthc r€\cr.eet,ecr.l tdt i. prodr.rfqa ...nee

or ndDr.o\
'ropr\rngan elp\Rr(dtpotenriat ro Lhe(r).ra The ..,
-,)s.dt t. i..a ," pioa.,"
appr)mgi rir"ble r.: Jo dee. o, roood".ec.e(njcd.jgr.r,
I:ll:,ll
propoftronat "rrernd
to ihe mectanicalvjbratjons
appliedro thecrystat.(e.-sm;crophone,
ThedisasterofTiranic sankin t9t2 is oneoithe causes
which is we canaDDrectaie the
useof soundwaves,wher aftef the incidenrrhe) iried lo find ,,""),
icebergs
b) sendingoursoundwavesdrroughwaterand observing "iil:i;re;;
theretu.ning ech;es.

l1
nLl*
".to q InLrples" oe\r'ooedo. ma,1ee,hoto.a.ror. .hc., hoderd) rLbc
drd andi leddi'ec.h rhede,e,oDmenr b) DO .p,oLre,p,r,,., ."o-t,nn
"da ,& Hrehe.olrhe 'opu
ro Kerv fi., .ee.hofcq dere(.or
in 94:
ln 1929andI9i5 Sokolovstudiedrhatihe useat ukrasonic
wavesin detecring
defecl iD
solids.

Ultasoundpioneerscontributed to rhejndustrialfietd duringthe nrid

manyinnovations
1950s and1960s.

u:TRASoMcrEsTrNc
An ulrrasonicTestlngjs basedon propagalioo of uttrasonjcwavesiravetrhrougnue
mateflalto be restedby obse.vingthe rransmiftedsignal(rransnissiontechnique)or
signatreflected
or diffractedfromanysurfaceordisconiinuiry
(pulseechotechnjq;e).
The testingcan be pedonnedmanuall),or by rhe use of seni-auromatjc
or tully
automaticEquipneni,andcanusecontacLgapor mm€rron scannrng or orh€|coupllng
r eLl.od<
dddpredro.pe(ifiLp obtem

The energ\ oJ soundrs ransrnittedin the materiatto be tened and lhe sou.a
V--.j was
gen€raredb) an InshumerltisknownasaPROBE andthesoundwi reflededbackto
theprobeand.eflectedsoundor echocanbe displayed on the f.lawderecror
or camooe
raylub€(CRT).

Thedistance the soundtravelro thebotom ofrhe marerjalcanbe dispia)edon theflaw

derecra.ir rhe tlaq de,ecro,is cdt.o,aredro c !e dl dLcL,are"euj;n! or,r,. ,orna
d.rdn.erd\el. Tl.eDreser(e or a Dere..in.fe,ndre.rai(ho" .,p on ,{" ..,.* o, Li.
flaw detectorwith a lessdjsrance than the botromof the materiat(Back Walt Echoj
becausethe soundwaveiravetsa! shorerdistance.SeeFisureI

P a gel- l

.':.
 workpiece

Figure1

ADVANTAGESOF ULTRASONIC TEST]NG

It canderedtobothsurfaceandsubsurface defects.
The depthof ihe defectcar be measured easllycompareto orherNDT
method.
Onlysingle-sided access is neededwhenthepuls€-echo echniqueis used.
It candeterminede position sizeandshapeofthe defect.
Minimalpartpreparation reqoned
Giveinstantresults.
Detailedimagescanbe produced wirh auromaredsystems.
It canbe usealsofbr thickness measurements,in addirionto flaw detecllon.

DISADVANTAGESOF ULTRASONIC TESTING

SfffaceFeparatjonrequiredto lransmitultrasound.
Skill andraining is nore extensive
thanwirl someothermethods.
Il normallyrequiresa couplingmediumio promoieh.ansfefofsoundene.gy

Materialstbatarerough,inegularin shape, verysmall.excepiionally thin or

nothomogeneous aredjfficuhro inspecl.
Castiron and othercoarsegrainedmar€fjals are difficulr ro irspectdue ro
low soundtransmission andhigh signalnoise
Lineardefectsorienledpa.alleltoihe soundbeammaygo underected.
Referencestandardsare requiredfo. borh equipmentcalibration,and
claracterizationof fi aws.

The aboveintroductionprcvidesa simplifiedinhoductionto the NDT methodof

ultrasonic
lesting.However,to eff€ctiveiyperforman inspecrion
usinguthasonic,
much
moreabo trhe methodreedsro be known.

Tle followirg pages present information on ihe scienceinvolved in ultason'c

rnspeclion,
theequipmenl that is commonlyxsed.sorneof n\e measurenenl
techniques
used,ar well asotherinformation.

Pagel- 2
2,9 WHAT IS SOUND

Sound wales are mechanicnlvitratioirs oirhe padlcles iI] gases.li.ruid5or soiids. r\

vibrationis energ)-in motiol and is a back and ianh .rovenenr Pari.le vjbrires aboui a

We need somethingtangible to mole (I1ASS) and :r resroringio'ce (ELASTICITY)

which is alwaystrying to returnthe nass to i1soriginalposiLion

Densityand elasticilyofa mediu willalso the main factor rhar affectsthe velociir-.

Soundwavescannottfavel in vacuuin.

Energy is transmittedrhrougha solld malerialby a sefiesofsmallpi,riicle displaoemenrs

within the marerial

**r***
ParticleDisplacement

,
,,1
&
u:u l'

,ir,
X*
SOLIDS GASES r,rQt\Ds
. We.[ bondine forces

souf {D:.!'oLLo\is A wAvEFoRM

Amongthe propeniesof wavespropagatiDg

in a iraterialsare wavelensth,
lieauenc!
andyeleljry.

The disrancerequifedto complelea cycle

Measuredin Meter or mm
T h e n u mb e ro fc y cl esper u.i l ti me
Measuredin Henz (Hz) or Cycles per second(cpi)
How quick ihe sounCt-avels
Distanceper unit time and measuredin nreler/second

. Period: Tin]etakenfor on€comp;erec),cle

Distanceper unit time and measuredin meter,r second
(m/secl

Page2-1
 A

DisplacementQ

2.2 WA\TLENGTH

The wavelengthis directly propoftionalto tbe velocity and prcpodionalto the

'nversely

c
f
J= c = f xL
L

23 FREQUENCY

Is thenumberofcyile perunit in tnne(pcrsecond)

IHz
t Kiloh€rtz = I KHz - l000Hz
l Megahertz = I MHz = 1000000H2

Soundqavesarevibmtionofpafticlesofgases,Uquid-andsolids.The soundwe hear

arevibmtionofair paniclesandthesevibrationwill havea iiequencyandalnplilude.

Thefrequencyof vjbrationasthepitchofthe note,andrheamplirudeastIe ioudness

of
thesound.Thehigherfie liequencythehigler thenoteandpitchofsound.

A stringvibraleswirh a pal1iculartundamenral
iiequency.and ir is possjbleto prodlce
piicheswilh differentftequencyilom the samestring.Fourpropenies ofrhe stringihat
affectils frequencyarelength,diameter,lension
anddensitl,.

We canonly hearsoxndwithin a cerrainliequencyjn rangeandnormaliylioin t 6 Herz

to:0 000Hertzandwhatwe cansaidio be in the AudjbleRange

The soundwith a frequenclbelow 16 Herrzwe said10 be in Subsonic/Infrasornd

Rargeanda frequencygreaterthan.20,0O0
Hertzwhatwe said10be in the Ultrasonic
Range.

Page2 2
L.
2.4 ACOUSTICSPECTRUM

Sonic/ Audible
Subsonic 20kHz= 20,000H2
16Hz- 20kHz

100 1K 10K 00K 1f.4 1ONr'

I00m

UltrasonicTesting
0.5ftiHz
- 50MHz

BANDWITH

An ultrasonicp.obetansmitssoundenergyai a rangeof lioquencjesnor jusi at rhe

statedfrequencywhich is known ,! ihe bandwirh.Bandwithis the widrh of the
ffequencyspectumbetseentle high and low cur-offfrequencyprobes€nsirivrryand
bandwith(moreofone meanslessofthe orher)arechoosenbasedon i.spe.rionsneeds.

Example:

A ,lMhz probemay producea fiequencyrangeof I io 5 Mhz which is measured

at
below-3dbpoint

C D ,\ B
Legend:

A - Peakfrequencv( Frequencyat which $ e maximum implitude is observed)

B& C C t-offfre$ency ( Ffequencyat \yhich the anplil1rdeofFansmitted energy

al SdBbelowthata peakfteqxency)

D- ( Upperandlowercxt-offfreqnenqr
Centreiiequenclr )

Lht.s.hET.ihs Pa g e 2 - 3
Highly damped Low dampi ng
Shortpulselengrh.Typically1,2 Longer pulse length Typically l

Short.ingirgt'me Long ringing tine

Bel1erresolurion

Page2-4
 3.0 INTRODIJCTION

In solid a severalt),pe of wave propagationcan occur base upon the direcrion of rhe
palticles vibratdoscillicate,rhis is due 10 in solids. pafiicles can suppon vibrations in
other directions.In air sound tfavel by coBpressionand rarefaclionofair nloleculesin
the dicction oftravel.

J ne m os r y p . o l w .\e s d e l ) ,j e d i n u l l rd .onL te.l i fs de ' omp-esoi dnc \t-fdl

Ho$,everat su.facesand interfaceslariols types of elepticalor conplex vibrat'ons of
fte panjcles can occur and it make possibleto producesother t),pesof wave such as
Rayleighand Lamb waves.

The iablebelow, the comlnonq,pe ofwave useful in UltrasonicTestrng.

Parallel10directionof
The highesl
Longiiudjnal propagarion
Perpendicular
ro di.ectionof
Shear/Transverse
ProPagation
Rayleigh/Surface
Eleplicai notior and penetate Abort 8% iessthan
one wavelengthdeep

LalnbPlate As surfacewave,also
(Symmetricaland
Componertperpend
icularto dependon fiequency
Asymmetrical)
& lhicknessof

COMPRESSIONOR LONGITUDINAL WAVES

Co]npression
waveshappeDs lvhenparticlesofmaterialareforced/pressed
togethe..
(Thepojntwlen themostpressureis beingappliedto a,nolecule)

Thedircctionofparticlem otion/oscjllate
arcparalleliotle directionofwave
propagadon.

Sinceconpressional
anddilalionalfofcesareactivein thesewaves,the),arealsocalled
pressure
or compressronal
waves.

Sometimes is calleddensitywaves(particledensiryfluotuates
astheymove)ltcantravel
throughsolids,liquidsandgases.

Thisis duero theenergytravelthrougl thearomicstructure

by a sefiesofcomparison
andexpansion(rarefaction)
movement.

Note:
Roefaction occcutswhennolecules oe gben extrc spaceahd allawed ta erpand.(
th, p^'a rher rhelea'tptc,.d, t. orp'pr')
Renenbetthatsoundis a trpe ofkmeti. energ, as thentolecule.sarepressedtogether
thqt passedthekinetic energ, to eachother. Thussoundenerg tr6,elt oudrads fan

In ultrasonic
testingc6mpressionwavesisproduceifrhe incidentangleoflhe sound
bealnin perspexis lessthan27.4"(approx.)
on steel

PxgeS- l
 PROPACATION

SHEAR OR TRANSVERSE WAVE

The direction of padicle notion/\,ibrare 3re perpendicular(gOo)/ransverse

ro tle
directionof its propagationand havea wb ip like action.

Shearwave requiredan acousticallysolidcigid panicle bondi"g) materialfor effecrive

propagationjthereforeshearwave cannotnavel in materialsuchliquid or gas€s

Slezl' waves are relatively weak wheD compa.red to compressionalwave. ils velochies
dppr ov iT dr e lh) r 1 ' ) o c o m p re r.o n a l .

Shearprobgjsdesignin ultrasonictestingnormally forsteelonly and its generaiedusing

the energyfrom longltu?:inalwaves.Occurs jn steelifthe incidentangleoflhe beam jn
perspexis adjustedto approximately27'to 560.

lage 3 - . 2
3.3 SURIACE OR RA'LEIGH WAVES

The modeofpropagationof surfacewavesis an elepticalmotionalongrhe surfaceof

materialand penetrateto a depihofone wavelength Surfac€\a!es genefatcdfrom
sheaf$avesat2"dcrilicalangle(shearwaves
refracted
ro 90o).

Shealwaves(whip-like
paticle vibradon)is convertedinto an €lepiicairnclionby lbe
panicteschanging
direclio!al th€interface
with thesuface

Surfacewavesare usefulbecarsethey are very sensilivelo surfacedefectsand to

inspectsan areasthatot|er wavesnighi havedifficulryreachingsincetheylbilow the
surfacearoxndandcxn e.

Followscurvesbut reflectedby sharpcomefsor surfacecracksandeasil]dampenedby

heary greaseand wer finger. The velocitiesof surfacewavesis approrimareiy8%

Dir.clion olproprgation

LAMB OR PLATE WAVES

Also knownas plarewavean canbe propagaled only in very thin materialss,henthe

thicknessof plate is aboutthe sameas the uavelength.Lamb wavesare a complex
vibationalq,aveandtravelsat velocideswhich vary throughthe eniifethicknessof a
maGdalard wavelergth.Lambwavesprodlcedby e lnaripuiatjonof suface\raves
andothersinto thii platematerialcausingtheplatematerialto flex by toially satur'aling
iis material-

The propagation of Lamb wavesis elepticalas a surfacewavesanddependsuponthe

by a great
andmaterialFopertiesof a rnalerial,andiirey areinfluenced
density,elastic
dealb).ele(Ledlrequerc) r\'ckre..
andt1areri,r-

Thereare hvo t-vpesofplate waves:

 PIEZO-ELtrCTRICEFFECT

The activeelementofmost probein ulirasoniciesl g js piezo-ccctricceramic/crysral.

This crtstalis tbe hearlofthe ultrasoniciDstrument
and il is definedasthe properaiof
certarncrystalmaterialwhich is convertelectricalenergyinto mechanicai enefgyand

The crystal naybe found narurallyoccuring, gown nr solution or artificially

manufactured. Sincewe areenergizing
ihe transdrcerby shockexcitationt|e vibrating
liequencymustbe controlledby tuningthe thickressoirhe crysralro give a pafiicular
naturalvibrationfrequency.

Any thickness
ofthe crystalwill haveits own fundamertalFequencvThe relationship
befween fundamental
frequencyandthickness depends
o. Lhevelocityof soundcNstal
materialandcanbe expressedas

v Ft = ftundanenlaltequency
Ff: V : !/elocityofthe crystal
2t t = thikne.\s.f the.ryrlal

Fromthefbrmulawe cansaythatthefiinnerthecrystalthehigh€rlhe liequency

Wlen exposedto an alternatingcurrenta crystal€xpandsand contracts.Convening

electiicalenergyinio mechanical
energy

-+ +

&l
To generate a compression/longitudinalmodewhich is commonlvusedin ultrasonic
testingthe crystalareslicedto X'cul direclionThis nreansrhecrlstalis slicedwith its
ma.jorplane(crystalface)perpendicular to lhe X axisofthe cryslalmaierialto give the
inlended p.openies.

Y cut X cut

Page4- l
 CRYSTAL
ADVANTACES DISADVANTAGES
MATERIAL
Qu artzorSi lic onox idc Poorpiezoelecric prcpenres
(sio3) Suscepoble to modecha.ge
High !ollage €quiEd for
. Easyto cnt ro give$e

. Goodreceiv*& esilr

ca,lnonq tv ih h..licol . Low elecdcal impedance . Decomposeattemperatue

. Opemleswellat low voltage

. Commonlyuseii medical

. Maybepenbm io focs beam . Depolarizes

al100 120"C
(Bnriq) propertiesNill
' Piezo-cleckic
. Coodpiezoeleciric
ptupenies slan degndear around?0!C

. Deteriorates
over a periodof

. Coodpiezoelecticpropedies
( Lis o4)

Lcadzi(onrtc titanatc . Ooodlransmittei

aDdall-
(PzT)( PbZrOr.
PbTior) . H i c hc u ri e p o i nl !pro350f

. Doesnotdissolve
in* er
. Tonghandesismnrio ageinB

Note:
I A poly|irylchloririe prabes g e hishfrequehc! up 10t5tth.forspecLal
tdsk. k has high rcsolutioh ahdNerysehsitn)e.
2 Toutmaline-naturalo?drring
3. Polari.ed crystul arc nade by hedting up |owdery to a hish
tenpetulure, pressing then into shape dllowing to cool in rery strong
electricalfield and it||i allectsthe atonic sttuctureofthe c^)stal

4t n:i*Oi({NcE
Soundwavestra\relling throughair or othermedixmssometimes affecrthe objectsthal
the-vencounter. Soundis causedby mechanical vibration.the moleculesvibrateal a
specificfrequencyfor eaclrsourceor al its iindamenialfrequency.Occasionally,
natefjal vibratingat their naturalfrequencywill cause.esonance. Resonance is when
objecvmaierial wit| tbe samenatulalliequencyas the vjbralingsourcealso beginto
vibrate.Example,a sjngercanmakeglassvibrateenoughlo shalterjusl by singjnga
notewiilr theglasss natumlfrequenq.,
".?
ln ulirasonictestingthe principleof rcsonancewere commonly||sed for thickness '-rq!t--
measuremenl andbondof lamjnationdetectior.Nowadai/s resonanl
techniquearerarely
used in a rrodem ultasonic testing.A resonanlconditionwill exist any time a
conliniouslongirudinal
wavesis introducedinroa specimenandreflecied"iN PHASE" ,
with thejncomjngwave.

P^ee4-2
 Slanding

Resonance$,ill occur oDly when a thicknessofa specimcnis e.lualro a halfwavelengrh

or an exaclmuhiple ofa halfwavelength( 'HARMONlCS )

='l l,
Thichness

I Mhz (fundamentalfrequency)

=I L
Thickness
2 Mhz (2'd Harnonic)

Thlckn€ss= l-l12 L
3 Mhz(3'd Harmonic)

Page4- 3
5.0 SOUNDBEAM

As lar as we concemed thal soxnd generatedfrom a piezoelectriccryslal does not

originateliom a point ofsource . but inslead.orjgiralcs f]om mosl olthe surfaceoflhe

Side Near
Lobes Zane

Main Lobe

Main Beam

Sidelobesarefomed at the faceofthe piezoelectric crystalonceits vibratefrom the

mosipoint and
ofthe surface radiate
away fiolr, thenain lobe

Thesideloberegionnormallyknownas a Nearzoneor Fressnel zone.The iniensitvof

the soundbeamis varies(high and low) dueto eachsidelobeshasa mulii minuteof
mainbean andn1aycausea smalldefeclnearto thesurfacegjvea higbsignalamplitude
of defectssignalamplitudewhen lestingis carriedout onto rough
or missirterpmle

thesideiobeseffects.
Thenarowerthebeamangletheweakerandmorenumerous

The soundbean consiststhree(3)zones:

I DeadZone
Zone
2. Nearzoneor Fressnel
zone
3. Farzonenor Fraunhoffer

DEAD ZONE

Deadzoneis an extentionof inltial pulses(ringingtime of th€ cryslal) It is a zone

10 the scannjngsurfacewit\in which reflectorsof interestare noi revealed.
adjacent
Normallyoccurswit}ra singlecrystalprobeandcanbe seenat thestartoftbe traceon a
CRTscreen with A scandisplayandca!seby theproberingingduetoi

. Pulselerglb
. Trasnmitandreceivedsound€nergy
. cain seitlng
. intemalreverhation

It is posibblelo minimizedthe deadzoneby placinga dampingmediumbehindthe

crystal.As thefrequencydecreasesth€deadzonewill increases

Page5-l
NEAR ZONE OR FRESSNEL ZONE

I n a egion i n w h i c h b e c a u .eo l ' n ' e r,tren.e..te ,ound ore., -e doe, ro .h.n.e

nonoionously wilh dlstanceand the sound iitenshy are varies.Indication lyi.g in this
zone may appealsmalleror largerthan tleir actualsize.It affecl the accuracyofdefect
sizing ofsmall indication in the region, so it is desirableto keepthe near zone Iength10

The lenSh ofllre nffr zone can be calcuiateduslngthe follow irg equations.

N e a r z o n e r m=m ) P#
*-
diamelerofth€ crystal(mm)
wavelength (mm)
frequencyofprobe(Hz)
materialveiocity(mmrs)

Fromthe formulait canbeenstaiedthat the nearzonelengthare largel,vdependson

probedianreterand frequencyfor panicularmaterialtested,i.e. Near zone length
decreases andprobcfr€qucncldecrcascs.
if crystaldiamerer

FAR ZONE or PRAUNHOFFERZONE

In thisregioni.rebeamwjll spreadout/divefge astheyiravelfrom nystal andits sound

inlensjties
decayexponentially,il jusr asa beamofUghtiiom a torchwhereis tbebeam
getsweakerthefuttherit travels.

Exponeni
al Decav

The amount/angleof beam divergencecan be calculatedand il depends

diameterand wavelengrhby using tbe following formulae:

si n M Kxc
ot
2 =D Drr-

e/2= halfb-eamjtngle
K : constant
factor
)r - wav€length(mm)
D : ofthe crystal(mm)
diameter
- frequenc]ofprobe(Hz)
- materialvelociry(mm/s)

Page5-2
 ''''''''''''''''''M.i n S eam
( 1 0 0 %)

NearZone

Kfuctot:
0% inlensitLExtrcne edge - 1.22
10%ntenif edge/ 2AdB :1.08
50% inlensi\,edge/ 6dB- 0.56

Fromihe beamspreadtormulait canbe noiicethat increasing the crysraldiameterand

probeAequencywill decrease
bean divergence but it will also€xtendrhe lenglhofrhe

In probe construction/designthe beam spreadand near zone length have to be

considered
to obtainlhemto a minimum.

Theamounrof energyreflectedbackor an echosignalappearon the CRT screenwhich

vary in heightfrom the discontinuities
dependon dre size Gmall or larget of the
discontinuties
within tie soundbeamatthedhtanceit rravelsandfollowsdifiirenr laws.

lf we havea LARGER REILECTORS (largerthantlre$idth of the beam).Followthe

INVERSELAW - The amplitudejs invefselyproportionalto the distancei.e. if $e
distanceis doubledihenthesignalamplilud€is redlcedto hah,ed(6dB)

IIwe havea SMALL REFLECTORS (smallerthan the width ofthe bealn). Follow the
NVERSE SQUARE LAW The amplitude is inverselyproponional to the squareof
the djstancei.€ lftbe distanceis doubledthan the amplitudeftom ihe secondreflecior is
one qxaner ofthe amplitudeofthe neffe. (i2dB)

Page5-3
 6.0 TFE ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE (Z)

The Acousticlmpedance(Z) is a resisnnceof a nalerial to fie passageof ultrasonic

beam.The acousticimpedanceis the productolde.siry 1p) ard soundvelociry(\r) o:
the material.

Z = p xc

Wlere:
,/ - A, aL, t i . np. d , . 1 .o / L T F . ,
p - Densi| ofnateriat ksm')
c - Velocity ol tndterial (mtbec)

Soundiravelsthroughmalerialsunderthe iafluenceof soundpressure.Becauseatoms

_ or noleculesof a solid are bound elasticallyto one anolherand the excesspressufe
rc. ks:n a MareDroDasal'ns lhroleh\o id.

A soundwaveswill reflectedwhen at interlacedue to a differenceacousticimpedance

oitwo diiterencematerial,The amountof soundenergyreflectedat interfacecan be
c.alculated
betweentwo different matedaland its expressedas the acousiicimpedance
Iqliq Tbe greater
the impedanceratjo,lhe nore soundener€y$'ill be reflected.

The formulato calculatethe reflectedsoundenereyare:

/ztzz\
x 100%
\t*-/
Wherc21 and22 arc the acouslicimpedanceofihe lwo naterials.

Example;
Calculatelhe reJlectedsorindenergyback to the prcbe al the water 1o steelinlerface?
(Acousdcinpe.dance olwaier = 1.48andsteel=,16)

4 Reaeded
I I _!.1_:=11 \ t009.
water (z j )
+ z2f
lnterlace I \21
I Steel (22)
I
Transnrfied
(_tl-_-rll)' *,00,,

/-*,tt )' 1,60",

47.48
\ /

0 . 9 4 ' xi0 0 %= 8 8 . 3 6 %

Thereforethe transmitted enerevcan becalculaledas 10096- 88.36%= 11.64%.

Page6-1
 ULTRASONIC REFERENCEDATA

VELOCITy AN-DACOUSTIC IMPfDANCE TABLE

Shear
Velociry Impedance
MATERIAL
m m g,m
x 100 x 105

0.013 330 Nil Nil 0.0004

Aluminium 0.25 6300 0.12 3 t0 0 1',7
Al.Oxide 0.39 9900 0.23 5800 32
BenyliulTr 0.51 t290 0.35 8900 23
BoronCarbide 0.43 I t00 Nil Nil 26.4
Bmss 0.17 4300 0.08 2000 36.1
Cadmiurn 0.rl 2800 0.059 1500 24
Copper 0.t3 4',700 0.089 2300 41.6
Glass(cro$.n) 0.21 5300 0.12 3000 I8.9
Glycerin 0.075 1900 Nil Nil 2.42
Gold 0.13 3200 0.047 1200 62.6
Ice 0.16 4000 0.08 2000 3.5
0.22 5700 0.12 3000
horl 0.23 5900 0.13 3200 45.4
hon(cast) 0.18 4600 0.1 2600 33.2
l-ead 0.085 2200 0.03 '700 24.6
Magnesium 0.23 5800 0.12 3000 l0
0.057 1400 Nil NiI 19.6
Molybdenurn 0.25 6300 0.13 3400 64.2
Monel a.2l 5400 0.11 210{) 4',7.6
Neoprene 0.063 1600 Nil Nit 2.1
N ickel 0.22 5600 0.12 3000 49.s
Nylol! 6-6 0.1 2600 0.043 00 2.9
o (sAE30) 0.06? 1700 N; I NiI 1.5
Platinum 0.13 3300 0.067 1700 69.8
Plexigiass 0.11 2100 0.043 00 3.1
Polyethelene 0.41 1900 0.02 500 1.1
PolJ'strene 0.093 24{) 0.01 r100 2.5
Polyurelhene 0.07 1900 Nil MI 1.9
Quarrz 0.21 5800 0.08? 2)00 15.2
Rubber.Buyl 0.07 1800 Nil Nil 2
Silver 0.14 3600 0.06 1600 38
Steel,mild 0.23 5900 0.r3 3200
S1eel,slainless 0.23 5800 0.12 3t 0 0 45.4
Teflon 0.06 1400 Nil Nil l
Tin 0.13 3:i00 0.07 1700 24.2
Tilaniunl 0.24 6t 00 0.12 3100
Tungsten 4.2 5200 0.tr 2900 t0l
Uranium 0.r3 3400 0.08 200 63
0.0584 1480 Nit Nil I 48
Zinc 0.1'7 4204 0.09 2400 29.6

P^ g e 6 - 2
 Near Field Length (Nz) ! Wat€r (inches)
Frequency Elem€ntDiameter
(Mhz) 1.00 .15 .50 .25
1 t) 4.3 2.4 1.07 .21
2.2.5 9.6 5.4 2t4 .60
5.0 21.4 12.0 5.4 1.1
10.t) 43 24 10.1 2.1
in sleel,dividedlhe above
To find the approx-length
valuesbv 4

dB vs.AmplitudeRatioChart
dB Ratio Ratio
0 1.00 l lt L55 l
0 .5 1.06 l 12 1.98:
I 1.12 li 4.47:
2 1.26 14 5.01:
1.41 t5 5.62:
1.58 6.ll:
5 1.78 1',7 7.08:
6 2.00 I t8 1.94:
1 2.24 1 t9 8.91:
I 2.51 20 10.00:
9 2.82 4U 100.00 I
10 3.16 60 1000.00

D,F Sin1x Cl
Near Field Snell's Law
4C SinR x C2

dB = 20 Log(l I / H2)

Skip Distance(SD)
BeamPath Length 2T / Cose
SnrfaceDistance BPLx Cose
Depth (1st Leg) BPLx Cose
Depth (2nd Leg) 2T-( B P L x Co s e )

Page6-3
7.1 INTRODUCUON

Ultrasonic waves are reflecled at boundarieswhere there are diffefences in acooslic

inpedance,Z. Ttis is comnonly refered to as impedanc€mislnalch Refiecredwaves
obey dreref'lectionlaw

(angle of incidenc€= angle of refleclion)

i.2 Rrtii{AairoN
Inclinedsourdwavesarealnostexclusjvely generated
so thattheyoccurat an angleto
fte prcbe/test
objectinterface,
This is simplyachjeved
by cemmtingthe elementontoa
wedgeshaped delaypathwbich is nomally madeofperspex.

Wlrenan ullrasoundwave passesrhroughan inlerlacebeiweenlwo maierialsat an

obliqueangle.andthe marerialshavedifferentindicesof refraction.il producesboth
reflected
andreliac{edwaves.

Thisalsooccurssith liglt andthismakesobjectsyou seeacrossan iiterfaceappea.lo

ifyou look straightdownat an
be shiftedrelativeio whereftey reallyare.For example,
obje.tattheborom ofa glassof water.it lookscloserthanitreall\,is.

A goodway to visualizehow light andsoundrefractis to sbinea flashlightinroa bowl

ofslightl)cloudywaternotingtherefiactionanglewith respectto the incidenceangle.

Re&actiontakesplaceat an interface
dueto thedifferenlvelocities
oflhe acoustic
waveswithinthetwo materials. Thevelocityofsoundin eacbnaterialis determinedby
thematerialproperties
(elasticioanddersjly)for thatnaterial.

Page7- 1
 SNELL'SLAW

Transmiftedwaves obey the .efraction law (Snell's law). Snells Law describesthe
relationshipbetweenthe anglesand the velocitiesofthe waves. Snell'slaw equateslhe
ratio of naterial velocities Vl and V2 to the ratio of the sine's of incident (tr) and
reliaction (R) angles,as shown in the following equadon.If a longitudinal wave, at a
fixed angle of incidence(the wedge angle), hits tie perspex^teelirlerfac€ then ihis
wave is firstly split-up into a reflect€dand a transmittedwave. Fig. ioa.

SinI _ Velocityin Msterial 1 (VI)

,Sin.R Velocityin Material 2 (V2)

I = angle af iticidence
R - onste af rcltact iah
rl = saund relacq" in nrcdjunt I
I'2 = sandreloctt! innedtun 2

S inR xV I S in I x V 2
SinI Srx R =
V2 V1

Incident

Example:

to producea 45 shearwaverefraciedGteel)
Whatis angleofincidencereqDired
anslein Perspex?
(Steel= 3240m/sec & Perspex= 273om/sec.)

Sin I \ e l o ci tl materi rlI (vl )

SiI R Veloci.lnaterial r (Yz)

Sin I _ 2730m/sec
Sin 45' 3240n/sec

Sin45'x 2730x 1000

Si n1
3240x 1000

Si . I 0.59i8

l 36.57.

Page1- 2
 CRITICA'L ANCLES

ln ullrasonictesling,SnellsLa$ formulacan be usedto deteiminethe posibilit! of

varioxs angle probe lo detect defects on weldment \,\,hichits o.ientation are
pependiculaf to thesoundbeam.

Th€ criricalanglescalculationare usedto design variousprobeanglein relationwith

tle male al to be tesled,the conmonangleprobesthatavaiiableandwidelyusetoday
aredesignfor sleelonly.

an irte.faceof
Beforefirst critical angle,whenan incidenrbeamofsoundapproaches
two differenimaterialsREFRACTIONoccurs.Theremay be morEthanonewavefofln
transmised iniothesecondmaterial,example: andSlrear
Compression

Before l't critical angle

A fisrt critical angle is wherethe refiactedconpressionalwaveis at 90" lion the

noJmal axd only shear waves left in the second this
medium, wasdoneby increasing
angleof incident(in perspex) up to a cenain approx.27.4').
desrees(

a shearwaverefactedto at33" in s€sond

UsingSnellsLaw gquaiions (steel).
'ncdiunt

Sin R (90') x VI (comprcssionvelocit!)

SinI =
V2 (comprc ssi.' n velocil!)

'l'he reffactedcompression wav€ becomesto as a "creepwave." Becauseof thefe

inhomogeneous natureandihe faci thattheydecayrapidly,cfeepwavesarenoi usedas
exiensjvely as Rayleigbsurfacewavesin NDT. However,creepwavesare sometimes
useful becausethey suffer less Fo1n surface ilTegularilies and coarse material
microsructllle, LhanRayleignwaves
dueio t|eir longerwavelengtls,

W}ena waveformchanges inio anoiherwaveformit canbe saidasa MODE'CHANGg

After the first critical angleby further increaslngangleof incidentup to a certarn
degrees thecompressional wavewereintemallyreflect, leavingshearwaveonly in the

Prge 7- 3
 g,:1""-

At l " c ri ti ca' ar!,e

The s€cond critical angle is lvhere rp ro a point b) fLrlhcr jncreasingrhe anglc of

incident(aprox.57'), a shearqave feliaclcd to 90' f.om rhe nonnal At Lhispoi the
direction it: propagarionof shear rave as il tavel along the surfaceliiterface has
chaDgedto an elepticalmolion or bccomcssurfacewa!e

Usinr SnellsLa\a eqxarionsa sheaf$,a\e .ci actedLoal 90' in secondmedlum (sle€l)

Si'?R (90') xVl (compression

telocil!)
Si uI:
V2 (shear t,elocir)

perspe\

A t 2 n d c r i ti cal ansl e
a
From the above explanationwe can sumariz€dthat the !se of SnellsLaw
probe designfor a particul narerial to be lesied.{\rorked out br p.obe
e,g : perspexto sleel.

. when ihe incident angle btlo* 27.4" or before the 1'' critical
compressjonand shear$,a!e are.efractedin dre material
. The area in which an angle of incidenceis p.ernt be6\'eenthe lsr and 2.d
crirical argle Q] 4" 5'7") gives us a clear eraluable sound $ave in th€ lesi
object(madeofsteel) thal only shear$ave exid in the malefial
. If the incident angie is iDcrcasedabove 57" a conprcssion and shear wave
mmll) reflecisattle inlerfaccaDdther€wefe no $'a!e in the malenal

Page1' I
 90"

Flo$ Diagram Critic:rl Angle

DIFFRACTION

The soundx,ill radiatefrom fie tips in alldirections alongihe sameplaneasllre incident

ultrasaonicbeam. lhe sound radiaring]]om the rips $,iil have low and high inlensides,
giving the impressionof sound bendingaround the edgesof the defecl. (figure I ) Th€
phenomena of difftactionis nothingnew andoccurslriih all of $ar e!, e.g l i ghr

Figure I
Threecenturiesago Huygensproposed,that "each pqint on a s'ave fionl maybe
regardedasa new sourceof waves".Hencewe cantbink ofrcflectionofa wavefrom a
slrfaceoccuningasoutlinedin figure2

wave
>

Eachpoint on surliice
acl asa sourceofilales
Fig'rre2

Page7- 5
 MODE CON}ERSTON

when soundtravelsin a solid material,oneform of waveenergycanbe ransfonned

intoanotierform.For example,whena lonsitudinalwaveshitsan interfaceat an angle.
sone of th€ energycar causepaiicle mov€menlin the lransvefi€direcrionto staria
shearlnansverse)
wave.

Mode conversion, occu.swhe, a waveencounters an intedaceberweenmaterialsof

djfferentacousric
impedarc€ andtheincidenrangleisnotnormaltotheinterface.
ln the previouss€ctionjt was point€dout that wbensoundwavespassthroughan
interface
between materials refractiontakesplaceat
havingdifferenra.ousticvelocities,
rheinre":ce

The largerthe differencein acousdcvelociliesbetween

the two materials,
the morethe
sound is renacted.Notice that tle shearuave is nol refracledas much as the
longitudinalwave.This occursbecauseshearwavestravelslowerthan longitudinal

Therefo.e, the velocit differencebelweenthe incidentlongirudinalwave andthe shear

waveis not as Eeatasit is beNeenthe incidentandreftactedlongirudinal waves.AIso
notethatwhena longjtudinalwaveis reflectedLrsid€the material,the reflectedsiear
waveis refleciedar a smalleranglethanthereflected wave.This is alsodue
longitudjnal
to the fact thatthe shearvelociryis less$an the longiludinalvelociiywithin a given

Page't- 6
8.0 INTRODUCTION

A pulseof ulnasoundgenerated f.om a piezoelect;c crvstalhiN a lengrhor width of

severalvjbrationor wavelenglh.The pulsegeno.ated b) chafgjnga capacitorin ihe
circuitryihensuddenly.eleasingthischangeofelectricalenerg/abort I Kv to 2Kv Into

U/h€nyou shikea bell we canheara r ging soundconliuuoLrsly for severalsecondas

the meialsconlinuesto vibrale.The vjbrctionwill sreadilydecal/andihe sounddies
away.We cansiopthe vibfttion by dampedthebell with oxr handandwe caniear dre
sounddicsawaymorefaster.

ln orderto havea betterresolulion.in ulhasoniciestingalsothesouDdm'rslbe shofiand

sharp.A backingmedium(a slug of TungstenAralditematerial)rs placedbehird the
cfystalto cllt-off ile ringing time ( belo$1O%its amplitude)ro give shoter pulse
length.The frequencyalso is lhe otherfactorlo conrrolpulselenglh Whcfc is highe.
frequency wjll shonenile wavelength.

The idealpuke lengthwouldbe approximat€ly

2 cyclesbut i1is difficuhto achievewith
the conventionalbackingrnediurnard colnmercialiy
a!ailabl€crystaland a long pulse
Iengthcanbe l5 cycles.

In ulirasonicresdngthe idealpulselengthis scycles.A longerpulselenglhgive better

penetaiion(contains moreenergy)butpoo.;n sensitiviq,/resohuion

Short pqlse Long pulse

I or 2 cycles '12cvcles

5 cycles
for weld testing

Page8-1
8.1 Pt L\E RtPtTntoN FREetF\cY (P.R.FI

The puke repetjrion Segxencv/pulsereletiiion rate (p.r.t is rhe nunrber of pulses

generated$at jeavethe probe in per unit oftime (HzlKhz or per second).

Each pulse ot energy that leave the probe shall retunr before the next pulse leaves
otherwisethey collidescausing"ghost" o. spu.iousechos,ill appearon CR'l screen

The &ration taken 1br the pulse ro iravel from rhe probe and return is known as rhe

The duralion betweenthe pulses leaving the probe is known as ihe clock inrerval.
Thereforethe n-ansirtime mxst be shonerthan theclock intervalorghosringappears.

PageS-2
9.0 PROBES OR
'RANSDUCER
D€finuions:
An Electrc-acousticalde|ice, usually Ltlcotparctingone or mote prabes intendedf.,
transtnissionard ar rcceptionafthe tltlasonic wNes

Nornallyprobecarriesa uniqueserialnumber.showingopcmtingfrequency,
transducer
size. angle,and wave mode, or a permanentreferencenumberfrom which tllis
infornationcanbetaced.Thereareseveralfundarnentalproberypesr-

. Nomal/compression,

. delaylineprobes,
. focrsed,mosaic,imnrersion
andetc.

Theprobealsodiffer with respectro the ihicknessandsizeofrhe activepiezoeLecaic

elements,it's ftequency, bandwidih and the basjc design. The sound beam
chancterisiics
of a ransducer,lvlich areexpected undernormalinspeclion
conditions,
aregenerallyderivedflom th€djameter of thepiezoelectric
andti€ frequenc)r element.

9.1 O"COMPRESSIONAL PROBE / NORMAI PROBES.

probe are generallyusedto measure

A singlecrl,stalcompressional thicknessandto
detectdefectson variousmaterialsuchplates,bars,foBings.castings
andextrusions. A
compressional probefunctioningby emittingconpressionilongirudinal)into the test
material,

Duringiheiestit is applieddirectlyto ihe flat surfaces

ofthe testmaterialor object.Due
to the factthala compressionalprobeinvolvesintodirectconiactwith thetestmaterials,
$e wea.plaiesareconslmcted with highlydurableinaterjal

housing
socket

matching-
damping-
block
crystal protectingface
fDrobedelavl

Page9-1
 9.2 A TWIN CRYSTAL PROBES

inasiDs'e
ij:H:J,il:1"#H:il::;::::ffi :: ;1""11j,#:y:i:: h.using.
.ne

rmproves
;i::::in::
?.'":Tr.3]l
ilifji'""ii:$jJT."T:i"J,',#'.3
nearsurfaceresolurjon
Hirj;+"fi
iir
by etiminaiing
reco,eryproOtem
laeaazoney.
.- -- "

Due lo the assembliesofcrystal irside the pfob€stjglrtlyangledinuardsrhe utrason,c

beamcanbe focus€d to sive a focalpoinrat ihe idear;""i" p"ih ''
i" t. i*,"J.-""
""g"
Thefocusingeffeciofthjs probemakesit ideatfor pipesand
olhercurvedsudaces.In
gfnemla decreacein fie roofange ro Jr inc-e.r in rfi orooe.temerr.i* *,,r *.,
rorgerp eldo loLald\.jnced,rdrnce^e j,e.Ltr"rge , ,"

A twm crystalprobe aho sornerinesreferedto as comknett

doubteprcbe or dudl

T \ e. e r y oeof pro b e sa re.u rrd b l eto c d -y o L l .1 (j \ne.5j nearu.emenl

tor l hrr D dteond
, o oer ec oer
. ed sl e a r ro h e .J fl a L e s D e c i " lh igh .erp€rarureprobe"
are eren abl e ro
Teas u. euey " t , .h r.k l e s .o n re .l o b j e ..,u r.a c e .uD rorbou.{50,,.ot1al rn.rdtanon\
.an oe resreddurrngoperdrion

Page9-2
9.4 AN6LE PROBE

Angle beam probe allou ihe soudbeamto be inffoduced into the tesl malerial at an
angle. A plastic wedgesof confolled geometryare atlachedro $e c.yslal ;n order to
establishthe desire.dangle.

The rcfracred
This is in turn,acco ing to Snells Law calculations. beamangieshould
be selectedto ersur€ tbat the soxnd beam angte will be , as much as possible,
perpendicular to theplaneof expecleddiscontinuities

(prob€d€lay)

In so1ne thegeometl"r'
cases, ofangleprobe
ofthe teslmaterialwill dictatelhe selection
With regardto fiequencyhoweverlhe samegeneralrule applies'which is to selcctthe
lowestfrequency whichprovidesadequatedefectsensnivit).The anglebeanlprobecan
alsobeusedto generatesudace*aves.

Mostofanglebeamprobearc jdentifiedby therefiactedshearwaveproduced (45', 60',

70', erc)in a specific
material
usuallysteel
and Angles
aluninium. of4j", 60'and 70'

With regardto Fequency,angle-beam probesdo nol hale sucha wide selectionas

straight-beamprobes.This is prjnaril) dueto the fact tha! high frequencytransverse
ine grainsteelsaresubjected
wavesin non-alloyed to highattenuation

95 ULTRASONIC\iIIIEEL PROBE

Ultrasonicnon-destructivetesting is now often requiredwherc ihe test piece mateial

mustnot becomewet or saturated with water.The issueofcouplantcontamination is of
particular
importance in theaerospace andothersafetycriticalsectorswherecomposites,
opencell structuesandporousmaterialsare increasinglyused

Problemswith couplantapplicaiionandremoval,or the inpradjcaliriesof immersion

in dry coupledsolidcontactwheel
havealsoled to the ne€dfor advancements
systems

Page9-3
The kev innovatiolris ihe development
of specificHydrophilicPolymerswhichnake
up the "tyre" or delaymaterial.Thesepolymersdemonstrare acousricpropeftiesthai
lendthemselves verywellto impiemeniationin ulh"sonicNDT.

Capableof absorbinglarge quantitiesof water, these polymershydrate ro an

equilibrium,givingrise to a flexiblesolid - conlainlng60% ware. perfectfor dry
operationin a teslingenvironmentwirhourriskingrhecorhminarionofthe testpiece.

Due to this newmaterialdevelopment liequ€ncjes

of5-10 MHz andoverarepossible,
ofering bjghersensitivilyand resolution.Another.esulidue ro nhechangein design
philosophy is the abilityto employpulseechomode. This allowsdepthmeasurements
andexaminations optionswhereaccessis limited.Beingportablethe HydroProbecan
beusedjn sitll,reducinginspectionstimesandeliminaring
theneedlirr immersion
tanks.

The Hydroprobeis sxilablefor automatedor mdual us€and hasan interchangeable

transducer.
Applicationsare variousbnt includethicknessmeasurement,composite
inspection,
delanination
delectionaswellasgeneralflaw detecrion.

9.6 SOFT

housing

matchrng-
element

Membrance
(softdiaphragm)

A probein hjchthe contactsurfaceis a flexiblemembrane and$e spaceberween

the
crystalandthemembrane is filled with a liquid couplant.
Protective
MembraneConiact
Transducersare excellenlfor couplingro roughor unevensurfaces.

Themsmbrane rvill conformto surfaceinegulariiies

providingb€ttercouplingto thetest
malerial.Soft nosedprobesnormallyusedfor contacttestingon rough,cast.pitted,or
abrassivesurfaces wjtl minjmaltransducer wear.suchascastingforgings,billets.

Page9-4
9.7 MAGNETO.STRICTIVE TRANSDUCER

Trnnsdxcermadefron a materialwhichdeturnswhenpl3cedin a magnetic field,and

whichthe.ebybemmescapableof transfo.mingelectricaloscillaticns
intosoundenergy

Temposonics iransduce employmagnetosfticiive rechrrology$herethe interacrion

a cunentpulseanda magnetic
bei$,een field gene.rates
anullrasonjcwavewhichtravels
alongawave-guid€Theconducting elemeniandwave-guide run rhelengthofrhe
transducer.
withir a metalhorsing.

ThePositionMagnet,whenadjacentto thetransducer providesthemagneric field.There

is anelecnonics
moduleat oneendoflhe $ansducer. A cui|enipulseis scntout from
lheelectronics
andtheresxltingacolsticpulseis detected.

Thetimeintervalbeiweenthepulsesis proponional
to drepositionofthe magner.
The
integralprocessing
elecrronics
canoutputdisplacement
darain variousforms.

ThjsprincipleofoperationalloNsa relativ€lylargeclearance beMeenthe transducer

(usuallyfixed)andPositionMagnet(usually aitached to a movingpan).Thereis no
wear.andno effectfrom anynon-ferrous din, debrisor liqxidsin thespacebetween
transducer andmagnet

9s. TMMERSION TR]|N3D{'[TRS

SingleElementImmersionTransducers r'avetransducers
arelongitudinal t),picallyused
in manrial,semi-automatic, and automaticscanningsystems.Scanningpads with
inegularor conptex geometries is possiblebecauseof the conlbrming"wate. path"
iayerbel\reenlhe probeandthe inspectedmaterial.

Superiornear-srlrfaca
resoluLioo
oanbe achiEv€d wh€hconpared10contacttransducers.
Anglebeaminspdciion is possibleby simplyanglingtheprobeor searchtubeir relalion
to the part surface.Spherical(point) or cylindrical(line) focusingcan also be
acconpiishedusingacoustically
matchedlens€s.Focaliengthmustbe specified.

lmmersionTestingProbes

Page9-5
9.9 FOCUSINC FRO}ES

Focusingprobesare mainly used for the detectionof small defecrsand for sizing
reflectors.Their soundfields shouldbe d€siribedb\ focal zoneand focal diameler
Tbeiradvanlages singlecrystalprobesaJean increased
in relationto unfocussed lateral
resolution seitinghasto be caried out by
anda highersignalto noiseratio. Sensitiviq,
using refe.ence
reflectors.

'4 .bc aF'@

a'
F t*t " i

& w
%

Pag€9-6
10.0 DECIBEL (DB )

Thedecibelis a logarithnicbaseunit usedto comparcsoundintensil}

we needto determine
signalamplitudeheigbtbecause
we do notkno* lrown1uch
the
actualsoundener$/bejngo-ansmitted
intomaterial.

We cancomparethe signalamplitudedisplayedon the CRT sc.eenwith the kno!'n

reference
settingsensitivity.
And normallywerelarethisinformarron
to defectsize.

e.g.:Fronthe CRTscreenan echoamplitude leighi lion adefectis 50%tullscreen

heightfmm fte reference (DAC) atthe same|ange.And we compare
sensitjvity
echoamplitudes wilh a knownreference to nraketheinformation
sensitivity
meaningtul(acceptor reject).Thedefectechocanbe higheror smallerthanour
reference
echolreight.

We cancompareso!ndintensities
being.eceived
andexpress
them?sarario.

dB =z0logrog! HI & H2 are*e sisnalheryhl

H2

Mostofultrasonicinstrument gaincontrolandrheunitwas
arefitiedwith calibrated
measuredin decibel.

Ifw€ reduce/increase
the intensityof uirasoundby 6dB Bom50%fuUscreenheightthe
signalwilldecrease/increase
to 50%or half iis originalheight

Ifwe reduce/increase
theintensjtyofultrasound by 20dBtle signalwill
decrease/increase
to a tenlim€sof its originalheight.

Note:
I . A dilfercnt Ultrasonicinttrunent wi gire a dilferent rcading tatio fron the
sane materialbeingteste.l.
2 Thecalibratedgain control allow us ta set thetensitirL4,for uhrasonicsi.ing

3 Thereject ar suppressionb ttan contol is usedto elimindtesnall uwanted

signalgass ASA - hash)fan the time base.It is importantta nate that it will
aho afect the linearity af the anplilier

2 80% 209i 5:2

6 50% 500/" 2:1

l0 33% 670/" 3:i

12 254/o '75%

200/a 80% 5:l

2A 100/" 90% l 0i l

Page10- 1
11.0 CATHODERAY TUBE

gun

Focusi ng
cup

tubeis consisting
An electronic circuilasa cathode
ofa electronic raygun.X_platesaDd
Y-plates,focusingcoil and positivelychargedphosphorescenr coatingplacedin a
vacuumchamber gasenvelope
or in an ioniz€dlow prcssure (gastube)madeofglassor
mehl/ceramic. How doesit work?

A caihode is heated that constantlyemits a cloud of eieckons.The high posiiive

voliageis appliedto this elecftode. Underthe actionofthe appliedvoltagethe elecrons
are movsl witl acc€ieration from cathodeto anode.lts suface emits a cloud of
electronsthatareattracted by the posiiiveanode,generatitga curent ofaboutonevolt
or lessin ihe tube,this is tbe tlermo-ioniccuneni.The morefie h€atis high the more
thecurrentis intensive.

In the absence of the voltageappliedto devialingplatesof the capacitorthe eleclron

beanrwill be incidenton the screenin the centerbrighteninga poinrin the fluorescing
layer.By controllingthe flow ofeledronsit alsoconfol fie brightressofrbe lighr.The
producnona spol oi light/do1on the flourescent screencausingit to glow (normally
green) ihe beam are focusedby passingthem throxgh focusing cylinders whjch arc
negativecharge.

Thespotoflighl canbe rnovedto anypositionon thescreenusingtwo setsofpiares,X

platesfor horizonlalmovementandiheY-platesfor verticalmovement.

rO.O A-SCAN FLAW iJiiECTOR FIJOW DIAGRAM

AMPLIFIER, AMPLIFICATION

Also referredto as an dtrenuatoror gain, ar electonicdevlcethatamplifiesandfilters

the signalreceivedand ransformedby the probewhich will controlsignalheights'
bdngingthemdownto areadable level.Thegain is usuallylinear;some
applicarionsuse
a logarithmicscaleand it doesnot affectthe lineariryof the amplifier.An lmportant
aredescribed
characteristics by: noiselevel,inpuiimpedance, maximumgain.dvnamic
range,filtersandbandwidth, linearity,andrecoverydmeaftersaluration

An amplifier(som€times devicewhichusualll pfovides

calledrecelver)is an electronic
gainfor sjgnalsfrom lowto highfrequency, calledbroadbandBasicallv
a constant thus
electronicdevicesdeliver a lower and upper ft€quencylimit, thal is equalto the
rangeofthe flaw detector,
operation e.g.I MHz ' 15MHz. Thelimitsared€finedal the
3 dB drop pointsof the receiveramplitude andrecelve.
curve.lmportanl ]r'ansmrller
e.g-,pulsert}?e, dampingfiequency,
eiemenls, bandwidth,fiber.
Page11- 1
THE PULSEGENEI{ATOR

An electonicdeviceor circuil wbich is alsokno$n asclockor iime. andcontrolsthe

synchronisationof the equipment.The pulsegen€rator sendsthe elecr'cal signalor
puiselo thetjmebaseon lheCRTscreenandpulsetransminer simukaneously.

THE TIMEBASE GENERATOR

Uponreceivingthe eiectricalsignalfiom t}le pulsegenerator

it controlsthe volrageon
tbeX'platescausinstheelectronbeamor greendotmovingacrossthe screenin a linear

THE PULSETRANSMITTtrR

An electronicdeviceemitsat intervalsgovernedby the pulsercperitioncontolling a

directvoltag€to the crystalin ihe probeof instanraneous
dumtionwirh a valxe of
s€venlhundred to a thousandvohs.

SUPPRESSION
CONTROL

An instrument functionlo rcduccsor clininaiionoflow ampliiudcsignals(electricalof

maenalnoise)or thegrasslevel(USA-hash.) beiowapredetermined anplitudesothat
tle relevantsignalsareclearlyvisible.Useofthis controlcanreducetle anplifier
linearity.

Page11- 2
 I2.O ATTENUATION

Attenuationis a termusedin uhrasonic lestingasa decreasingofsoundpressure

or ioss
ofin intensiq,when a wavetavels througha malerialarisingfromABSORPTIONand
SCATTERING,

How much j! loss of it intensi4,as ii tavels deperdanlupon the le peratureand

physicalproperties
of themalerial

Aitenuarion
coeffcient/factorofa materialcanbe measurcdCoefficieniused10express
on mate.;alproperties,
per unit ofdistancetravelled,deperdant
attenuation wavelenglh
andwavemode.usuallyexpressed in dB/mm.

r2.r AasoRP,rioN
ofthe materialbeinglestedareihe causeslossofthe inteDsitfofthe
Elasticpropenies
soundbeamas ft aavels,e.g.steeland Aluminiun has lessabsorptionthan leador

The phenomenon loss of soundenergy,when soundlxavelthroughmateriala small

ofthe particles,
amountofenergjesis usedup by the interaction astheyvibratecausing
frictionwhichjs dissiparedashear.

lnseasiDgthe liequencyof soundis increased (absorption

tbe atlenuation andscaner)
andthusincreased thesensitivityloa smallindjcation.

The pocess of heat treatmentwill reducegrain struclureand therefo.ereduce scatter

andmakingtesringeasier.

Ultlasonicbeamemergingliom an ultrasonicprobeis ratherlike the beamoflight from

atorch.The farlher
away ifs travelthe will lhe beam.Naturalalt€nuation
weaker occurs
dueto the divergenceof $e beamin the far mne wherewe cannolicelhat signalof
secondbackwall,echois reducedto halvedeverytime thedislance of soundtlavelfrom
theprobeis doubled.

A coarsegrainstructureofmaterialwill give highelattenuatjon

factorssuchas Casting
andStainless
Steelmaterial.

:12.2

Scatterjng is a reflected energy caused by grain structures and/or by sma11

inclusionor defectsln lhe beampathand
suchpores,non-metallic
discontinuities
najor influencedto aitenuation.

The "Grass"al the horizontal(tinrebase)ofthe CRT screenindicaiethat$e reflected

ene€y {iom tbe grah s1r'uctures of the material.lt becomesmore apparenton ihe
inspectionwheninspectingcastingor brzssmaterialcompared 1oa fine grainmaterial
(rollingandfbrg'ng).

Theselectionof low frequencyprobenormallyusedto inspeclcoarsegrainmaterialin

ulrrasonictestingis due to a low fiequencyprobehasa longerwavelenelhand give
benerpenetrationandreducescatterjng.

Pag(12- 1
Othercauseswhich leadto lossofsound enefgyare:

. Roxelr surfirces
. Lamination/Non metallicinclusion
. Reflectionat the inrerface
. Mode conversion
. Reflectioninsideprobes.
. Cableelectical characteristic

Page12- 2
 13.0 CALIBRATION BLOCK

Def inif ion:

Piece al ndteial af speciied canpositiatl, s tface linish, hedt n ..t n ejti a]1d geot, etri.
fom. by meansafwhich utttasani. equiptllentcan be dsseisedcnC.aliL, aterl

The user must "caiibrare" the system, whicl inciudes rhe equip enl serling3. rhe
lransducer,and the test setlF, |o validatethat the desiredlevel .fprccision and accuracy
are achieved.The tenn caiibrationstandardjs usrall), only usedrir.n an absolurevalue

13.I REFERXNEEBLOCK

Definition:
Piece afnateliat contdihing\|e delinedrefectan lsed ta adJustthe anplifcatiaa af
the ulto:onic equipnent i, arcIet ta comparedetectedindiLatianstith tlnse arisng
./i on the kno1tn r eflectati

ln a pulse-echo !'pe setup,signalstrengrhdependson boththesjzeofrhe flalr andrhe

distancebeiw€en tbe fla1vard tbetransducer.
Theinspectorcanusea reference standard
with an atifrcially knownof defeclsizeard at approximarelythe samedisranceauay
for theprobeto producea signal.

By comparing tbesignalfom the referencestandard

defectsizecanbe determined.
Whenanplitudesofechoesfrom tle objed arecompafed wrrhec|oesiiom a reference
block,ceftain.€quirementsrelatingro the material.surfacecondilion.geome!.-v._
and
temperature
ofthe blockshallbeobserved.

Wherepossible,tbe referenceblock shail be made ftom a rnaterialwiln acoustic

propertieswhich are widrin a specifiedrangewith respectro the marerialto be
examined, and shall havea surfaceconditioncomparable ro tharof the objeclto be
examined.If thesecbaracterjstics
arenoi the same,a iransferconectionshallbe applied.

The geonetrical;onditionsof the r€ferenceblock ard the objeclunderexamination

shall b€ considered.The geometryof the referenceblock, its dimensions, and the
posilionof anyref'lectors,
shouldbe indicatedon a case-by-casebasisin the specific
standardsandcodes.

The positionand numberof reflectorsshouldrelatelo the scanningof ihe entire

Themostcommonly
usedreflectors
afe:

a) Iargeplanarreflectors,comparedto the bearnwidth,

perpendicular
to the
acousticaxis(e.g.back*all);
b) flai-bonomed holes;
c) side-drilled
holes;
d) groovesor notchesofvariouscross-s€ctions.

Whenreference blocksareusedfor immersionexamination the influenceof waierin the

holesshallbeconsidered
or theendsofthe holesshallbe olussed.

Psge13- I
The consequences of temperaturedifferences
benveen exaninationobject,probes.and
referenceblocks,shallbe consideredandcompared to therequirements
for theaccuracy
of the examination.If necessary
the referenceblocksshallbe mainlainedwilhin ihe
.pe!ifiedrerperarrrerargeduringlhee\dmrndlron.

13.2 SPECTFiCBTOCKS

tn certaincases,specificblocks e.g. wirh idertifiednaturaldefec6 can be usedto

finalizetheexamination
methodandio checkthestabiliryofthe sensitivit),.

Thi secrion jrd rereren(e

wil di.Lu,:soneofihemosl.onm01calL,ra_on olo.k,lhat
areusedin ultrasonic
inspection.

CalibrationBlock No. t
@N 12223)

IIW or InternationrlInstitut€of W€lding

TheIIW blockalsorefferedto astheA2, Vl, DIN 54/120or DutchShoeBlock.As BS

to 5355JO and
EN 12223the V1 block is nade ofsteel ofcompositionconesponding
freeintemaldiscontinuities.

ln orderto obtain a fme stluctureand good honogeneity.the block. before final

machining,shallbehearfeaied asfolloqs:

at 920"Cfor 30 nrinutes.
l. Austenjtizing
2. Rapidcooling(quenching) in waier.
3. Tempering byheaiingio650"Cfor3hoursandcoolingin air

After beenheattreatedan extemalsurfacesare machinedto an Roughness valxenol

greaterthan0.8pn. It is permissible
to chfomiumplateor electroless
nickel platethe

Tbe Vl blocksarc usedto calibrateequipmentfor borhanglebeamand normalbeam

probes.Someof iheir uses include settingmetal-dislance and sensitivitysettings,
d€terminingthe index of soundexit point and retractedangleof angleprobes.and
depthresolutionof normalprobetestingsetups.
evaluating

Page13- 2
CalibrationBlocksNo.2
(EN 27963)

V2 or A4 calibrationblock.V2 calibrationblock alsorefferedto as DIN 54/122or

Kidneyblock.This calibrationblockdiffersin sizeandshapefton the blockdescribed
in ISO2400.

It is verymuchsmallerandtbereforelighter,andits geomety is muchsimpl€r.lt does

not offer as much scopeas the largerblock:jn panicularit is rot meantto checkan
ultrasonicflaw detectorcompletely.

Its easyhandling,however,nakes it possible,dxringpracticalexaminalion,to check

simply,from time to iime, the seftjngof the tirne baseand the sensitivityof Oe
ultrasonicequipmdrt.Moreover,il is suiledto checkingthe beamangleandthe probe
indexofminiatureshearwaveprobes.

The calibrationblock is rnadeof steel of composhioncorespondingto P l8 of

andgoodhomogeneiry,
ISO2604-4.ln orderto obtajna fine structur€ theblock,before
fir.lTachiring.shallb(hearneared d) follow,i

a) beatingfor 30 min at920"C andwaler-quenching;

b) re-heatingfor 2 h at 650"C andcoolingin still air.

Ille dimensjonsof the biock,in mjllimetres.are givenin ;igure 2. Thicknessofthe

blockfor calibraiionof "non-miniature"probescanbe greater.example20 or 25 mm
thick.

Page13- 3
I4.O TETIPERATUREEFFECT

Tenp€rature
is oneofthe affecrsrhevelocir)of soundasrheyravet ih.oughmarerial.

Heai,like sornd js a form of kinetjcenerg].MolecLrles

at highertemperatures
have
moreenergyrhusil willvibratemorefaster.

Sinceit vibratesfastersoundwavescantralel morequickly.The vetociq,ol soundin

roomtemperature, air is approximalely 346m/sec.
Thisis fasterrhan33tn/sec.,whichis
the velociq/of soundjn air at &eezi.g temperature.

Thevelocityofsoundis alsoaffectedby orherjacrorssuchashumidjtyandair pressure.

With increasing $e temperature will inc.easeattenuarjon

ard decrease
in uttrasonic
velo.ityin the materiaifrom whichlhe angleprobewedgesaremanufactured. Thjs lvilt
leadto areductionin probesensitivityandincreasingrhe
beamangte

Pagel4 - 1
 I5.O RESOLI]TION

Resolulionis the ability of an equipment/cornbinalion

probero delccl defecrsclose
proxlrniryor nearsurfaceto showsepamte
echoeson thelimebasein rennsofbeamparl
rengm.

Resolutjon generatlyincreasesas the frequenc)inclease.Consider2 rellectorswithin

thebeanwilh a beampathlength,lmm.Ifthe eqxipment/combination probehasa good
resolutionthey will be ableto showiwo signayamplinrde appearon the CRT screen
separately,otherwisethetwo refleclorswouldbe contained$,ilhinthesameenvelope (if
rhepulselengthgreaiertlran4mn).

To determine
theresolutionpo\verof equipmen!'com
bjnalionfrobe \le canusedthe Vl
blockat 100mm,9lmmand85mmstep(for normalprobe)

I5.1 SENSITIVITY

Definition :
The charucteistix af an ulba$nic instrumeht and prcbe co bination \)hich detel ine
the dhilir, ta detect smol signab linited b) the signdl t.-noise rutia ln ordcr to
perfom ultrasanic syste far faw detection k the requirenents afwtiolts prcductt
is necessaryto adju:t the senstttuiry lewl

Factors to be taken into consideration for the setting ofsensiti!itJ

) hes elac r or 'c a nb e d r\,d e dIn rorh efo l o w rn gto, narn g-orps:

. equipment:
pulseenergy,frequency.pulseshape,amplification,
etc.:
. probeused:rype,size,acousticimpeddnce,
crystaldamping,polardiagram.

matedalto be exarnined: surfacecondjtion(in connecrion

with coupljng),
kind of nate.ial(its absorprion).
etc
defectanalysis:
shape,oimlation, nalure,etc.

t12 DTSTAllfE A\-IPLITUDECURVE(DAC)TECENIQUE

R€ferenceblocks

A DAC referenceblock is required havirg a seriesofreflectors at differenl sound pafi

distan.esover $e rr"re ba.e.drge n be Lr,edfor rhe re.t.
It shouldbe notedthat rhereare minimun soundpath Iengthsbelowwhic! signals
cannolbe satisfactorily
evaluated dueto e.g.deadzoneeffectsor nearfield interference.
TheDAC reference blocks}all be either:

l) A generalpurposeblock of uniformIow attenuation andspecifiedsurface

finishandhavingathickness wiihinil0 % ofthe testobject;or
2) A blockofthe sameacoustlcproperties, surfacefinish,shapeandclrvature
asthetestobject.
In the caseof q,pe l), correcrionfor any differencesin allenuation,clrNatureand
couplinglossesmaybe necessary beforeihe DistanceAmplitudeCurvecanbe di.ectl)
applied.

Page15 - 1
Preparationofa DistanceAmplitudeCurve

The distanceamplitudecurve sball be eithef showl direcdyon the screenof the

instrument,or ploftedon a separate
graph,as described
below.This may be supported
by eleclronicmeans.wlen usingequipment with Time Contolled Gain,TCG. (also
known as 'SweptGain',) gain uill be contolled suchthat the DAC will becomea
st aighthorizontalline.

(rcc on)
123

Plottingor scre€n

Tte rimebaseis frsi calibmtedto accommodate the maximumsoundpathlengthto be

used, andtbe gainis adiusted
so thatthe echoes fiom thes€riesofreflectorsfall wilhin
20 % and80 % of tull screenheight(FSH). in the caseofangle probes,the reflectors
maybe usedin €jtherlhe0 to Z skip,or b to I skippositions.

fie positionof the rip of eachma{inized echo,at a constartgain setling,is then

markedon the screen,andthe DistanceAmplirudeCurvedrawnthroughthe poinls.If
the differenc€ echoesexceeds
the largestandsmallest
in heighlbetween the range20 %
to 80 % FSH,thelineshallbe split,andseparaie plotted
curves at gainsetlings
djffer€nr
(seeFigulel).

Thedifference in gainbetween lh€ two curvesshallberecorded on the sc.e€n.Tle gain

setiingusedfor ploitingthe DAC may be referenced 10 lhe echo from someother
reflector,e.g.in ihe caseof flat probeslo eitherthe 100mn] radiusquadrantior tbe 3
mm diameterholein Caiibration Block No. 1. This will enablethe Sainto be reset.in
tuture.withouttheuseofthe reference block.

Plottingon a separategraph

The genemlprocedure is similarto technique6.3.2.1exceptthat the maximizedecho

iom eachreflectoris adjust€dto the samebeight(generally80 % FSH) andthe gain
settingnotedandplottedagainstthesoundpathlenglhon a separate graph.

Page15 - 2
 F311

80 9.

ao%

4a !i .- !.

\i
,t );

,123.i56r33-10
Figure1- Scre€nofultrasonicinstrumentshovinga split DistanceAmplit'ide
Curve (DAC)

ofsignalsusinga Disiance
Evaluation Curvc
Amplitude

SettiDgthe testsensitivity

l The test sensitivityshall be set by marimizingnre echofrom one of the

reference refleclorsin the DAC reference thc galn to
block and adiLrsrjng
bringthepeakoftheechoup to iheDAC.
2. Thegainshallthenbe increased by tbetransferconect;onat the appropriale
sound path length,if it hasnoi been jn lhe DAC itself(merhods
incorporated
I and2 above).
3 Alt€mativell,ifihe gainsettjngfor theDistanceAmplitudeCurvehasbeen
referencedto anotherreflector,tlis may be used instead,using the
appropriategain correction.
4. .The gain is then increased (or decreased)prior to scanningbv the valLre
specifiedin therelevantstandard or procedure

of echoheight
Measurement

Theheightofany echo,whichrequiresro be evaluated, usingdre calibraled

is adi)rsted
gaincontrol,to bringit lo ihe DAC, andrecordedin termsofthe increase or decreasein
gainsetti.gcompared to theoriginalvalueat whichlhe DAC wasplofied.lfnot already
incorporated in the DAC, appropriate valuesfor lransfercorrectionshallbe addedif

Evaluationoflhe resuilingechohejgll differenceis as followsiwherethe gain selting

hasrequiredto be indeasedlrom theo gjnalvslueby:rdB, theechqheighris assigned
a value(reference level jr)dB.Wherethe gain setdnghasrequired10 be decreased
iiom the originalvalueby-| dB, the echoheighris assigned level+
a valuc(reference
.})dB.

Page15 - 3
16.0 PROBI SELECTION

The selecfionshall assurethat the characteristicsof the beam ire r-heopt;num for the
examinationby a compfomisebetweenl,hefollcwingl NOTE :
It ispossibleta detecl
. The nearfield lensthwbich shall remain,whenererpossible,smallerthar
thethicknessofihe objectunderexamination;
. The beamwidlh, whic! shall be suficientlysmallwilhin ihe examinatlon
zonefudhe$ftomtheprobetomaintainan adequaie detecdon level;
. The beamdivergence, which shall be sufficienllylarge to deren plana.
jmp€fechonstbatareunfavoumbly orientaled.
. Thedeadzonein relationto lheexaniiationvolune.
. Considerationofthe dampingwhich influences the .esolrtionas well as tlre
frequencyspectnxn

Apartfrom the aboveconsiderarions

rhe selectionof liequencyshalltak€ into account
thesoundattenuaiion therellectiviryof imperfections.
in thematerialand

T|e higherthe frequeocy, tle greaterrhe siaminationresolution, but thc soundwaves

are moreallenuated(or the spurioussignalsdue to the sructure are greater).The choice
of fequency thus representsa compromisebetweenthese two factors. Most
examinationsaieperfonnedat frequencies betweenI MHz andl0 MHz

Sensitiviry areihe rwo termsthaiat areoftenusedin llrasonictest'nglo

andresolution
describea techniqueability to locate discontinuhies.The selectionof probe is
influenc€d at theiestandtheparticular
by variousaspects maierial

for probeselectjon
Thecdteriato takeasa consideration upondjscontinujlies.

Type& sizediscontinuities beingrevealed

Metauwgjcalstructlreoithe weld& par€ntmarerials
Marerialthickness anddianeter
Probablylocationof thediscontinuhies
Surfacecondilion of fhe welds

Effecto{ probe trequency

Long wavelength Shol1wavelength

Better pen€tation

Longer deadzone Shorterdeadzone

Lesssensitil,ily Highsensitiviry

Page16 - 1
E f f c c t ol pr o b €d i a m e te r

SMALL DIAMETER

Difficuli couplingon
Easiercoupling

More coveraseon flat surfac€s Lesscoverage

on ilal surhces

lt should be nentioned, so r! nor to be misleadingthat othcr variablcs also affect the

ability ofultrasonic systemto locatediscontinuities.Theseincludes:

. Pulselength
. Io rle crlsra
tlpe& \olugeaPPlied
. Propertiesofthe crystal
. Backingmaterial
. . Receivercircuiry ofthe instlumenl

is the useof a singleor doublecrystalprobe.Because

Anotherconsiderdtion thesetwo
probeshavedreirown advattages anddisadvantages.

Page16 - 2
17.0 COUPLANT

Air is the highestresistance energyto a solidmaterjaldxe to air

to transmitultrasound
are very high acousticimpedanceand almost 100% of fte energyis reflectedat Note:
interface.
shauube in be^aeen
In orderto enablethe ultrasound we haveto excludethe
to enterinto thetestspecimen
ab be$veenthe probeand the specimenby introducinga sxbstance havinga higher

This is lorownasa couplant(usuallyliqxidt. Differentcouplingmediacanbe used,but campletionthe terttuE

theirq?e shallbe compatiblewith ihematerialsto be exaDined. the coupLantsha be
rcmowd if itsprcsence
Examples
are:
suosequenraPetlxrton,
. lvarer,possibly containingan agent e.g. wetting.anti freeze.corrosion
inhibiior;

oil;
grease;
cellulosepastecontaining\\ater,etc-

The characi€ristics of the couplingnedium shall remain constantthroughoutthe

verificarion.calibrationoperationsand the examinationI1 shall be suitablefor the
remperarurerangein whichir will beused.lfthe constancy cannot
oflhe cbaracterisrics
be guararteedbetween calibration and examination, a transfer co.rection may be
appli€d.

testinga couplantto be usedfor a parliculartestedmaterialdepends

In ultrasonic upon:

Surfacccondiiion
( smalldiamet€r)
Theshapeoaspecimen

Posttestuseofthe matefialbeingresied(conosion/rusting)
te'nperature
ofrhe.pecinxen ro be tesred

Alier the examinationis completed,the couplingmediumshall be removedif its

presence is liable to hinder srbsequentoperations,inspectionor use of the objec!.
Viscosit]of the couplantmay be a consideradon e.g. a rougl surfacereqirircmore
viscouscouplantto fill theair gapsnoreuniformly.

Page16 - 1
r8.O SCANNINGPATTERNS

A defec!nonnallycharacterized by obse.vingtheirechodynamicpatternsasthe probe

arescanned in two dfeciions,acrossandalongihe defects.Otherinponanlinfomation
$ith swivelandorbitalscans,andwith the
is givenby the varialionsijr signalamplitude
directionofincidenceofihe ultrasonic beam.

Scanningpatrerncanbe determinedb), manipulatingthe plobeasthe way it is moved

T}e nost common patternnormallyused in ult testing as refered to in some
asonic

DEP'n] SCAN

The probemovementnormal10the axisofthe defects.The probeis movedback and

forth in th€ difeclion of rhe beam as lo determinedthe depth of the defectsor
maximizing the signalamplitude.

LATERAL SCAN

Probemovement parallelto flreaxisofth€ defects.Theprobeis movedIaterallllpon

thedefectlvhileth€amplitudeis maxinized.Theserypeof scann ingpattemnormallv
usedin tlrecriticalrootscanandsizjng ibe length
oflhe defect.

SWIVEL SCAN

The proberemainson the sainespot and is swiveledthrougha smallarcwhilCihe beam

focusedon a defects.It canbe usedto identiryrype of $e defecieitheril is a mulli
planaror multipledefects.
faceted,

ORBITAL SCAN

Theprobeis manipulated throughan arcdirectionduringlhe beamfocusedon a defecls

the defectse.g.porosirywhether
or reflector.lt is.oftenusedto identify/characterized
thesignalcanbemajntained duringon orbitalscan.

A TYPICAL SCANNINGPATTERN

LATERAL ORBITAL SWIVEL

DEPTH

Page18 - I
19.0 BASIC ECIIODYNAI(IC PATTERN'SOF REFLECTORS

The echodynamic is the changein shapea|d an]plitxdeof irs

pattemof a disconiinuitv
beam is across
traversed il' lae cbseftedechodvnamic paftern
echo!vlr;an ultasonic
probe in use' and the
i, u fon"tion of tle shapeaDdsize of lhe disconiinuiiv,thc
scanningdjrectionandangle

Dr'corrinur.ie,.hould be *ar1<o $rdr eacI pob< in rqo r'ru l) oe'pe'dr'Jl'l

drecrion,ic bo.halongard "cro" l\e oi"coc'nuin'.ldrleorlern redcidreirron
.hoJldbe noreo.canningfron addrriona'oire(r'rr,jndvir\ "r'r<-nrobe urrr 3re
usefuladditionalinfornation

of;ndicationsasplanaror non-planar
Classificarion p'arametersl
is basedon several

. weldingtechniques;
. geomen cdlpo rl or nl_herndi(iliun.
. maximumechoheight;
. directionalreflectivity; (Thewfidtion in the echaanplitudefron a relector
with changein incidehtangle)
. echostaticpatlem(i.e.A-Scan);
. echodynamrc pattem.

wheiherthe
ofdiscontinuiryshapeis basedupondeterrnining
Tlresinpleclassification
ai'."",j,i1n f,^ a .i!,rificanr
e\renL ir an) ore o- nroe orre'rolrsr ne Ierm
'lisnil.ant e\renr'r. aefrned z' . di"nensior rargerrhar'he n'ir'un mea'L'rable
dmencron.uherldlingrn(or.coJnlrhebedn$iJrh dnd esolJ'ror'llieprobedlrre
princpal
rr*In purtttung" of ;e discontinuityln the contextof this standafdthe
djscontinuityshapesaredeflnedasfollows:

. point : No significantexientin anydirection:

. elongaled: Significaniextentin onedirecliononly;
. large d'rectrons
: Significantexrcnrin eiiher2 perpendicular
(planar),or 3 peryendicular (volumetric)
directions

are as
fypesand shapeswhjch possiblymay be distinguished
The basicdiscontinuiry
follows:

point planar;
spherical.
erongareo cyljndricaliplanat;
iarge volumeuic;smoothplanar;roxghplanar;
nultiple spherjcal;planar.

Page19'l
19.I PATTERN 1

Point-lik€reflectorresponse,FigureC.l At anyprobeposition.the A-Scan shows a

singleshap echo.As fie probeis movedthis risesin ampljtudesmoothly to a single
ma\imumbelorefallingsmooftrly 1onoiselevel.

1r{i

ta peakit9ai tn,Li:,:rli
t:rr:aaaa

r
!r-l o "'l '_l f
: " -' - "' ' - - - - - - - - - :

.._l 1l""}'
;
:
fc:l
Ttfra{loac0r3aaa ir'l
:hr.,,j0hlrrcis{r5
dl*a,i!r1 Tlp|.rro.s!f.*a ]f tirtfal
'l.ftth] d eclci

ii{u:t e.1- Potter:rI uhlr-.onie *rl't'ar

Paee19- 2
19.2 PATTERN 2

Extendedsmoolhreflectorresponse, FigureC.2. Ar al]]' probeposition,the A-Scan

showsa singlesharyecho.Whenthe ultrasonicbeamis movedoverthe reflectorthe
echorisessmooihlyto a plateauandis mainlained. with minorvarialionsin anplitude
ofup io 4 dB, until thebea movesoffthe reflector.whentheechowill fall smoothlyto

rmpllu:,

l-\.a
rl il 1" Jgtr\:-i 3"o li0"
.

l\
\t,..-u,",",0,,,'n,.
-..*l-

t:--

I ypliriaddt&nil,
1r.s.r!i-itu*tl99!,taaiil, I j.er..ili${a0ott 1lli,trl
ilfllilrjt'ei[cn

Figtt l,! - Fatrrn! lita..nni'r

r.:.llonsr

Page19 - 3
I9.3 PATTERN3

ExtendedroughreflectorresponseThereare two variantsof this pattern dependjng

upontheangleofincidenceofthe probebeamon theretlector'

Pattern3 a

Nearnomal incidence, FigureC.3a At anyprobeposition,the A-Scanshowsa single

bur -aesed eclo A' lhe p_oberc movedrhr\ mayundego large' b dB\
'andom
i'e
flr-rduiti'orsn amp.irudeI he nu(-tlarions cdusedb\ reflecior irom difterelt [d\et:
of therefiector,andby random interferenceofwaves scanered from groupsof facels'

ri teaisgmlanDlhdl
Vaidicr

rlrirtil .trlri cr

Ffrrx C,3a- Pattru 3aultlss,t ere3rllltf

Fi$re C,,

Page19- 4
Pattern3 b

Obliqueincidence,'travellingechopar(ern'', FigureC 3b.At a.y probeposition,theA-

Scanshowsan extended peals")withina belfshapedpulse
trainofsignalsC'subsidiary
env€lope. As the probe is noved each subsidiaryp€ak travelstbroughthe pulse
envelope, rising to its o n maximumtowardsthe centreof lhe envelope.and then
falling The overalisignalnav showlarge(> - 6 dB) randomfluctuations in amplitude

tltllrtrdl

irEt

Yilirltjl f $, rgnrl!ndr1ud9

r ]!b,llanltilldlriCo{
I! it ara!mr'*

ligtr ( ih - l*tterl lb lhrll.;ltricnrpolre

Ii$r, C.l

Page19 - 5
19,1 PATIERN4

Multiple reflecrorrcsponse,FigureC.4 At any probeposirion.the A-Scanshowsa

clusterof signalswhich may or may not be well resolvedin range.As the prob€is
noved the signalsrise and fall at randombut lhe sig.al from eachseparaiereflector
elem€nt.ifresolved.showsPattemI fesDonse.

f8:r'ci !i !4r! s ditar]ltr&

i.,..
t']-:.

I
\
I'O6:,rat!.'n,. \-a-'-

f*llla 1,,{ - lan€.r ,l tlhtliotiic respons€

Page19 - 6
19.5 GUIDE TO DETAILED CLASSIFICATIONTI.SBSEN)

PATTER5*S
ECIJODYNAN{tC
DIRECTIONAL RENLANKS
SIIATE/T\PE TII{NS\IERSO LATIRAL RXFLECTIVITY
MOVEME.NT MOVEMENT

NOTE

The tmNve6e and lateal Planesat dei'lned as ibllous -

. Tdnsversepl@e
najo axisof$e discontinut].or lo d specilled ditctionl
Pependicllarto t,t1e

ple
Pa€llel to the majo axisoftI. discontiNny.datright anelesIothe tnnsle$e

Page19 - 7
2O.O PURPOSE

To v€rifled the performanceof ultrasonicflaw detectorequipmentby usng an

standardcatibrationblocks selectedfrom BS EN 12668-3or of othor
appropriate
of drcstandald.
blocksbasedon therequirements
suitable

It is only applyto pulseechoflaw detectionequipment usinga scanpresentation

w'lh a
gaincontrolsor attenuators caliblaledin stepsnot greaterthan2dB anduseessentially

. lt is not intendedto prove the suitabilil,voffie equipmentfor particular

applications.
For automated testingsysi€nra differentprocedwecanbe nc€dedto ensLrre

and verification of Ultrrsonic

BS EN 12668-3 - Chzracterization
examinaiion
equjpment

FXSQUENCYI]F TOLtrRANCE
CI{.ECKING
Timebaselinearit)
2 AmplifierI ineario
3 Probeindex Dajly
4 Beamangle Daily
5 Physicalstate& Dai\r
6 Signal-tonoise-
'l Prlsedrmtion

Note: To sjmpLifytherecordingof weeklychecksit maybemore

convenjentfor theuserto performthemeachtimetheequipment
is used

20.t rrirl€.BAsE LINTARITY ( BSEN 1266S-

3)

General
Tlis checkis carriedout usinga standardcalibrationblock (EN 27963or EN 12223)
anda normalcompression or shear(angle)argle probe The Iinearilvshallbe checked
testing.
overa rangeat leastequalto thatwhichis to be rsedin subseqxent
Whereappropriate dui allowancecanbe madefor lhe facl that a rangeof 9lmm for
compressjonalwaves in steelis equivalenlto a rangeofonly 50mmfor shealwaves

Placethe probe on the calibrationblock(25mmthk) in position and

calibratethe screento 200nmrange
Adjustthe first echo(DELA! andthe sixrhecho(RANGE)coincideswith
thefirst andlastscalemarksrespectivety
Checkthelinearitywith thefour otherechoes
Page20- I
 . rhesameheighte g
Bringthe four backwallechoesin tum to approximatel)r
80%FSH andmeasure the leadingedgeof eachecboes.which is it should
gradculeline.
ljneup with theappropriate
. Check any deviationsfrom dre ideal positionsare within the specified

. l2% full screenwidth.

from$e lineffilyshallnoteitceed
Thetolerance

20.2 A.MPLi ER LINEARNY

cen€ral
Thii checkmonitorsthecombined thateflectthelinearityof
resultofrwo characteristics
the equjpmentgain, i.e. linearityof amplifierandlhe accurac]of the calibratedgain
control.Any siandardcalibrationblock canbe usedfor this lest A rejectsuppression
controlbuttonsshallbeswilchedto off duringrhetest.

Positionth€probeon a calibration blockandmaximizethe reflecredsignal

liom 1.5nmor 5mm.
Using gain,increasethe signalto 80% Full ScreenHeightand noredrhe
gainconrol (dB).
valuecalibrated
lncreasethe gain by 2dB and confinnlhe signatfisesto more than full
screenheightandnotlessthan9j%
Reduc€the gain to its original value andrcduceit by a funher 6dB, confirm
thatthesignalamplitudefallsto approximately 40%FSH
Successivelyreducethe signalby threefurther increments of 6dB, and
confirmthat the signalampljtudefalis respeclively to 20v', 10% nd 5%
screenheight.

Acceptanc€limits for gainlin€arity

EXPECTED SCRENN LIMITS

HEIGIIT(%)
+2 101 Not lessthan95%
80 774/ato 83Ya
-6 4t) :,'7Y.ro 43%
^12 20 l lyo to 23%
-18 t0 8o/oto 12 %
-24 5 visible,below89;

P^ge20- 2
20.3 PROBEINDEX

Gen€ral
Probeindexshallbe checkprior to measure the actualbeamangle.lt s onlv applyto
anglebean probesonly. The probeindexcrn be checkedon theVl or V2 calibration
blockeachof whichhasa cylindricalreflector(quadrant)

. Placethe probeon the appropriate sideof the blockto obtaina reflecrion

from the quadrani,ma.ximize the signalampliiude'takingcar€to movethe
probeparalleLto dreblocksides
. Whenthe a,'nplitudeis at maximum,theirue probeindexwill correspond to
the engravedline on the block which marks the geomelrical of
center $e
qua&ant.
. The probeindexmeasurement shouldb€ fepeatablelo witbin 1 lmm lfth€
positiondiffersfrom the existingmarkby morethanlmm the new posihon
shall be narked on t|e probe sides,and recorded,and shall be used In
subsequenl probechecksa,nddefeclplotting.

but for plottingofdefectit is recommended

Ir will dependon application thattheprobe
indexpoijtion is knownro within 1 lmm. Fr€quencv of checkingwill alsodependon
therat; ofprobeweardueio usageandto t|e roughness surface'
of the scanning

20.4 ACTUAL BEA\4A\GLE

Thercference biocksV 1 andV2 Fovide a meansof quickor rapidlv checkingthe b€am

angle.lf a higheraccuracyneeded,rhe angleshallbe determinedusingone of ihe
merhoddescribed in EN 12668-2(section7.9.31 b)

for rapidlychecking.
Procedure

. Plac€the probeon the calibration blockandmaxinizethe signalamplitude

iron lheselected hole.
. Wlen it is maximizedthe bearnanglecanbe readfromthe engraved scale
on ihe calibrationblockal a pointdirectlybelowtle rneasuredprobeindex
Thedeviationbetweenmeasured andnominalangle shallberecorded

20.5 20dBd@p'BeamProftle

For moreaccurale determination of actualanglebeamandploftirg a 20dBbeamspread

of thepanicular angleplobe is by usingA5 or IOW calibration blocksA lestblockwith
a serje;of l-5 mm siie-drilled holes at depths,
differenr as shown in Figurel canbe
used to measure drebeam angle. divergence angles andsidelobesin thevedicalplane

For eachhole the positionof the probeto receivelbe maximumecho,and for the
forwardandbackwardpositionofthe 6 dB dropandthe sidelobepositionsaremarked
in a finalplot.

The stlaightline lhrough1bemarksoftle maximum€choandthe indexpointwith the

normalto-thesurfaceoftheblockgivest|ebeamanglein fte ve'licalplane'

Page20 - 3
 The"r?ight.lne5finedlo rfe edgeooill. ot rhebean oferherqirhrneoedr cnete
givesire -6 dB di\ ergence
angtes
n rhrsplrne

Noie ihe chargein echo ainplitudein retarionio probemovemenras rhe beam is

scannedovereachhole in tum. If a side tobeis derected
in the ampiirudeprofiletlom
r\^oorrorehole<I ax,rlire 5:deIooe rdDtot 5po.r.iorInretar ro
-he on rr.-,.rhe
mar jobe.A.o recod l edrplitudeo,.he" rd, obernre.r on,o.t.aohts.ndm robc

Figure I

?{i6 PIry.SrcAL,q6,+xcTs

Method
Vjsually inspec!the oulside ofthe probe for correct identificationand
physical damagewhicb can influence its'cunent or future reliabiiiqr' In panicularlor
contactprobesmeasurethe flatnessofthe contacrsurfaceoffie probe usinga rulerand
feelergauges.

For flai facedprobes,overrhe whoteprobefacethe gapsha nor be large.rhan0,05

P^ge20 - 4
2I.O A.S{ANPRESENfATION

Delinition:
thetime a'C the Y-a\is
Dlsplayofthe ultrasonicsignalin whicl the X'axis represents
the amplitude.

TIe A-scanpresentarion displaysthe amountofreflectedsoundenergvasa functionot

dne. The relativeamountof reilectedsoundene€y (ampli de) is plonedalongthe
verticalaxisandelapsed time (ivhlchrelatedto re sounden€rgvlraveltinrewithjn the
material)is displayalongdrehorircntalaxis

A scandisplaysallowthe signalto be displayedin its naluralrad;ofteqxencvform (rf)'

asa tul1yrectifiedrf signal,or aseitherthepositiveor negalivehaifofth€ rfsignal ln
tle A-scanpresentalion. the defecrssizecar be determined by comparingrhe signal
amplitudeobrainedlion an unknownreflectorto thal from a kno$lr reflector'Defect
depthcanbemeasured on rheho.izonmlsweep'
by tle posltionofdre signalarnplilude

21.I B'SCANPR.ESENTATION

Definition:
Imageof the resulh of an ultrasonicexamination showitg a crosssectionof the iesi
perpendicular
obje-ct to the scanningsurface and to a refer€nce
parallel direclion.The
crosssection ill nonnallybe the planethroughwhlchthe individualA scanshavebeen
collected.

TheB-scanpresentations viewof thea lestspecimenln lhe

is a profile(cross_sectional)
B'scan,tbe;ime-of-fljghi(travellinre)ofthe soundwavesis djsplayedalongtheverlical
and*le linearposilio; of the probeis displayedalongthe a\is.
horizonlal Fromthe B-
scan,the depthof the reflectoi and its approxinate linear dinensions ln the scan
directioncanbe det€rmined-

TheB-scanis t,?icallyproducedby estabLishing a tigger galeor tbe A-scan.wlrenever

the signal
inten;iq/ is strong enoughto triggerthe gate,a point is producedon the B-
scan.The gateis lriggeredby the soundreflectingfrom the backwallof the specnnen
andby smallerreflectors $'itbinthema{erial.

Theadvantage of B-Scanlies in thepresentation of a sectionviewofthe maierjalbeing

inspected.B--Scanpfesentsa profile vie\\ showirg locations'shapeand depth of
it I especia]ly
djs;ontinuities. effectivefor evallating specificareaswhereunusual
pittingandcouosion may be present. B-Scan can be used to monitorspecificareasof
over
interest time for of
evaluation varying failurernechan'sm

Page21 - 1
2',2 C-SCANPRESENTATTON

D€finition:
showinga crosssectionof the tesl
lmageof the resultsof zn ultmsonicexamination
objectparallelto thescanningsurface.

The C-scanpresentationpovides a plan_tpe view of the locaiionand size of test

specimen Theplaneofihe inage is panllel to th€scanpattemofthe probe C-
features.
are producedwith an automared
scanprcsentations system,suchas a
dataacqujsition
computer inmersionscanningsysten.
contsolled

Twically, a datacoll€ctiongateis established on tlre A-scanandthe amplitudeor the

time-of-flightof the signalis recordedal regularintervalsas the hansduceris scanned
overthe testpiece.Th€ relativesignalamplitudeor thetine-of-flightis displayedal a
shadeofgray or a colorfor eachofthe positionswheredalavas recorded

The C-scanpresentationprovidesan imageof the featuresthat reflectand scalterthe

soundwithin and on tbe surfac€softhe testpiece.High resolutionscancan produce
very detailed
images.

2'.3 D"SCANPREISBNTATION

Dennition:
lmageof the resultsof an ultrasonicexarnination showinga crosssectionof tbe test
object perpendicularto ilre sca,rningsutface and to the projection ofthe
perpendicular
beama\is on the scanning surface.The D-scan will normallybe perpendjcllarto the
Bscan.

21.4 '1IML OF FLICHT DIFTRACTIOI\{ TOTD)

Wlen an uitrasonicwave interactswith a long crack like defecb it resultsin fie

produci'onof diltractedwavesfiom $e cracktips,in additionto an)'ultrasontcwa!-s
reflectedfiom ih; surfaceof ile crack.

The diflractedwaves are much weaker than specularlyrefleciedwaves used for

conventional testjng,but ihey radiarefromthe tips in all directionsalongthe
ultrasonic
sameplane asthe incidentuitrasonicwaves.

The basicTOFDtechniqueconsistsoftwo probesin drepitchandcatchconfrSuration.

with one probeas transmitlerand the secondprobe$e receivef A lat€ralwav€ is
producedbetweentie opposinglransducersThis laieralwave runsjusl beneaththe
icanning surfaceindicating good surfaceconiaci Diffracted signalsfron flaw tips are
displayedandmeasurcdby conpurer

the througl-wall
The time distancebetweenthe two diffiactedflaw sjgnalsrepresents
dimensionof the flaw. Tbe computercalculates the dimensionof the flaw and buy
mea!u' oerween
ingthedi"rance theI'^o iigrdls

Sizinglechniques basedon detectingand measuringtjp-diffraciedsignalsfroln the

defeciedgeswere much moreaccuraiethanamplitude-based sizingtechniquesTOFD-
techniqueiwere the mosl accuratefor the
measuring dimensjon
tbfough-lhickness of
Becauseofthe uniquenatureof the system,TOFD is mostreljablewhenthe
defects."
is highlyskiiledandrained andwhenthemalerialio be testedrs greater
UT rechnjcian
than3/4'thick.

PaEe21- 2
Nouadaysthe TOFD iechniqueis eidrerusedfor in-seNiceinspecrions(non-intlusive)
or for quaii!/controiduing manufacturing
ofchemicalinstallatjons in lieu
or struclures
to or rypicallyreplacingradiogmphic
examination.

TOFDis appliedto simpleweld geomei--\t(buttwelds)in fine-grained

steelsin a wall
dicknessrangeliom 6 mm up to 300 mm.Howeverdretechniqueis alsoapplicable on
complexgeofietry'ssuchasfor inslanccnozzle
welds.

11.5 rlrROVGn @NS.r{rSSrON(BSEN583-3)

ln its simplestapplicationtwo probes,onetransnitlingand the secondrec€iving,are

placedso tharthe receivingprobereceivesthe soundtransmitted ihrolgh the object.
This canbe achieved with slraightbeam probesor anglebeam probes.Seefigures5 to
8.

tbe testingis carriedout usinga singleprobewherethe soundis reflected

Alterlralively,
on a suface of an objecton tbe oppositeside ofthe examinarion obiector on the
oppositesurfaceofthe examination object(backwall).SeefiguresI to 4. Seealsotable
l

Thedecrease in amplitudeofthe transnittedsigtal canbe usedto noticethe presenceof

a discontimifylocatedin the soundpatb,or io indicatematerialattenuaiion.
ln addition,
thepositionofthe tansmittedsignalalong!h€timebase ofthe instlumentcanbe us€dto
indicatemateriallhickness.

waves.exceprwhenthe
orpulsedultrasonic
Testingis caried outwith eilhercontinuous
iechniqueis usedfor lhjcknessmeasurement whereonly pulsedultrasonicwavesapply
Straightbeam or anglebeam probescan be used dependingon lhe scopeof the

A probecanbe coupledto the productby meansofa couplant,a squiner by immersing

rle produdor b\ dpp rn!'a uheelprobe.

Page2r - 3
21.6 TAN'DEMTECIINIQUE

this
Often in tnick-walledtest objects,in which dlere are verticaldiscontinuities,
conditioncannotbe fulfiled so thatthe reflectedsoundwaves fiom the disconrinuity
andthe surfaceofthe testob.jectdo notretumto theprobe

Tlre iesringis normallycaffied out xsing two similar45o angleprobes,one probe

operating andtheotherprobeasreceiver'Bothprobesaremovedover
asthen-ansmitter
tbesurfaceofnhetestobj€ctandarespacedapaftat a fixeddislance.

For wall thicknessesgreat€rthan approximaiely160 mm, prcbes with different

sizes
transdxcer arepreferred thesamebeamdiameters
in orderto ensureapproximately
zone.
ln theexaminatton

The useof probeanglesotberthan45o lnay be necessary to complywith padicular

geometricalconditjons.Probe anglestbat give rise to mode normally
conversions
avoided.

The probesare locatedin a iine with their acousticaxis in the samedirection ln this
way ihe soundbeamOomtbe rearprobewill, afterreflectionfromthe oppositesuface,
the soundbeamftom thefrontprobeat thecettreofthe examination
intersect zone

Page2l - 4
 Table2. Possibleconngurationsfor trarsmissiontechniques
One probe

STRAIGHT
f .."""
..
BEAM r,-_l ,i
I J obied
CONTACT --]_T-
l-&o.!
FigureI Figure5

ANGLEBEAM
CONTACT

0b,eei ;'bi€ci
Fisure2 Fisure6

TOTAL
IMMERSION

Pisure3

LOCAL
IMMERSION
(SQUIRTER)

Fiore 4

Page21 -5
Scanningis made for vertically positioneddisconlinuiliesat different depthsofthe tcst
object.dependingon the probe spacing.Figs. I . 2 and 3 .

Figrre t Iigure 2

Figure3

Pag€2l - 6
 PLOTTING DEFECTSBY CALCULATION

Soundentry proj€ctron
point pornt

Surface

S in 0 = a / s
Co s 0 : d / s
d Tan0:a/d

Defect
,ocanon

l! = probe angle
a = surfacedistunuc
s : beam path length distance(BPl)
d = dePth

Conclusion:

1.Begn Path Length(Bpl) $lculation

To calculatethe expect€dbeampath length(Bp1)rravelto ihe boitom surfaceofth€
sampl€or to a ref,lector,the cosineformulacanbe use

Bpl = Deprh/ T}lickness

Cose

2. SurfaceDistance( SD) cslculation

To measurethesurfacedistancefrom inderpoinlto the locationotthe boltomsuface
or defedthecosineformulacanbe use

sd : BPI x Srio

3. Depth(D) calculation
thedepthofthe defeci,whentheprobeangleandbean padrlengthare
To calculate
hecocrne lornulacrn beu.e
"no$,
d = Bpl x Cos0

Page22- |
,.t.0 INTRO}UCTION

Beforeanytestingof a weldedioint can begin,the operatorshallhaveaccessto the

foUowingessertial
information:
Infornation requiredprior to testine

Methodfor settingthereference
level.
Methodto be usedtor evaluation
ofindicarions.
Acceptance
Ievek,Testing
Ievel.
Manufacruring
and opentlonstage(s)at lr,hichthe testingis to be canied

Qualificadonof personnel.
Extentof lhe testingfor tl'ansverse
indications.
Requirements for tandemresting
Parenlmetdlleirirgpri. o ,jndor ,jhe-$e d ng.
Whetheror not a lvrifientestjngprocedureis required.
Requirementsfor written testingprocedur€s.

Specificinformationrequiredbeforetestins

wrjttentestingprocedure,ifr€quired(see5.3);
t$e(s) ofparentnarerialandproductform(i.e.cast.forged.rolled)i
manlfacturingor operationstageat whichteslingis to b€ madeincluding
heattreaiment,ifany;
limeandexlentof an) poil-ued heaL neabnenr:
joint preparationanddimensions;
requircments for surfacecondjtionsl
weldingprocedlu-c or felevantinfomationon lhe weldingprocess;
rcportmgrcqurrements;

extent of testing, including requirements

for transverseindications,if

testinglevel;
perconnel qualificarionlevel;
prcceduresfor correctiveactions whe. unacceptableindicationsare

23.1 }IEAITH AND SAFETY

Penonsusingthis procedureshall familiarisethemselves with and observenalional

(sratutory)
andlocalhealihandsafetyrequrremenls,including:

Healthand Saferyat Work Ac1( I 999)

COSHHregulations
safetyshoesandanyotherprotecliveapparel
Useof hardhats,eardefenders.
Designaied points
tue assembly
Firsiaidpoints
Page23-1
 PERSONNELQUALIFICATIONS

Personnel level in accordance

performingtestingshallbe qualifiedto an appropriale
in th€relevantinduslralsector
wiih EN 473or equivalent

Ir additionro a generalknowlcdgeof ultrasonicweld inspection,thev shall also be

familiarwith tesd;gproblems
specifically $i&
associaied the tvpeofweld jointsto be

€QUIPMENT (BSEN rr4 Clause6.2)

Any equipmenlused in conjunctionwjth this srandardshall comply with the

Standa.ds
of relevantEuropean
requiremenls

Prior to tbe publicationof an EN standardrelatedro the subject-

nalionalstsndardsmaYbeused

23,4 suRlACEs Bs ENlft.4 (clause8)

Scanningsurtacesshall be wide enoughto permirthe testingvolume to be fully

.ote-ed:Alremari\ely.Ihe md) be smallerif eauivalen(
uidth of rhescdrnrng'Jrfdces
ocr\eresLmg
coverdge \ olume(ar beac\ie\edbv '(dnnrlgfromborhrheLppe-rnd lhe
lowersurfaceof :thejoint.

Scatningsufacesshallbe evenand free from fofeignmatterlikelv !9 interferewith

probec;upling(e.g.rust,loosescale.weid spatterinotcles,grooves)Wavinessofth€
iest surfac'esh"alinit result it a sap betweenthe probeandtest surfacesgreaterthaD0'5

23,5 EXA\4INAT|ONVOT,l-MEBSE\ | 714lClause-)

Th€testingvolume is definedasthe zonewhjch includesweld andparenimalerialfor

at least l0 mm on eachside of th€ weld, or the width of the heal aflectedzone,
whicheveris greatet

ir,r.l tt: I l:,r I

Page23- 2
23.6 PARENTMETALEXAMINATION EN 1714(Clause9)

The parentmetal,in the scanningzoneaJea,shallbe testedwith st.aighrbeamprobes

(e.g previoustestingduringthe
priorto or afi:erlveldjng,ulless it canbe demonstrated
fabricationprocess) thattheangleprobetestingofthe weldwill notbe influencedbv the
presence ofthe imperfections or highattenuation.

wlere inperfectionsarefoundtheir influenceon theproposed angleb€amteslshallbe

assessedand,if necessary,rhe techniques adjxsted corcspondingly W]len sarisfactory
coverageby Lrlirasonjctesting is seriously affecled, by agreement,other inspection
me$ods(e.g.radio$aphy)shallbe considered.

23.1 RANEB AND SENSITIVITY SETTINCS BSENITI4

Mininrm SensitivityLevels

. NormalbeamscansDAC + 8 dB
. LongitudinalshearwavescansDAC + l4dB
. shearwavescansDAC + l4dB
Transverse

Sensitivityand RangeCorr€ct;on
Regularchecksshall be carriedoul to confirm sensitivityand range setlrngstn
accordance with Clausel0.l andTable2 ofBS EN l?l4

TransferCorrectioo
Differencesin atlenuationbetweenthe DAC referenceblock and parent plate of the
weldto be testedshall,wherepossible,be conectedin accordancewirh BS EN 583-2
andClause10.4ofBS EN l?14. Wlere it is not possibleor to do so,the test
practical
shallnot continue.

Signalto NoiseRatio
shallremainat least
D;ing testingthe noiselevelignoringspurioussutfaceindicaiions
12dB belowt}e evaluation level.

Referenc€Leveh
The followingreterencelevelsshallbe established usingMerhod1 liom BS EN 1714
lsing a DAC curve conslructedfrom 3 mm diameter side dfilled holes at ranges
required
to thescans
appropriate for lbe weldto be tested.

a. Transverseshearwave scansDAC
b. lnngjtudinalshearwavescansDAC
c. NormalCompr€ssion wavescansDAC

Page23-3
23.8 EXAMINATION TECHNIQUE

Teslingshall be calriedout in accordance with Clausel2 of BS EN l?14 and the

relevantApp€ndixio thjsprocedure(A to H)

Manualscanpath

Dunngangleprobescanning (asjllusiratedin Figurel) a slightswivellingmovemeni up

io an ;gl; oi 10 degreeon;ither sideof lhe nominalbeam direction
may b€ to
applied
theprcbe.

Testingfor imp€rfectionsperpendicularto the testingsurface

Subswlaceplanarimpefeitions perpendicular io the lestingsurfaceare difllcull to
detectwjnh singleangle probe iechniques.For such imperfections specifictesting
techniques parricularl)'
shouldbe considered, for welds in thicker Useofthes€
materials
specification
shallbe definedby
testingtechniques

23:9 LO( A I lU\ oh I\Dl( ATlo\s Bs tN Itll

Tbelocalionofall indjcations shallbe definedby reference system

to a co-ordinate
A point on the iesting surfaceshail b€ selectedasthe origin for th€semeasuremenls'

Wheretestingis canied out from more than one surfrce,r€ferencepointssball be

o; eachsurface.In this casecareshallbe takento eslabllsha positional
established
b€tweenall references
relationship points used,so that the absolutelocationof all
jndications
canbe ftom
established any nominaredrefe.ence poini

of the
weldsthis mayreqxiretheestablishment jnnerand
In thecas€of circumferential
outerreferencepointspriorto assemblyfor welding

P^9e23-4
 ADpendi:
a
sET0l.lao{l{EcTt0Ns.
No::tt wEtrs

EORE

90Ra

tdr be r.ri.e: i tr:ort :-

lTg iL,t{ qriera*6@l i

r.r.*i*8re*|'*.a.c€J]rn
It it!C!:n,dJ$rsr,!!fE.3da'rd rilh€.,iiiliiJr.r:jred

Page23-9
 Apperdi:a
-
sET0N allll€aTlol!s sTUS!!t!0

I
I
p.HffiSf:,*,
t'
,t;;--

BfC E

lloD!Jolflas

ffir-ffi

tlolc t:ia bs o.'dtrqd t a* !d3&l? 5 sdrt n3 Triirilo 1r€'|,d rt .1'g

Page23-10
24:O ULTXASONI€ TESTJNG OF FORGINGS

General.
testingofcastprodudis li itedto somedegreeduelo the cast
out ultrasonic
To carriecl
producihavingacoars€grainstmcrure, rougbsuriaces andgeomelry'

of
arewidelyusedfor the eaxamination
waverecnnrqxes
Both shearandcompr€ssron
castings.

effeclis a maiorinflxenced
The scattering beamsbul it canbe r€ducedby
to ulirasonic
fo** ?"q**y prouesand h will reducethe sensitivitvFrequencies of I -
"ti.g ro dropro 0 5Mhz il ord€r ro
2 5vhz ae conmonald oc(a onalv 'r s n'ce"dt)
peremleLoIhel"r boJnoaDProbe'equenqdep'ro'onlhendlerr'ldndlhrLInes50T

or a pulseecnolla'\ oele(Iorhdvrngd I A- ' rr preenrarronu !h

couiDmenr 'lould
.ou.i rr,. n.qu.n.' range05-oMh/ "rd whenLseo $rrh rheDrobe'ele-redlo the
requiredtestingshouldhavegoodresolution andpenetration characteristics

ln ord€rlo ubtainihe mosi fincstgroinstructureto reduceattenuatian, ii is desirable

1o
re.i neareA rhe.a"'irgprror ro canl oJr Ll'm.on|ctenirg lo-qud ir) \onrrolpurpo'e'
ir ma\ be nele.'.rn lo n.pecr cailirg belorehealnearnenl bu r rnJr be dDprecra'eo
rn.t rnsuchca.e,rie in"pectron wrl be e" e'fecti\e
results
The surfaceconditionshouldhavesuitablesurfacefinish to achieleoptimum
whenthe ulirasonictesting is selected

-' Castsurrace
a)
waves,bul shorblastingwill
.c ;ooJ"^t.otf*. *ill ransmittheultrasonic
im_provethe coupling efficiency ll maybe necessaryto grind the
ou.Uco-ponent thatthe profileoftbe cast
Uuicu." lnu$ be taken10ensllJe
i.oau"t ietan"a. The casl surface surfaces should not be feftled by
iammbringorpeeningtoavoidsurface lapping

-' Rouehmachinedsurttce
b)
iiit ?rit" tt'e castjngis suppliedin tbe roughmachinedcondition
"o.--
for ultrasonicresting A final cut shouldbe madewilh a bradnosedtool to
to
enswe a flat ard snroothsurface finish Rough sufaces uill give nse
spudousechoesandexcessive prob€lrear'

Sensiiivitysettingshallbe quotedfor eachscan'

e.s. probe: A signalis setto 50% FSH from 3mn flal

For the compressional/0"
" andscanusingthislevel
refl€ctor
bottomholeieference
at lhe
e.g. For Shearwaveprob€:A meihodof gmsslevelissetup 102 - 3nmFSH
full skip beamPathrange

P^ge24- |
INFORMATION REQUIREDPRIOR TO TESTING

Witb anyultrasonic jt js vitalrhartoestablish

teslingprocedure a routinewhichis
syslematic andcomprehensive whendefectsjn casringto besought.Theidealst€psto
follow is givenbelow.

. Medrodby whichfte casdneis produced

. Theceometry (encineeringdrawing)
. Thelocaiionofcriticalareasor areaio test.
. Tlpesofdefecrswhicharemostlikelyto occur
Equipment
'
. Metbodfor seftingthereference level.
. Methodto be usedfor evaluation
ofindications.
. Acceptancelevels
. Qualificationofperconnel.
. manufaciuringor operationstageat whichiestingis io be madeincluding
heattreaBnenLiian):
. acceptancelevehj
. procedwesfor correctiveactionswhe, unacceptable indicationsare
revealed.
. reponng requrements

SCANNING

standards.
Methodofscanningnormallyis laidoui in the rcl€vantnalional An example
In\nu.ror rechn,oLre
sheer
couldbe:

L Caried outvjsualinspectjoo for anysurfacedetecbor mechanical

damageandensurethe surfacefinish is lree liom any rust,debrisandany
loosesand.
2. Calibraten\eCRTscreenusingcompress ionalprobeto a requiredrange
e.g.0-l50mm.andselthe sensitivity(asmentioned above)
3. Apply couplanlto th€ t€st areaandscanof at leastto 20% probeoverlap
andscanningspeedto a maximun lsornntsec.Recordanydefectsfbund
ontoroughrepon
4. Thelengthofthe defector defectslargerthantbebeamshallbe measured
usingodBdropor equdhTsrior -nethodandto"'he siTeo'lhe delect
(defectssnallerthantle beam)shallbemeasurcd using20dBdrop
nethod.
5. Transferall the defectsfound onio the standardreportform andreport
shallbe subniitedto NDT supervisor.
6. Posttestprocedure - Removeall couplantandmarkingfrom surfaceof
component andprotectthesDrface in according lo cljentrequirements

Notei Ifareasofthe castinghavebeennotedto susceptibleto certainty?eofdefects

lhenthoseareasshallbescannedcarefullywith a suitablerangeofprobes
chosenlo giveoptimumresponseto thedefects.

P^ge24 - 2
 2J.t0 EVATUATIO\ OF t\Dt( Al lo^s

All indicatiorsthat equaior exceedrhe refer€ncele\el (at rcsrsensirivity)shall be

evaluatedin accordance widr BS EN 533-5.This shall includcdeteminarionof ihe
approxjmate Iengthand widih of discontin'Jities
usingprobernovernenr rechniquesand
for discontinuities
othertlranpoint reflecrors.
clramcterizationusi|g the definedsignat
panemrecognition techniques.

. Maximffi echo amplii.de

T}e echoamplitudeshallbe nraximized by probenovemenlandrecordedin
relationto the agreedrefercnce
level.

The lengthoflhe indication,in eitherthe longitudillal

or iransverse
direction
shall,wherepossible.be determinedusingthe rchnique specifiedin rhe
acceptance levelsstandardor ihe 6 dB drop iip locarionrechnique, unless

Indication heiglrt measurementshall be carried ou1 if required by

specification.If applicable,the following medrodshall be used where
possjble,for imperfections whichgeneratemorethanonedistinclpeakjn the
receivedsignalwhenscannedin the through,thickness direction:the height
(,) shallbe measured b), a probemovementtechnjque.

1t is recommended that when an indicationhas a measuredheight of

3mm and above,the indicationheigbtis recorded.Horvever,otherhigher
th.esholdheightsforrecordjngma,vbedefinedupon.

CharucteI izdtioh of irnpe4ections

Imperfections shall be characterized if requiredby specjficarion,
or when
necessary to meeltherequirements ofthe specifiedacceptancelevels.

23.11 RIPoitTt\c BS EN l?14ctauset3

Repoting shall conform with the requirementsot The approximaie

dirnensions,relativepositionandtypeof alJdisconliruiiies
5 mm in length
thatexceedtheevalxationlevelshallbe.eported.
The test report shall includea ref€rence1o (his standafdand give, as a
minimurn,thefollowinginformation.

General data

a) Identification
ofthe objectundeftesting:
. materialandproductforml
. dimensionsi
. Iocalionof weld/weldedjointtestedi
. sketchshowinggeometrical (ifnecessary);
configurarion
. referenceto theweldingprocedure,specification
andheartreannent;
. stateofmanufacture;
. ,urI:cecondir;ons,
. temperature
ofAreobject.ifouisideth€range0 C lo 40 C;

Page23-5
 b) Contractrequirements, guidelines.
e.g.specifications. specialagreenents etc.;
c) Placeanddareoftesring;
d) Identification
of testingorganizations
and identification
and certificationof
operalor;
e) ldenLifi(d.ion
of In.oeLrion
dLIho'ir)

Informationrelatingto equipmeDt

a) Maker and type of uhasonic instrumentwith identificationnumber,if

requred;
b) Maker,type,noninal&equencyandactualangleofincidenceofprobesused
with identificationnumber,if required;
c) Identificationofreference
blocksused,with a sketch,ifnecessary;
d) Couplanimedium.

23.12 RBFERANCBS

EN 473 Qualificationand c€rtiticationofNDT personnel

seneralprinciples

EN 1712 Ultrasonicexaminationofweldedjoints
Accepiancelevels

EN 1713 Ultrasonicexaminationofweld€djoints
Characterization
of imperfectionsin welds

EN 1714 Ultrasonic€xaminationolw€lded joints

EN 583 Part I Non destructivetesting- UltrasonicexaminationPart I

Gen€ral pdnciples

EN 583 Part2 Non destrlctivetesting- UltrasonicexaminationPart 2

Sensiriviq,andrangeselting

EN 583 Part 3 Non destructiveterting- UltrasonicexaninationPart3

Transmissionrechnique

trN 583 Part 4 Non destructivetesting- UltmsonicexaminationPart 4

Examination perpendicular
for imperfections to th€surface

EN 583 Part 5 Non destructivetesting- UltrasonicexaminationPart 5

Characterizing
andsizingof discontinuitjes

EN 12062 Non destructiveexaminationofwelds

generalrulesfor metallicmaterials

EN 1330 Part 4 Nor d€structivet€sting Part 4

Terns usedin ulxlasonictesting

EN 25817 Arc-w€ldedj oints in steel

on qualiDle\el-for imperfe(r'ols
Cuidance

Page23- 6
 ApPerditA
lNPLAIEA[! PIPE
BUITi,l/ELDS

!.. -- -, .;!,'-!---,,---!-,

);,,"":. ..."i
Ph&, Piu€il M,n l. nmlm.r
a6i€ lroh b.r[ !]d.s olskl

rr I r rrir I sri.. iq {rR($,

iii
Ti.r-.-:!iDJr5-

ffi.rF]i!-SFrio-idtiiiifii

?ifi3jFrii-m brE dM

.ai, trdftde rie,l[* 39ii]$@l! t @|:'*rat6 rt *

"tLre 1' 1..
.6"-f,..4!!''d d!
'
..r "
- i *". i *
.!. 3 ih &&ri ,e*'! . riroif! $w: tllmrfc s: ddsrib':
ll ii ,.! r$r:n
ii !*rdlir.lelrir f.i l.rlr.5.n !rdr{

1' € i La!0 lr.nf;'e {ar' r:45' a6'-

h o k l | . r : d r , .' .w? d d r i" : -Y :o'\'-
i r :( 4 v : I i : rt4 r"'
"..**'i:,-*

fage tJ- |
 B
Appendix
BRANI']I{FLDS
SEIONIOXNECTIOI{S.

!t r?! !61rilr S!,tc!far_:a$.

Page23-8
COMMON DEFECTSIN CASTING

jr .\ imDondr'to rl.rasorr. rohlou r) Pe^ 'Fedelecr1^'r'dl) "dnb" lolfd

ope-dlo-
rhe'e
dndto inlerf-elpo' b.e gn"l-e'oor'e-on'r' _'ie'l rn rr're fle'dr'e' o
coL''se
defectscanbereferredlo producttechnologv no{es'

lnclusions;

Non-netallicimpuririessuchas slag,oxjdes'niiridesand sulphidesare inhercflt1othe

r"ii* t"g". dn solidificatiornanv remain in the fina1 caslingas non-m€tallic
inclusions.

A sisnalresDonse cfthe BWEcomlared

to thisdefectis significanldropirl amplitudes
i" alr." '.. ar*. n. ,ig"al al o ra1 due I d c'"1'esin ' /e
"rrnliiude' '1d.
\ar'uL
o-ienra-ions.A1u'Liplein.lr'i"n $ill'au'ei iCnaIbelorre'rL{Prcd 0cT.r
anda low BWEor no BwE (figurel)

?robeDovemenLconslantlY
changingsignalPanem

Ergu!-!

Segregation

Sesresation is chemicalheterogeneity or non-rniformdistribulionof the alloys or

i.' pri. s eelsrheelemer' $hich
a" not.iriu'r '.g'."u' o'. lr carbon
'"rr' ard
-ilri
i;;;;*;""",.' are'ulphur.phosphor:s 'arbon rrdnsare'e 'lcon 'ompound' ano
s.gr.gutioi.u.only be ,een'nrcroscopi'alr or trJcro'copic"l\cfler'ecnonrng
specialpreparation.

ThesLsnalma\ariseor refle'reo rl LhedcoJ'rr'impeddr cesoI rh' d'loi dndlhebd'e.

d,nerenr enoJgn lo ulrason' bedm' Tle'enpeofdeJeJt i n 5(eeLds'rnor
meol"uere
unless
is norusuallyfouniluLtrasonically dle is
sensitivity high'

Cold Shuts
ir a
or subsutlace
A coldsl'ulrsanareaof lacl ol fusion$ hichm4 be'Jrfacebrealing
polrrng
inLerrupred or rne
ca\uns..old sruls na\ re'Lll lron spla'hing'urgrns
meeti;goftwo steamsofmolen metaicoming ftom diredions'
different

$hich oflen
Casljne laD,aree."eniall] '-r.rlrco d 'f_ls on he'urfu'eola d'trng "re i'
i" J. i""..^;ng fhe'erJpeol dered r' 'rr e '' ro ld(l o lL' on ul'ic\
"*.i.i.. pependicularto theultrasonicb€ams'
alwaysgivea goodresponselfits orientation

P^ge24 - 3
 &
^NlNDTfRAtNl]\'G

Pipe

A pipeis a cav;tyin lhecenterofthe ingotcausedbv shrinkageduringsoiidificationA

pri;ry pipeis;uface bteaking;secondary pipesarethoses'hichexistsubsurface The
ropofdn ngorbLroppedroger idolrheprimaq pioe

Thesignalresponseis variesdueto theshape, andsizeofthe defectsIf the

orieniatjon
larto thebeamandhavinga largesizewill givea
surfac;ofihe;efecrsis perpendicu
goodresponse andlossofthe BWE, obliqueo.ientation will givepoorsignals

Gasporesand Porosity

A s6 Dorejs formedb\ qa5hhich i' insolub'ein ll'e mohenmelr'l The gasi' rdDped
wi;hinthe melaluhen ra"olidrlre'dnd-emain.rr tle form of a 'phericdlor tLbuldr
cavity.Porosiryis a groupof gaspores

It is a volunetricdefectwill gjvesa Iow in amplitudesignalliom all directionsand

Other typeofdefects

Airlocks
Blowholes
Coldshuts
Scabs
Flake

24.1. OF FORCINGS

General

To caried out ultrasonictesringof forgings is more straightforwardihan the testing-of

castingdueto il s geome!"yv;rJ simplesuchasbjilet'bar or slabandtherewerefew
limiuilons. The grain structureof forging materialis more refined comparedto casting
materialwhicl iJless attenuation andnoiseandalsoailowinghigherliequencvcanbe
used.Defecrssuchcavitiesand inclusiorsin lhe originalcastbjllet are flattenedand
elongated duringtheforging.rollingandexnusron process

Both shearand compression are widely used for the

twin crystalwave techniques
of4-6Mhz arecommonandoccasionally
ofcastilgs.Probeftequencies up
examination
to I0Mhz.

Scnsitivirv sEttheshallbequotedfor crcl scff.

A ,ignal;f Bu ii' .erlo 80o fSH ftomDCsblockandnolelhr oB senilg
Vov'eineproUeto nat Uottomhole at thetargetdepth(test maximiz€
materialthickness)'
the srsndlro 800ofsH dnd rote lqe dillerence i" oB' berqeel ll'e new gain 'enrng
i;ir..ir,. p'"U. * r\e mrte-ral ro be resredand rheBu+ ro 800oFSH add-he
'er "nd
differencenotedin ihe first lwo gain settingto presentasa scansenshiviiy

P^ge24 - 4
 INFORMATION RXQUIRED PRIOR TO TESTINC

Witl any ulhasonictestingprocedureit is yitat that to esrabtjsh

a routjnewhicb is
systematjc whendefectsjn casringro be soughrThe ideatstepsro
andcomprehensive
follow is givenbelow.

M€thodby whicht|e forgingis produced

Thegeomerry(ensineerirg dra.ring)
Thelocationofcriticalareasor areaio lest.
Typesof defectswhicharemosrliketyto occur
Equipmenl
Methodfor setiingthereferencelevel.
Methodto be lsed for evahration
of indications

Qualificationof personnel.
manufacturing or operarionstageat whichresfingis ro be madeincludjng
heattreaftnent,if any;

proceduresfor corective actions when xnacceprabteindjcationsare

reporirngrequrements

Scanning

Methodof scanningnorirally is laid out in the relevantnationalstandards.

An example
jnstruciion
/technique
sheetcouldbei

Carriedout visualinspection for any surlbcedefecrsor mechanical damage

and ensure the surfacefinish is free liom any rust_debrisand any loose
sand. ,
). CalibraterbeCRT screenusingcompressional probeto a .equiredrangee.g.
0-I 50nm. andsetihe sens irivity (asmenrioned abo!e)
Apply couplantto the tesrareaand scanof at leasrro 20% probe overlapand
scanningspeedto a maximumlsomm/sec.Recordany defecrsfoundonro
roughrepori
4. The lengthof the d€fector defectslargerthanthe beamshaltbe measured
using6dB dropor equalizarion me$odandfor rhesizeofihe defecr(defec.s
smallerthanthe bearn)shallbe measured using20dB drop method.DGS
methodalsois a commonlractice.
5. Transferall the defectsfound onto the standardreporr form and reporrshatl
besubmilred to NDT supervisor.
Posttest procedure- Remole all couplantand markingfrom suface of
componeni andprotectihesurfacein according to clienrrequiremenrs

Page24 - 5
COMMON DEFECTSIN FORGINGS

operatorto knowqpe ofthe defectswhichis nornalLycan

to ultrasonic
It is irnportant
be foundandio inrerprer fromthedefectsin fo.gings
possiblesignairesponses

Laps

by metalbeingfoldedoverandflaltenedbut not fusedontothesurface

Lapsarecaused
Lapscanbe produced
ofthe component. diesor overfillon
by usingfallty or oversized
arollingpass.

Using0'probe the signalwill appearbeforeihe backwallecho The total lossof BWE

indicaleor CRT screenifthe defectis largerthanlhebeam.lfscanningperformed from
the bottomthe defectsignalis easilymisseddue to the deadzone if a singiecryslal

LaIninations(in flat plates)

areplanardefectsusuallyaiignedparalielto the surfaceof the material

Laminatjons
andflattened.
Theymaybe theresuliofany originalcasiingdefectenlarged

andeasy
lamidationdefeclswiu give goodsignaldueto ii hasanarea/size
Occasionally
with 0oprobe.
to bedetected

Bursts

Forgingburstsare surfaceor internalrupturescausedby processingat too low a

excessive
temperature, workingor netal movement duringforging

Thesignalresponse is variesdueto *re shape,orientatiorsndsizeofdre defectslf the

surfaceofthe defectsis perpendicular to the beamandhavinga largesizewill give a
goodresponse andlossofthe BWE, obljqueorientaljon will give poorsignalsA proper
plotting requiredto deteiminethe shapeand position

lnclusions;

Non-metallicimp rities suchas slag,oxides,njiridesand$rlphidesare inherentto the

molten stage.On solidificationmany remain in the final castingas non'metallic
inclusions.

A signalresponse to thisdefeclis significantdropin amplitudes oflhe BWE compared

ro d;fect ft;e area.The signal ampliludes also vary due to in sizesand
diffe.ences
orientations.A muhiple inclusions will cause a signalbecome various
clustered, depti
and a low BWE or no BWE (frgure l)

P^9e24 - 6
 l

Probenolenent constanrty
' chaneingsignalPanern

Banding
of rhe al l o)r or
5e|r r ec alioni s c h e m i ,,l h e k ro g e re :q o r non-urrl orn di sni bLr' i on
i. " ' ; ' ii. " . ir :. r.' -' a " n o t .' n u i ' In ' rroo r treel l he el erer r' $h* h
" g " g u ' on (ompounds
, ; ; ; ; ; ; . g" , . ' ; . .u ' p n u r.p h o s p h o ru ic irbon marg" ne* eano s l i \01
l\ aftereclioning dnd
segegaiion c.anonfl f;e seen mrcroscopcdll) oI macro\opica
specialpreparation.

ol thearo) and,rl ' eba(e

T he" ignal m a y d ' i ' e o r -e l l e c l e di fIn e ' c o u sti . Inpeddnce
m em t *er " d.ffe .e n e r n o rg hL ou l l rz 5 o ri co e dm l hcseq?eol defe l l rnreel \dnrnd)
unless the sensitjvity is high
is not usuallyfound ultrasonically

Other typeof defects

. Slugs
Seamsandrokes
Stringers(in bar stocks)
Cracks

Prge24 - 1
1().O NORMATIVEREFRENCES

BS EN l33G2 Non-deslrucli!etestinC Terminology-Parl2: Ierms commonIo

the non destructileteslingmethods
Bs EN 1330-l: testingTeminology Pafi I Li$ ofgeneralterms
Non-desfructive

BS EN 1330-4 Glossdy oftems usedin non'destnrctivc Ullrasonicflaw

!es1ing.

B S E N 1266 8 -l testing ChaEcrerisalioiand!eriflcationof

Non-destructive
ulfasonic examinationeq!ipment Pan i conbinedequipnetrt
BS EN 58ll Non-deslruclivetesling-U lhasonicexamination Pan l:

BS EN 58t-3 l e s ti n g Ul l tasoniexami
N o .' d e s tru c ri Ye . nati onP anl :
Transmission lechnique
BS EN 583-5 Non-deshrcdvetesting Uitrasonicexa'ninallon- Pad5:
andsizinBof discontinuities
Characterisarion
BS [N 1222] Calibrationblock No. I forulrasonic examination

B S E N l712 Non-destructiveexani ationofwelds - Uhraionicexaminalionof

weldedjoints Acceplancelevels
B S E N 1713 Non-destructiveexamination of welds- Ultrasonicexamination
Chdacierisalionof indicalionsin welds
B S E N I 714 ofvel dedj o _, U rho' c
\o r-o e n _ -c r\e e ra m n a r :on
exarninationof welded joinls

BS EN 2?963 block No.2 for ultmsonicexaminationofwelds

CaLibration

BS EN 12062 Non-desrucli\,€examinationofwelds Generalrulesfor melallic

matenals
W€lding terms aDd symbols- Pa l : Glossaryfbr wclding,braringandrhermal

BS EN ISO 9000Series,Quality MaiagementSystems

ProductTechnolog/ClassroomTrainingHandbook Tlre British Instiruteof
Non Destruclive
Tesling.

Training CourseNotes. PCN requitescandidates1o have attendedan apprcved

courseof tfaining. Accredited Training Eslablishmentsare requiredto provide
traineeswith an up-to-dateset of training coursenotes. These are considered
essential
feading.

Page25- 1
1O.1 ROCOMMENDEDRDADINGS

Procedures and 'Recommendations for UkrasonicTesling of Burl Welds' 2nd

edition.The Weidinglnstitute
'Guideto the preparation
ofa'Quality Manual The lnstit|teofQuality Assurance

'Principlesand Practiceof non-destrutivetesting'ediled by Dr..' H Lamble.

He)'wmdandCompany
Non-DestructiveTesting (secondedition 1991) by Dr.R Halnshaw. Edward
Arnold.
'UltrasonicFlaw Detectionfor technicians'byJ C Drury. Obtainablefrom rhe
BrjlishInstiluteof Non-Destructive
Testing
ASNT ClassroomTrainingHandbookoriginallypublishedby CeneralDynanics

ASNT SelfStudyHandbookorjginallypublishedby ceneralDynamics

ASNT QuestionandAnswerBook

ASNT Levellli StudyGuide.

NDlHandbook, secondedition,volurne7 (1991).

ASNT StudentPackage.

ASNT InsL"uctorPackage(overheadsfor training).

Page25- 2