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To cite this article: C. J. Lewis & B. B. Crocker (1969) The Lime Industry’s Problem
of Airborne Dust, Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association, 19:1, 31-39, DOI:
10.1080/00022470.1969.10466454
Informative Report No. 10 dealing with the lime industry's problem of airborne dust is one of a series of
survey reports prepared by APCA's TI-2 Chemical Committee on air pollution problems and control
measures encountered in the chemical industry today.
The usual products of the lime industry hind. Hydrated lime is produced by posits exist in every state in the U. S.
are limestone, quicklime, and hydrated reacting the oxide with water to produce but only a small portion is of sufficient
lime. Limestone is rock composed of the corresponding hydroxide. Table purity for industrial use. The lower
at least 50% calcium carbonate and II gives the equations for the major grades are generally suitable for ag-
various impurities. A common im- chemical reactions involved in the lime ricultural purposes. Better than 90%
purity is magnesium carbonate; when process. of the limestone quarried is from open-
present in less than 5%, the limestone During the calcination of limestone, pit operations with the remainder from
is referred to as high-calcium. A lime- moisture, and volatile organic matter underground mines.
stone containing 30-45% magnesium are first driven off. At higher tem- Lime manufacturing plants vary in:
carbonate is classified as dolomitic stone. peratures, the partial pressure of CO2 (1) the relative emphasis given to po-
Table I gives composition of typical increases and decomposition of the car- tential products (Limestone, lime, and
limestones of both types. bonate begins. Decomposition does hydrated lime); (2) whether the product
Quicklime (CaO or mixtures of CaO not progress at a rapid rate, however, is for commercial sale or for captive use
and MgO) is produced by heating sized until a temperature range of 700 - (i.e., an integral operation of sugar man-
limestone to decompose the carbonate 800° C is reached for dolomite and 830 - ufacture, steel production, soda ash
releasing CO2 and leaving the oxide be- 930° C for high-calcium stone.1 The manufacture, pulp and paper manu-
loss of carbon dioxide during calcination facture, etc.); and (3) type of kiln used
leaves the residue in a porous, highly re- (vertical, rotary, other). Figure 1
Table I. Typical analyses of high calcium active state. It is usually the desire of shows the distribution of commercial
and dolomitic commercial limestones. the manufacturer to remove the lime lime plants in the contiguous U. S.
_
oxides from the kiln as close to the upper The split in production between lime-
Calcium Dolomitic limit of the decomposition temperature stone, lime, and hydrate will vary con-
as possible. Subsequently heating re- siderably from plant to plant. How-
Calcium carbonate
(CaCO3) 97.40 52.34 sults in shrinkage and loss of chemical ever, the distribution between all plants
Magnesium carbonate reactivity. Sufficiently high heating in the year 1964 was:
(MgCO3) 1.25 47.04 results in a material of low reactivity re-
Iron oxide (Fe2O3) 0.11 0.04
ferred to as "dead burned" lime. Limestone 510,025,000 tonsa
Aluminum oxide Lime 11,400,000 tons
(AI2O3) 0.35 0.20
Occurrence, Location, and Uses Refractory Lime
Silica (SiO2) plus acid
insolubles 0.95 0.26 Limestone is the usual raw material (dead-burned) 2,150,000 tons
Loss on ignition (CO2) 43.40 47.67 for manufacture of lime products al- Hydrated Lime 2,600,000 tons
though a small percentage is manufac-
tured from oyster shells, particularly "Includes limestone further processed to
along the Gulf Coast. Limestone de- lime products.
Informative Report No. 10 of the TI-2
Chemical Committee was first submit-
ted to APCA's Steering Committee and Table II. Theoretical equations illustrating reactions in lime
Technical Council on September 18, manufacturing.
1967. It was processed in accordance
with the 14 step procedure outlined in 1. High calcium
the March 1963 Journal and was finally (a) CaCO3 + heat CaO + CO2 '
approved by APCA's Board of Direc-
tors on December \r 1968. In ac- (limestone) (lime) (carbon dioxide)
cordance with the objectives of the (b) 2CaO + 2H2O -» 2Ca(OH)2
Association as they appear in Article (lime) (water) (hydrated lime)
XV, Section 4 of the By-Laws, each 2. Dolomitic
technical coordinating committee has
the task of reviewing and amending its (c) CaCO3-MgCO3 heat • CaO-MgO + 2CO2 t
studies as often as necessary in the light (limestone) (dolomitic lime) (carbon dioxide)
of technological changes. (d) CaO • MgO + H2O -> Ca(OH)2-MgO
In accordance with procedures (dolomitic lime) (water) (dolomitic hydrate,
adopted by the APCA Technical Coun- partially hydrated)
cil and the Board of Directors, it is now
published as representing "the best (e) CaO-MgO + 2H2O -4- Ca(OH)2-Mg(OH)2
thinking of the Association." (dolomitic lime) (water) (dolomitic hydrate,
completely hydratad)
Only about \% of the limestone is is as objectionable as the dust. For- of course, is a desirable alternative.
sold in the form of dimension stone, tunately, most quarries are in rural or Underground mining of rock releases
the rest being sold crushed or broken. somewhat isolated areas. less dust to the atmosphere because most
Over 60% of the crushed stone is used The loading and unloading of the operations are confined. However, it
in construction for concrete aggregate, blasted stone can also release dust into is more expensive and wasteful of high
road and railroad ballast, and riprap. the atmosphere. While many plants grade rock because pillars must be left.
Around 8% is used in chemical and currently make no effort to contain this Less than 8% of the limestone produced
metallurgical industries as a flux in the dust, wetting of the broken stone with is mined underground.
manufacture of iron and steel, acid hoses or sprays can effectively decrease
neutralization, alkali production, sugar it. While it has not been investigated, Stone Preparation
manufacture, calcium carbide produc- the addition of wetting agents to the The extent of preparation given to
tion, pulp and paper manufacture, and water should improve the penetration of stone received from the quarrjr depends
as a product filler. Eighteen per cent water into the broken rock. Too much on the end use. For riprap, no prepara-
is used in cement manufacture, 5% in wetting of the rock may be objectionable tion at all is required, but most applica-
calcined lime products, and the re- in that it can interfere with subsequent tions require reducing the limestone to
mainder is used in agriculture for reduc- grinding and sizing operations. How- rigid size specifications. Concrete and
ing soil acidity and providing neutrients ever, wetting of the surface of the load road aggregates must be crushed,
and in animal feeds. in the truck or car will greatly reduce cleaned, and graded to size. Pulverized
Quicklime and hydrate are used inter- windage loss during transport. limestone must frequently be ground to
changeably to some extent. Taken to- If transport of the stone is by truck, a fineness of 65-100% passing 200
gether their distribution by use in 1964 attention should be given to the creation mesh. Lime manufacture requires
is shown in Table III. The agricultural of airborne dust from unimproved mine stone of definite size ranges depending
use is primarily for soil liming. Build- roads. This can be greatly minimized on the type of kiln used.
ing use is split roughly evenly between by frequent wetting of the roads during Preparation of crushed stone requires
plaster and mortars. Refractory lime, dry weather. The need for constant a series of crushing, screening, and clas-
which is all dead-burned dolomite, is sprinkling of the roads can be greatly sification operations. Primary crushers
used in manufacture of dolomite brick decreased if oiling or wetting with cal- will normally be of the jaw or gyratory
and in open hearth steel furnace bottom cium chloride solution is used. Paving, type, although roll crushers and hammer
lining.
Manufacturing Operations:
Mining [FINES] ^PULVERIZING COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS
£
GRINDING AND
(3) loading it into trucks or cars; and PULVERIZING
(4) conveying it to the crusher. Di-
mension stone is quarried by sawing
LIME MANUFACTURING LIME CRUSHING LIME STORAGE COMMERCIAL
and cutting, and is not used for lime KILN AND SCREENING BINS PRODUCTS
manufacture. Open pit quarrying of
limestone produces dust which is re-
leased into the atmosphere during blast- -HUMEHYDRATOR FEED
ing. Quantities of such dust, which is
released intermittently, have not been f
reported. There is little that can be GRINDING AND/OR
HYDRATE COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS
done to confine this dust as long as LIME HYDRATOR — * > AIR CLASSIFICATION »• STORAGE BULK LOADING AND/OR
BINS BAG LOADING
blasting is the means of shattering the
rock loose. Often the noise produced Figure 2. Flow sheet of a typical lime manufacturing operation.
CALCINING ZONE
FINISHING ZONE
BURNERS- DQOOQD
mills may be used if the stone is soft
and friable. Frequently, the primary COOLING ZONE
crusher will be located at the quarry or
mine with a stockpile of crushed stone
being maintained nearby to cover peri- STORAGE ZONE
ods when the quarry is not in operation.
Primary crushers will normally reduce
stone to 1 - 3 inches in size.
Secondary crushers are normally used
El
to reduce stone to sizes below one inch. Figure 3. Vertical lime kiln.
These are usually cone crushers or high-
speed, flat-angle gyratory machines. Data on losses per ton of material frequently used to convey the stone to
Hammer mills may be used if the stone handled has generally not been de- the top of the kiln where it is charged
is not abrasive. For pulverizing, a termined or reported. However, par- in batches. The kiln is usually fired
hammer mill, rod, ball, or tube mill, ticulate losses from control equipment with burners in the side, utilizing gas or
or an edge-running roller mill may be currently in use at a number of plants oil. Some older kilns contain a firebox
used. For extreme fineness, closed is shown below in terms of dust concen- on the side where coal is used. These
circuit grinding in air-swept mills with trations leaving control equipment: kilns utilize heat very efficiently because
air classification is required. Occasion- the cold stone at the top cools the flue
ally, stone may be dried in a rotary Type of Particulate gases while the hot stone at the bottom
dryer to assure better grinding. Control Loss (grains
Operation Equipment per cu. ft.) is cooled by air used for combustion.
Vibrating screens are normally used The calcined lime is withdrawn at the
for classifying smaller sized stone ex- Pulverized lime- Cyclone 2.0
stone dryer bottom either in batches or continuously
ceeding 50 mesh. Where accurate Primary crushing Water Spray 0.016 with suitable feeders or gates while the
sizing of larger stone is not required, Screening
Collector
None 0.165 flue gas exhausts at the top.
bar grizzlies are normally employed. Stockpile Water 0.002 In some plants where coal is used as
Air classification is the normal means for Sprinkling fuel, it is mixed with the limestone or
veryfineor pulverized sizes. Secondary Cyclone and 0.054
crushing Bag Filter charged in layers and burns within the
Stone is normally transported be- kilns. This technique is used mainly in
tween operations on open-belt convey- Lime Production
captive plants such as in the alkali and
ors, although bucket elevators, drags, A number of types of kilns are avail- sugar industries where lime purity is un-
screws, and pneumatic conveyors may able for carrying out the calcination important and the CO2 produced is one
be used occasionally. reactions. They differ in their con- of the desired products.
All of these operations give rise to figuration, fuel economy, size stone re- Most vertical kilns require limestone
production of limestone dust. Many quired, inherent capacity, and efficient in sizes of 6 - 8 inches to minimize pres-
plants in isolated areas carry out these use of manpower. Slightly more than sure drop. Because of the large stone
operations without pollution control 50% of lime production is in rotary kilns size, low capacity, and low gas velocity
equipment and many more have only and the trend is in this direction.
through the kiln, many of the older
the crudest kind of collection system for Verticle Kilns. This is the oldest and kilns were open on top with no provision
the coarser size operations. The best most numerous type of continuous kiln to collect the gases and control atmo-
control would dictate corrugated covers in use and one of the most efficient in
fuel utilization. The major drawback spheric emissions. Captive kilns, where
over the belt conveyors to reduce wind- the CO2 produced is needed for process-
age losses, careful hooding at transfer is that it is inherently restricted to low
capacity per unit. For this reason there ing operations in the alkali and sugar
points connected to air exhausters, and industry, are closed on top with a double-
hooding or evacuating of crushing ma- have been few recent installations. Al-
most all modern installations have uti- bell seal much like the charging mecha-
chinery to eliminate dusting. Many nism of a blast furnace. Except for
plants currently collect the dust from lized rotary kilns or one of the newer
exhaust systems with simple cyclones, design calciners. occasional leakage through the charging
or water spray chambers. With tighter A cut of a typical vertical or shaft seal, these kilns emit no gases or dust to
control regulations, it is likely that many kiln is shown in Figure 3. These kilns the atmosphere. They are conducted
of these must be improved, making use usually have a steel-encased refractory to processes not involving lime manu-
of bag filters and more efficient wet shell 10-24 ft in diameter and 35-75 ft facture. Particulates in these gases
scrubbers. in height. An inclined skip-hoist is enter the other process equipment.
carbonates. Because of the large Table VIII. Reported dust emission values from lime plant operations.
amount of steam generated during the Particulate
reaction, the discharge from a hydrator Emission Grains Collection
will be opaque. This makes it difficult, Operation Per Cu. Ft. Efficiency Control Method
visually, to determine the amount of Limestone primary crushing 0.016 Poor Water sprays
solids entrained in the steam. Limestone secondary crushing 0.054 Good Cyclone and bag filters
Crushed stone stockpile 0.002 Water sprays
The loss of hydrated lime dust repre- Pulverized limestone dryer 2.04 60 - 70% Cyclone collector
sents the loss of valuable product since Limestone screening 0.165 None
Bulk loading 0.009 None
this dust is of high purity. It is easily Stone unloading Water sprays
wetted and can be scrubbed from the Vertical lime kiln 0.3-1.0 None
Rotary kiln 0.001 99.99 Glass bag filter
stack gases with a water scrubber. The Rotary kiln 0.07-0.08 97.5 4 Stage cyclonic scrubber
recovered water slurry can be fed back Rotary kiln 0.02 99.7 4 Stage cyclonic scrubber
to the hydrator as make-up water so that Rotary kiln 4.3 70.0 High efficiency cyclones
Rotary kiln 0.22 95.0 Single stage precipitator
handling of the recovered product does Rotary kiln 0.12-0.25 96-97 Venturi scrubber
not represent a problem. Practically Rotary kiln 0.3-0.4 97.5 Impingement scrubber
Calcimatic kiln 0.02 99.2 Glass bag filter
all lime hydrating plants are equipped Lime conveying—transfer points 0.2-0.8 Cyclone collector
with recovery equipment of one type or Lime distribution system—airveyor 0.01 99+ Cloth bag filter
Hydrating 0.01-0.94 Water sprays in stack
another. A common method is to in- Hydrating 0.072 Wet scrubber
stall water spray nozzles in the exhaust Hydrating 0.01 Wet scrubber
Hydrating 0.02 Wet scrubber
stack and to add all or a part of the Hydrating 0.036 Wet scrubber
water to the hydrator in this manner. Hydrate milling No visible dust 99+ Bag filter
The scrubbing effect of the sprays plus Hydrate loader and packer 0.01 99+ Bag filter
steam condensation on the dust par-
ticles induced by the cold spray water,
causes the particles to grow in size, be Bibliography scrubber installation," Tappi 48,
impacted by the spray, and settle back 1. Murray, J. A., Fischer, H. C , and 104A-108A (May 1965).
into the hydrator. Tests on plants Shade, 11. W., "Thermal analysis of 13. Mockridge, P. C., "The use of Pea-
limestone," paper presented to the body scrubbers on lime kiln stack
utilizing such simple control procedures Nat'l Lime Assoc, Washington, D. C. gases," Tappi, 255-256 (Apr. 1955).
give dust loadings in the effluent in the (Spring 1950). 14. Crocker, B. B., "Water vapor in efflu-
range of 0.01 to 0.94 grains per cu ft. 2. White, F. S., U. S. Pat. 2,465,410 ent gases: What to do about opacity
(Mar. 29, 1949) (to Dorr Co.). problems," Chem. Eng., 75, 109-116
The large variation is probably due to (July 15, 1968).
differences in spray pressure, stack 3. Ellerbeck, T. 11., U. S. Pat. 2,451,024
(Oct. 12, 1948). 15. Collins, T. T., Jr., "Pilot plant study
velocity, liquid to gas rate, and number 4. Roberts, J. E., "Lime kiln design 1— of a multiclone unit operating on stack
of spray stages. Other plants have used UCM's vertical lime kiln," Chem. Eng. gases from a lime kiln," Paper Trade
Prog., 59, 88-91 (Oct. 1963). J., 126, 63-4 (Mar. 18, 1948).
recirculating Venturi-ejector scrubbers 16. Wheeler, D. IL, Carlisle, J. L.,
or other commercial wet scrubbers. 5. Anon., "Rockwell lime company oper-
ating non-pressure hydrator," Pit and Brousseau, G., Lacy, G. R., and Bergs-
Tests on commercial wet scrubber in- Quarry (May 1956). trom, J., "Panel probes dust collection
stallations (not designated by type) 6. Havighorst, C. R., "Improved fluid problems," Rock Products, 76-80 (Jan.
bed calcination hikes lime produc- 1965).
have given effluent loadings of 0.01 - 0.03 17. Carlisle, J. C , "Texas lime tackles
tion," Chem. Eng. 71, 104-6 (Oct. 26.
grains per cu ft. Unfortunately, the 1964). dust," Chem. Processing, 27, 46-47
discharge from efficient wet scrubbers 7. Shafer, M., and Brandt, M. W., "Lime (Sept., 1964).
will usually still be opaque with condens- kiln design 2—hot cyclone develop- 18. Porter, C. C., et al, "Elimination of
ment improves lime yield," Chem. Eng. lime stack losses with the type N roto-
ing water vapor. Prog., 59, 95-99 (Dec. 1963). clone," Paper Trade J., 124*, 33-6 (Feb.
The treatment of hydrate following 8. Kohanowski, F. I., "Lime kiln de- 6, 1947).
hydration is usually milling and air sign 3—the grate kiln system," Chem. 19. Bauer, W. G., "Factors of dust sup-
classification. Conventional air-swept Eng. Prog., 60, 80-84 (Jan. 1964). pression in small to medium size ro-
9. Law, C. and Hauser, P., "Lime in- tary kiln systems," Pit and Quarry,
equipment is used for this purpose and if dustry gets boost from new kiln de- 134-139 (May 1958).
kept under the proper suction with a sign," Chem. Eng., 71, 88-9 (June 8, 20. Wolfe, J. M., "Kiln dust—properties
bag filter and exhaust fan, will give no 1964). and handling," Pit and Quarry, 136-
problem. Conventional bag filters with 10. Anon., "Automatic kiln features mov- 145 (Mar. 1964).
ing hearth; Calcimatic," Can. Chem. 21. Walker, A. B., and Hall, R. M.,
cotton bags will give 99+% recovery. Process, 49, 46 (Feb. 1965). "Operating experience with a flooded
Since the majority of these would be 11. Anon., "River Rouge plant supplies disc scrubber—a new variable throat
shaken only every few hours, the bleed Detroit steelmakers," Rock Products orifice contactor," APCA Paper No.
through immediately following shaking (July 1966). 67-147, presented at the APCA 60th
12. Stuart, H. H., and Bailey, R. E., Annual Mtg, Cleveland, Ohio, June
is not serious. "Performance study of a lime kiln and 11-16, 1967.