Chapter 4

Operational Amplifier Characteristics

Mohd Riduwan bin Ghazali (Grad.IEM)

5.3

IDEAL OP-AMP
Ideal Op-Amp

 As discussed previously, an op-amp is a very high

gain amplifier with:
– high input impedance, Ri (in MΩ)
– low output impedance, Ro (below 100 Ω)
 This is shown by its AC equivalent network:
Ideal Op-Amp

 For an ideal op-amp, it will have:

– infinite input impedance (Ri act like an open
circuit)
– zero output impedance (Ro act like a short circuit)
– infinite voltage gain
Basic Op-Amp Connection

 The basic op-amp connection (configuration):

 This configuration is called inverting amplifier which results in

output having the opposite phase (polarity) as input
Basic Op-Amp Connection

 The op-amp’s voltage gain is the ratio of output voltage at

output terminal to the difference of voltage at input terminal
 As Rf and R1 is included in the configuration, they need to be
considered. The new gain by ratio of Vo/V1 can be calculated by
applying nodal analysis at node Vi:
+ −
I= I= 0
V1 − Vx Vx − Vo
=
R1 Rf
(V1 − Vx ) R f =
(Vx − Vo ) R1
+ −
V=
x V=
x 0
V1 R f = −Vo R1
Vo Rf
= −
V1 R1
Unity Gain

 If Rf = R1, the gain becomes:

Vo Rf Rf
=− =− = −1
V1 R1 Rf
 This means that the output results in
repeating back the input voltage with an
opposite polarity (1800 phase shift)
Constant-Magnitude Gain

 If Rf is some multiple of R1, the gain is a

constant. For example, if Rf = 10R1:
Vo Rf 10 R1
=− =− = −10
V1 R1 R1
 This means that the configuration provides a
voltage of exactly 10 with a phase shift of
1800 from the input
Virtual Ground

 Recall the voltage gain equation Vo/V1 = - Rf/R1

 If the gain is very high, Vi will becomes very low,

almost to zero voltage. For an example, an output
voltage -10V is a result from a gain of 20,000:

Vo
Av = − ⇒ Vi = −
Vo
=−
(− 10 )
= 0.5 mV
Vi Av 20000
Virtual Ground

 When the Av becomes larger, Vi will becomes smaller. This

value will becomes small enough near to zero, but will not
becomes zero
 This phenomena is called virtual ground, where Vi will be virtual
grounded in the circuit, but no current will flow through the
virtual ground, only the
voltage is zero
 By applying nodal
analysis at node Vi with
assuming that Vi = 0:
V1 − 0 0 − Vo Vo Rf
= ⇒ =−
R1 Rf V1 R1
5.4

OP-AMP SPECIFICATION
Op-Amp Specification

 There will be some parameters that will be

used to define the operation of the op-amp
 These specification includes dc and
frequency operating features
5.4.1

DC OFFSET PARAMETERS
Offset Currents and Voltages

 An op-amp should produce 0 V at the output terminal

when the input terminal is also 0 V
 However, in actual operation, there will some offset
voltage at the output which is unwanted
 The manufacture will specifies the input offset
voltage, then the output voltage will be determine by
that input offset and the gain of the amplifier
 The output offset voltage can be effected by this two
conditions:
– Input Offset Voltage, VIO
– Input Offset Current, IIO
Input Offset Voltage, VIO

 Manufacturer will provides VIO value

 To determine the effect of input voltage on the output, the
configuration is:
 By applying the virtual ground concept:
Vi = 0 = V+ − V−
∴V+ = V−
 As clearly seen, V+ is equal to VIO
 By applying nodal − V− = V− − Vo
analysis at node V−: R1 Rf
R1
∴V− = Vo
R1 + R f
Input Offset Voltage, VIO

 Inserting both the equation from V+ and V− into the virtual

ground equation: R
VIO = 1
Vo
R1 + R f
R1 + R f  Rf 
∴Vo = VIO = 1 + VIO
R1  R1 
 The output voltage, Vo(offset) is the output offset voltage
resulting from the input offset voltage VIO
Example 10.8

 Given: VIO = 1.2 mV

 Determine the output offset voltage
Solution to Example 10.8

 The output offset voltage is given by:

 150k 
Vo (offset ) = 1 + (1.2m ) = 91.2 mV
 2k 
Input Offset Current, IIO

 The output offset voltage can also be effected by the difference

in dc bias currents at both input terminals

 As the input current for + terminal is given by IIB+ while for –

terminal is IIB−, the input offset current is the difference between
those two input current: I = I + − I −
IO IB IB
Input Offset Current, IIO

 The current IIB+ can also be written as: I + = − V+

IB
RC
 The current IIB− can also be written as:

− V− Vo − V−
I IB =− +
R1 Rf
R1 R f I IB = − R f V− + R1Vo − R1V− = −(R f + R1 )V− + R1Vo
−

− (R f + R1 )V− = R1 R f I IB − R1Vo
−

−
R1Vo − R1 R f I IB
V− =
R f + R1
Input Offset Current, IIO

 By applying the virtual ground concept which results in V+ = V−:

−
+ R1Vo − R1 R f I IB
− RC I IB =
R f + R1
− RC (R f + R1 )I IB = R1Vo − R1 R f I IB
+ −

 Since the compensating resistance RC ≈ R1 and Rf >> R1:

( +
)
− R f + R1 I IB = Vo − R f I IB
−

+ −
− R f I IB = Vo − R f I IB
( +
Vo = − R f I IB − I IB
−
)=R I
f IO

 The output voltage, Vo(offset) is the output offset voltage

resulting from the input offset current IIO
Example 10.9

 Given: I IO = 100 nA
 Determine the output offset voltage
Solution to Example 10.9

 The output offset voltage is given by:

Vo (offset ) = (500k )(100n ) = 15 mV
Total Output Offset Voltage

 As the output offset voltage is effected by the

input offset voltage VIO and input offset
current IIO, the total output offset voltage is
the addition of both factors:
 Rf 
Vo (offset ) = 1 + VIO + R f I IO
 R1 
Example 10.10

 Given: VIO = 4 mV
I IO = 150 nA
 Determine the
output offset voltage
Solution to Example 10.10

 The total output offset voltage is given by:

 500k 
Vo (offset ) = 1 + (4m ) + 500k (150n ) = 479 mV
 5k 
Input Bias Current, IIB

 As discussed in previous topic, IIB+ and IIB− are dc bias current

at + and – input terminal
 The average bias current between both terminals can be
+ −
defined as: I IB + I IB
I IB =
2
 As for that, both of the current IIB+ and IIB− can be calculated
when the values of IIB and IIO are given:

+ I IO
I IB = I IB +
2
− I IO
I IB = I IB −
2
Example 10.11

 Given: I IO = 5 nA
I IB = 30 nA
 Calculate the input bias currents at each
input terminal
Solution to Example 10.11

 The input bias currents at each input terminal

are given by:
+ 5n
I IB = 30n + = 32.5 nA
2
− 5n
I IB = 30n − = 27.5 nA
2
Inverting Amplifier

 The most widely used constant-gain amplifier:

 As discussed before:
Vo Rf Rf
=− ⇒ Vo = − V1
V1 R1 R1
Example 11.1

 Given input of 2.5 mV

 Determine the output voltage
Solution to Example 11.1

 The output of an inverting op-amp is given

by:
Rf
Vo = − V1 = −
200k
(2.5m ) = −250 mV
R1 2k
Non-inverting Amplifier

 The terms non-inverting relates to the output produce by this

configuration has similar polarity as the input (not inverted)

V+ − V− =
0
 Recall the virtual ground concept:
∴V+ =
V−
Non-inverting Amplifier

 Apply nodal analysis at node V−: Vo − V− V−

=
Rf R1
R1
∴V− = Vo
R1 + R f
 With V+ = V1, the equation becomes: V+ = V−
R1
V1 = Vo
R1 + R f
R1 + R f Rf
∴Vo = V1 = 1 + V1
R1 R1
Example 11.2

 Given input of 120 μV

 Determine the output voltage
Solution to Example 11.2

 The output of a non-inverting op-amp is

given by:
 Rf   240k 
Vo = 1 + V1 = 1 + (120 µ ) = 12.12 mV
 R1   2.4k 
Example 11.3

 Given:
– Rf = 470 kΩ, R1 = 4.3 kΩ, R2 = 33 kΩ, R3 = 33 kΩ
and an input of 80 μV
 Determine the output voltage
5.6

OP-AMP APPLICATIONS
Multiple-stage Gains

 Given:
– Rf = 470 kΩ, R1 = 4.3 kΩ, R2 = 33 kΩ, R3 = 33 kΩ
and an input of 80 μV
 Determine the output voltage
Solution to Example 11.3

 For multiple stage op-amp, the gain will be multiplied (as

learned in previous topic)
 Hence, the gain for each stage needs to be calculated first
 The first stage is a non-inverting op-amp, while the second and
third stage is an inverting op-amp
 The overall gain and Av = Av1 × Av2 × Av3
output voltage will be:  R  R  R 
= 1 +
f
 − f  − f 
 R1  R2  R3 
 470k  470k  470k 
= 1 +  −  − 
 4.3k  33k  33k 
= 22.37k
∴Vo = AvVi = (22.37 k )(80 µ ) = 1.79 V
Practice 1

 Calculate the output voltage in the circuit below

Practice 2

 Show the connection of three-stage amplifier

with gains of 10, 18, and 27. Use a 270-k
feedback resistor for all three circuits. What
output voltage will result for an input of 150
V?
Solution
Practice 3

 Show the connection of three op-amp stages

to provide outputs that are -10, -20, and -50
times larger than the input. Use a feedback
resistor of Rf 500 k in all stages.
Solution

 The resistor component for each stage is calculated to be

5.6.2

VOLTAGE SUMMING
Voltage Summing

 A summing op-amp will sum all the inputs to produce its output
Voltage Summing

 By applying the concept of virtual ground for Vi (V+ = V−), the

circuit can be written as (nodal analysis at node Vi):
V1 − V− V2 − V− V3 − V− V− − Vo
+ + =
R1 R2 R3 Rf
× R1 R2 R3 R f :
R2 R3 R f V1 − R2 R3 R f V− + R1 R3 R f V2 − R1 R3 R f V− + R1 R2 R f V3 − R1 R2 R f V−
= R1 R2 R3V− − R1 R2 R3Vo
R2 R3 R f V1 + R1 R3 R f V2 + R1 R2 R f V3 + R1 R2 R3Vo
= −(R1 R2 R3 + R2 R3 R f + R1 R3 R f + R1 R2 R f )V−
R2 R3 R f V1 + R1 R3 R f V2 + R1 R2 R f V3 + R1 R2 R3Vo
∴V− = −
R1 R2 R3 + R2 R3 R f + R1 R3 R f + R1 R2 R f
Voltage Summing

 Due to V+ = 0, the virtual ground equation becomes:

V+ = V− = 0
R2 R3 R f V1 + R1 R3 R f V2 + R1 R2 R f V3 + R1 R2 R3Vo
− =0
R1 R2 R3 + R2 R3 R f + R1 R3 R f + R1 R2 R f
− (R2 R3 R f V1 + R1 R3 R f V2 + R1 R2 R f V3 + R1 R2 R3Vo ) = 0
− (R2 R3 R f V1 + R1 R3 R f V2 + R1 R2 R f V3 ) = R1 R2 R3Vo
R2 R3 R f V1 + R1 R3 R f V2 + R1 R2 R f V3  Rf Rf Rf 
∴Vo = − = − V1 + V2 + V3 
R1 R2 R3  R1 R2 R3 
Example
Solution
Example 11.6

 Given: V1 = 50 mV sin (1000t )

V2 = 10 mV sin (3000t )
 Determine the
output voltage
Solution to Example 11.6

 The output of a summing op-amp is given by:

 Rf Rf 
Vo = − V1 + V2 
 R1 R2 
 330k 
= − (50m sin 1000t ) + 330k
(10m sin 3000t )
 33k 10k 
= −(0.5 sin 1000t + 0.33 sin 3000t ) V
Example

 Calculate the output voltage developed by

the circuit below for Rf 330 kΩ.
Voltage Subtraction

 Voltage subtraction operation can also be

perform by a summing amplifier with a few
modification
 There are two most popular voltage
subtraction configuration
– Combination of an inverting op-amp with a
summing op-amp
– A modification of a summing op-amp
Voltage Subtraction

 Combination of an inverting op-amp with a summing op-amp

result in a configuration of:

Vo1
Voltage Subtraction

 If the output of the inverting op-amp is noted as Vo1, the overall

output can be written as:
Rf
Vo1 = − V1 ...[1]
R1
 Rf Rf 
Vo = − V2 + Vo1  ...[2]
 R2 R3 

[1] → [2] :
 Rf Rf  Rf   Rf Rf Rf 

Vo = − V2 +  − 
V1   = − V2 − V1 
 R2 R3  R1    R2 R3 R1 
Example 11.7

 Given:
– Rf = 1 MΩ, R1 = 100 kΩ, R2 = 50 kΩ, R3 = 500 kΩ
 Determine the output voltage
Solution to Example 11.7

 The output of a subtracting op-amp using the

combination of an inverting op-amp with a summing
op-amp is given by:

 Rf Rf Rf   1M 1M  1M  
Vo = − V2 − V1  = − V2 −  V1  
 R2 R3 R1   50k 500k  100k  
= −(20V2 − 20V1 ) = −20(V2 − V1 )
 It seems that this configuration gives a difference
between V1 and V2, but with a gain factor of 20 and a
reversed polarity
Voltage Subtraction

 For a voltage subtraction operation using a modification of a

summing op-amp, the configuration is:
 By applying virtual ground:
V+ = V− ...[1]
 Applying nodal analysis at
node V+:
V1 − V+ V+
=
R1 R3
R3
V+ = V1 ...[2]
R1 + R3
Voltage Subtraction

 Applying nodal analysis at node V−: V2 − V− V− − Vo

=
R2 R4
R4V2 + R2Vo
V− = ...[3]
R2 + R4
 Solving both the equation [2] and [3] with equation [1]:
[2] & [3] → [1] :
R3 R V + R2Vo
V1 = 4 2
R1 + R3 R2 + R4
R3  R2 + R4  R4
∴Vo = 
 
V1 − V2
R2  R1 + R3  R2
Example 11.8

 Determine the output voltage

Solution to Example 11.8

 The output of a subtracting op-amp using a

modification of a summing op-amp is given by:
R3  R2 + R4  R4
Vo = 
 
V1 − V2
R2  R1 + R3  R2
20k  100k + 100k  100k
=   1
V − V2
100k  20k + 20k  100k
= V1 − V2
 This configuration gives a subtraction of V1 to V2,
which is straight forward and a more simpler
configuration
Practice 1

 Determine the output voltage for the circuit below

5.6.3

VOLTAGE BUFFER
Voltage Buffer (Unity Follower)

 Voltage buffer or unity follower circuit

provides a gain of unity (1) with no inverted
polarity

∴Vo = V1
Example 11.9

 Show the connection of a 741 as a unity-gain

circuit
Solution to Example 11.9

 The connection of a voltage buffer amplifier:

Practice 1

 Calculate the output voltage, Vo, in the circuit below.

Practice 2

 Calculate Vo in the circuit below

 71

Integrator

 The output is the integral of the input.

 Integration is the operation of summing the area under a waveform or
curve over a period of time.
 Useful in low-pass filter circuits and sensor conditioning circuits.
1
vo(t) = −
RC ∫ v1(t)dt
Integrator
Summing Intergarator

 More than one input may be applied to an integrator.

Example

 Calculate Vo V1 = 50 mV sin (1000t )

V2 = 10 mV sin ( 3000t )
V3 = 15 mV cos ( 2000t )
 75

Differentiator

 The differentiator takes the derivative of the input.

 The output is the differential of the input where the scale
factor is -RC
 Useful in high-pass filter circuits.
dv1(t)
vo(t) = − RC
dt