Machining of Fiber-Reinforced Composites

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MACHINING OF FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES

a
Ranga Komanduri
a
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma
Published online: 27 Apr 2007.
To cite this article: Ranga Komanduri (1997) MACHINING OF FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES, Machining Science and
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MACHINING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, 1(1), 113-152 (1997)
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MACHINING OF FIBER-REINFORCED
COMPOSITES
Downloaded by [Florida Atlantic University] at 08:49 29 August 2013
Ranga Komanduri
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering,

Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma
Received April 18, 1996; Accepted January 30, 1997.
ABSTRACT
Since the introduction of glass fiber-reinforced polymer composites

in the early 1940s, composite materials development was driven by the
needs of space, defense, and aircraft industries where performance rather
than cost was the prime consideration. At the beginning, conventional
machining techniques were adopted to machine glass fiber-reinforced
composites for convenience as well as to keep the capital costs down.
This was followed by significant advancements in tool materials and tool-
ing design. With the development of new and more challenging metal-
matrix and ceramic-matrix composites, conventional manufacturing pro-
cesses proved to be inadequate or even inappropriate to process them.
Need and opportunity, therefore, exists for alternate nontraditional ma-
chining operations, such as laser machining, water jet (WJ) and abrasive
water jet (AWJ) cutting, electrical discharge machining, ultrasonic-as-
sisted machining, and electrochemical spark machining. When composites
become more popular and are used in large volume in the civilian sector,
such as auto and other consumer industries, material and processing costs
will be the driving factors. A high degree of automation for the mass
manufacturing of composite parts will be required to bring the costs down
and compete with other materials. Advancements in the nontraditional
machining processes offer an opportunity to process these materials ec-
onomically, thus realizing the full potential of the composite materials.
This paper gives a broad overview on the various issues involved in
machining (conventional and nonconventional) of fiber-reinforced com-
posites. The field of composites, in general, and machining of composites,
in particular, are so broad that it would not be possible to do justice by
113
Copyright © 1997 by Marcel Dekker, Inc.

114 KOMANDURI
discussing each aspect of composite material machining without ending

up with a voluminous document. This review, therefore has to be limited
to a few aspects of composite materials and their machining techniques.
It may also be pointed out that in this reviewcertain areas are dealt more
in-depth than others. Personal preferences and availability of material in
the open literature are some of the reasons for this nonuniformity in
coverage. Also, some areas are more actively pursued than others. An
attempt is made to highlight some of the issues and opportunities in the
area of machining of composites.
INTRODUCTION
Our technologically advancing society is continually challenging the

limits of conventional materials and newer demands on performance. Extreme
and sometimes conflicting requirements are forcing us to engineer materials
not possible by conventional alloying methods. Composite materials come
under one class of engineered material developed specifically to meet this
challenge. Glass-reinforced resin matrix composites were first introduced in
the early 1940s. Since then, the use of composites is growing steadily in
various industries including aerospace, aircraft, automobile, sporting goods,
marine, off-shore drilling platforms, appliances, etc.
Composite materials form a material system composed of a mixture or
a combination of two or more macroconstituents that differ in form and chem-
ical composition and are insoluble in each other (1). The matrix or the re-
inforcing fibers can be inorganic (e.g., ceramic or glass), organic (polymers),
or metallic (aluminum, titanium, etc.). While the term composite materials
could apply to any duplex alloy (depending on the scale of reference), it is
commonly used to describe a material whose components do not form to-
gether as an alloy during processing but have been separately manufactured
prior to the combining process (2-5). This definition is extended today to
composites that can be directly cast from the melt by unidirectional solidifi-
cation of certain alloys of eutectic compositions (6). However, for this ma-
terial to be classified as a composite material it must be capable of supporting
higher stress levels than the matrix material, undergo larger strains than the
fibers, and the fibers have to be adequately bonded to the matrix. Professor
Dietz of MIT, a pioneer in the composites field, summed up the subject (7):
"Science and technology, like literature and fine arts, have their fashionable
phrases and catchwords. One very much to the fore these days is 'composite
materials,' which has been coined to give dignity and renewed impetus to a
very old yet simple idea: putting dissimilar materials to work in concert so
as to achieve a new material whose properties are different in scale and kind
from those of any of the constituents." The objective here is to take advan-
tage of the superior properties of both materials without compromising on
the weaknesses of either. In a sense, composites epitomize the art of com-
promise at its best. These compromises are sought from the acceptable levels
MACHINING OF FIBER·REINFORCED COMPOSITES us
of strength, ductility, fracture toughness, oxidation and corrosion resistance,
modulus, density, creep, fatigue, weight, and cost. Neither the composite ma-
terials per se nor the concept of engineering composites are new (8). Wood
is a natural composite consisting of cellulose fibers in a matrix of lignin.
Cellulose fibers are strong in tension but flexible; lignin cements the fibers
and endows the material with stiffness. Bone is a composite of strong but
soft protein collagen and the hard but mineral apatite. The introduction of
straw in bricks by the Egyptians in the days of the Pharaohs, or the incor-
poration of plant fibers into pottery in the days of the Inca and Maya to
prevent their premature cracking are classical examples of engineered com-
posites (9). Many other materials such as paper, concrete, etc., have been in
existence for some time.

The successful development of glass-reinforced plastics in the 1940s
gave yet another approach for the development of new materials. The concept
of incorporating high-strength (close to theoretical strength) fibers or whiskers
in a tough or ductile matrix to form a very high-strength composite has
opened up an exciting possibility (2,5). For example, it was discovered that
glass fibers have significantly more strength than that of the bulk (by an order
of magnitude), because of the absence of defects. By combining strong glass
fibers in an epoxy matrix, a new composite material with the strength of glass
fibers and ductility of an epoxy is obtained. The main outcomes of such a
combination include savings in weight, improvement in strength, and a de-
crease in the cost of materials and fabrication.
In the fiber-reinforced composite, the fibers carry the bulk of the load
and the matrix serves as a medium for the transfer of load to the fibers. The
matrix can be a metal, polymer, or ceramic. The fibers likewise can be metal,
ceramic, glass, or polymers.
Some of the advantages of composites include high specific strength;
high specific stiffness or modulus; good dimensional stability; unusual com-
bination of properties not easily obtainable with alloys; higher fracture tough-
ness; higher oxidation and corrosion resistance; directional properties; good
resistance to heat, cold, and moisture; ease of fabrication; and low cost.
Some of the properties of common matrix materials and reinforcing
fibers and comparative metals are given in Table 1 (10). Endowed with some
of these features, composites are ideal candidates for a range of applications
involving extreme conditions not possible with conventional alloying. Ex-
amples include high-strength, lightweight applications (space launchers and
vehicles), high operating temperatures (gas-turbine engine parts), and resis-
tance to severe (destructive) conditions over a limited period of time (rockets
and protection devices for vehicles and missiles re-entering the earth's at-
mosphere). However, composites are not limited to extreme conditions as one
finds their applications under more conventional conditions because of their
superior performance and/or affordable cost. Conventional machining prac-
tices, such as turning, drilling are widely applied to the machining of com-
posites in view of the availability of equipment and experience in conven-
Table 1. Properties of Various Fibers, Composites, and Comparative Metals (10)
DENSITY, MODULUS,
SPECIFIC
MODULUS, STRENGTH,
SPECIFIC
STRENGTH,
......
gjcm'
=-
GPa GPa cm'/g GPa GPa cm'/g
Group I: Ceramic Whiskers
Graphite 2.2 700 320 20 9.1
Silicon nitride 3.2 400 125 7 2.2
Silicon carbide 3.2 500 155 7 2.2

Alumina 4.0 420 105 14 3.5
Group II: Glass, Ceramic, or Polymer Fibers

Carbon
RAE (type I) 2.0 460 230 1.7 0.9
RAE (type II) 2.0 260 130 2.9 1.5
Boron 2.5 420 170 2.5 1.0
Asbestos 2.5 190 76 6 2.4
Mica 2.7 230 85 3 1.1
Nylon-6,6 I.1 5 4.5 0.8 0.7
E-glass as drawn 2.5 60 24 3 1.2
Group III: Hard-Drawn Metal Wires

Piano (0.9% C) 7.8 210 27 4 0.5
Stainless steel 7.9 200 25 2.4 0.3
Molybdenum 10.3 365 35 2.1 0.2
Tungsten 19.3 345 18 2.9 0.1
Group IV: Composites and Other Higher Strength Materials

Steel alloy-current 7.8 200 25 1.3 0.17
Al alloy 2.8 70 25 0.6 0.21
Ti alloy 4.5 115 26 1.0 0.22 ~
Beryllium 1.8 300 170 0.5 0.28 0
Steel alloy-future
70% glass
8 200 25 5 0.65
~
I:l
Fiber epoxy c:::
Type 1 2 350 175 1.3-1.5' 0.6-2.5' l!:!
Type 2 2 200 100 2.3-5' 1.2-2.5'
'Current and projected values for uniaxial layup.
MACHINING OF FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES 117
tional machining. Although some of the fibers used in composites such as

glass, graphite, boron, alumina, and silicon carbide are hard (sometimes equal
to or harder than the tool material) and abrasive, conventional machining is
considered for these materials because these fibers are very brittle and ma-
terial separation in machining is accomplished by brittle fracture rather than
plastic deformation ahead of the tool. However, the cutting tool materials are
chosen to minimize wear due to the hard abrasive constituents of the fibers
in many cases.
FIBER·REINFORCED COMPOSITES
Machining of a fiber-reinforced composite depends on the properties of

the fibers and the matrix as well as its response to the machining process. In
addition, the choice of the specific process depends upon the following fac-
tors: type of machining operation, part geometry and size, finish and accuracy
requirements, number of parts, diversity of parts including the materials of
the parts, availability of appropriate machine and cutting tools, availabilityof
in-house technology, current machining practice, manufacturing schedule,
capital requirements and justification for new equipment, and overall costs.
Certain machining operations may not be possible at all with some com-
posite materials. For example, it is not possible to machine SiC whisker-
reinforced alumina with a single-point cutting tool, even with a diamond tool.
It may, however, be possible to shape it by diamond grinding or by some of
the nonconventional machining processes, such as laser machining or ultra-
sonic-assisted machining. In other cases more than one process may be can-
didate processes and the specific process chosen depends on the factors out-
lined earlier. Of course, the general tendency is to use current machining
practices by adopting existing equipment for this application. This is partic-
ularly true of composite machining in small manufacturing shops in view of
capital limitations for procuring new machinery or new technology. This may
not be the case with large companies, such as Boeing, Lockheed, or General
Dynamics, where resources are normally available, if justified. Even a par-
ticular process chosen now for machining composites may have to be aban-
doned at a later date because of changes in the factors outlined earlier. For
example, the lot size may be increased significantly, necessitating a review
of alternate manufacturing processes, or new technology or a technology not
currently practiced in the plant may become available or be economically
attractive.
In the following text, some common fiber materials used in composites
are briefly discussed. Table 2 gives some of the mechanical properties of
these fibers. Table 3 gives the mechanical properties of resin matrix materials.
This will be followed by a brief description of the three types of composites,
namely, organic-matrix, metal-matrix, and inorganic-matrix composites. Ta-
bles 4-6 give some of the mechanical properties of representative composite
materials.
118 KOMANDURI
Table Z. Mechanical Properties of Fibers

SPECIFIC SPECIFIC
TENSILE TENSILE ELASTIC ELASTIC
DENSITY, STRENGTH, STRENGTH, MODULUS, MODULUS,
FIBER g/cm' ksi X106 in. X106 psi 10K in.
Kevlar-29 1.44 525 10.1 12 2.3
Kevlar-45 1.44 525 10.1 18 3.5
HT graphite 1.75 450 7.1 32 5.1
E-glass 2.55 350 3.8 10 1.1
S-glass 2.49 575 6.4 12.4 1.4
Boron 2.60 350 4.2 65 7.8
Boron Filaments
Boron filaments cannot be formed exclusively. Instead they have to be
formed on a tungsten or carbon core using the chemical vapor deposition
(CVD) technique. For example, BCI, and tungsten are reacted at -2000°F,
resulting in the tungsten core transforming into tungsten boride on which
amorphous boron deposits. A typical 0.004-in.-diameter boron fiber contains
-0.0005-in. tungsten boride core (11). To make a usable product, the fibers
are generally placed on a glass gauge tape preimpregnated with resin and
cured. Boron composites are also made in a metal matrix, generally aluminum
or titanium, to reduce weight, yet maintain high strength at room (aluminum)
or elevated temperature (titanium).
Glass Fibers
Glass fiber-reinforced plastics (GFRP) developed in the 1940s were the
first lightweight, high-strength, relatively inexpensive engineering compos-
ites. The most common types of glass fibers are the E-glass (electrical) and
the S-glass (high strength). E-glass is a calcium alumina borosilicate with low
levels of sodium or potassium. Typical composition of an E-glass is 52-56%
Si0 2 , 12-16% Al 203 , 16-25% CaO, and 8-13% B20,. E-glass has a tensile
strength of 500 ksi and a modulus of elasticity of 10.5 X 106 psi. S-glass has
higher specific strength and is more expensive than E-glass (see Table 2).
Consequently, it is used primarily in military and aerospace applications for
Table 3. Mechanical Properties Polyester and Epoxy Resin Matrix (1)

PROPERTIES POLYESTER EPOXY
Tensile strength, ksi 6-13 8-19
Tensile modulus of elasticity, psi X 106 0.30-0.64 0.41-0.61
Flexural yield strength, ksi 8.5-23 18.1
Impact strength (notched-bar Izod test), ft -Ib/in, of notch 0.2-0.4 0.1-1.0.
Density, g/cm' 1.10-1.46 1.2-1.3
MACHINING OF FIBER·REINFORCED COMPOSITES 119
reinforcing metals or ceramics. The inherently high cost of processing metal

or ceramic matrix composites makes it unattractive to use glass as a rein-
forcing material; instead the choice is for the use of more expensive high-
performance fibers such as boron in the case of metal matrix composites
(MMCs) and SiC in the case of ceramic matrix composites (CMCs).
Aramid Fibers
Aramid is the generic name for aromatic polyamide. Aramid fibers were
introduced by du Pont in 1972 under the trade name Kevlar@. There are two
commercial types: Kevlar-29 and Kevlar-49. Kevlar-29 is a low-density, high-
strength, low modulus fiber designed for such applications as ropes, cables,
armor shield, etc. Kevlar-49 is characterized by low density, high strength,

and high modulus. It is used in such applications as aerospace, space shuttle,
marine, automotive, and other industrial applications. The chemical structural
unit of aramid is shown in Fig. 1. The polymer chains are bonded together
by hydrogen bonding in the transverse direction. The fibers have high strength
in the longitudinal direction and low strength in the transverse direction. The
aromatic ring structures give high rigidity to the polymer chains, causing them
to have a rod-like structure.
Carbon Fibers
Carbon fibers have a combination of lightweight, very high-specific
strength and stiffness. Carbon fibers are produced mainly from two sources:
polyacrylonitrile (PAN) and pitch. The tensile strength ranges from 450-650
ksi and the modulus of elasticity ranges from 28-35 X 106 psi. In general,
the higher modulus fibers have lower strengths and vice versa. The density
of the fibers ranges from 1.7-2.1 g/cm'. In view of the relatively high cost
of carbon fibers, they are used mainly for high-tech applications where light-
weight, specific modulus both at room and elevated temperatures are required.
They are also used in high value added products, such as tennis racquets,
golf clubs, and fishing rods.
Silicon Carbide Fibers

Silicon carbide fibers are produced by a vapor-phase decomposition pro-
cess in which the fiber component is deposited from the vapor phase on a
o 0
11-0-"I
C
- I I-0-"
- I C-N N
H H
Figure 1. Chemical structurat unit of an aromatic polyamide (1).

120 KOMANDURI
carbon substrate. They can also be formed by the decomposition of naturally

occurring substances such as rice hulls.
Modern composite materials, depending on the matrix material used, can
be classified as follows:
1. Polymer (organic) matrix composites (PMC).

2. Metal matrix composites (MMC).
3. Ceramic (inorganic) matrix composites (CMC).
Theoretically, a multitude of materials can come under these categories.

In the following text a brief description of some of the composites used
industrially of the three previous categories are given.
PMC
The common types of fibers used to reinforce plastic materials are glass,
graphite, aramid, and boron. Glass fiber reinforced plastics (GFRP) are by
far the most commonly used materials in view of their relatively high specific
strength and low cost. The other materials provide higher specific strength,
higher specific stiffness, and light weight. They are, however, expensive and
are used only for those applications where performance and not cost is the
major consideration. Aramid is used instead of graphite where strength, light-
ness, and flexibility are major considerations, and stiffness and high-temper-
ature performance are not. The common matrix materials used are polyester
and epoxy resins. Polyester resins are lower in cost and are not as strong as
the epoxy. Their use as composites include boat hulls, structural panels for
automobiles and aircraft, building panels, appliances, etc. Epoxy, in addition,
has a lower shrinkage after cure. It is used commonly in carbon and aramid
fiber composites. Tables 3 and 4 give some mechanical properties of polyester
and epoxy resins, GFRP polyester composites, respectively. Maximum-use
temperatures of polymeric matrix composites are relatively low, as the matrix
material is prone to softening or chemical decomposition (or degradation) at
moderate temperatures. The same conditions apply for machining these ma-
terials.
Table 4. Mechanical Properties of GFRP Composites (1)

WOVEN CHOPPED SHEET-MOLDING
CLOTH ROVING COMPOUND
Tensile strength, ksi 30-50 15-30 8-20
Tensile modulus of elasticity, Msi 1.5-4.5 0.80-2.0
Impact strength notched bar, Izod 5.0-30 2.0-20.0 7.0-22.0
ft ·Ib/in. of notch
Density, g/crrr' 1.5-2.1 1.35-2.30 1.65-2.0
MMC
MMCs are used for applications requiring higher operating temperatures
than are possible with PMCs. Most of these alloys are developed for the
aerospace industry, but new applications are found in the auto industry such
as in automobile engine parts. There are three types of MMCs depending on
the nature of the fibers used, namely, continuous, discontinuous, or particu-
late.
Continuous fibers provide the highest stiffness and strength for MMCs.
Boron-aluminum composites are one of the earliest developed MMC mate-
rials. It is made by hot pressing layers of boron fibers between aluminum
foils, so that the foil deforms around the fibers and bond to each other (11).
By reinforcing with boron, the tensile strength can be increased by a factor
of 3-5 while the elastic modulus can be tripled. Silicon carbide, graphite,
alumina, and tungsten fibers are some of the fibers used in MMCs. To keep
the weight low, aluminum, magnesium, and titanium are the most commonly
used metal matrix materials. Table 5 gives some of the mechanical properties
of the MMCs. Applications of MMCs include use of boron-aluminum for the
fuselage of the space shuttle orbiter, SiC-AI for the vertical tail section of
advanced fighter planes, and SiC-titanium aluminide for hypersonic aircraft.
The discontinuous and particulate MMCs are low-cost MMCs that pro-
vide higher strength and stiffness and better dimensional stability over rein-
forced alloys. Small additions of the reinforcement (-20%) moderately in-
crease the strength and stiffness.
They also increase the wear resistance and contribute toward the diffi-
culty in machining these materials. These alloys are used for sporting equip-
ment, automobile engine parts (e.g., pistons), missile guidance parts, etc.
Table 5. Mechanical Properties of MMC Materials (1)

TENSILE ELASTIC STRAIN TO
STRENGTH, MODULUS, FAILURE,
ksi psi X 106 %
Continuous-fiber MMCs:
AI 2124-T6 (45% B) (axial) 211 32 0.810
AI 6061-T6 (51 % B) (axial) 205 33.6 0.735
Al6061-T6 (45% SiC) (axial) 212 29.6 0.89
Discontinuous-fiber MMCs:
AI 2124-T6 (20% SiC) 94 18.4 2.4
AI 6061-T6 (20% SiC) 70 17.7 5
Particulate MMCs:
AI 2124 (20% SiC) 80 15 7.0
AI 6061 (20% SiC) 72 15 5.5
No reinforcement:
AI 2124-F 66 103 9
AI 6061-F 45 10 12
122 KOMANDURI
CMC
CMCs are being developed mainly to improve fracture toughness. They
already possess higher specific modulus and elevated temperature mechanical
properties superior to metals. Continuous fibers, discontinuous fibers, or par-
ticulates can be used as reinforcing materials. The common fiber materials
used are alumina and silicon carbide. Oak Ridge National Laboratories re-
cently developed a SiC whisker-reinforced alumina. A 20 wt% of SiC whisk-
ers to alumina can increase the fracture toughness from 4 to 8 ksi/in.!". Such
an increase in toughness of a ceramic cutting tool will enable it to take heavy
cuts or to perform without fracture in interrupted cutting. Conventional
hot isostatic pressing (HIP) techniques can be used to consolidate the CMCs.
Table 6 gives some of the mechanical properties of CMCs. Other CMCs
include carbon/carbon composite in which high-strength carbon fibers are
embedded in a graphite matrix. The low density of carbon in combination
with the extraordinary strength of carbon fibers offers potential for the de-
velopment of high specific-strength materials.
Figure 2 is the stress-strain behavior of various types of reinforcing
fibers with the slope giving the modulus of elasticity. Figure 3 is a plot of
specific strengths versus specific modulus for various types of reinforcing
fibers. It can be seen that aramid (Kevlar-49), graphite, and boron fibers have
outstanding specific strength/specific modulus compared to steel or aluminum.
Figure 4 is a plot of specific strength versus specific stiffness of various
composites with conventional metallic-matrix materials. It can be seen that
composites, in general, have higher specific strength/specific modulus over
conventional steel, AI, Ti, and Mg, and the MMCs have properties superior
to polymer-reinforced composites. Figure 5 shows the variation of specific
strength with temperature for various composites (12). Fiber-reinforced plas-
tic have higher specific strength (tensile strength/density) at low temperatures.
For high-temperature applications, one needs to move from PMCs to MMCs
to CMCs.
Table 6. Mechanical Properties of SiC Whisker-Reinforced Ceramic-Matrix Composites at

Room Temperature (1)
FLEXURAL FRACTIJRE
MATRIX SiC WHISKER STRENGTIl, TOUGHNESS,
MATERIAL Vol. % CONTENT ksi ksi~
Si,N. 0 60-95 4.6-6.4
10 60-75 5.9-8.6
30 50-65 6.8-9.1
Al 2O, 0 4.1
10 57-73 6.5
20 75-115 6.8-8.2
MACillNING OF FIBER·REINFORCED COMPOSITES 123
4137
(600)
3447
(500)
2758
(400)
~
!
:.::s
2068
[ (300)
1il
~
~
1379
(200)
689
(100)
_ _- - - - - - - - - - -. . Nomex
2 4
T.MU. strain, ~
Figure 2. Stress-strain characteristics of various types of reinforcing fibers (from Kevlar 49

Data Manual, E. I. du Pont de Nemours).
~ba
p
~
!
K"'1l" 49
resin-Impregnated strands
"
.5
!,
•
Sgl....
•
lIT graphite
(hlg/l tensue)
""Ii>
c lIqfon
~ •
8M graphite
~
'"c
~ (hlg/l modulus)
~
u
~
'"
0 1 2 3 4 5
Sped/Ie tensU. modul us, Ill' In. = ...............
_
Figure 3. Specific tensile strength versus specific tensile modulus of various types of reo
inforcing fibers (courtesy E. I. du Pont de Nemours).
124 KOMANDURI
0.4S B/AI
iz e.se
• Be. 0.34GrlMg
• •
SiCffi
~ o 0.37GrlAI
~ Conventional
""~
Steel. AI. T" Mg
•
~
~
0.25 @X!) 0.37Gr/AI
tI O.25SiC,.IAI
t
0.60 GrlEpo.y
'"
• @o.SOGrlEpo,y •
Figure 4. Specific strength versus specific stiffness for various metal matrix composites.
Number in front of the composite represents the volume fraction of the reinforcement (12).
MACHINING OF FIBER·REINFORCED COMPOSITES
Machining of fiber-reinforced composites differs significantly in many

aspects from machining of conventional metals and their alloys (13). In the
machining of fiber-reinforced composites, the material behavior is not only
inhomogeneous, but it also depends on diverse fiber and matrix properties,
fiber orientation, and the relative volume of matrix and fibers. The tool en-
counters continuously alternate matrix and fiber materials, whose response to
machining can be entirely different. For example, in an aluminum-boron com-
posite, the tool continuously encounters a soft aluminum matrix and hard
boron fibers. Similarly, in a glass-epoxy composite, the tool encounters a low-
TCllq)era~ure •F
Figure 5. Variation of specific strength with temperature (12).

MACIllNING OF FIBER·REINFORCED COMPOSITES 125
temperature soft epoxy matrix and brittle glass fibers. It is this diverse re-
quirement of a cutting tool that makes composites somewhat unique and at
the same time difficult to machine. Therefore, machining of fiber-reinforced
composites impose special demands on the geometry and abrasion resistance
of the tool materials.
Conventional machining practices are generally applied to the machining
of composites in view of the availability of equipment and experience, in
spite of the fact that the response of composites to machining is entirely
different from metal machining. However, in some applications conventional
machining with a tool harder than the work material may not even be an
economical proposition. For example, in the machining of glass reinforced
with continuous fibers of SiC composite, no conventional cutting tool mate-

rial, including polycrystalline diamond (PCD), would last longer than another
(14). The need, therefore, arises for alternate material removal processes or
nonconventional machining processes, such as laser cutting, ultrasonic ma-
chining, water jet (or abrasive water jet) cutting, or electrical discharge ma-
chining. Of course, all of these processes have their own limitations. The
objective would be to choose a process that takes advantage of its unique
capabilities while exploiting the weaknesses of the work material, enabling
it to be processed economically and yet meet the requirements of the part.
Since most fibers used in composites (e.g., glass, boron, and carbon) are
hard and abrasive, the tool materials recommended for use include cemented
carbides (coated and uncoated), ceramics, cubic boron nitride (cBN), and
diamond (single crystal or polycrystalline). However, cemented carbide and
diamond are the commonly used materials. High speed steel (HSS) tools are
also used in some cases, but at the expense of rapid tool wear. In view of
high tool wear and the high costs of tooling that are experienced with con-
ventional machining, noncontact material removal processes offer an attrac-
tive alternative. This will also minimize the dust and noise problems. In
addition, extensive plastic deformation and consequent heat generation as-
sociated with conventional machining of fiber-reinforced composites (espe-
cially with an epoxy matrix) can be minimized. These processes include laser
machining, water jet (with or without an abrasive), ultrasonic machining, and
electrical discharge machining. Each of these processes offers certain advan-
tages and shortcomings compared to conventional machining and even com-
pared among themselves. For example, electrical discharge machining (EDM)
requires that the composite material be electrically conductive. Laser ma-
chining depends on the optical absorption and thermal properties of compos-
ite. In the following text some of the issues involved in the conventional
machining of representative composite materials are discussed.
Conventional Machining
As pointed out earlier, conventional machining of composites is some-
what difficult in view of the diverse fiber and matrix properties, fiber orien-
126 KOMANDURI
tation, inhomogeneous nature of the material, and the presence of high vol-
ume fraction of hard, abrasive fibers in the matrix. Glass-, graphite-, and
boron-reinforced composites (even polymer based) are difficult to machine
because of rapid tool wear. Even cemented carbide tools wear rapidly and
one may have to resort to the use of diamond-impregnated tools. Several
advances have been made in the tool materials development including poly-
crystalline diamond tools, diamond-plated tools, and diamond-impregnated
tools in various forms such as core drills, milling cutters, drills, and grinding
wheels. In the following text various issues involved in the machining of
some of these materials are presented as examples.
Machining of Boron-Titanium Composites

Boron is hard and abrasive, whereas titanium is chemically reactive with
most tool materials. The dissimilar and difficult machining characteristics of
boron-titanium composites makes the task of machining even more challeng-
ing than other composites. Doron and Maikish (15) conducted tests on a
boron-epoxy/titanium laminate in a variety of machining operations including
drilling, reaming, countersinking, routing, milling, and sawing. They used
diamond-impregnated tools as well as plated tools. The following are typical
drilling condition recommendations: cutting speed from 200-600 SFPM (sur-
face feet per minute) and a feed rate of 0.0005-0.005 in./rev. A tool life of
up to 400 holes with a 1/4 in. diameter drill was reported. The use of cutting
fluids was recommended to reduce heat buildup both in the tool and the part.
Protecting the machinery to prevent wear of machine elements by abrasive
boron dust was also highly recommended. Diamond-impregnated tools were
found to perform better than diamond-plated tools.
Machining of Aramid-Reinforced Plastic Composites

Aramid-reinforced plastic composite is an inherently tough material;
therefore, cutting tools should be sharp and clean. Tools should be cleaned
frequently to remove buildup of partially cured resins that can cause a loss
in cutting action. The requirements of tools for machining aramid-reinforced
plastics are different from those of glass or carbon fibers. In many respects
aramid-reinforced polymer resembles wood. The structure is characterized by
the presence of highly oriented fibrous material embedded in a matrix. The
best results are obtained when machining is processed in such a way that the
fibers are preloaded in tension and then cut with a shearing action.
Special cutters were specifically developed to address this problem (16).
For example, Paige (17) developed a four-fluted spiral rotary carbide milling
cutter (Fig. 6a) with a unidirectional helix throughout much of its length, and
a reverse directional helix adjacent to the cutting edge. Chip breakers are
arranged along the lands with the notches at alternate lands aligned and the
notches of the other lands intermediately aligned. The notches are cut at an
MACHINING OF FIBER.REINFORCED COMPOSITES 127
(a)
(b)
(d)
Figure 6. New tool designs specially made for the machining of aramid fiber reinforcing
polymers (17 - 20).
angle of about 20 deg from a line perpendicular to the axis of the cutting
tool. These cullers with angled chip breakers were designed to cut cleanly
the aramid fiber-reinforced plastic composites. They operate at production
speeds with minimal overheating. Figures 6b-6d show some of the other
designs or cutters specifically made for drilling aramid fiber-reinforced resin
composites (18-20).
Since aramid-reinforced polymers are not particularly hard, HSS tools
should give a reasonable tool life if care is taken to avoid overheating the
tool. Coated (TiN) HSS tools should prolong the life further and minimize
128 KOMANDURI
buildup on the tool. Cemented carbide tools provide longer tool life and
maintain sharper cutting action. These tools could easily handle single (ar-
amid) reinforcing fiber composites. When "hybrid" composites containing
glass or graphite in addition to aramid have to be machined, tool wear will
be high. Diamond impregnated or plated tools are not recommended for ma-
chining aramid-reinforced polymer composites (13). Backup support is rec-
ommended on both entrance and exit sides to avoid fuzz and delamination.
E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Co., that developed aramid (Kelvar) fibers, has
conducted extensive machining tests on this material in collaboration withlor
in support of its customers. The guidelines for machining Kevlar aramid
composites and should be consulted for details on the recommended cutting
conditions for various machining operations (21).
Machining of GFRP Composites

In view of the high hardness and abrasiveness of glass fibers in GFRP
composites, cemented carbide and preferably diamond tools (single crystal
and polycrystalline) are recommended for machining these materials. While
HSS tools can be used to machine GFRP, they wear rapidly and cutting speeds
should be kept low enough not to overheat the tool. Maintaining the sharpness
of the tool will be a real problem for both HSS and cemented carbide tools
because of the abrasive action on the cutting tool by the glass fibers. Some
consider the machining of GFRP to be similar to drilling a hole in a resin-
bonded grinding wheel (22). A dull tool can dissipate considerable heat into
the workpiece and damage the resin-based composites. Although alumina-
based tools can be used because of their higher hardness, the possibility of a
chemical reaction between alumina and glass should not be overlooked.
Polycrystalline diamond tools are preferred, particularly in the case of GFRP
components with a high glass fiber content (-60%) that have to be machined
to tight tolerances and with a good surface finish (23). Of course, rigid ma-
chine tools are preferred when machining GFRP with PCD to take advantage
of PCD's superior cutting performance capability. To prevent wear of ma-
chine elements in relative motion because of the abrasive action of the glass
fibers, protective covers have to be incorporated in the machine tool. Some-
times it is necessary to dedicate a machine tool for machining this material
if enough parts are to be fabricated on a continuing basis. When using PCD
it is preferable to clamp rather than braze the insert on the tool holder to
avoid softening the braze material. The final choice of the tool material, say,
between cemented carbide and PCD, depends on the economics of the ma-
chining operation as well as the part requirements. Appropriate dust collection
and extraction systems should be in place when machining GFRP. Operator
safety should be a prime consideration and the use of masks, hand gloves,
an apron or lab coat are required to minimize the risks involved in the health
and safety of operating personnel because of loose glass fibers and dust.
Cutting speeds ranged from 100-150 SFPM for carbides and 500-1500
SFPM for PCD.
Machining of Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Plastic (CFRP) Composites

Although CFRP are generally fabricated to near-set-shape, there often
is a need to conduct some additional machining operations such as drilling
of holes, trimming of the edges, etc. High tool wear and delamination of the
composites are some of the concerns in machining. Koplev et al. (24) con-
ducted orthogonal machining tests using a quick stop device to freeze the
cutting process and obtain the chip root. They conducted cutting experiments
parallel and perpendicular to the fibers. When cutting parallel to the fibers,
they found the surface to have visible fibers. They also found that nearly all
fibers were fractured perpendicular to their longitudinal direction. When the
composite was machined perpendicular to the fibers, they did not find the
surface with visible fibers; instead they found the whole surface to be coated
with a thin layer of the matrix material. They also found a layer of disturbed
material with cracks below the surface layer. Koplev et al. observed a rather
sharp notch with no cracks in front when machining perpendicular to the fiber
direction. In contrast, a crack was found in front of the notch when machining
parallel to the fibers. Based on these observations Kop1ev et al. pointed out
that during machining of CFRP perpendicular to the fibers, two separate ef-
fects occur near the tool tip. As the tool moves forward, it presses on the
composite in front of it causing the composite to fracture and create a chip.
At the same time a downward pressure on the composite below the tool
produces fine cracks (=0.01 in. deep) into the specimen. When the composite
is machined parallel to the fibers, the tool applies pressure on the specimen,
resulting in chips; but a crack is often seen in front of the tool tip indicating
that this crack seems further or deeper than the current chip. At the surface
there are cracks that reach depths of only one or two fiber diameters.
Friend et al. (25) conducted machining tests using conventional and
nonconventional machining methods. To reduce tool wear, the authors rec-
ommended diamond tooling. For producing intricate shapes of high accuracy,
the authors recommended ultrasonic machining.
Fundamental Studies on Chip Formation Mechanics

Several fundamental studies were conducted to obtain insights into the
mechanisms of material removal in machining composite materials. For ex-
ample, Bhatnagar et al. (26) investigated orthogonal machining of unidirec-
tional CFRP composites. They studied the effect of fiber orientation with
respect to the cutting direction on the machining response. When the fibers
were oriented at + 10 deg in the +e direction, the fibers were found to bend
to the underside of the tool edge and not get cut (+ e is measured counter-
clockwise from the machined surface). The resulting surface was full of fibers
130 KOMANDURI
not being cut and delaminated (27). In contrast, when the fibers were oriented
at the -10 deg direction, they were found to break in tension, with the ma-
chining surface produced as a consequence. Chips were produced ahead of the
cutting edge of the tool by the shearing of the matrix in a plane along the fiber
orientation. A model for predicting the cutting forces for composites with fibers
oriented in different directions to the cutting direction was also proposed.
Wern et al. (28) investigated the stress fields in the machining of fiber-
reinforced plastics using a model material and photoelastic analysis. They
used polyester matrix with embedded copper wire, which is a ductile rein-
forcement in a brittle matrix and the opposite of conventional fiber-reinforced
plastic where the matrix is ductile and the fibers brittle. For this particular
case, Wern et al. found that in the case of fibers oriented away from the
cutting direction, the fibers were machined by shearing and tensile fracture;
and in the case of fibers oriented toward the cutting tool, the fibers failed by
shearing and bending. They also found the fiber matrix debonding to be
maximum for fibers oriented at 45 deg to the tool path.
Arola et al. (29) investigated the chip formation mechanism in the or-
thogonal trimming of a graphite-epoxy composite using polycrystalline cut-
ting tools. Similar to Bhatnager et al. (26), Arola et al. found the character-
istics of chip formation to be primarily dependent on the fiber orientation. In
the O-deg fiber orientation they found that the chip formation mechanism
included failure along the fiber-matrix interface through cantilever bending
and fracture perpendicular to the fiber direction. In positive fiber orientations
up to 75 deg, chip formation involved compressive-loading-induced shear at
the tool nose. In the 90 deg and negative fiber orientations, the chip formation
mechanism was composed of out-of-plane shear with severe compressive
loading-induced intralaminar deformation.
Di IIio et al. (30) investigated the effect of drilling parameters on specific
energy when drilling various composites (thermoset and thermoplastic matri-
ces with aramid and glass fibers). They found that specific energy can be
expressed as a function of the feed rate and diameter of the drill, similar to
the relationship obtained when drilling metals. The coefficients for the func-
tional relationship varies with the particular type of composite and the twist
drill used. They also found that the thrust force (or feed force), which is a
critical parameter in the drilling of composites, is related to the cutting torque,
which in turn, is related to the specific energy. Since, when drilling compos-
ites, one of the main concerns is the delamination (which does not exist in
the case of metals), the correlation between torque and thrust force represents
an important finding that affects not only the machinability, but also the in-
tegrity of the composite after drilling. With this relationship, it may be pos-
sible to determine a value of thrust force low enough to avoid delamination.
Since the temperature during drilling of composites is a concern, both from
the point of drill life and the workpiece quality, Bella et al. (31) evaluated
the temperature generated in drilling composites both analytically and exper-
imentally.
It is well known that delamination is a major concern during drilling of

composites because it reduces the structural integrity and results in poor as-
sembly tolerance. It can thus cause long-term performance deterioration. Ho-
Cheng and Dharan (32) investigated the delamination during drilling in com-
posite laminates. It was found that drilling-induced delamination occurs both
at the entrance and exit during drilling. Ho-Cheng and Dharan analyzed this
problem using fracture mechanics and found an optimal thrust force as a
function of drilled hole depth. They proposed that optimum thrust force for
no delamination can be used for feedback control to maximize productivity.
Wear of Cutting Tools in Machining of Composites

In view of the hard, abrasive reinforcing fibers such as glass, carbon,

and boron used in most PMCs, tool wear in conventional machining is gen-
erally a serious problem with most tool materials. Hasegawa et al. (33) con-
ducted extensive studies on the characteristics of tool wear when machining
GFRPs. They found the tool wear to be predominantly abrasive in nature and
proportional to the contact pressure between a glass fiber and the tool under
a constant cutting length. They divided the tool wear with cutting speed into
three regions. At very low speeds (Region I) they found the tool wear to be
negligible and independent of cutting speed and dependent only on the length
of cut; the wear increasing linearly with the length of the cut. At intermediate
speeds (Region II) the tool wear was found to increase with cutting speed.
At higher speeds (Region III) tool wear was found to increase rapidly and
independently of speed. Hasegawa et al. developed a rheological model of
tool wear to explain the observed wear phenomenon in machining GFRP.
Ramulu et al. (34) investigated the machining of a graphite-epoxy com-
posite with PCD tools. The wear behavior was characterized by small cracks,
rounded edges, and flank wear. It was also found that the larger the diamond
grain size (the coarser the PCD grade) the better the wear resistance.,
Ho-Cheng and Puw (35) investigated the machinability of carbon fiber-
reinforced thermoplastics (ABS) (in contrast to the thermosetting epoxy) in
drilling. They found the machinability to be good, wear on the HSS drills to
be minimal, and the quality of finished surface to be good.
Nonconventional Machining
To overcome the rapid tool wear experienced in conventional machining
of some composites containing hard, abrasive, or refractive constituents, al-
ternate material removal operations have been adopted. These include laser
machining, electrical discharge machining, WI and AWl cutting, ultrasonic
machining, and electrochemical spark machining.
These are basically noncontact machining operations involving no cut-
ting tools, and consequently, no cutting forces. In the following text some of
the issues involved in the processing of composites are outlined.
132 KOMANDURI
Laser Machining
Laser machining is based on the interaction of the work material with
an intense, highly directional coherent monochromatic beam of light, from
which material is removed predominantly by melting and/or vaporization. In
the case of resin matrix material it is removed by chemical degradation. The
type of laser to be used for the machining of a given composite depends upon
the following characteristics of the beam and the work material properties
(35,36): power density, wavelength of emission (type of laser), interaction
time [continuous wave (cw) versus pulse], polarization of the beam, absorp-
tion coefficient at the given wavelength, melting and vaporization tempera-
ture, thermal conductivity, heat capacity, diffusivity, and heat of vaporization.
Several types of lasers are available for machining composites including

solid-state lasers and gas lasers. Fiber-reinforced plastics generally exhibit a
high absorption of infrared rays typical of those produced by a CO 2 laser.
Since polymers do not generally exhibit a fusion reaction, the vapor column
is not surrounded by molten material as in metals. This together with the
thermal properties of the plastics are such that the vaporization process occurs
at much lower specific powers (10- 3-10- 5 W/cm 2) .
As previously noted, laser-beam machining is based on the interaction
of an intense, highly directional coherent monochromatic beam of light (laser
beam) with a work material from which material is removed by melting and
vaporization or chemical degradation. The physical processes involved in
laser machining are basically thermal in origin. When a laser beam impinges
on a work material several effects arise, including, reflection, absorption, and
conduction of the laser beam. The amount by which the beam is reflected
depends on the wavelength of the laser radiation, and on the condition and
properties of the work material, such as roughness, degree of oxidation, and
its temperature. The amount of laser energy absorbed by the surface of the
composite material depends on the optical as well as the thermochemical
properties of the material. Figure 7 shows the variation of % reflectance for
several metals as a function of the wavelength of several laser lines (37). For
efficient lasing action, % absorption should be as high as possible or %
reflection as low as possible. Most metals absorb more readily at shorter
wavelengths, and hence, less power is required to machine these materials at
these wavelengths. Therefore, Nd:YAG with a wavelength of 1.06 Il-m would
be more suitable for machining MMCs than CO 2 • In contrast, some of the
organic resins and other compounds have a higher % absorption at higher
wavelengths close to that of the CO 2 laser (10.6 urn), and hence, CO 2 would
be more appropriate for machining such materials (e.g., aramid-resin com-
posites). It should be noted that as melting begins or the material begins to
interact with its atmosphere, the % absorption may change. Thus, the %
absorption in drilling may change as the process continues. For example, the
% absorption in part of the hole drilled could be different from its initial
value at the surface.
MACmNING OF FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES 133
w 1001-r--i'""-;:==::::::::~====;;;;;;~~;1
.
u
z
...... ,
...
2
Z
, - LEAD GLASS
,
\
\
ITRANSMITTANCE)
...
0:
I
\
I
~rr
0:
o / ARGON! 48 ,52/"nl \
...
.... I
u " Nd"YAG 2nd I
Z I / HARMONIC (.53) \ C02 (10.6)
....
U He-Nef.6])
RUBY (,694)
1
~
...w ...--Nd:GLASS Nd:YAG
..
0: 11.061
OL-_-'---_ _"--lL-...lL_--'-_ _---'-_----'J.------J
0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 5.0
WAVE l ENGTH (JA m I
Figure 7. % Reflectance of several metals as a function of wavelength, with the wavelengths

of several laser lines indicated (41).
Generally, the longer the wavelength of the laser beam, the higher the
reflectivity of the metal workpieces. Similarly, the higher the thermal con-
ductivity (thermal diffusivity), the higher the reflectivity. The higher reflec-
tivity of some materials [especially high conductivity (even better high dif-
fusivity) metals such as aluminum and copper] at higher laser wavelengths
(e.g., 10.6 u.m for CO 2) renders them unsuitable or uneconomical for ma-
chining. For wavelengths greater than 5 urn, most metals reflect over 90%
of the incident radiation at low power densities. Consequently, low wave-
length lasers (e.g., Nd:YAG with a wavelength of 1.06 urn) would be pref-
erable for laser machining of high conductivity metals, provided there is
adequate power available for lasing. In contrast, nonmetals (e.g., plastics,
glass, and ceramics) with low thermal conductivity are ideal candidates for
CO 2 laser machining (reflectivity is inversely proportional to the thermal con-
ductivity). The amount of reflectivity can, however, be reduced substantially
by modification of the surface conditions on the work materials. For example,
the reflectivity of copper at a wavelength of 694.3 nm (Ruby laser) can be
reduced from 95% to less than 20% by oxidizing the surface. Similarly, re-
flectivity can be reduced significantly once the material begins to melt.
Energy transfer from a laser to the work material may occur in two
ways. At low values of specific power (i.e., below a threshold value), the
laser energy is absorbed in a superficial zone of the work material and heat
is transmitted into the material by conduction. Above the threshold power,
which is high enought to melt and/or vaporize the material, a vapor column
surrounded by molten material forms and energy is absorbed through the
entire thickness of the workpiece. The temperature reached by the material
produces changes in the mechanical and physical properties near the inter-
action of the work material and the laser. The nature of these changes as well
as the magnitude of the heat affected zone (HAZ) depends on the temperature
134 KOMANDURI
Table 7. Typical Thermal Properties of Fiber-Reinforced Material Constituents

p, K, C, K, T., H.,
MATERIAL g em":' W m " K- ' J kg " K- ' (em' s-')lO-' °C J g-I
Resin 1.25 0.20 1200 1.30 450 1000

Aramid Fibers 1.44 0.05 1420 0.24 950 4000
Carbon Fibers 1.85 50 710 380 3300 43000
Glass 2.55 1.0 850 4.6 2300 31000
reached in the vapor column and the thermal exchange coefficient between
vaporized and solid zones.
Tables 7 and 8 give some of the thermal properties of resin and various
reinforcing fibers, and various unidirectional composites, respectively. Note
the poor thermal properties of polymer resin that constitutes 50-60% of a
fiber reinforced plastic (FRP). The properties of aramid fibers are somewhat
similar to that of resin with minor differences in magnitudes. In contrast, the
properties of carbon and glass fibers are different from that of the resin matrix
material. As a result large differences exist between the thermal properties of
resin matrix and glass or graphite fibers while the difference are negligible
with aramid. The energy needed for vaporization for glass or graphite is also
very high compared to the matrix. The laser power requirements, therefore,
will be strongly dependent on the fibers used and their volume fraction and
not the matrix. However, too high a laser power may vaporize or chemically
degrade the polymer matrix.
The vapor column generation mechanism is strongly influenced by the
nature of the constituent materials of the composite (fibers and matrix), which
may exhibit very different properties. At high specific powers, the time to
vaporize the constituents of the composite is very short, but because of their
different thermal properties, fibers and matrix can exhibit very different values
of vaporization times. Theoretically, the time (t) that will elapse before the
vaporization condition is reached on the work material surface under a laser
beam source can be calculated (38) as follows:
t K 2Tv
- 4F~K
where K is the thermal conductivity, Tv is the vaporization temperature, Fo is
Table 8. Typical Thermal Properties of Unidirectional Composites
COMPOSITE
Aramid/resin 1.35 0.13 1300 0.74
Graphite/resin 1.55 25 950 170
Glass/resin 1.90 0.60 1000 3.2
the specific power, and K is the thermal diffusivity. Using this equation, it is
possible to calculate the minimum values of times needed to vaporize the
materials at a given specific power. Figure 8 shows these values for a typical
matrix material and three types of fibers (39). It is possible to observe two
limit conditions at constant specific power. It can be seen that both the fibers
and the matrix exhibit different vaporization times. However, they are closer
than glass or graphite fibers for aramid fibers in a resin matrix. It is evident
that FRP with aramid fibers respond better with a laser, and hence, would be
a candidate for this material. This is fortuitous since difficulties such as sur-
face delamination and fuzziness are experienced in conventional machining
of aramid fiber-reinforced resin matrix composites.
Laser-Cut Quality Parameters

Some of the defects observed in laser cutting include fiber pullout from
the matrix surrounded by large zones with a loss of matrix material, the
presence of craters and delamination, uneven kerf width and taper in the cut
surface, the presence of charred material, and thermal cracks. Tagliaferri (40)
identified principal quality criteria for laser-cut surfaces as shown in Fig. 9.
The quality parameters include the kerf width at inlet Wi and outlet Wo of the
laser beam; the size of the heat affected zone (HAZ) Wd , which is character-
ized by the presence of fiber debonding from the matrix or matrix recession;
and thermal degradation of the fibers, matrix, and slope of the cut surface
(tan a) from inlet (Wi) to outlet (Wo ) for a given thickness(s).
Influence of Cutting Parameters
The quality of laser cutting depends only on the interaction time between
the beam and the material, and therefore, on the translation speed of the beam.
As the cutting speed increases the kerf width (Wi and Wo ) , the slope of the
cut surface tends to decrease and reaches a steady-state value (Fig. 10). The
lB' , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
t. i (5)
Figure 8. Limit conditions for the vaporization of some composite constituents versus spe-
cific power of the beam, F o, and interaction time t (40).
136 KOMANDURI
Cut 41.12011 tr
x-z
ht-2'i~ X-Z
~
Hatl"'ix
Rccession DO H
W o
Slope of the
cut surface
Vi~Vo
tea. -25"'-
[Ej
H
fJ
y-z Wo
V
Craters
I <::::;>
I Wd
l-Z
~ LJ
Hcat
x-z
afrected
Del •• ln.tion
I b. tone
-
Figure 9. Terminology for quality of laser beam cut surfaces of FRP (40).
limiting width (W;) is close to the laser beam spot diameter. In contrast, the
slope of the cut surface decreases with speed reaching a minimum value and
the slope increases with a further increase in speed (Fig. 11). The minimum
value depends on the thickness of the sample, the thinner the sample the
higher the minimum value. The HAZ, similar to the kerf width, decreases
with increasing speed (Fig. 12). This may be explained in terms of the in-
teraction time and thermal properties of the work material. The damage di-
minishes when the energy input is lower, resulting in a shorter interaction
time.
Caprino and Tagliaferri (41) developed a one-dimensional thermal model
to correlate maximum cutting speed (Vm a x ) , power (P), material thickness (r),
and focal spot diameter (d). The maximum cutting speed is given by
P
V =-
max Ktd
1.5.-----------------
• .. .. S=2.0mm
. • • co S=3.3mm
E 1. e •
. •.. • • S=4.5mrT'
VI Vo
.§. • • •..
~
0
0
.
0
0
•
•
• ..• •.. ..: • %I
~ 8.5 0
0
0 i 0
8 e ..• • • .. ..
00
..
0
8.8
8 2 4 6 8 10
V (mlmin\
Figure 10. Width of the kerf at the inlet (W,) and outlet (Wo ) of the laser versus cutting
speed; P = 800 W (40).
B
o
\
':'
~
6
0\ o~o
4 a 0 00-/
x
" o_o~o ,/',,0
8 0
\
T a, I
A
,
a
B'
2
"
0_°-10- 0-0 _
a
..
0
A A o S=2.0mm
'.-6._.(
o S=3.3mm
~ S=4.5mm
8
8 2 4 6 B 10 12
V (m/min)
Figure 11. Slope of the cut surfaces versus cutting speed; P = 800 W (40).
Figure 13 shows a linear vanatton of Vrn ax ' d versus Pit, for various
composites (AFRP, GFRP, and CFRP). The slope of the curve gives the value
of the material constant K, which is 3730 Jzcrrr' for AFRP, 40,000 J/crrr' for
CFRP, and 11,100 Jzcrrr' for GFRP.
The performance of the lasers in machining can also be changed by the
introduction of a gas jet. For example, the efficiency of metal machining can
often be increased by oxygen-assisted cutting. The technique takes advantage
of the additional energy released due to the exothermic chemical reaction of
the work material with oxygen. Depending on the type of work material, laser
0.8
~ S=2.0mm
o S=3.3mm
B.6
E °S=4.5mm
.s
1J B.4 e
~ 0
0 c
0
0
0.2
e • c
0 e
s e •c ea 22 • a e e•
B. B
8 2 4 6 8 18
V (m/min)
Figure 12. Heat-affected zone size at the inlet of the beam versus cutting speed; P = 800
W (40).
138 KOMANDURI
Ai
6
,
/ O~
l> AFRP
o
o
GFRP
CFRP
, 0/
/. /
j /0
i
/' 0--
/e 0 _ _ 0-
1 /0 _ 0 - -
~O I I
400 800
p-"'... .lWtYnml
Figure 13. Experimental values Vmex • d are reported as a function of Pit. Vm " is the maxi-
mum cutting speed above which a through cut cannot be obtained (rnm/s); d is the focal spot
diameter (11m); I is the thickness of the machine material (11m); K is the material parameter
(J/cm'). For AFRP K = 3730 J/cm', for CFRP K = 40,000 Jlcm', and for GFRP K = 11,100
Jlcm" (40).
machining may be assisted by oxygen, inert gas (N 2 or Ar), or air. For ex-
ample, oxygen assist (air and not nitrogen) would be preferable for laser-
assisted machining of titanium alloys from energy considerations. However,
to avoid oxidation of titanium, inert atmosphere may be preferred. In contrast,
nitrogen assist is preferable for machining nickel-based superalloys.
Several types of lasers are used for machining. The most commonly
used are gas (C0 2 and Excimer) lasers and solid-state (Nd:YAG and Nd:
Glass) lasers. These lasers can be operated either in a cw mode or a pulse
mode for machining. The important requirements of lasers for machining
include the following:
1. Adequate power available (cw or pulsed).
2. Controlled focal intensity profile.
3. Reproducibility of power, mode, polarization, and stability.
4. Reliability.
5. Initial and scanning costs.
Table 9 gives characteristics of various lasers for manufacturing appli-
cations (41). Excimer lasers, such as xenon chloride and argon fluoride, are
currently being developed and should soon find exciting applications for the
machining of composites.
Important characteristics of laser beams:
1. Spatial profile.
2. Beam divergence.
~
C"l
=
....
z
Ii
Table 9. Lasers Commonly Used for Materials Processing (41) C'l
0
WAVE- "'l
LASER LENGTH, MODE OF PULSE REP. PULSE :l
TYPE I'om OPERATION POWER, W RATE, pps LENGTH APPLICATIONS COMMENTS =
t"l
:p
....~
Ruby 0.6943 Normal pulse 2 X 10' peak Low 0.2-5 ms Large material removal Often uneconomical for
in one pulse, drilling multipulse applications Z
diamond dies, spot "'l
0
welding :=
C"l
Nd:Glass 1.06 Normal pulse 2 X 106 peak Low 0.5-10 ms Large material removal Often uneconomical t"l
in one pulse I:l
C"l
Nd:YAG 1.06 Continuous 200 - Welding Compact; economical at 0
Nd:YAG 1.06 Repetitively 104 peak 5000 200 ns Resistor trimming elec-
low powers
Compact and economical
~
0
Q-switched 10 average tronic circuit fabrica- en
tion ~
en
CO, 10.6 Continuous 375 - - Cutting organic materials, Bulky at high powers,
oxygen-assisted metal very economical at
cutting, scribing brittle low powers
materials
CO, 10.6 Repetitively 75000 peak 400 50-200 ns Resistor trimming Bulky but economical
Q-switched 1.5 average
CO, 10.6 Superpulsed 100 average 500 10-1001'-5 Welding, hole produc- Bulky but economical
tion, scribing
...
~
140 KOMANDURI
3. Focusing.
4. Temporal behavior.
5. Power (continuous and peak).
Benefits of laser machining:
1. Material waste (kerf width) is minimum.

2. Minimum set-up time.
3. No tools, hence, no wear or replacement.
4. Smooth edge cuts can be obtained.
5. Low total heat input, hence, low overall distortion or damage of the
part.
6. Parallel sided cuts possible.
7. Sharp contoured surfaces can be generated.
8. Independent of workpiece hardness or strength.
9. Cuts can be made without a starter or sloping.
Limitations of laser beam machining:
1. HAZ. High temperatures imparted to the workpiece by laser ma-

chining at or near the last cut can cause metallurgical changes. This
can reduce the fatigue properties of the work material.
2. Quality of holes in deep hole drilling is poor.
3. Unable to drill blind holes to precise depth.
4. Lasers not efficient with highly reflective or highly thermal con-
ducting materials.
5. Lasers not recommended for thick workpieces.
6. Lasers tend to char thick nonmetals with reradiation from decom-
position products.
Water-Jet and Abrasive Water-Jet Cutting

High-pressure water-jet cutting either in unison or in consort with fine
abrasives is a candidate process for machining inhomogeneous materials that
are hard and abrasive, such as most polymer-matrix composite materials.
Water cools the workpiece, and hence, minimizes the thermal deformation
problems commonly experienced in the conventional machining of compos-
ites. A narrow kerf, a minimum amount of dust and toxic fumes, and prac-
tically no delamination effects are some of the salient features of this system
(42). Rapid tool wear commonly experienced in conventional machining of
composites is also not an issue in water jet (or AWJ) cutting. AWJ cutting,
however, is not without its limitations. Some of the shortcomings of this
process are high noise levels (80-100 dB), and consequently, the need for a
catcher at the exit; safety; low removal rates; inability to machine blind holes
or pockets; abrasive particles or high-pressure water jet that can damage the
machine elements; and the size of the AWl cutting system and associated
equipment. Removal rates, dimensional accuracy, and finish can still be lim-
itations of AWl cutting, depending on the material and its thickness. When
machining thick materials the jet stream tends to angle away from the direc-
tion of the cutting, resulting in a tapered surface. This effect becomes more
pronounced as the thickness and/or feed rate increases.
Boron-epoxy, boron-polyester, fiberglass-epoxy, graphite-epoxy, and ar-
amid-epoxy composites are some of the candidate materials for water-jet cut-
ting. Some of the metal matrix and ceramic matrix composites can also be
machined by AWls, but at reduced cutting rates. AWl cutting of composites
depends more on the matrix material than on the reinforcement. Straight
water-jet cutting, with no abrasives, is recommended for materials with a low

yield strength (=10-15 ksi).
Korican (43) reported using an AWl (at 35-ksi pressure, 100-grit Garnet
abrasive, 20 hp) to cut resin-impregnated graphite, aramid, and glass fibers.
The cutting rates changed from 63 to 5 in./min as the thickness increases
from 1/8 to 1 in. Of course, the optimum value depends on the composite
material, its thickness, abrasive type, size used, jet pressure, etc. Table 10
gives the AWl cutting traverse rates for some composites materials of interest
after Hashish (44).
Ramulu and Arola (45) investigated the cutting of unidirectional graph-
ite-epoxy composite by Wl and AWl. They repored the principal material-
removal mechanism with Wl to be the failure associated with microbending-
induced fracture and out-of-plane shear. In AWl, the material-removal
mechanism included shearing, micromachining, and erosion. They found
AWl to be more feasible because of its material-removal mechanism, higher
removal rates, and superior surface finish.
Table 10. Traverse CUlling Rates (in/min) using AWl (P: 50 ksi, abrasive: 80 mesh garnet)
(46)
THICKNESS, in.
1/16 1/8 1/4 1/2 3/4
Organic matrix composites
Glass-epoxy 225 180 100 40 28.0
Graphite-epoxy 150 125 95 35 26.0
Carbon/carbon 75 52 31 18 9.5
Metal matrix composites
B.C-Mg (15% B.C) 71 35 24 9.5
SiC-Al (15% SiC) 40 24 12
SiC Al (25% SiC) 22 12
Al,O,-Al (15% Al,O,) 22 12
Ceramic Matrix Composites
TiB,-SiC (15% TiB,) 0.68 0.35
SiC-Al,O, (7.5% SiC) 6.4 3.30
142 KOMANDURI
Hashish (46) presented a technique for precision drilling of small di-

ameter holes in composites with an AWl. The technique involves computer
control of the jet pressure-time profile and the abrasive flow rate that in tum
controls the hole size, shape, and quality. On a ceramic matrix composite
Hashish reported drilling a hole 0.043 in diameter with an accuracy of 0.001
in.
EDM of Composites
The principles of EDM are well known and will not be discussed in this
paper. Only opportunities in machining composites will be explored. EDM

can make complex shapes with high precision. It is, however, a slow process,
but automation of the process can bring the cost of manufacturing down. The
prerequisite for the EDM process is that the work material be electrically
conductive. The electrical resistivity of the work material should be lower
than 100 O-cm; organic matrix composites are, therefore, not candidate ma-
terials for EDM. These composites can, however, be made conductive by
impregnating them with metallic fillers (Cu, AI, or Ag powders), but that can
defeat the purpose of composites for high strength, lightweight applications.
MMCs will be ideal candidates for EDM, especially where complicated
shapes and high accuracy are required. Only a few ceramic matrix composites
that are electrically conductive can be shaped by EDM. However, recent
improvements in mechanical properties, especially the fracture toughness and
strength of whisker-reinforced ceramics by improved processing technology
and starting materials, makes them ideally suited for high-temperature and
fatigue-resistant applications. Silicon carbide whisker-reinforced alumina. is
one example. The fracture toughness is nearly double that of the material
without the fibers. It is the same with silicon-nitride-based composites. These
materials are very hard but extremely difficult as well as costly to machine
or grind. If, however, these materials can be made electrically conductive by
adding conductive refractory materials such as TiC or TiN without compro-
mising on other properties, processing these components by EDM can be-
come an economic proposition. The particle size and percentage of TiC or
TiN to be added to the matrix can be adjusted to make it sufficiently electri-
cally conductive to carry out the EDM process, without compromising sig-
nificantly on the ultimate properties and performance requirements of the
material.
Silicon-nitride-based composites can be made electrically conductive by
adding TiN and alumina-based composites by adding TiC. Martin et al. (47)
found that for Si3N4-based composites with TiN additions, EDM cannot be
performed at a conductivity lower than 2 X 102 o-J cm ", since no electrical
arc is produced between the workpiece and the tool (Fig. 14). However, a
preferred value of conductivity for good EDM practice is found to be 5 X
103 0 - 1 cm- I • In contrast, for wire EDM of SiC whisker-reinforced, zirconia-
>
to-
> 10'
to- EDM LImit
U
::I
C 10'
z
o
o
...
..J 10
U
...
IE
U
1 B
W
..J
W
10" 100
30 .0 50 60 70 80 90
'Yowl TIN
Figure 14. Variation of electrical conductivity of a Si,N 4 - TiN composite versus the TiN
content for two grades of TiN (47).
10'. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . ,
S .
i10r---....,...-...JLI
i 2
....... 1000~
~
800
;)
o
z
EDM LIMIT "...
Z
IE
8 ------ ------- l-
600 III
;i
~ .....J
..
IE
U
"Conducllvllr
IE
400 ::I
)(
III
~ 10"'
III
2'St, enlllh
...
..J
200
10 20 30 40 00
"'.1 TIC
Figure 15. Influence of TiC content on electrical conductivity and on three-point-bend test
of alumina-based composites (47).
144 KOMANDURI
toughened alumina with the addition of TiC, the minimum conductivity value
was reported as 1 0- 1 cm" (Fig. 15). With a 30 vol % TiC addition to the
alumina-based composite the bend strength was reported to be 125 ksi (Fig.
16), while up to 50 vol % of TiN particles could be added to the Si3N. matrix
without reducing its fracture toughness. This is one example where difficult-
to-machine materials such as ceramic composites can be tamed by making
them electrically conducting and processing them by EDM. Typical EDM
removal rates for Si3N.-TiN composites, steel, and cemented tungsten carbide
are given in Table 11.
Gadalla and Cheng (48) investigated wire EDM of various ceramic com-
posites. By combining a nonconducting ceramic with a more conducting ce-

ramic it was possible to lower the electrical resistivity. For example, by com-
bining TiC to alumina, it could be made more conductive for EDM cutting.
Table 12 shows various composite materials (along with relevant properties)
that were successfully cut by wire EDM by Gadalla and Cheng. The addition
of a more conducting phase may in many cases not be detrimental to its
performance and may actually facilitate it. For example, by combining 30%
TiC to alumina, the strength, hardness, wear resistance, and fracture strength
of the cutting tool material will increase. At the same time, EDM can be used
for processing this material. A similar situation exists for SWON with TiN,
Si3N. with TiN, and SiC with TiB 2 as shown in Table 12.
1000
..
~
900
• • ••
II.
:l:
...:I:
e
800
Z
W
...
II:
III
700
..J
«(
II:
:l 600
x
W
..J
IL
500
0 10 20 30
.
40 50 60 70
'l. wI TiN
Figure 16. Effect of TiN ratio on the three-point bend strength of a Si3N4 , TiN composite
(47).
MACIDNING OF FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES 145
Table 11. Comparative Performance of Si,N. Composite, Steel, and WC in Wire EDM (47)
Si,N.-TiN
COMPOSITE STEEL we
Wire EDM (0.010 in. brass wire)
Wire speed, in./min 190 140 190
Cutting rate, in./min 0.28-0.5 0.16 0.14
Finish (Ra), lJ.in. 24-64 16 24
Die Sink EDM
(Copper die and oil dielectric)
Roughing operation
Die polarization, 80 V +ve +ve -ve
Intensity, A 10 10
Die consumption, % 5 5 20
Removal rate, in.'/min 0.0037 0.0043 0.0019
Finishing operation
Intensity 4 6 0
Die consumption, % 6 6 20
Removal rate, in."'/min 0.0011 0.0013 0.0007
Ultrasonic-Assisted Machining of Composites

Ultrasonic-assisted drilling involves the use of a rotary tool where an
axial vibratory motion at high frequency is superimposed. A special adaptor
is required to transmit the vibration from a piezoelectric transducer to the
tool. Ultrasonic vibration can reduce friction, break chips, and reduce tool
wear. It is a particularly useful technique when the matrix or the reinforcing
fibers are hard, brittle materials. Use of a core drill permits cutting fluids to
be passed through its center. Ultrasonic machining through a slow operation
can result in high finish and accuracy of intricate parts.
Garlasco (11) of Grumman conducted ultrasonic machining experiments
on boron fiber composites. Based on the analysis of costs, he found the
technique to be more expensive than diamond-abrasive cutting. He, however,
recommended this process as a potential for applications when intricate
shapes of high accuracy and finish are to be produced.
Table 12. Ceramic Composites Cut by Wire EDM (48)

ELEcrRICAL
DENSITY, RESISTIVITY,
MATERIAL COMPOSITION g/cm' fl-cm
A1,O,-TiC 70/30 4.23 3.5e-3
Si-SiC 5/95 3.09 1.43e-4
SiAlON-TiN 80/20 4.0 7.0e-4
Si.,N.-TiN 75/25 3.75 1.5e-3
SiC-TiB, 80/20 3.3 1.0
t46 KOMANDURI
Doran and Maikish (14) conducted rotary ultrasonic machining. They

used a core drill at speeds up to 6000 rpm while simultaneously vibrating
the tool axially at 20 kHz with a peak-to-peak amplitude of approximately
0.001 in. They found a slight improvement of tool life (~1O-20%). However,
the savings resulting from the tool life improvement was much less than the
additional costs involved in the use of ullrasonic machining of the boron-
epoxy composite. Therefore, this process was not recommended unless com-
plex shapes of high finish and accuracy are needed.
Electrochemical Spark Machining

Jain et al. (49) proposed electrochemical spark machining as a plausible

solution for the cutting of fiber-reinforced plastics. They investigated Kevlar
fiber-reinforced epoxy and glass fiber-reinforced epoxy as work materials,
copper as the tool, and an aqueous solution of NaCI as the electrolyte. They
established the feasibility for specific machining operations and the optimi-
zation of process conditions. Subsequently, Jain et al. (50) extended this con-
cept to traveling wire electrochemical spark machining (TW-ECSM) of com-
posites. Glass-epoxy and Kevlar-epoxy composites were used as the work
materials, copper wire as the traveling wire electrode, and NaOH as the elec-
trolyte. Jain et al. showed that higher accuracy was feasible with this tech-
nique.
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Composites contain fibers, which when machined, can release finer frac-
tions of the fibers into the atmosphere. Also, in the case of polymer-based
composites, some of the chemicals released because of heat and thermal dam-
age during machining can be harmful.
It has been established that fibrous materials such as asbestos can cause
cancer and other fibers such as glass are suspected agents (51). Simultaneous
exposure to both inorganic fibers and organic compounds released during the
machining of polymer-based composites can bring about respiratory compli-
cations and other medical problems. It has been reported that fibers used in
composites have diameter ranges from 9-24 J.Lm, with a median length of
10-17 J.Lm. Fibers of this size are not respirable and may not reach the lung.
If, however, these fibers are longitudinally split during machining they can
be potentially harmful.
Antonson and Runmark (52) studied the effect of airborne fibrous glass
and dust originating from machining-reinforced plastics. They examined the
possibility of longitudinal fiber division during machining of reinforced poly-
ester plastic and whether respirable glass fibers can be produced. Their results
show that such a division does not occur in the machining of glass fiber-
reinforced polyester composite.
MACffiNING OF FlBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES 147
Doyle and Kokasa (53) conducted laser-machining tests on a Kevlar

fabric poly (p-phenylene terephthalamide) using a CO 2 laser at a rate of 150
in./min and l-kW power. They collected the chemical by-products produced
during cutting and analyzed these products using a gas chromotography, mass
spectroscopy and found a number of toxic and cancer-producing compounds.
They recommended adequate ventilation and appropriate safety procedures to
prevent exposure of personnel to these gases in the laser-cutting facility. In
machining glass fiber-reinforced polymers, they found glass particles. Ac-
cording to Doyle and Kokasa, the E-glass fibers vaporize during laser cutting
and then condense as small beads ranging from 200 nm to 0.5 ....m. Since
particles less than 0.5 ....m can permeate into the deepest recess of the lungs,
they can pose a health danger to the workers in the cutting facility.
Konig and Rummenholler (54) investigated, among other things, the
safety aspects of the milling of glass and carbon fiber-reinforced plastics.
Fine dust particles that can cause respiratory problems were found to be about
1 % of the total dust collected during milling. Also, fine dust settles consid-
erably slower than coarser particles, so they could represent a risk to the
health of the operator even after the operation is completed.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The use of composites has grown significantly in the last half-century

since the initial introduction of GFRC in the early 1940s. Its use has been
progressing slowly from high-performance defense, space, and aircraft appli-
cations where cost is of secondary concern, to other civilian applications
where cost plays a significant role. Their use, however, has not grown to a
level where it can challenge steel. In fact, composites have only made a minor
dent in the auto industry. If composites can dominate its share of materials
in the auto industry, a revolution in composite material applications will oc-
cur. Composites provide lightweight vehicles, impact-resistant bodies, and
lower fuel costs. Because consumption of composites is still low, the unit
cost of the material is very high. Being a batch-manufacturing operation,
composite processing costs are also quite high. Industry forecasts that the unit
price of material along with its associated fabrication costs will come down
drastically if the volume of use increases. The auto industry predicts that it
will use a significant volume if the price is reasonable. This is a cat and
mouse situation. It will only change when composite material suppliers and
the auto industry make a determined, consorted effort to incorporate more
composite material for use in cars. The use of composites in industry today
is still very limited. However, if other factors, such as safety, fuel costs, etc.,
become significant, the use of composites will increase significantly. Some
of the reasons for the slow increase in the use of composites are as follows:
1. Material costs are high.

148 KOMANDURI
2. Processing costs are high because of the low level or absence of

mass manufacturing.
3. Joining technologies for composites have not advanced very much.
4. Repairs of damaged components made of composites are rather dif-
ficult.
5. A slight damage to composite part may result in the rejection of the
entire part.
6. Inadequate knowledge of composite material behavior in processing
and in use.
7. New technologies, such as laser and waterjet machining, have not
been applied extensively.

8. Composites are still considered as high-tech materials and are often
ignored by default in the selection criteria of materials for new prod-
ucts.
Even though it is clear that the machining of composites differs signif-
icantly in many aspects from the machining of conventional metals, the in-
tuition still is to use conventional machining technology by adopting the
existing machine tools. High capital costs and hard abrasive reinforcing fibers
that need not be machined, i.e., involving plastic deformation, but are re-
moved by brittle fracture, are the reasons for the use of conventional ma-
chining technology. Also, advancements in tool materials (especially the syn-
thesis of diamond and the development of polycrystalline diamond) and
advanced tooling design (including diamond plated and diamond-impregnated
tools) have facilitated the use of conventional machining technology. Of
course, many new near-net shape processes were developed for processing
composite parts. Huge autoclaves were built to fabricate wing sections of
fighter aircraft.
Since the manufacture of composite parts is still a batch operation, the
unit costs are still high. New manufacturing technologies may change the
situation dramatically. One wonders that if very large-scale integration tech-
nology was developed along the lines of using modified conventional ma-
chining, what progress would that technology have made by this time? It took
a totally different approach to recognize the needs of that technology. Perhaps
composite manufacturing would have been far advanced and the material's
use more extensive if such a different approach was taken from the beginning.
Who knows? In a way, they used it to a certain extent by fabricating near-
net-shaped parts and minimizing machining. In any case, composites are here
to stay in our advanced society and it is up to us to exploit it to our advantage.
The extra demands on materials and processes will guarantee composite's use
for a long time to come. The need to improve performance, reduce manu-
facturing costs, and improve quality will move the manufacturing of com-
posites to more nonconventional methods. This is especially true in a society
where today's tools are becoming tomorrow's work materials.
MACIUNING OF FIBER·REINFORCED COMPOSITES 149
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author thanks Dr. Vinanzo Tagliaferri of Politecnico di Milano, Mi-

lano, Italy, Dr. Yoshio Hasegawa of Osaka University, Osaka, Japan, Dr. Shin-
saku Hanasaki of Kumamoto University, Kumamoto City, Japan, Dr. A.
Ghosh of lIT, Kanpur, India, and Dr. Marshall Jones of G.E. Corporate Re-
search Center, Schenectady, NY for their willingness to share their work and
for permission to use their work in this paper. The author also acknowledges
the support of the Oklahoma Center for the Advancement of Science and
Technology (OCAST) through its eminent scholars program (MOST Chair)
in the preparation of this paper.
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This article was downloaded by: [Florida Atlantic University]

On: 29 August 2013, At: 08:49

Machining Science and Technology: An International

MACHINING OF FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES

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Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering,

Received April 18, 1996; Accepted January 30, 1997.

Since the introduction of glass fiber-reinforced polymer composites

Copyright © 1997 by Marcel Dekker, Inc.

discussing each aspect of composite material machining without ending

Our technologically advancing society is continually challenging the

existence for some time.

Silicon carbide 3.2 500 155 7 2.2

Group II: Glass, Ceramic, or Polymer Fibers

Group III: Hard-Drawn Metal Wires

Group IV: Composites and Other Higher Strength Materials

tional machining. Although some of the fibers used in composites such as

Machining of a fiber-reinforced composite depends on the properties of

Table Z. Mechanical Properties of Fibers

Table 3. Mechanical Properties Polyester and Epoxy Resin Matrix (1)

reinforcing metals or ceramics. The inherently high cost of processing metal

armor shield, etc. Kevlar-49 is characterized by low density, high strength,

Silicon Carbide Fibers

Figure 1. Chemical structurat unit of an aromatic polyamide (1).

carbon substrate. They can also be formed by the decomposition of naturally

1. Polymer (organic) matrix composites (PMC).

Theoretically, a multitude of materials can come under these categories.

industrially of the three previous categories are given.

Table 4. Mechanical Properties of GFRP Composites (1)

Table 5. Mechanical Properties of MMC Materials (1)

Table 6. Mechanical Properties of SiC Whisker-Reinforced Ceramic-Matrix Composites at

Figure 2. Stress-strain characteristics of various types of reinforcing fibers (from Kevlar 49

MACHINING OF FIBER·REINFORCED COMPOSITES

Machining of fiber-reinforced composites differs significantly in many

Figure 5. Variation of specific strength with temperature (12).

with continuous fibers of SiC composite, no conventional cutting tool mate-

Machining of Boron-Titanium Composites

Machining of Aramid-Reinforced Plastic Composites

conditions for various machining operations (21).

Machining of GFRP Composites

Machining of Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Plastic (CFRP) Composites

Fundamental Studies on Chip Formation Mechanics

It is well known that delamination is a major concern during drilling of

Wear of Cutting Tools in Machining of Composites

In view of the hard, abrasive reinforcing fibers such as glass, carbon,

Several types of lasers are available for machining composites including

WAVE l ENGTH (JA m I

Figure 7. % Reflectance of several metals as a function of wavelength, with the wavelengths

Table 7. Typical Thermal Properties of Fiber-Reinforced Material Constituents

Resin 1.25 0.20 1200 1.30 450 1000

Table 8. Typical Thermal Properties of Unidirectional Composites

Laser-Cut Quality Parameters

Benefits of laser machining:

1. Material waste (kerf width) is minimum.

Limitations of laser beam machining:

1. HAZ. High temperatures imparted to the workpiece by laser ma-

Water-Jet and Abrasive Water-Jet Cutting

water-jet cutting, with no abrasives, is recommended for materials with a low

Hashish (46) presented a technique for precision drilling of small di-

paper. Only opportunities in machining composites will be explored. EDM

posites. By combining a nonconducting ceramic with a more conducting ce-

Ultrasonic-Assisted Machining of Composites