Handbook

Reinforced Concrete Design

in accordance with AS 3600—2009

A joint publication of
Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia and
Standards Australia

Fifth edition July 2011

Fourth edition February 2002
Third edition May 1995
Second edition July 1991
First published September 1989

CCAA T38
HB71–2011 (Standards Australia)

© Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia 2011

and Standards Australia 2011

Except where the Copyright Act allows otherwise,

no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored
in a retrieval system in any form or transmitted by any
means without prior permission in writing of both
Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia and
Standards Australia.

The information provided in this publication is intended

for general guidance only and in no way replaces the
services of professional consultants on particular
projects. No liability can therefore be accepted by
Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia or
Standards Australia for its use.

Helen Rix Design

ISBN 978-1-877023-28-6
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ii Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

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Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook iii

Preface to Fifth edition contents
This fifth edition is a complete rewrite of the Reinforced
Concrete Design Handbook and brings it into line with Chapter 1 General
the 2009 edition of AS 3600 Concrete Structures and pages 1.1–1.20
Amendment No. 1–2010. It also takes into account
Chapter 2 Design properties for concrete
changes in other Australian Standards that have
and reinforcement
occurred since the fourth edition was published,
pages 2.1–2.16
including AS/NZS 1170 Structural Design Actions,
Part 0 General principles and Part 4 Earthquake Chapter 3 Durability and fire resistance
actions in Australia. pages 3.1–3.18
The 2009 edition of AS 3600 includes significant
Chapter 4 Beams
changes to:
pages 4.1–4.20
n The maximum concrete strength covered (now
includes 100 MPa) Chapter 5 Suspended slabs
n Development lengths and lap lengths of pages 5.1–5.20
reinforcement
Chapter 6 Columns
n Use of Ductility Classes N and L reinforcement pages 6.1–6.26
n Durability and fire requirements.
Chapter 7 Walls
The opportunity has been taken to review many of the
pages 7.1–7.24
charts and their relevance in the modern design office.
In many cases, the previous charts were nomograms Chapter 8 Footings
from an era when these were a common design tool. pages 8.1–8.12
These have now been largely replaced by design
software or, as in this Handbook, by spreadsheets. Chapter 9 Strut-and-tie modelling
pages 9.1–9.8
The spreadsheets are used to illustrate the design
principles of reinforced concrete, the requirements of Chapter 10 Design examples
AS 3600 and the recommendations of this Handbook. pages 10.1–10.50
They are in keeping with current design technology.
Appendix A The design process
The spreadsheets can be downloaded from CCAA pages A.1–A.2
website www.ccaa.com.au/publicationextras/.
There is a new chapter covering the strut-and-tie Appendix B Development and use of
design method to reflect the new section in AS 3600. the spreadsheets
pages B.1–B.2
There are also revised rules for crack control in beams
and slabs but no charts or tables are provided.
However, the Design Example in Chapter 10 includes
calculations showing how these requirements can be
checked.
By-and-large the order in which material is presented
follows that of relevant sections in AS 3600, although
not all the sections in the standard are covered.
The contribution of J Woodside fie aust fasce f i struct e
mice, Director, J Woodside Consulting, in reviewing the

Handbook and in the preparation of the design charts

and spreadsheets is gratefully acknowledged.

iv Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

Chapter 1 General
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Codes and regulations
Designers need to understand the framework of
regulations and standards within which the design of
the building or structure is designed and constructed.
For most buildings in Australia, the Building Code of
Australia (BCA)1.1 sets out the regulatory requirements
for the building *.
The Building Code of Australia sets out Objectives,
Functional Statements, Performance Requirements
and Building Solutions for the various aspects of
design, eg structural, and health and amenity. The
first two ('Objectives' and 'Functional Statements') are
broad descriptors and are used mainly to interpret the
latter two ('Performance Requirements' and 'Building
Solutions').
The Performance Requirements are qualitative
statements, eg that under structural provisions says:
A building or structure, to the degree necessary,
must:
i Remain stable and not collapse; and
ii Prevent progressive collapse; and
iii Minimise local damage and loss of amenity
through excessive deformation, vibration or However, AS 3600 represents best practice even when
degradation; and
iv Avoid damage to other properties,
by resisting the actions to which it may reasonably
be subject...'
* The terms 'building' and 'structure' are used to signify
the same entity by administrations in Australia and in
New Zealand. This may lead to some ambiguity where
the terms are used interchangeably in some joint
AS/ NZS standards. In general, in Australia the term
'building' is used to refer to buildings­—ranging from
houses to multi-storey buildings—and 'structures' to
refer to structures other than buildings whereas in New
Zealand the term 'structure' is used inclusively to cover
buildings and other structures.
How the Performance Requirements are to be satisfied
is spelt out in the Building Solutions. There are two
broad approaches:
[a] Deemed-to-satisfy (DTS) solutions; and
[b] Alternative solutions.
The DTS approach involves designing the members,
buildings and structures in accordance with the
relevant Australian standards, eg for concrete in
accordance with AS/NZS 11701.2 and AS 36001.3.
The Alternative Solution approach allows the designer
to use other codes or standards, fire test data, etc.
(The 2009 edition of AS 3600 omits a number of
clauses from previous editions which gave rise to
conflicts of interpretation with the BCA in this area,
eg those that provided rules on interpretation of test
data. Designers should be aware that their omission
in AS 3600 does not imply that the approach is invalid
but that the rules under which it is done now lie within
the BCA under Alternative Solutions, not the DTS
approach using the relevant Standard, eg AS 3600.)
As will be discussed later, AS 3600 provides for a
number of different analysis and strength check
approaches. However, the BCA and AS/NZS 1170.0
are written around a linear elastic analysis/limit
states approach using characteristic strengths of the
materials and factored loads.
Designers should be aware that AS 3600 provides
minimum solutions, ie compliance is necessary for
all buildings but particular buildings may require
the application of more-stringent provisions or
additional considerations/criteria to meet the client's
requirements.
it is not called up in the BCA and it cannot be ignored,
especially where its requirements are more stringent
than those in earlier editions of the standard.
1.1.2 Responsibility of designers and supervisors
The division of responsibility between the parties
involved in the design and those in the construction
of a building should be clearly understood and fully
expressed in the terms of engagement between
the owner and the designer, and in the contract for
construction between the owner and the builder or
contractor. 'Design' here includes the architectural and
structural design of the building and the preparation
of the drawings, specification, and sometimes
the conditions of contract and preliminaries. Most
projects will involve a number of other disciplines,
eg mechanical, electrical and service engineering.
Developing and documenting the final design solution
will normally involve a design team covering all the
required design disciplines.
Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 1.1
The designer responsible for the structural design
should be a practising civil or structural engineer
eligible for Chartered Status of Engineers Australia or
equivalent and experienced in the design of concrete
structures of comparable importance. Architects and
building graduates should not be expected to have
the appropriate skills to undertake, nor should they
assume responsibility for, the design of a concrete
structure. Graduate engineers while working under
guidance can design parts of concrete structures but
they should not take responsibly for the overall design
of the structure.
When designers assign the detail design of any
elements to a manufacturer or supplier, they should
ensure that this work is fully specified and controlled
by way of detailed performance standards, and that
these elements are coordinated with the structure as
a whole. Examples of this are the detailed design of
precast concrete elements and post-tensioned slabs.
The supervision of construction is the responsibility of
the builder. All structures should be supervised by a
suitably qualified person. If the structure is complex
or incorporates prestressed concrete, a qualified and
experienced engineer employed by the builder should
be responsible for the supervision of construction.
Periodic inspection of construction on behalf of the
owner or client is often undertaken by the designer,
or by an experienced person employed by the owner
or client but under the technical direction of the
designer. Where the project is complex or unusual, a
more‑detailed inspection regime may be required. This
arrangement facilitates the resolution, by the designer,
of any queries that may arise as to the interpretation of
the design documents.
Site records should be kept during construction
to show the dates of concrete placing, test results,
stressing details and any significant departures from
the design drawings. These provide the owner with
a useful record of the structure as built, should any
modification be required in the future.
1.2 Design Process and Procedures
1.2.1 Broad structural design aims
[a] General The aim of structural design is to produce
safe, serviceable, durable, aesthetic, economical
and sustainable structures. Designers should always
strive for simplicity, clarity and excellence in their
design. Simple design does not mean elementary
design but rather well conceived and quality design.
As noted above, mere compliance with the appropriate
codes and standards will not guarantee a satisfactory
design for all buildings as they provide only a set of
minimum requirements. The designer is responsible for
1.2 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook
ascertaining the appropriate criteria for the particular
building and seeing that these are satisfied.
[b] Safety In service, a structure must be able to safely
resist the actions (loads) expected to be imposed
on it throughout its intended life. Safety must also be
considered during the construction period, particularly
while the concrete has not reached its design strength.
Loads imposed on it during that period should be
analysed as required. The design should also consider
unusual load cases arising from any processes to be
carried on in the structure. Some thought should also
be given to the ultimate demolition of the structure.
Designers usually start with a framing plan, which is
logical and sensible, and proceed to examine how
that structure behaves when subjected to the various
actions. In particular, they should review all possible
failure modes to ensure that nothing important has
been overlooked. This topic is discussed in more detail
in Section 1.2.2 The design process.
A structure should be robust and possess structural
integrity so that it is not unreasonably susceptible to
the effects of accidental loads. Damage to a small area
of a structure or the failure of a single element should
not lead to the collapse of a large part of the structure,
eg by progressive collapse. This topic is discussed
in more detail in Section 1.4.6 Structural integrity and
robustness.
The accidental hazard arising from fire is covered in
building regulations, eg the Building Code of Australia.
The particular requirements for different structural
elements for fire resistance, eg Fire Resistance
Levels to guard against structural collapse (structural
adequacy), flame penetration (integrity) and heat
transmission (insulation), are discussed in Chapter 3
Durability and Fire Resistance.
Designers must be alert to prevent gross errors during
design, as these, along with those that may arise
during construction, are probably the most common
cause of failures. An independent check should be
made of the design, including a review of the drawings
and specification to ensure that the assumptions made
in the design are valid.
[c] Serviceability Over its design life, during service
under normal operating and load conditions, a
structure must behave satisfactorily. The structure and
its elements should not deflect or deform excessively
or vibrate to cause discomfort to the occupants.
Any cracking or apparent distress of the concrete
should not impair the structure's functionality or spoil
its appearance. While some clients consider concrete
to be indestructible, some maintenance and repairs of
the concrete structure will normally be required during
the life of the building, but this should be minimal.
[d] Durability A durable structure is one that performs
its intended function over its design life in its
environment without excessive degradation or unusual
maintenance expense. There have been examples
of inadequate durability, such as premature rusting
reinforcement, spalling concrete, extensive wear and
badly weathered concrete surfaces. The procedures
necessary to ensure durable concrete structures are
discussed in Chapter 3 Durability and Fire Resistance.
[e] Aesthetics An integral part of the design of any
structure is consideration of its appearance. Buildings
and structures such as bridges should be designed
and detailed to present an attractive and well-
proportioned appearance to suit their surroundings
and environment. Architects rather than structural
engineers are usually responsible for the appearance
of buildings. However, there are many cases where
the engineer can provide a significant input by the
selection of appropriate framing systems and the
proportioning of members to meet functional, load
capacity and any aesthetic requirements.
[f] Sustainability In recent years, sustainability has
become a design consideration for all structures.
Sustainable design requires that social, environmental
and economic outcomes are balanced. For example,
a project is not sustainable if it damages the
environment, or if it results in negative social outcomes
such as loss of jobs or health problems, or if it results
in financial loss.
Concrete is an important contributor to sustainable
design. Concrete, like all products, has environmental
impacts arising from the acquisition of raw materials,
processing, transport and recycling at the end of its
life. These are, however, significantly outweighed by
the benefits that concrete delivers. Designers are
referred to the CCAA's Briefings 111.4 and 131.5 and its
website, www.ccaa.com.au, for further information on
this topic.
Sustainable design also requires the designer to
design an economical structure. Thus, the adoption of
a simplistic, conservative design approach and poor
detailing to minimise design costs—but resulting in an
overdesigned structure—is not acceptable.
[g] Economy An economical structure contributes to
limiting the overall cost of the project. This can be
measured in terms of the initial cost, the construction
time and the life cycle or overall cost. The low cost of
concrete and reinforcement alone does not necessarily
produce the most economical structure; construction
and time-related costs must also be considered. Ease
of construction must therefore be taken into account at
the design stage.
1.2.2 The design process
The design process typically comprises three phases—
conceptual design, preliminary design and final
design. These are described briefly below and in more
detail in Appendix A.
Since conceptual design will often be based on limited
information, any structural design should be simple,
quick and conservative without being heavy-handed.
It is not the time for extensive computer modelling.
Designers, however, need to carry out sufficient
structural design to ensure that concepts are feasible.
The preliminary design phase is where the client's
requirements for the project are developed in more
detail. On major projects, more than one preliminary
design may be produced.
The final design stage is where the design data
is checked and the chosen optimum design
is developed and detailed. This will include
the preparation of project documentation and
specifications. It is important for the designer to
remember that the documentation is the means of
communicating the design intentions to the contractor/
builder and subcontractors. The documentation should
be reviewed from this viewpoint before being issued.
There are a number of overseas manuals1.6,1.7,1.8 on
the design of reinforced concrete buildings to which
the designer can refer for further information and
guidance.
1.2.3 Order of design
The building should be designed in a logical order for
analysis and drafting. For an office building the order
of design might be as follows:
n Establish the design loads (AS/NZS 1170)
n Confirm the design data such as: survey,
geotechnical, environmental, etc
n The occupancy of the structure, required fire
ratings, sound transmissions, etc from the BCA,
(normally provided by the architect)
n Establish exposure classification and durability
requirements including concrete strength(s),
cover(s) and axis distances, deflection criteria
(AS 3600)
n Establish any other special design requirements
n Lateral stability for wind and earthquake loadings
and general stability in two orthogonal directions
n Roof framing including slabs and beams
n Plant room slabs and beams
n Typical floor slabs and beams
n First floor and non-typical slabs and beams
n Ground floor slabs and beams
Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 1.3
n Basement floor slabs and retaining walls
n Stairs and lift cores including lift motor rooms
n Column and wall load rundowns
n Column and wall designs
n Footings and foundation capacity
n Precast or external walling
n Robustness check and detailing
n Other architectural elements that may require
structural design
n Checking and review of drawings and
specifications.
1.2.4 Structural framing
Finding the best structural framing solution for a
building is not straightforward and there will typically
be alternative solutions. The framing must consider
how all the loads find their way through the structure,
both horizontally and vertically, to the footings. Framing
is a trial-and-error process and adjustment will need
to be made as the design proceeds. The process is
neither taught nor covered in textbooks and requires
a good appreciation of architectural and engineering
constraints.
Concrete structural frames are commonly used
in Australia and have the advantage of good
performance in fire. They can be cast in situ, precast
or both. The frame for larger projects usually needs to
be modelled for input into the computer for analysis.
Which members are pinned and which are continuous
also need to be established.
Certain buildings lend themselves to standard
solutions, eg an industrial building or shopping centre.
Local conditions will sometimes favour different
solutions depending on the local building industry
capability, etc. Column/wall locations are often dictated
by the intended use of space. For example, for a
car parking building the column spacing must suit
parking bay sizes; for an office building a column-free
space may be required or there may be other spatial
requirements developed by the architect from the
client's needs.
The floor-to-floor height also needs to be considered
and the space required for building services,
particularly in the space under the floor and above
the ceiling. Concrete allows efficient floor solutions,
minimising the overall height of a building or
maximising the number of floors in a given height.
Designers also need to define how lateral loads are
resisted, suitable systems can include one or more
of shear walls, moment-resisting (space) frames and
cantilever columns or walls.
1.4 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook
Assessing, apportioning loads and understanding
the load paths can be difficult to appreciate. The
assessment of all loads is one of the fundamental
design considerations before commencing final
analysis and design. If the loads are wrong or
apportioned incorrectly, they will affect the design of
all members, and extensive rework and extra time will
be involved—assuming the errors are found—or, if the
errors are not found, possibly an unsafe structure.
1.2.5 Initial estimation of member dimensions
The initial estimation of member sizes is generally
based on past experience, some quick trial designs
or other design information. Design offices may have
design guides based on experience of successful
designs and recommendations where problems have
arisen.
The depth of flexural members is usually controlled
by deflection considerations. The minimum thickness
of walls tends to be governed by construction and
cover considerations, and this is also true for column
dimensions. The axial load capacity of columns
can be significantly increased by increasing the
concrete strength and/or increasing the longitudinal
reinforcement percentage. Neither of these necessarily
increases the column dimensions. However, lateral
load bending moments and limiting sway movements
may dictate some minimum dimensions.
1.3 Design Checks and Methods of
Analysis
In a real structure, the behaviour under load of
individual elements can be complex, depending
on the materials used and many other factors.
Generally, idealised models of the frame or structure
are developed to analyse how the real structure may
behave.
The analysis that is carried out to validate a design is
generally a two-step process although some computer
programs may combine the two steps:
n Structural analysis of the frame or structure
n Strength check and other design checks at critical
cross-sections of members.
The first step of analysis is aimed at determining the
action effects such as bending moment, shear force,
torsion and axial force at critical sections of members
necessary for strength design or determining
deformations of the structure. The second step is
concerned with the strength check of these critical
sections along with other design checks such as
deflections.
AS 3600 makes provision for a variety of methods to be
used for strength checks, viz:
[a] Procedure for use with linear elastic analysis
methods of analysis with simplified analysis
methods and for statically determinate structures
(see AS 3600 Clause 2.2.2).
[b] Procedure for use with linear elastic stress analysis
methods (see AS 3600 Clause 2.2.3).
[c] Procedure for use with strut-and-tie analysis (see
AS 3600 Clause 2.2.4).
[d] Procedure for use with non-linear analysis of
framed structures (see AS 3600 Clause 2.2.5).
[e] Procedure for use with non-linear stress analysis
(see AS 3600 Clause 2.2.6).
In addition, it is permissible to carry out design checks
for strength and serviceability by testing a structure
or component member in accordance with the
requirements of Appendix B in AS 3600 (see AS 3600
Clause 2.1.1).
The first of these procedures, (a), is the one which
will be familiar to most designers and was in earlier
editions of AS 3600. The other methods have been
introduced into the 2009 edition of AS 3600 to permit
the use of more-sophisticated computer-based
analysis programs, eg Finite Element Analysis. Foster1.9,
while Foster et al1.10 give a summary of the other
methods, (b) to (e), and indicate where each may be
applicable and the provisos associated with their use.
Designers should be aware that there is conflict
between these latter methods, (b) to (e), and the
requirements in the BCA and AS/NZS 1170.0. For
example, BCA (Volume 1) BP1.2 mandates use of
5% characteristic material properties and this would
preclude the use of some structural check procedures
in AS 3600, eg non-linear analysis of framed structures
which uses mean values of material properties.
AS/NZS 1170.0 called up by the BCA is written around
the linear elastic method of analysis and ultimate limit
states approach. For example, see Section 2 in that
Standard. This may or may not be a problem. However,
strut–and–tie analysis may be the only appropriate
method of design for non-flexural members.
This Handbook is written around the method in (a)
which is compatible with both the BCA and
AS/NZS 1170.0. No conflict is therefore foreseen
with the following discussions, except perhaps for
Chapter 9 Strut-and-tie modelling.
1.4 Limit-states Design and Design
Checks using Linear Elastic
Methods of Analysis
1.4.1 General
A limit-states approach to design is assumed by the
BCA and AS/NZS 1170.0. The procedure for use
with linear elastic analysis methods and for statically
determinate structures given in AS 3600 Clause 2.2.2
is compatible with this approach.
Limit-states design assumes there will be an
acceptable probability that a structure designed and
built in accordance with the Standard will not reach
any limit state during its design life. That is to say, it
will not fail by collapse or instability (ultimate limit
states), or become unfit for service by deformation,
vibration or cracking (serviceability limit states). In
addition, the structure should not deteriorate unduly
during its design life and should not be damaged by
events such as fire, explosions and impact to an extent
disproportionate to the cause. A checklist of design
requirements includes:
n Stability
n Strength
n Serviceability
— Deflection
— Lateral drift (eg under wind or earthquake)
— Cracking
— Vibration
n Durability
n Fire resistance
n Structural Integrity/ robustness (prevention of
progressive collapse)
n Other limit states as required.
Limit-states design analyses the structure or part for
the relevant combination of factored actions (the action
effect). It then confirms that the design capacity, ie the
nominal capacity multiplied by the capacity factor
(capacity reduction factor), f, exceeds the action
effect. (The use of a global factor rather than partial
safety factors, as adopted in European standards,
follows the practice established in ACI 3181.8 and that
used in earlier editions of AS 3600.)
In essence, following this approach, the steps in
design for the ultimate limit state are (the design for
serviceability limit states is similar):
n Determine the actions on the structure
n Determine the appropriate combinations of actions
n Analyse the structure for the applied combinations
of actions
n Design and detail the structure for robustness and
earthquake
Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 1.5
n Determine the design resistance of the structure
using AS 3600
n Confirm the design resistance exceeds the action
effects.
AS/NZS 1170.0 Section 5 provides broad guidelines for
appropriate methods of analysis. The general nature
of the rules allows for the wide variety of structural
materials covered by the Standard, while reference is
made to the appropriate material standard for specific
guidance for that material.
1.4.2 Stability and strength
The structure as a whole and its parts are designed
to prevent instability due to overturning, uplift and
sliding. Generally, the design capacity of a member is
calculated as the ultimate strength of the section, using
a mathematical model to represent the failure condition,
multiplied by the capacity reduction factor.
The capacity reduction factor, f, accounts for variations
between the basis of the calculation and the likely
actual condition, viz:
n Variations in the strength of concrete and
reinforcement
n Variations in the dimensions of the member and the
location of reinforcement and in the relative position
of members, eg eccentricities in columns
n Inaccuracies in the design equations for
calculating internal actions and the strength of the
section
n Mode of failure, eg ductile or brittle, and the
resulting warning of failure
n Importance of the member and its effect on the
structure.
For example, compare a beam and a column. The
column is less ductile and more sensitive to concrete
strength variations than the beam; the column usually
supports a larger area than the beam, making the
consequences of failure likely to be more serious. For
these reasons, the capacity reduction factor, f, for
pure bending is larger than that for axial compression,
eg 0.8 to 0.6.
Note that the design aids, spreadsheets and charts
prepared to be compatible with one standard such
as AS 3600 must be used only with the load factors,
load combinations and capacity reduction factors
applicable to that standard.
1.4.3 Serviceability – deflection control
AS 3600 Clause 2.3.1 requires that Design checks
shall be carried out for all appropriate service
conditions to ensure the structure will perform in a
manner appropriate for its intended function and
purpose.
1.6 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook
Under working loads, the deflection of slabs and
beams must be controlled to meet two general criteria:
n The total deflection should not adversely affect the
appearance or efficiency of the structure. AS 3600
limits this value to span/250.
n The incremental deflection should not adversely
affect other elements such as finishes, services,
partitions, glazing and cladding. Where partitions
are detailed to minimise the effect of movement,
this deflection should be limited to span/500. If
not (eg masonry partitions without closely spaced
joints), this limit should be reduced to span/1000.
In addition, the following requirements as appropriate
must be met:
n The deflection for imposed action (live load and
dynamic impact) for members subjected to vehicular
or pedestrian traffic should not exceed span/800.
n For transfer members the total deflection should
not exceed span/500 where provision is made
to minimise the effect of deflection of the transfer
member on the supported structure. Otherwise,
span/1000.
For cantilevers, the deflections are generally half of
those noted above when rotation at the support can
occur.
AS 3600 also states Design limits given or implied
in Clauses 2.3.2 and 2.3.3 are based on previous
design experience, and reflect requirements for normal
structures. In special situations other limits may be
appropriate. For further guidance refer to Appendix C
of AS/ NZS 1170.0.
Design for the serviceability limit states involves
reliable predictions of the instantaneous and time-
dependent deformation of the structure. This is
complicated by the non-linear material behaviour of
concrete caused mainly by cracking, tension stiffening,
creep and shrinkage. Designers can refer to the notes
on the CIA Seminar series1.11 for further information.
The calculation of deflection comprises two stages –
an elastic or immediate component and an inelastic
or creep component that occurs over a long period
as shown in Figure 1.1. These are considered as
Note: Allow for
rotation at supports
Elastic Creep
Figure 1.1 Elastic and creep deflections
short-term and long-term effects with the appropriate
combinations of actions (loads) acting in each case.
The long-term loading comprises permanent actions
(eg self-weight) and the quasi-permanent component
of the imposed action (eg live load), while the short-
term loading includes the probable peak value of the
imposed action. Typical values for these are given in
Section 1.5 Actions and Combinations of Actions.
The calculated deflection is measured from a
theoretical line diagram representing the member
in its as-cast position. The limit on total deflection
of span/250 below an assumed horizontal line
may not be sufficient to prevent a slab being
unsatisfactory for non-structural reasons, eg
water ponding on a roof. These problems may be
overcome by cambering the formwork (usually
not preferred) or by stressing the floor or roof to
counter the long‑term deflection. In the case of
long spans, these methods are used frequently; the
designer should, however, be careful to check that
the reduced stiffness of the floor does not result in
excessive incremental deflection or vibration under
live load, or large rotations and distress at supports.
There is also a visual limit of about 25–40 mm even in
long-span floors where long-term deflections become
noticeable. Building owners will often not accept
deflection over these limits and may perceive a large
deflection as a failure.
In assessing the practical effect of deflections, the
designer should allow also for realistic construction
tolerances. The limits in AS 3600, discussed in
Section 1.7 Material and Construction Requirements,
are based on the requirements of structural adequacy
and strength. Tighter construction tolerances usually
need to be specified or special details developed to
meet the serviceability requirement.
1.4.4 Serviceability – cracking
The designer and the building owner tend to view
cracking differently. Engineers generally regard some
cracking as inevitable; owners on the other hand tend
to regard any cracking as a major defect.
Most cracking in concrete structures is due to
shrinkage of concrete. The structure and the steel
reinforcement have to be designed and detailed to
control the effects of this shrinkage. This will involve
first determining whether or not cracks are allowed to
occur and, if so, where they can occur in respect of
structural integrity and aesthetics. The size of cracks
must be limited so as not to cause future durability
problems. In buildings, stiff vertical elements such
as cores, basement and retaining walls can result in
unsightly cracking in slabs unless steps are taken
to minimise such cracking by methods such as the
provision of construction joints or delayed pour strips.
AS 3600 sets out guidelines for the amount of
reinforcement to control cracking, eg Clause 2.3.3
states that cracking of beams and slabs under service
conditions shall be controlled in accordance with the
requirements of Clause 8.6 or 9.4, as appropriate.
In a small percentage of cases, cracks are a symptom
of structural or durability distress, eg spalling of
concrete due to reinforcement corrosion. In these
cases, the cause of cracking needs to be diagnosed
and appropriate remedial measures taken.
For a more detailed discussion on the types of
cracking and practices to minimise its occurrence,
see Guide to Concrete Construction1.12 and Movement,
restraint and cracking in concrete structures1.13.
1.4.5 Serviceability – vibration
Design for vibration is outside the scope of this
Handbook. Designers should consult a specialist
text or seek expert advice if vibration is likely to be
a problem. The chapter on vibration in the Precast
Concrete Handbook1.14 is recommended.
1.4.6 Structural integrity and robustness
There are currently no specific requirements for design
for structural integrity (the prevention of progressive
collapse) or robustness in the BCA or AS 3600. The
BCA mentions progressive collapse, implying that
design for it is covered under the requirement of
sustaining at an acceptable level of safety and
serviceability the most adverse combination of
loads. Section 6 in AS/NZS 1170.0 includes minimum
structural robustness requirements. However, this still
does not fully address the issue.
The spectacular 1968 failure in the UK of Ronan Point,
a block of flats constructed of large precast concrete
panels, focused attention on the susceptibility of this
form of construction to accidental or other loading such
as gas explosions, as shown in Figure 1.2. Because
of this accident, the British Standard for concrete
structures1.15 was revised and included specific
detailing requirements to provide continuity and ductility.
Other high profile cases of progressive failure include
the 1995 bomb attack on the Alfred P. Murrah Federal
Building in the US and the collapses of the towers at
the World Trade Centre in New York in 2001. Other
national codes now also include provisions to prevent
progressive collapse.
A continuously reinforced, cast-in-place, concrete
structure is less likely to be at risk of progressive
collapse than a precast one because of its inherent
ability to redistribute unusual loads and span over
possible local failures, assuming the detailing allows for
continuity. Normally, only a general review of such
a structure would be required to check its possible
failure modes.
Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 1.7
 Precast beam Precast floor

2
1 5
1 5 5
2
1
A
6 8
5 3 7
A 7
4
Column under 3 7
5 5

Precast column

Precast edge beam Precast wall

1 Internal floor ties between precast floor units

2 Edge floor ties between precast floor units and beams
3 Internal beam ties
4 Edge beam ties
5 Column ties horizontally to slabs and beams
6 Columns ties vertically
7 Wall ties horizontally to slabs and beams
8 Wall ties vertically

Figure 1.2 Ronan Point, UK Tie bar Insitu concrete

However, further investigation should be carried out for:

n precast concrete structures; Precast beam with
projecting ties
n unusual structural systems or mixed construction
using different materials;
n structures subject to special risks, such as vehicle SECTION A-A
collision and explosion (eg a chemical factory).
Figure 1.3 Integrity and robustness with 3-dimensional
If an abnormal load can be identified, then it is tying system for precast concrete
possible to design directly for this condition. Usually,
however, this is not the case, so other methods must
be adopted to control the extent of damage.
which can support a large load although it may sag
One method commonly used in Europe from
300 mm or more. In an insitu-concrete building, floors
Eurocode 21.16 is to design for specified forces at
or beams can act in a similar way provided they are
each level of the structure and to provide a system of
detailed correctly and can span twice their actual span
horizontal and vertical ties, properly anchored, to resist
even when sagging excessively in catenary action.
these forces. Eurocode 2 replaced BS 8110 in the
Examples of cantilever and beam action for precast
UK in 2010. For precast-panel buildings, this results
buildings are shown in Figure 1.4.
in longitudinal, transverse and peripheral ties at each
floor level interconnected with sufficient continuous Useful references on methods of design for structural
vertical ties to restrain the walls at each level as shown integrity are: Mitchell and Cook1.17, FIP1.18, Elliott and
in Figure 1.3. Tovey1.19 and the ACI-ASCE1.20.

Another method is to provide alternative load paths 1.4.7 Durability and fire resistance
so that the structure can bridge over the gap formed
These aspects are covered in Chapter 3 Durability and
if a part of a floor or wall or column is accidentally
fire resistance.
removed. For precast-concrete-panel buildings, this
method also results in a system of horizontal and
vertical ties. By notionally removing a part of each wall
in turn, the floor over is designed to act as a catenary,

1.8 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 Peripheral Vertical ties to
tie to anchor suspend panels and
transverse tie for shear transfer in
horizontal joints
Compression
capacity in
adjacent panel
Vertical ties for tension
hold-down against
cantilever moment
CANTILEVER ACTION
Vertical ties to
suspend panels and
for shear transfer in
horizontal joints
Compression
capacity in
capacity in return
adjacent panel
Vertical ties connected
to footing
BEAM ACTION
Figure 1.4 Structural integrity – alternative load
Transverse tie 1.5 Actions and Combinations of Actions
to develop
cantilever 1.5.1 General
moment AS/NZS 1170.0 sets out the various actions (loads) and
the combinations of actions (load combinations) to be
considered in design for ultimate and serviceability
limit states. For combinations particular to prestressed
concrete refer to AS 3600.
1.5.2 Permanent, imposed and other actions
A permanent action (dead load) is defined as 'an
action that is likely to act continuously and for which
Damaged
panel variations in magnitude with time are small compared
with the mean value'. Generally, it is taken to comprise
the self-weight of the member plus the weight of all
materials of permanent construction – walls, floors
and ceilings (including finishes), services, permanent
partitions and fixed machinery supported by the
member.
An imposed action (live load) is defined as 'a variable
Vertical ties action resulting from the intended use or occupancy
connected to of the structure' and is taken to include uniformly-
footing distributed, concentrated, impact and inertia actions
as applicable. Wind, snow and earthquake actions
are considered separately. Many imposed actions are
Transverse tie short-term relative to the life of the structure; however,
to develop
some may be of long duration, eg storage loads, and
beam moment
thus have an effect similar to a permanent action.
AS/NZS 1170.1 specifies minimum values for imposed
actions on floors (floor live loads) for various classified
occupancies; these are typically in the range of
2 to 5 kPa, except for storage areas where stacked
Compression
material results in larger values. The specified
wall support uniformly distributed loads are blanket values to cover
the expected effect of the occupancy for both small
Damaged and large areas. Surveys of actual loadings in offices
panel indicate that the statutory loads are reasonable for
small areas but tend to be conservative for larger
areas. Live load reductions are permitted for certain
floors and supporting columns, walls and footings.
A reduction of up to 50% is allowed according to a
formula, which depends on the loaded area (see
AS/NZS 1170 Part 1 Clause 3.4.2). If this reduction is
used, then the design drawings should state both the
nominal live load and that the reduction for area has
been applied.
During construction, special actions (loading) may
occur and may control the design of some members.
Staged construction and composite concrete
members usually require a specific design check
unless fully propped. Precast members such as floor
units supporting wet concrete must be designed for
construction loads in accordance with AS 36101.21.
Construction loads from concrete, formwork, falsework
and equipment such as forklifts, cranes and hoists may
Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 1.9
be greater than the imposed actions (live load) and
thus may require strengthening of the structure or the
provision of temporary supports during construction.
Note that a significant proportion of all structural
failures occur during construction, often because a
critical loading condition is overlooked or the concrete
strength at the time of loading is over-estimated.
Structures incorporating flat-plate floors are susceptible
to progressive collapse during construction for this
reason – when failure of an upper floor due to early
stripping leads to failure of those below.
Other actions such as concrete shrinkage and creep,
shortening due to prestress, temperature effects and
foundation movements, cause deformations of the
structure and, if resisted by the structure, result in
internal forces, which are in equilibrium. A ductile
structure is able to redistribute these loads so that the
capacity of the member to carry the ultimate-strength
loads is not affected. However, the deformation may
be a significant factor in the serviceability check.
1.5.3 Combinations of actions – strength design
Combination factors for actions (load factors) for
strength design take into account:
n the possibility of unfavourable deviations of the
actions from the characteristic values;
n the possible inaccurate assessment of the action
effects and their significance for safety;
n variations in dimensional accuracy in so far as they
affect estimation of the action effects; and
n the reduced probability of combinations of actions
occurring, all at their characteristic values.
The value of the load factor depends on the degree
of uncertainty, while the combination factor depends
on the probability of that combination of loads
occurring. The nominal value of a permanent action
(dead load), G, is its mean value. The factor 1.2
applied to it assumes that it can be assessed to within
10%. If circumstances arise where this assumption
is not warranted, then a conservative estimate of the
permanent action should be made, or part of it treated
as an imposed action (live load). For the case of load
reversal and where the permanent action is beneficial,
the factor is taken as 0.9.
The nominal value of the imposed action (live load),
Q, is intended to be the peak value for a 50-year
life with a probability of exceedence of 5%. This is
a characteristic value with a probability similar to
the definition of characteristic concrete strength, f 'c.
Imposed actions vary and usually comprise two
components: a sustained relatively constant value
for a particular occupancy, and a superimposed
extreme value arising from a crowd of people or a
1.10 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook
concentration of objects. The factor of 1.5 reflects this
greater variability compared with permanent actions,
and the combination factor, y, of 0.4 to 0.6 reflects the
probable lower action likely to occur at the same time
as another peak-action effect. See Table 1.1.
Wind loads are determined in accordance with
AS/NZS 1170 Part 2 either by a simplified procedure,
applicable only to small buildings, or by a more
detailed procedure using either a static or dynamic
analysis. For significant structures, consideration
should be given to a model tested in a wind tunnel to
determine the wind forces more accurately, including
effects on surrounding buildings.
For earth-retaining structures in accordance with
AS 46781.22, the nominal earth load, Feu, should take
account of the likely earth and groundwater pressure.
The load factor to be applied is 1.0 if the earth pressure
is determined using a limit-states method, or 1.5 if
earth pressures are determined using working loads.
Liquid-retaining structures are usually constructed so
that there is an upper limit to the height of the retained
liquid and its density is defined. The accuracy of
determination is similar to that of a permanent action,
so a factor of 1.2 is used for static liquid pressure, Flp.
However, if the density is not well defined or the height
is not limited, then a value of 1.5 should be used. If
dynamic conditions are possible, these should be
considered separately and a factor similar to that for
imposed actions applied.
Earthquake loads and load combinations are specified
in AS 1170 Part 41.23 while additional design and
detailing requirements for earthquake resistance are
given in AS 3600 Appendix C.
The prestressing force, P, is limited by the breaking
load of the tendons. In checking the ultimate strength
of an anchorage or the possibility of a concrete
compressive failure at transfer, a factor of 1.15 is
specified by AS 3600. In this case, the prestressing
force is similar to an external load and is taken as the
maximum jacking force at the anchorage. A different
situation arises where secondary moments and shears
are being calculated in an indeterminate structure.
Because these are caused by a prestress force, which
is internal to the cross section, a load factor of 1.0 is
sufficient.
In selecting combinations of actions, the principle
adopted is to consider each imposed action at its
maximum value taken in turn with other imposed
actions at their probable values at any time. The load
combinations (combinations of actions) given in
AS/NZS 1170.0 and those specified in AS 3600 are
shown in Table 1.1.
TABLE 1.1 Load combinations

Strength
1.35G Permanent action only (does not apply to prestressing forces)
1.2G + 1.5Q Permanent action and imposed actions
1.2G + ycQ + Wu Permanent action and arbitrary-point-in-time imposed and wind actions
0.9G + Wu Permanent action and wind action reversal
G + ycQ + Eu Permanent action and arbitrary-point-in-time imposed and earthquake action (given in AS 1170.4)
1.2G + ycQ + Su Permanent action and arbitrary-point-in-time imposed action and the appropriate one of the following
actions: snow, liquid pressure, rainwater ponding, ground water and earth pressure
1.15G + 1.15P Permanent action and prestressing force (acting in same direction from AS 3600)
0.9G + 1.15P Permanent action and prestressing force (acting in opposite directions from AS 3600)
G + ylQ + thermal action for fire
Permanent action and arbitrary point-in-time imposed action and thermal action for fire

Stability
0.9G For combinations that produce net stabilising effects
1.35G For combinations that produce net destabilising effects
1.2G + 1.5Q
1.2G + ycQ + Wu
G + ycQ + Eu
1.2G + ycQ + Su

Serviceability Use appropriate combinations of G, ysQ, ylQ, Ws, Es, P and other actions
G + Ws + P eg short-term serviceability
G + ysQ + P
G+P eg long-term serviceability
G + ylQ + P

TABLE 1.2 Short-term, long-term and combination factors ys, yl and yc (after AS/NZS 1170.0)

Imposed action Short-term factor (ys ) Long-term factor (y l ) Combination factor (yc )

Distributed imposed actions, Q

Residential and domestic structures 0.7 0.4 0.4
Offices 0.7 0.4 0.4
Parking 0.7 0.4 0.4
Retail 0.7 0.4 0.4
Storage 1.0 0.6 0.6
Other 1.0 0.6 0.6

Roof actions
Roofs used for floor-type activities 0.7 0.4 0.4
Other roofs 0.7 0.0 0.0

Concentrated imposed actions

Floors 1.0 0.6 as for distributed floor actions
Floors of domestic housing 1.0 0.4 as for distributed floor actions
Roofs used for floor-type activities 1.0 0.6 as for distributed floor actions
Other roofs 1.0 0.0 0.0
Balustrades 1.0 0.0 0.0

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 1.11

1.5.4 Combinations of actions – stability
In checking for stability, the loads and actions are
divided into components tending to cause instability
and those tending to stabilise the structure. Where the
strength of a member is used to provide stability, then
the design strength, f Ru, should be used.
1.5.5 Combinations of actions – serviceability
For serviceability checks, both short-term and long-
term effects should be considered. For wind loading,
only short-term effects need to be considered. Values
for yc, yl and ys are shown in Table 1.2.
1.6 Linear Elastic Methods of Analysis
1.6.1 General
AS 3600 Clause 2.2.2 sets out the strength limit state
for linear elastic methods of analysis with simplified
analysis methods, and for statically determinate
structures where the design capacity must be greater
than or equal to design load effect, ie:
Rd ≥ Ed
where
Rd = f Ru is the design capacity
f is a capacity reduction factor given in AS 3600
Table 2.2.2
Ru is the calculated capacity determined in
accordance with the relevant sections of AS 3600
Ed is the design action effect or the 'design action' or
the ultimate load condition. Where Ed is determined
by one of the following methods of analysis:
— Linear elastic analysis in accordance with
Clause 6.2
— Linear elastic analysis incorporating secondary
bending moments due to lateral joint
displacement in accordance with Clause 6.3
— One of the simplified methods of analysis in
accordance with Clauses 6.9 and 6.10
— Equilibrium analysis of a statically determinate
structure.
1.6.2 Linear elastic analysis
(AS 3600 Clause 6.2)
Concrete structures behave only in a linear elastic
manner under small, short-term loads while the
sections are uncracked. As loads increase, the
sections crack and the behaviour becomes non‑linear
and moments are distributed from the peak‑moment
regions to less highly stressed sections of the
members. Despite this, linear elastic analysis may be
used to determine the action effects in structures for
both the serviceability and the strength limit states. If
the structure is ductile, this procedure has been shown
by experience to be safe for strength design.
1.12 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook
ku
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Redistribution (%)
Figure 1.5 Moment redistribution versus ku
Design moments and shears are calculated by
applying factored loads to the structure, which is
analysed assuming linear elastic behaviour. The critical
sections are then checked for strength, assuming
local inelastic action. Some redistribution of moments
has to be relied upon when this model is used. This
redistribution depends on ductile behaviour, which is
ensured by limiting the neutral axis parameter, ku, to
0.36 and placing limits on the amount of redistribution
depending on the Ductility Class of the reinforcement.
AS 3600 Clause 6.2.7 gives guidance on the amount of
moment redistribution that can be assumed in design.
If Ductility Class N reinforcement is used, then the
amount of redistribution permitted may be calculated
using a deemed-to-satisfy approach based on the
value of the neutral axis parameter, ku. Up to 30% is
permitted provided that static equilibrium is maintained
and ku does not exceed 0.2. For values of ku between
0.2 and 0.4, the permissible distribution is obtained by
interpolation as shown in Figure 1.5.
If Ductility Class L reinforcement is used, no
redistribution is permitted unless an analysis is
undertaken to show that there is adequate rotation
capacity available at the critical cross sections to allow
such redistribution to occur.
Figure 1.6 illustrates the use of moment redistribution
to reduce the maximum values of bending moment to
be used in design for Ductility Class N reinforcement.
A linear elastic analysis may be used for buildings with
floor slabs and for framed structures without slabs.
For reasons of equilibrium and static compatibility, the
span of flexural members is taken as the distance
centre-to-centre of supports. However, the size of
these supports is taken into account by the defined
critical sections for negative moment and shear force.
In prestressed concrete members, the restraint at Span Span Span
supports usually induces parasitic reactions and a b c
so-called secondary bending moments and shears
that are determined by applying the prestress to A B C D
an assumed unloaded, uncracked structure. As
these are internally induced, a load factor of 1.0 is
sufficient to obtain the design values that are added Load case 1: Spans a + b loaded
to the elastically determined moments and shears Load case 2: Span b loaded
for factored dead and live load. These total moments Load case 3: Spans a + c loaded
may be redistributed in the same way as for reinforced
concrete members. Modify moments as follows:
Load case 1: Reduce negative moment at B and increase positive moments
1.6.3 Linear elastic analysis incorporating
Load cases 2 & 3: Reduce positive moments and increase negative moments
secondary bending moments
(AS 3600 Clause 6.3) Figure 1.6 Examples of moment redistribution
This method applies to frames that are not restrained
by shear walls or bracing or both and for which the
relative displacement at the ends of compression
members is less than Lu / 250 under the design load for
strength. It is similar to linear elastic analysis except
that additional bending moments are calculated to
take account of the lateral displacement.

1.6.4 Simplified methods of analysis

(AS 3600 Clauses 6.9 and 6.10)
[a] Idealised frame method (Clause 6.9)
This method may be used for framed structures
incorporating reinforced or prestressed two-way
slab systems and is not subject to the restrictions on
geometry and loading applicable to other simplified
methods. Figure 1.7 Idealised frame

The idealised frame is taken as one of a series of

idealised full-height frames running longitudinally
through the building and a second series taken
transversely. A linear elastic analysis is carried out
for each frame using one of the standard frame
programs or similar and using a number of practical 0.1a bw 0.1a
simplifications: but not greater but not greater
n
than 0.5 x clear than 0.5 x clear
For vertical loads, a simple frame may be taken as
span of slab span of slab
comprising one floor and the columns above and
below, with these columns fixed at their far ends 'a ' is distance between points of zero moment
along beam (approx. 0.7L)
Figure 1.7.
n The width of the frame may be taken as the width of Figure 1.8 Effective width of T-beam
the design strip for flat slabs, or the effective width
for T-beams and L-beams using the equations in
AS 3600 Clause 8.8.2 and as shown in Figure 1.8.
n The relative stiffness of the members may be
calculated using the gross concrete section or
the transformed section if the same basis is used
throughout.
n The fully idealised frame must be considered in the
analysis for horizontal loads unless it is restrained
by shear walls or similar.

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 1.13

 n Ductility Class L reinforcement must not be used for
the main flexural reinforcement.
n Openings must comply with AS 3600 Clause 6.9.5.5.
The arrangement of vertical action (load) to determine
Imposed action (live load) ALL SPANS the critical moments and shears may be restricted
to only a few combinations as set out in AS 3600
Clause 2.4.4.
n If the imposed action (live load) pattern is fixed
— the factored imposed action (live load).
n If the imposed action (live load), Q, does not
Imposed action (live load) ALTERNATE SPANS
exceed three-quarters of the permanent action
(dead load), G,
— the factored imposed action (live load) on all
spans.
n If the imposed action (live load), Q, exceeds three-
quarters of the permanent action (dead load), G,
Imposed action (live load) ADJACENT SPANS
— the factored imposed action (live load) on
Figure 1.9 Examples of pattern actions (loading) alternate spans
— the factored imposed action (live load) on two
adjacent spans
Moment = coefficient x Fd Ln2
[– 141 ] [– 81 ] [– 81 ] — the factored imposed action (live load) on all
spans.
– 1 – 1 – 1
16 9 9
as shown in Figure 1.9.
Simple support
+ 1 + 1
11 11 [b] Simplified method for reinforced continuous beams
and one-way slabs (Clause 6.10.2)

Two spans This method provides a simple, approximate and

conservative evaluation of the bending moments and
shears in continuous reinforced concrete beams and
one-way slabs where:
– 1 – 1 – 1 – 1 – 1 – 1
16 10 11 11 10 24 n the spans are approximately equal, with the longer
of two adjacent spans not greater than the shorter
+ 1 + 1 + 1
11 16 11 by more than 20%;
[+ 141 ] Spandrel beam
n the loads are essentially uniformly distributed and
the imposed actions (live load) do not exceed
More than two spans
twice the permanent actions (dead load);
MOMENTS
n the members are of uniform cross section and the
Shear = coefficient x Fd Ln reinforcement is arranged in a specific way.
This method is normally used only on simple structures
and slabs, usually supported by loadbearing walls or
1 1.15 1 1 1.15 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 similar.

1 1 1 The coefficients are shown diagrammatically in

7 8 7 Figure 1.10. Because these values are not statically
compatible, they should not be used for deflection
Spandrel beam
calculations. If moment reversals occur during
End and interior spans
construction, these should be investigated separately.
SHEARS
Note the higher moments (bracketed blue figures) to
Figure 1.10 Approximate moments and shears – be used with Class L reinforcement.
one-way members. Bracketed blue figures are for
Ductility Class L reinforcement

1.14 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

[c] Simplified method for reinforced two-way slabs
supported on four sides (Clause 6.10.3)
For reinforced two-way slabs supported on four sides
by beams or walls (having corners that are prevented
from lifting) and subject to uniformly distributed
loads, approximate bending-moment coefficients for
a range of edge conditions are tabulated in AS 3600
Tables 6.10.3.2 (A) and (B) depending on whether
Class N or Class L reinforcement is used. Detailing
must be in accordance with AS 3600 Clause 9.1.3.3
and there must be no openings or penetrations
through the thickness of the slab adversely affecting its
strength or stiffness. Slabs with Class L reinforcement
must be continuously supported on walls.
Moments are calculated as:
Moment = coefficient b x Fd Lo2
where
Lo = L – [0.7 x S (asup at each end of the span)]
The coefficients bx and by are given (in decimal values)
in AS 3600 Tables 6.10.3.2 (A) and (B).
The shear forces in the slab and the reactions of the
supporting beams may be determined by allocating
the load using 45° lines emanating from the corners
of the slabs as shown in AS 3600 Figure 6.10.3.4.
Although not stated in AS 3600, the shear force at the
face of the first interior support of an end span should
be taken as 1.15 times the simple span value, similar
to that for one-way slabs.
[d] Simplified method for reinforced two-way slab
systems having multiple spans (Clause 6.10.4)
The simplified method provides a quick and direct
method of design for slabs that meet the restrictions of
geometry and live loading (imposed actions) as set out
in AS 3600 Clause 6.10.4.1. The total static moment is
calculated for each span of the design strips taken in
two directions at right angles using the effective span,
Lo. This is consistent with the idealised-frame method
as the critical section for negative bending moment is
the same in each case.
The design positive and negative moments are then
determined by applying the factors tabulated for
interior spans and end spans. In the latter case, the
distribution is varied to suit the end restraint provided
by the exterior support. Where adjacent spans differ,
the designer may either use the larger negative
moment or distribute the unbalanced moment to the
adjoining members to obtain the design negative
moment. In addition, a redistribution of the design
moments of up to 10% is permitted, if the total static
moment is not reduced. Only Class N reinforcement
can be used for this design method.
Table 1.3 Distribution of design moment to column
strip (from AS 3600 Table 6.9.5.3)
Column strip moment factor for
Strength Serviceability
Location limit state limit state
Negative moment
interior support 0.6 to 1.0 0.75
exterior support 0.75 to 1.0 0.75 to 1.0*
Positive moment 0.5 to 0.7 0.6
* Depending on whether there is a spandrel beam
The transverse distribution of these design moments
into the column strip and the middle strip is carried out
using tabulated factors that are the same for both the
simplified method and the idealised-frame method and
are shown in Table 1.3. The values for these factors give
the designer a considerable range in which to work.
Unequal spans or patterned live loads cause
unbalanced moments to be transferred from the slab
to the column. A minimum value is specified for this
unbalanced moment and this is obtained by taking
half the design live load as acting on the longer span
and no live load on the shorter span. This moment
is included in the shear design at the column-slab
junction.
1.7 Material and Construction
Requirements
1.7.1 General
The designer is obliged to set out in the drawings and
specification all the requirements for the construction
of the structure so that it can be built to meet the
intent of the design. AS 3600 Clause 1.4 sets out the
design data that should be shown on the drawings.
Note that AS 3600 does not contain specification-type
clauses relating to construction, it has only general
performance-type clauses. The project specification
thus needs to spell out the specific requirements for
the project's construction.
The project specification should include those items of
good practice that the designer considers necessary.
A useful document is the national building industry
specification system, NATSPEC, which is a master
specification containing a library of clauses from which
designers can select those suitable for their project
and which they can supplement with specific clauses
as required.
Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 1.15
1.7.2 Concrete materials and manufacture
The constituent materials of concrete and its
manufacture are covered by a series of standard
specifications, most of which are sufficiently
comprehensive to require only a citing in the
project specification. Where an Australian Standard
specification is not available, reference may be
made to an overseas standard such as ASTM,
or a performance requirement may be set out in
the specification. The manufacture of concrete is
covered by AS 13791.24, which includes all methods
of manufacture: site-mixed, transit-mixed and
factory-mixed. It covers the handling, storage and
batching of materials, equipment such as mixers and
agitators, mixing and delivery of the plastic concrete.
1.7.3 Specification of concrete
AS 3600 specifies concrete by referencing AS 1379.
This latter standard defines two classes of concrete:
normal-class and special-class. Normal-class
concrete is satisfactory for the majority of projects,
while special‑class concrete is specified only where
particular performance criteria are needed or as
required by AS 3600, such as for B2, C1 and C2
exposure. The classifications are used to avoid
misunderstandings between the builder and the
concrete supplier, and the possibility of concrete
being ordered only in terms of strength when special
requirements are called up in the specification.
Normal-class concrete provides for the standard
strength grades N20, N25, N32, N40 and N50 with
slump of 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, or 120 mm
and maximum nominal size of aggregate of 10, 14 or
20 mm. The particular value of each together with the
intended method of placement (if project assessment
is required) and air entrainment (if required) should be
specified.
Generally, normal-class concrete with strengths
in the range of 25 to 50 MPa is used on low- and
medium‑rise building structures. Higher strength
concretes are used typically in walls and columns
carrying high loads in taller structures, or in special
conditions. Designers should be aware that S class
concrete with strengths greater than 50 MPa might be
difficult to supply to some sites (eg in country areas),
while very high strength concrete (> 65 MPa) may not
be available in some cities. Before specifying high
performance concrete with strengths greater than
50 MPa, designers should check on its availability
with their local suppliers.
Special-class concrete is specified when there are
any different or additional requirements, and only after
careful consideration for its need. It will be needed
when the concrete is to have: compressive strength,
1.16 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook
slump or aggregate other than those available in
normal-class concrete; any limit on ingredients or mix
proportions; or any special performance requirement
such as a particular limit on shrinkage. Special‑class
concrete is designated as S class and can have
different prefixes depending on its specific requirement.
Where concrete is specified as special class and one
of the exposure classifications B1, B2, C1, C2 or U is
specified in AS 3600, prefixes to the strength grade
shall be SB for concrete in exposure classification B2,
SC for concrete in exposure classification C1 or C2
and SU for concrete in exposure classification U.
For SB, SC or SU class concrete, the properties
specified shall include the aggregate durability
class in accordance with AS 2758.1 and the relevant
requirements of AS 3600.
To avoid misunderstanding when the concrete is
specified and ordered, the class must be stated.
1.7.4 Quality control of concrete
AS 3600 requires that all concrete for structures
designed in accordance with it shall be assessed in
accordance with AS 1379 for the specified parameters.
All concrete must be tested and subjected to
production assessment by the supplier to ensure that
the appropriate quality is being maintained.
Project assessment is optional for normal-class
concrete but is mandatory for special-class concrete.
If project assessment is specified, then the concrete
delivered to that project is subject to additional testing.
In this case, the specification should nominate the
responsibility for carrying out this extra testing and who
will bear the cost. Note that for specified parameters
other than strength, the specification has to set out
the method of production control, eg test method, the
frequency of testing and acceptance criteria.
For a large project, project assessment will usually
give sufficient samples to obtain a statistically reliable
assessment of the concrete supplied to that project
and at an acceptable cost. However, for small or
medium sized projects, the cost of obtaining sufficient
samples for a reliable assessment is usually prohibitive.
Production assessment, as specified in AS 1379, will
provide a reasonable level of quality assurance for the
majority of small structures.
1.7.5 Tolerances for construction
Tolerances for structures and members are specified
for two reasons. The first is concerned with structural
adequacy and strength, ie to ensure that the design
assumptions, in particular the f factors used in the
strength calculations, are met. The second relates
to serviceability and appearance and will normally
overrule the requirements of the first.
AS 3600 specifies only tolerances that are necessary
for the first reason, ie strength and safety. The
designer should examine these carefully, and
should generally specify tighter tolerances for
construction. Limited guidance on this latter type
is provided in AS 3610 where tolerances are
specified for different classes of surface finish.
Experience has shown that concrete structures can
typically be built to tolerances of about ±10 mm to
± 20 mm. Where such tolerances are not achieved, the
non-structural elements such as walls, windows, etc
will often not fit properly, or extra costs will be incurred
in achieving flat faces, etc. This topic is also covered
in Section 4.5 of the Precast Concrete Handbook.
The tolerances specified in AS 3600 reflect design
practice and should be easy to achieve. For exposed-
to-view concrete, the classes of surface finish in
AS 3610 cover a range of work from the highest quality,
suitable for monumental structures, to average quality,
suitable for many structures. The designer should
balance the cost of formwork and related construction
to produce a given standard of finish against the
overall appearance of the project and/or part being
considered and the distance from which it will be
viewed.
The practical difficulty of accurately measuring
concrete surfaces and of achieving tight tolerances
should not be overlooked. Note that AS 3610 limits the
areas where the Class 1 finish can be specified. Its use
requires a pragmatic approach.
For practical convenience, tolerances in AS 3600 are
measured to the surface and not to the centreline of
members. Any point on a surface should lie within a
tolerance envelope from its theoretical position. For
columns and walls in the first 20 storeys of a building,
an absolute limit of 40 mm horizontally is specified to
control the overall location of the building. For columns
and walls, the deviation from plumb, floor-to-floor, must
not exceed the greater of the specified dimension
divided by 200 or 10 mm. For other members, the
deviation from a specified dimension must not exceed
the greater of the specified dimension divided by
200 or 5 mm.
In checking these tolerances, an allowance must be
made for possible movement of members, such as
the deflection of floors, axial shortening both vertically
and horizontally or thermal movements in slender
structures.
The acceptable tolerance on location of reinforcement
and tendons depends on the effect of any variation on
the strength of the member and also on the possible
reduction in cover and its effect on durability. Negative
tolerances are permitted on cover and have been
allowed for in the covers specified for durability
and axis distance for fire resistance in AS 3600.
Where durability is considered a significant factor,
consideration should be given to using a larger cover
than the minimum requirement of AS 3600.
1.7.6 Formwork
The general requirements for formwork are covered
in AS 3610. The particular requirements for formwork
that affect the safety and serviceability of the concrete
structure are specified in AS 3600. These relate
essentially to two conditions:
n The removal of formwork and the strength of the
recently cast member
n The loads imposed on the structure by the plastic
concrete and its supporting formwork.
The builder is usually responsible for the design,
erection, stripping and safety of the formwork. This
responsibility should be stated clearly in the project
specification. In addition, if the designer requires
particular constraints on the method of construction or
wishes to oversee and review details of the proposed
formwork then this should be specified.
The removal of formwork from a vertical surface is
controlled by the time necessary for the concrete to
gain sufficient strength and to avoid damage during
stripping the exposed surface. In addition, where the
colour of the off-form concrete needs to be consistent,
the time of removal should be similar for all elements.
Typically such surfaces are stripped at 1–2 days.
The removal of soffit formwork from reinforced beams
and slabs at an early age is limited by the need for
safety, to control cracking in the concrete and to limit
the deflection. In the case of a slab with undisturbed
shores kept in place, the slab is analysed as a plain
concrete member subject to its self-weight plus a
construction load of 2 kPa Figure 1.11. The design
moment induced by this load must be less than the
ultimate strength of the section calculated using
characteristic flexural tensile strength of the concrete
at the time of form removal. If control samples are
taken and the concrete strength is obtained by
Design load
(slab self-weight + 2 kPa construction load)
Slab soffit
(crack control by Undisturbed
flexural tensile strength) shores
Figure 1.11 Form removal from soffit
Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 1.17
testing, then that strength can be used to determine
the characteristic flexural strength. As an alternative
to testing of concrete, the mean concrete strength
at 7 days may be taken as the values specified in
AS 1379 Table 2.
In lieu of performing the above calculation, the
designer may use the minimum stripping times for
soffit forms specified in AS 3600 Tables 17.6.2.4 and
17.6.2.5 but formwork supports must stay in place for
longer. These tables cover two cases: reinforced slabs
continuous over formwork supports and of normal-
class concrete cured at various temperatures; and
removal of formwork supports from beams and slabs
not supporting structure above.
In multi-storey structures, the early removal of formwork
and its supports is desirable for speed of construction
and economical reuse of forms. The floor being cast at
any time is supported by the floors below. Depending
on the number of supporting floors (usually a minimum
of 3 or 4) and the relative stiffness of these floors, the
load is shared between them with a series of closely
spaced props. The floor directly beneath that being
cast is less mature than, and is being supported also
by, the floors below it.
A simplified elastic analysis of these floors results in
quite high values for the maximum load. Depending
on the number of sets of forms, this maximum load
varies between 2.25 and 2.40 times the self-weight of
the floor, with a converged value of 2.0. If the live load
is less than the dead load of the floor, clearly there is
a danger of overloading the slabs during construction.
Further, if the temperature and curing conditions are
not as expected there is a danger of a slab failure.
Various methods such as prop release and re-shoring
have been devised to reduce these apparently very
high loads, and measurements have been taken to
check if the simplifications of analysis are reasonable.
The measured loads generally comply with the
simplified analysis; the variation apparently being due
to creep and shrinkage warping of the concrete frame.
Further guidance on this subject may be obtained from
AS 3610 and literature referenced in it.
Prestressed floors are usually designed for staged
stressing so that the prestress is applied progressively
as the concrete gains strength, the floor becomes
largely self-supporting, and the forms may be removed
in stages, usually at about 7 days when the floor is fully
stressed. For multi-storey buildings and several levels
of formwork, the sharing of load and analysis is as for
reinforced concrete.
1.18 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook
References
1.1 Building Code of Australia Australian Building
Codes Board, 2010.
1.2 AS/NZS 1170 Structural design actions,
Standards Australia,
Part 0: General principles
Part 1: Permanent, imposed and other actions
Part 2: Wind actions
Part 4: Earthquake actions in Australia.
1.3 AS 3600 Concrete structures Standards
Australia, 2009.
1.4 Sustainable Concrete Materials Briefing 11,
Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia, 2010.
1.5 Sustainable Concrete Buildings Briefing 13,
Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia, 2010.
1.6 Manual for the design of reinforced concrete
building structures, 2nd Ed, Institution of
Structural Engineers (jointly with Institution of
Civil Engineers), 2002.
1.7 Manual for the design of concrete building
structures to Eurocode 2 Institution of Structural
Engineers, 2006.
1.8 ACI 318 Building code requirements for
structural concrete American Concrete Institute,
2008.
1.9 Foster SJ 'Design and analysis procedures',
paper presented at AS 3600 – 2009 National
Seminar Series: What's New? What's Different?
Improvements and Developments – what are
the implications and what do they mean for you,
Concrete Institute of Australia, 2009.
1.10 Foster SJ, Kilpatrick AE and Warner R
Reinforced Concrete Basics 2E: Analysis
and design of reinforced concrete structures
Pearson Education, Australia, 2010.
1.11 Serviceability – Design for Deflection and Crack
Control Concrete Institute of Australia Seminar
Series, 2010.
1.12 Guide to Concrete Construction (T41/HB64)
2nd Ed, Cement Concrete & Aggregates
Australia/Standards Australia, 2002.
1.13 Movement, restraint and cracking in concrete
structures, The Concrete Society TR67, 2008.
1.14 Precast Concrete Handbook 2nd Ed, National
Precast Concrete Association Australia and
Concrete Institute of Australia, 2009.
1.15 BS 8110 Structural use of concrete  Part 1:
Code of practice for design and construction
British Standards Institution, 1997.
1.16 BS EN 1992, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete
structures British Standards Institution, 2004.
1.17 Mitchell D and Cook WD 'Progressive collapse
of slab structures' Concrete Framed Structures:
Stability and Strength Narayanan R (ed),
Elsevier Applied Science, 1986.
1.18 FIP Commission on Prefabrication Planning
and Design Handbook on Precast Building
Structures, Thomas Telford Ltd, 1994.
1.19 Elliott KS and Tovey AK Precast concrete
framed buildings: Design guide British Cement
Association, 1992.
1.20 ACI-ASCE Committee 550 'Design
Recommendations for Precast Concrete
Structures', ACI Structural Journal January-
February 1993, pp 115–121.
1.21 AS 3610 Formwork for concrete 1995 and
AS 3610.1 Formwork for concrete  Part 1:
Documentation and surface finish  Standards
Australia, 2010.
1.22 AS 4678 Earth-retaining structures Standards
Australia, 2002.
1.23 AS 1170 Structural design actions  Part 4:
Earthquake actions in Australia  Standards
Australia, 2007.
1.24 AS1379 Specification and supply of concrete
Standards Australia, 2007.

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 1.19

blank page

1.20 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

Chapter 2 Design
properties for concrete
and reinforcement
2.1 Concrete
2.1.1 General
The performance of a concrete structure depends
on a number of factors ranging from the design to
its loading history. Not the least of these factors is
the insitu quality of the concrete in it. This in turn
is affected by two major factors, the quality of the
concrete supplied to the project and the construction
process employed.
Considering first the quality of the concrete supplied to
the project, the major factors influencing this are the
type and quality of the constituent materials and the
proportions in which they are mixed. However, for design,
it is usual to adopt values for the various design
properties, eg compressive strength, on the basis of
what is a reasonable design value from a member-
behaviour perspective and what can be achieved in
the geographical location using local materials.
In general, designers should specify the values of
only the concrete properties they require and not
specify limitations on how the supplier should produce
the concrete, except to require that materials and
manufacture comply with the relevant Australian
standards.
Equally important to ensure that the design quality
is achieved for the concrete in its final place, is
specifying that the concrete is appropriately
transported, placed, compacted, finished and
cured, not overlooking the fact that to facilitate this,
appropriate properties of the fresh concrete need to
be specified. However, the importance of actually
ensuring that the provisions of the specification
are complied with on site must not be overlooked.
Ensuring that proper curing is undertaken and that
unauthorised addition of water is not allowed are also
important 2.1.
Design values for concrete are specified in AS 3600 2.2.
In general, these are characteristic values, eg f 'c , as
they provide appropriate values for strength design
accommodating the variation inherent in concrete
production and the subsequent construction processes.
However, average values are preferred for some
properties, eg Ec , as they give a better prediction of
the in-service behaviour of the member or structure.
Generally, AS 3600 provides for design properties
to be taken as either a prescribed value or to be
determined from tests carried out on concrete made
from the proposed materials. Alternatively, values may
be derived from historical records of similar concrete.
If records are not available and tests are required, the
designer should allow for the time and possible delays
to obtain the results.
If test results and testing of various properties are
to be specified, the designer needs to understand
the precision of the test, ie the repeatability and
reproducibility. The choice of the design value and the
value included in the specification need to take these
factors into account.
2.1.2 Strength
General AS 3600 specifies concrete with a
characteristic 28-day compressive strength in the
range 20 to 100 MPa.
Although most pre-mixed concrete suppliers can
supply concrete in the range 20 to 50 MPa, designers
should be aware that concretes above 50 MPa are
deemed to be special-class concretes and may not be
readily available in some regions.
More importantly, while the design methods in AS 3600
cover high strength concretes, additional design
and detailing will be required for them than for lower
strength concretes.
Compressive strength AS 3600 Clause 3.1.1.1
specifies standard strengths of 20, 25, 32, 40, 50, 65,
80 and 100 MPa. In this series, the strength of each
grade is about 25% greater than that of the preceding
grade. In practice, for members such as slabs and
beams, the choice of strength grade will frequently
be determined by durability and serviceability
considerations rather than the structural requirements.
However, for columns and walls it may be determined
by load-carrying capacity, ie strength.
Non-standard strength grades may be specified but
these are deemed to be special-class concretes.
Associated properties, eg shrinkage, may need to be
specifically determined and project testing is required.
Tensile strength The uniaxial tensile strength of
concrete is determined from either:
n Tests. The flexural tensile strength obtained by
testing plain concrete beam specimens and
calculating the extreme fibre stress at failure in
accordance with AS 1012.11 2.3, or the principal
tensile strength obtained using the split-cylinder
test method in accordance with AS 1012.10 2.3.
In these cases the uniaxial tensile strength, fct, is
taken as:
fct = 0.6 fct.f  or fct = 0.9 fct.sp as appropriate.
Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 2.1

n Alternatively, in the absence of more-accurate data
the characteristic uniaxial tensile strength may be
taken as 0.36√f 'c, and the characteristic flexural
tensile strength as 0.6√f 'c.
The uniaxial tensile strength is used in calculations
limiting cracking of concrete such as web shear
cracking in prestressed beams, while the flexural
strength is used in designing plain concrete members
such as pavements, and in calculations to control
flexural cracking.
2.1.3 Modulus of elasticity
The modulus of elasticity of concrete, Ec, is taken as
the secant modulus of the non-linear stress-strain
relationship as shown in Figure 2.1 and is used in the
calculation of deformations.
In most cases, the value of Ec can be taken as the
value given by the empirical formulae given in the
Standard:
Ec = r1.5 x 0.043√fcmi (when fcmi ≤ 40 MPa); and
Ec = r1.5 x (0.0243√fcmi + 0.12) (when fcmi > 40 MPa)
For normal-weight concrete and up to fcmi = 40 MPa,
the formula reduces to Ec = 5055√fcmi . Note that
the formula uses fcmi, the mean value of the in situ
compressive strength at the age of the concrete being
considered, not f 'c. In the absence of more-accurate
data fcmi can be taken as 90% of the mean value of the
cylinder strength, fcm. The precision of the formula is
noted as ± 20%. If a higher precision on the calculation
of immediate deflection is required, then values from
trial mixes or similar concretes should be used.
Properties of standard concrete grades using
equations given in the Standard are shown in Table 2.1.
2.1.4 Density
To comply with AS 3600 the saturated surface-dry
density of the concrete has to be in the range of
1800 to 2800 kg/m3. The density of plain concrete
depends on the density of the coarse aggregate and
Stress
0.9 f '
c
0.45 f '
c
E
c
1
0
Strain, εc
Figure 2.1 Modulus of elasticity of concrete
the water‑cement ratio. AS 3600 suggests using a
density of 2400 kg/m3 for normal-weight unreinforced
concrete.
For reinforced concrete, an allowance should be
made for the reinforcement. For most structures, a
conservative value of 2500 kg/m3 (25 kN/m3) for the
unit weight of reinforced or prestressed concrete
is satisfactory for design purposes. AS 1170.1 2.4
suggests that the density of reinforced concrete is
24 kN/m3 plus 0.6 kN/m3 for each 1% of reinforcement.
2.1.5 Stress-strain curves
The Standard does not prescribe a stress-strain
curve for concrete but allows the use of a curvilinear
form defined by recognised equations, eg CEB2.5, or
determined from test data. For design, the shape of the
in situ uniaxial compressive stress-strain curve is taken
as that for a maximum stress of 0.9 f 'c for strength and
fcmi for serviceability limit states, respectively.
Under uniaxial stress, for concrete with characteristic
compressive strengths in the range 20 to 100 MPa, the
peak stress occurs at a strain of approximately 0.0025,
but varies with mix. The shape of the curve changes

Table 2.1 Properties of standard concrete grades

Grade or characteristic Characteristic flexural

compressive strength, f 'c tensile strength, f 'ct.f Uniaxial tensile strength, f 'ct Modulus of elasticity, Ec.28
(MPa) = 0.6 √f 'c (MPa) = 0.36 √f 'c (MPa) (MPa)

20 2.68 1.61 24 000

25 3.00 1.80 26 700
32 3.39 2.04 30 100
40 3.79 2.28 32 800

50 4.24 2.55 34 800

65 4.84 2.90 37 400
80 5.37 3.22 39 600
100 6.00 3.60 42 200

2.2 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

with strength, with the ascending and descending
branches becoming steeper as the strength increases.
In the stress-strain curve, the maximum stress is
modified from that of the standard cylinder test to
account for the differences in the size, environmental/
curing and testing conditions between that of the
cylinder test to that of the insitu concrete under local
conditions.
2.1.6 Poisson's ratio
The Standard provides a value of 0.2 for concrete. This
assumes the concrete is uncracked in tension.
2.1.7 Coefficient of thermal expansion
The Standard provides a value of 10 x 10–6/ °C. This
should be sufficient for most calculations even though
the actual value can vary by ± 20% depending on
aggregate type, volume of cement paste and degree
of saturation. In other standards, eg Eurocode 2 2.6,
the values of the coefficients of thermal expansion for
concrete and steel are taken as equivalent, whereas
AS 3600 suggests different values for each.
2.1.8 Shrinkage
Shrinkage is the decrease in the volume of hardened
concrete caused mainly by the loss of moisture as a
result of drying, and also by chemical changes in the
cement hydration products. It is independent of the
load applied to the concrete; it depends chiefly on the
relative humidity and temperature of the environment,
the size of the member and the constituent materials of
the concrete.
The basic shrinkage strain is measured by taking
standard test specimens wet-cured for 7 days and
then stored in air at 23°C at a relative humidity of 50%
for 56 days. Tests have shown that the aggregate
type has a significant influence on the shrinkage of
concrete. The range of shrinkage values for normal
concrete in major cities is given in Table 2.2.
The figures reflect the best estimate of the value for
design purposes of the whole range of normal‑class
concretes available in Australia. If designers are
concerned about shrinkage, a better estimate
for design purposes can be obtained by using
measurements on similar local concrete. If shrinkage
is a significant design parameter, then special-class
concrete should be specified and the desired basic
shrinkage strain nominated (remembering that for
such concrete extra project testing will be required).
Designers should also check that such concrete can
be supplied since suitable aggregates may not be
available locally to achieve such limits.
The Standard gives a method to calculate the design
shrinkage strain, ie the sum of the autogenous
shrinkage strain and the drying shrinkage strain,
Table 2.2 Value of final drying basic shrinkage strains
for major cities (after AS 3600)
Value of final drying basic
City shrinkage strain (mm/mm x 10–6)
Brisbane 800
Sydney 800
Melbourne 900
Adelaide 1000
Perth 1000
Hobart 1000
of concrete at any time. It also provides a table of
typical final design shrinkage strains after 30 years
based on a value of 1000 x 10-6 for the final drying
basic shrinkage strain.
The design shrinkage strain for various environments
and size of member may be obtained directly from
the series of curves given in the Standard. The four
environments covered may be assumed to reflect
conditions of increasing humidity. The description
'interior environments' reflects the situation inside
non-air-conditioned buildings, while the others reflect
the environments defined for durability considerations
given in Clause 4.3 of the Standard. For practical
design conditions, these general classifications
are considered to provide a more useful guide to
designers than would an attempt to provide absolute
values for the effects of temperature and relative
humidity.
The suggested accuracy for the calculation of ecs
using the nominated figures is ± 30%. The benefit of
obtaining more-accurate results should be assessed
before embarking on time-consuming and costly
methods of data collection and calculation.
2.1.9 Creep of concrete
Creep of concrete is defined as the time-dependent
increase in strain under sustained loading. The basic
creep coefficient is expressed as the ratio of the
ultimate creep strain to the elastic strain of a standard
specimen initially loaded at 28 days and maintained
under a constant stress of 0.4 f 'c. For the practical
calculation of the creep of a member, the basic creep
coefficient is modified for the effects of member size,
exposure environment and the maturity of the concrete
at the time of loading.
In the absence of specific data for local concrete, the
designer may use the average values for the basic
creep coefficient and modification factors given in the
tables and graphs in the Standard. The suggested
accuracy of creep calculations based on this average
data is ± 30%.
Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 2.3
The creep under constant stress as determined above
is known as pure creep. Practical examples of pure
creep include creep due to prestress and sustained
or dead load on uncracked concrete, such as axial
shortening of concrete columns and loadbearing walls
of buildings.
However, where stresses are induced by movements
such as settlement or shrinkage, the initial stress
caused by the induced strain is reduced by creep.
This loss of stress is known as relaxation.
2.2 Reinforcement
2.2.1 General
Reinforcement (reinforcing steel) is defined by the
Standard in Clause 1.6.3.68 as 'steel bar, wire or
mesh but not tendons'. This definition precludes the
use of fibres (steel and other types), non-metallic
reinforcement and non-tensioned prestressing strand,
bars and wires if the structure is to comply with the
Standard.
The Standard also requires (see Clause 17.2.1.1) that
reinforcement be deformed bars or mesh (welded wire
fabric of either plain or deformed wire) although plain
bars or wire may be used for fitments.
The following observations on reinforcement relate to
the requirements set out in AS/NZS 4671 2.7.
2.2.2 Shape
Reinforcing bars can be either plain, deformed ribbed
or deformed indented. The shapes are designated
by the letters R (Round), D (Deformed ribbed) and
I (deformed Indented) respectively.
Generally, only deformed ribbed bars will meet
the intention of the requirement in AS 3600 that
reinforcement be deformed. However, AS/NZS 4671
contains provisions outlining a test method to measure
the bond performance of indented bars or ribbed bars
with ribs not meeting the specification set out in that
standard.
2.2.3 Strength
Strength grade is represented by the numerical value
of the lower characteristic yield stress, 250, 300, and
500 MPa. Reinforcing steel with a strength grade
above 250 MPa is also required to comply with the
specification of an upper characteristic yield stress.
2.2.4 Ductility class
The three classes of ductility are designated L, N
and E for low, normal and earthquake respectively.
Ductility Class E has been especially formulated for
New Zealand and is not manufactured or available
in Australia.
2.4 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook
AS 3600 imposes a number of limitations on the use of
Ductility Class L reinforcement. These reinforcing
materials may be used as main or secondary
reinforcement in the form of welded wire mesh, or as
wire, bar and mesh in fitments; but are not permitted
'in any situation where the reinforcement is required to
undergo large plastic deformation under strength limit
state conditions' (see Clause 1.1.2 (c) (ii)). Importantly it
also states (Clause 17.2.1.1) that 'Ductility Class L
reinforcement shall not be substituted for Ductility Class
N reinforcement unless the structure is redesigned '.
The use of Ductility Class L reinforcement is further
limited by other clauses in AS 3600. For example,
where Ductility Class L reinforcement is used and
where the design incorporates moment redistribution,
then the designer has to undertake an analysis to
show that there is adequate rotation capacity in critical
moment regions to allow the assumed redistribution
to take place. There is also a different value for the
capacity reduction factor f throughout the Standard
where Ductility Class L reinforcement is used.
For further background as to the reasons for the
restrictions on the use of Ductility Class L reinforcement,
refer to the national seminars on AS 3600—2009 2.8.
2.2.5 Size
The common sizes of bar available in Australia of the
various grades and classes are shown in Tables 2.3
and 2.4.
2.2.6 Weldability
Reinforcement conforming to AS/NZS 4671 is
weldable. Depending on the manufacturing process
used and the chemical composition of the steel, the
requirements for welding may differ and may be
more or less stringent than requirements for other
reinforcement complying with that Standard. Designers
should consult the steel producer's literature for
specific advice. Any structural welding of reinforcing
steel should comply with AS/NZS 1554.32.9 and be
carried out by qualified operators. More‑detailed
information and guidance is provided in the
WTIA Technical Note 12.10. Welding of galvanised
reinforcement needs care and should be avoided if
possible due to possible damage to the coating.
Locational tack-welds can be used for pre-assembly of
reinforcement cages in lieu of tying at bar intersections.
They may be smaller than tack welds as defined in
AS/NZS 1554.4 and are (currently) not covered by it.
They should be performed by trained personnel and
should be executed in a manner that does not cause
notching or reduce the cross sectional area of the
intersecting bars. Where reinforcement cages are
to be lifted care is required to ensure the welds are
adequate to support the weight of the cages.
Table 2.3 Nominal values for hot-rolled deformed bars
of grade D500N
Cross-sectional area Mass per metre length
Size (mm2) (kg/m)
N10 78.5 0.617
N12 113 0.890
N16 201 1.580
N20 314 2.470
N24 452 3.550
N28 616 4.830
N32 804 6.310
N36 1020 7.990
N40 1260 9.860
Notes:
— These normal-ductility bars are used typically in beams,
slabs as flexural reinforcement and in columns and walls as
compression reinforcement.
— This Table includes sizes outside AS/NZS 4671.
— N10 bars are not available in all States and Territories.
— N40 bars may be available only on special order for larger
quantities.
— Larger diameter fitments are made with N12, N16 and N20
bar as required.
Table 2.4 Nominal values for high-strength deformed
bars of grade D500L
Cross-sectional area Mass per metre length
Size (mm2) (kg/m)
L4 12.6 0.099
L5 17.7 0.139
L6 28.3 0.222
L7 35.8 0.281
L8 45.4 0.356
L9 57.4 0.451
L 10 70.9 0.556
L 11 89.1 0.699
L
12 111.2 0.873
Notes:
— These low-ductility bars (sometimes known as wires)
are used commonly as fitments in beams and columns
generally using L6, L8, and L10 sizes. The other sizes may
not be readily available.
— Larger size fitments are usually made from N bar as in
Table 2.3.
Table 2.5 Nominal values for hot-rolled round bars of
grade R250N
Cross-sectional area Mass per metre length
Size (mm2) (kg/m)
R 6.5 30 0.267
R10 80 0.632
R12 110 0.910
R16 200 1.619
R20 310 2.528
R24 450 3.640
Notes:
— The shaded bars, R 6.5 and R10, are used for fitments.
— R12 to R24 bars are generally used only for dowel bars.
— For dowel bars larger than R24, check with supplier.
Note that reinforcement manufactured overseas may
not conform to AS/NZS 4671, as it may have a higher
carbon equivalent content. Some overseas sources,
however, can supply complying reinforcement.
Designers should consult the Australian Certification
Authority for Reinforcing (ACRS) for details of those
suppliers.
Generally, welding of reinforcement to comply with
AS/NZS 4671 will require the use of:
n hydrogen-controlled electrodes;
n special precautions in adverse conditions, eg wet
weather, temperatures ≤ 0°C;
n preheating when bars over 25 mm diameter are
being welded.
Note the limitation on the location of welds in a bar
that has been bent and re-straightened specified in
AS 3600 (Clause 13.2.1(f)), ie it shall not be welded
closer than 3d b to the area that has been bent and
re-straightened.
2.2.7 Bending and re-bending reinforcement
AS/NZS 4671 specifies for bars of diameter ≤16 mm a
90° bend and rebend test and for bars ≥ 20 mm a 180°
bend test. It is thought that these requirements will
ensure that bars likely to be restraightened in the field,
ie with d ≤16 mm, can be safely re-bent.
2.2.8 Mesh
Meshes commonly available in Australia are shown in
Table 2.6.
Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 2.5
Table 2.6 Meshes commonly available in Australia

Longitudinal bars Cross bars Mass of Cross-sectional area/m width

Mesh type 6-m x 2.4-m
and reference No. x dia. Pitch No. x dia. Pitch sheet Longitudinal bars Cross bars
number (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (kg) (mm2/m) (mm2/m)

Rectangular
RL 1218 25 x 11.90 100 30 x 7.60 200 157 1112 227
RL 1118 25 x 10.65 100 30 x 7.60 200 131 891 227
RL 1018 25 x 9.50 100 30 x 7.60 200 109 709 227
RL 918 25 x 8.55 100 30 x 7.60 200 93 574 227
RL 818 25 x 7.60 100 30 x 7.60 200 79 454 227
RL 718 25 x 6.75 100 30 x 7.60 200 68 358 227

Square, with edge side-lapping bars

SL 102 10 x 9.5 + 200 30 x 9.5 200 80 354 354
4 x 6.75 100
SL 92 10 x 8.6 + 200 30 x 8.6 200 66 290 290
4 x 6.0 100
SL 82 10 x 7.6 + 200 30 x 7.6 200 52 227 227
4 x 6.0 100
SL 72 10 x 6.75 + 200 30 x 6.75 200 41 179 179
4 x 5.0 100
SL 62 10 x 6.0 + 200 30 x 6.0 200 33 141 141
4 x 5.0 100

Square, without edge side-lapping bars

SL 81 25 x 7.6 100 60 x 7.6 100 105 454 454

Trench meshes
L12TM n x 11.9 100 20 x 5.0 300 na 1112 65
L11TM n x 10.7 100 20 x 5.0 300 na 899 65
L8TM n x 7.6 100 20 x 5.0 300 na 454 65

Notes:
— The edge bar on SL meshes may be replaced by smaller diameter edge bars of equal or greater total cross-sectional area
provided the smaller bars meet the minimum ductility requirements of the bar to be replaced.
— Purpose-made mesh can be specified for large projects but designers should first check its availability from reinforcement
suppliers.
— SL 52 is also usually available along with SL 53 and SL 63 which are available only in WA.
— Currently most meshes are made from Ductility Class L wire although normal ductility meshes may be available on special
order.

2.3 Stress Development
2.3.1 General
The rules for stress development are given in AS 3600
Clause 13.1, the data and tables following are based
on that information.
Development lengths and lapped splice lengths differ
depending on whether the reinforcement is in tension
or compression.
2.3.2 Development length for bars in tension
AS 3600 gives the option of a two-tier approach for
determining the development length in tension. Either
it can be taken as the Basic development length
or, if desired, that length can be reduced as in the
procedure given for the Refined development length.
For most designs, the basic development length will
be used.
For bars in tension, the basic development length, Lsy.tb,
and the refined development length, is multiplied by:
1.5 for epoxy-coated bars;
1.5 for all plain bars;
1.3 when lightweight concrete is used;
1.3 for all structural elements built with slip forms.
Tables 2.7 and 2.8 give development lengths for
deformed bars in the various situations as detailed
in each table. The lengths are based on the formula
provided in AS 3600 Clause 13.1.2.2, ie:
Lsy.tb = 0.5 k1k3fsydb / (k2 √f 'c) ≥ 29k1db

2.6 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

The values are rounded off to the nearest 10 mm. The
values used for the factors k1, k2 and k3 are shown at
the top of each table.
The factor k1 is to allow for the settlement of wet
concrete and accumulation of bleed water under the
bar in deep sections, which reduces the value of the
bond strength. The factor k2 accounts for the reduction
in the average ultimate bond strength as the bar
diameter increases.
The factor k3 depends on the confining effects of the
concrete surrounding the bar. The value of cd used
to calculate the factor k3, and to produce Tables 2.7
and 2.8, is a dimension (mm) derived from the clear
spacing between adjacent parallel bars (horizontally)
and critical covers to the bar under consideration as
shown in Figure 2.2. (Note the cover is to the main bar,
ie the bar being anchored.)
Development lengths for bars developing a tensile
stress, sst, less than fsy can be calculated from the
formula:
Lst = Lsy.t sst / fsy ≥ 12d b
Except that for slabs, the minimum lengths given in
AS 3600 Clause 9.1.3.1(a) (ii) may be used where
appropriate.
For wide elements such as band beams, slabs, walls
and blade columns, where the bars being lapped are
in the plane of the element or member, the tensile lap
lengths for either contact or non-contact splices can
be determined by multiplying the development lengths
by 1.25. A lower value of 1.0 is possible where the area
of steel provided is at least twice that required and
less than 50% of bars are lapped. Refer to AS 3600
Clause 13.2.2.
For narrow elements such as the webs of beams
or columns where the bars are in contact or where
there is less than 3d b between the bars, the tensile
lap length is the development length multiplied
by 1.25. Where the bars are further apart than 3d b
then additional calculations will be required. Refer to
AS 3600 Clause 13.2.2.
For splices in tension tie members, only welded or
mechanical splices are allowed.
2.3.3 Reducing tensile development length by
standard hooks and cogs
By definition (AS 3600 Clause 13.1.2.7), the term
cog is a 90° bend in a bar while a standard hook
can be either a 135° or a 180° bend. The length of
bar required to physically make each standard hook
(which should be specified) is given in Table 2.9. The
overall dimensions of hooks and cogs are given in
Table 2.10.
c1
a a
c c
c1
(a) Straight bars (b) Cogged or hooked bar (c) Looped bars
cd = min (a/2,c1,c ) cd = min (a/2,c1) cd = c
(i) Narrow elements or members (eg beam webs and columns)
a a
c c
(a) Straight bars (b) Cogged or hooked bar (c) Looped bars
cd = min (a/2,c1,c ) cd = a/2 cd = c
(ii) Wide elements or members (eg flanges, band beam, slabs,
walls and blade columns)
a
a
Lsy.t Lsy.t
db
(iii) Planar view of staggered development lengths
of equi-spaced bars
Note: For wide elements or members (such as band beams, slabs,
walls and blade columns), edge cover , c1, should be ignored.
Figure 2.2 Values of c d (after AS 3600)
Although hooks and cogs reduce the tensile
development length as shown in Figure 2.3, they
cause congestion of reinforcement in critical areas
such as beam/column joints and ends of simply-
supported beams. They can also become a source
of corrosion if they are allowed to encroach into the
required cover. Straight bars are easier to fix and
ensure that the required cover is maintained. Where a
short development length is required, an alternative to
using standard hooks is to use smaller diameter bars
and/or higher strength concrete.
Tensile stresses are also generated in the concrete in
the plane of hooks because of bearing on the concrete
on the inside of the hook when the bar is fully stressed
under load. Hooks should not be used in sections
thinner than about 12 bar diameters or as top bars
in slabs, to avoid splitting or spalling of the concrete
cover.
Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 2.7
Table 2.7 Basic development lengths Lsy.t for Grade D500N bars in tension and where there is ≤ 300 mm
of concrete under the bar
Horizontal bars k1 = 1.0
k2 = (132 – db ) /100
k3 = 1.0 – 0.15 (cd – db ) /db (within limits 0.7 ≤ k3 ≤ 1.0)
≤ 300 mm
fsy = 500 MPa
Concrete Bar size
strength
f 'c (MPa) cd N12 N16 N20 N24 N28 N32 N36
20 30 430 670 920 1200 1490 1790 2100
35 400 630 890 1160 1450 1760 2100
40 390 600 850 1120 1410 1720 2060
45 390 560 810 1080 1370 1680 2020
50 390 540 770 1040 1330 1640 1970
55 390 540 740 1000 1290 1600 1930
60 390 540 700 960 1250 1550 1890
65 390 540 700 920 1210 1510 1840
70 390 540 700 890 1170 1470 1800
75 390 540 700 870 1130 1430 1760
80 390 540 700 870 1090 1390 1710
85 390 540 700 870 1050 1340 1670
90 390 540 700 870 1050 1300 1620
95 390 540 700 870 1050 1260 1580
100 390 540 700 870 1050 1250 1540
25 30 390 600 830 1070 1330 1600 1880
35 360 570 790 1030 1300 1580 1880
40 350 530 760 1000 1260 1540 1840
45 350 500 730 970 1220 1500 1800
50 350 480 690 930 1190 1470 1770
55 350 480 660 900 1150 1430 1730
60 350 480 630 860 1120 1390 1690
65 350 480 630 830 1080 1350 1650
70 350 480 630 790 1040 1320 1610
75 350 480 630 780 1010 1280 1570
80 350 480 630 780 970 1240 1530
85 350 480 630 780 940 1200 1490
90 350 480 630 780 940 1170 1450
95 350 480 630 780 940 1130 1410
100 350 480 630 780 940 1120 1380
32 30 350 530 730 950 1180 1410 1660
35 350 500 700 910 1150 1390 1660
40 350 470 670 880 1110 1360 1630
45 350 460 640 850 1080 1330 1600
50 350 460 610 820 1050 1290 1560
55 350 460 580 790 1020 1260 1530
60 350 460 580 760 990 1230 1490
65 350 460 580 730 950 1200 1460
70 350 460 580 700 920 1160 1420
75 350 460 580 700 890 1130 1390
80 350 460 580 700 860 1100 1350
85 350 460 580 700 830 1060 1320
90 350 460 580 700 830 1030 1280
95 350 460 580 700 830 1000 1250
100 350 460 580 700 830 990 1220
Notes:
— k1 = 1.0
— The basic development lengths have been calculated using the nominal areas as per AS/NZS 4761 and have been rounded
(generally to the nearest 10 mm) within the accuracy of normal design limits.
— cd = smaller of the cover to the deformed bar or 1/2 clear distance to next parallel bar.
— For concrete strength greater than 65 MPa use figures for 65 MPa.
2.8 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook
Concrete Bar size
strength
f 'c (MPa) cd N12 N16 N20 N24 N28 N32 N36
40 30 350 470 650 850 1050 1260 1480
35 350 460 630 820 1020 1250 1480
40 350 460 600 790 1000 1220 1460
45 350 460 580 760 970 1190 1430
50 350 460 580 740 940 1160 1400
55 350 460 580 710 910 1130 1360
60 350 460 580 700 880 1100 1330
65 350 460 580 700 850 1070 1300
70 350 460 580 700 820 1040 1270
75 350 460 580 700 810 1010 1240
80 350 460 580 700 810 980 1210
85 350 460 580 700 810 950 1180
90 350 460 580 700 810 930 1150
95 350 460 580 700 810 930 1120
100 350 460 580 700 810 930 1090
50 30 350 460 580 760 940 1130 1330
35 350 460 580 730 920 1120 1330
40 350 460 580 710 890 1090 1300
45 350 460 580 700 870 1060 1280
50 350 460 580 700 840 1040 1250
55 350 460 580 700 810 1010 1220
60 350 460 580 700 810 980 1190
65 350 460 580 700 810 960 1170
70 350 460 580 700 810 930 1140
75 350 460 580 700 810 930 1110
80 350 460 580 700 810 930 1080
85 350 460 580 700 810 930 1060
90 350 460 580 700 810 930 1040
95 350 460 580 700 810 930 1040
100 350 460 580 700 810 930 1040
≥ 65 30 350 460 580 700 830 990 1160
35 350 460 580 700 810 980 1160
40 350 460 580 700 810 960 1140
45 350 460 580 700 810 930 1120
50 350 460 580 700 810 930 1090
55 350 460 580 700 810 930 1070
60 350 460 580 700 810 930 1050
65 350 460 580 700 810 930 1040
70 350 460 580 700 810 930 1040
75 350 460 580 700 810 930 1040
80 350 460 580 700 810 930 1040
85 350 460 580 700 810 930 1040
90 350 460 580 700 810 930 1040
95 350 460 580 700 810 930 1040
100 350 460 580 700 810 930 1040
Table 2.8 Basic development lengths Lsy.t for Grade D500N bars in tension and where there is > 300 mm
of concrete under the bar
Horizontal bars k1 = 1.3
k2 = (132 – db ) /100
k3 = 1.0 – 0.15 (cd – db ) /db (within limits 0.7 ≤ k3 ≤ 1.0)
> 300 mm
fsy = 500 MPa
Concrete Bar size
strength
f 'c (MPa) cd N12 N16 N20 N24 N28 N32 N36
20 30 560 870 1200 1550 1940 2330 2730
35 520 820 1150 1500 1880 2290 2730
40 510 780 1100 1450 1830 2240 2680
45 510 730 1050 1400 1780 2180 2620
50 510 700 1010 1350 1730 2130 2570
55 510 700 960 1300 1670 2070 2510
60 510 700 910 1250 1620 2020 2450
65 510 700 910 1200 1570 1970 2400
70 510 700 910 1150 1520 1910 2340
75 510 700 910 1130 1460 1860 2280
80 510 700 910 1130 1410 1800 2230
85 510 700 910 1130 1370 1750 2170
90 510 700 910 1130 1370 1690 2110
95 510 700 910 1130 1370 1640 2060
100 510 700 910 1130 1370 1630 2000
25 30 500 780 1070 1390 1730 2080 2440
35 460 740 1030 1350 1680 2050 2440
40 460 690 990 1300 1640 2000 2400
45 460 650 940 1250 1590 1950 2350
50 460 630 900 1210 1540 1900 2300
55 460 630 860 1160 1500 1860 2240
60 460 630 810 1120 1450 1810 2190
65 460 630 810 1070 1400 1760 2140
70 460 630 810 1030 1360 1710 2090
75 460 630 810 1010 1310 1660 2040
80 460 630 810 1010 1260 1610 1990
85 460 630 810 1010 1230 1560 1940
90 460 630 810 1010 1230 1510 1890
95 460 630 810 1010 1230 1470 1840
100 460 630 810 1010 1230 1460 1790
32 30 450 690 950 1230 1530 1840 2150
35 450 650 910 1190 1490 1810 2150
40 450 610 870 1150 1450 1770 2120
45 450 600 830 1110 1410 1730 2070
50 450 600 800 1070 1360 1680 2030
55 450 600 760 1030 1320 1640 1980
60 450 600 750 990 1280 1600 1940
65 450 600 750 950 1240 1550 1890
70 450 600 750 910 1200 1510 1850
75 450 600 750 900 1160 1470 1800
80 450 600 750 900 1120 1420 1760
85 450 600 750 900 1080 1380 1710
90 450 600 750 900 1080 1340 1670
95 450 600 750 900 1080 1300 1620
100 450 600 750 900 1080 1290 1580
Notes:
— k1 = 1.3
— The basic development lengths have been calculated using the nominal areas as per AS/NZS 4761 and have been rounded
(generally to the nearest 10 mm) within the accuracy of normal design limits.
— cd = smaller of the cover to the deformed bar or 1/2 clear distance to next parallel bar.
— For concrete strength greater than 65 MPa use figures for 65 MPa.
Concrete Bar size
strength
f 'c (MPa) cd N12 N16 N20 N24 N28 N32 N36
40 30 450 620 850 1100 1370 1640 1930
35 450 600 810 1060 1330 1620 1930
40 450 600 780 1030 1290 1580 1890
45 450 600 750 990 1260 1540 1850
50 450 600 750 960 1220 1510 1810
55 450 600 750 920 1180 1470 1770
60 450 600 750 900 1150 1430 1730
65 450 600 750 900 1110 1390 1690
70 450 600 750 900 1070 1350 1650
75 450 600 750 900 1060 1310 1610
80 450 600 750 900 1060 1270 1570
85 450 600 750 900 1060 1240 1530
90 450 600 750 900 1060 1210 1490
95 450 600 750 900 1060 1210 1450
100 450 600 750 900 1060 1210 1410
50 30 450 600 760 980 1220 1470 1720
35 450 600 750 950 1190 1450 1720
40 450 600 750 920 1160 1420 1690
45 450 600 750 900 1120 1380 1660
50 450 600 750 900 1090 1350 1620
55 450 600 750 900 1060 1310 1590
60 450 600 750 900 1060 1280 1550
65 450 600 750 900 1060 1240 1520
70 450 600 750 900 1060 1210 1480
75 450 600 750 900 1060 1210 1440
80 450 600 750 900 1060 1210 1410
85 450 600 750 900 1060 1210 1370
90 450 600 750 900 1060 1210 1360
95 450 600 750 900 1060 1210 1360
100 450 600 750 900 1060 1210 1360
≥ 65 30 450 600 750 900 1070 1290 1510
35 450 600 750 900 1060 1270 1510
40 450 600 750 900 1060 1240 1490
45 450 600 750 900 1060 1210 1450
50 450 600 750 900 1060 1210 1420
55 450 600 750 900 1060 1210 1390
60 450 600 750 900 1060 1210 1360
65 450 600 750 900 1060 1210 1360
70 450 600 750 900 1060 1210 1360
75 450 600 750 900 1060 1210 1360
80 450 600 750 900 1060 1210 1360
85 450 600 750 900 1060 1210 1360
90 450 600 750 900 1060 1210 1360
95 450 600 750 900 1060 1210 1360
100 450 600 750 900 1060 1210 1360
Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 2.9
Table 2.9 Overall dimensions (mm) of 180° hooks Lsy.t
and 90° cogs

Overall STRAIGHT BAR

Overall dimension
db Pin db Pin
dimension 0.5Lsy.t

Pin Bar diameter, d b (mm)

diameter
HOOKED OR
(mm) 6 10 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
COGGED BAR
180° hooks
3d b 30 50 60 * * * * * * Figure 2.3 Reduced development length using hooks
4d b 40 60 70 100 120 140 170 190 220 or cogs
5d b 40 70 80 110 140 170 200 220 250
6d b 50 80 100 130 160 190 220 260 290
8d b 60 100 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 Locate cog within beam cage

90° cogs
3d b 120 140 160 * * * * * *
4d b 130 150 170 200 240 280 330 370 420 Top slab bars
5d b 130 160 180 210 260 310 360 400 450
6d b 140 180 200 240 290 340 400 450 510
8d b 160 200 230 280 340 400 470 530 600

* Not to be used
Standard cog
Notes:
— 5d b pin is the one most commonly used.

Cogs are commonly used with top reinforcement in
slabs where the slab sits on beams and the cogged
bars sit over the beam bars as shown in Figure 2.4.
For fitments with cogs, acting as shear reinforcement,
AS 3600 Clause 8.2.12.4 requires that there is 50 mm
or more of concrete cover over the cog.
AS 3600 also covers the development lengths of
plain bars and headed reinforcement in tension (see
Clauses 13.1.3 and 13.1.4 respectively).
2.3.4 Development length for bars in compression
Development lengths for bars in compression are less
than those for bars in tension because the detrimental
effects of tensile cracking are less and the end bearing
of the bar is beneficial. Again, AS 3600 allows a
two‑tier approach with a Basic development length,
which can be modified as in the Refined development
length. For most designs, the basic development
length will be used.
While no specific comment is made about the effect of
cover, bar spacing and confinement by fitments, the
general rules for cover and bar spacing (for placing
and compacting concrete) given in Sections 4 and 17
of the Standard should be followed. The importance
of confinement by fitments is highlighted by the
150 min
Figure 2.4 Cogs with slabs and beams
requirements for fitments around compression lap
splices in AS 3600 Clause 13.2.4.
The development length, Lsy.c, shall be taken as
the basic development length of a deformed bar in
compression, Lsy.cb, calculated from:
0.22 fsy
Lsy.cb = db ≥  0.0435 fsydb
√f 'c
or 200 mm, whichever is the greater.
In compression, the basic development length in the
above equation is largely independent of the concrete
strength as, generally, the minimum length will apply.
However, all values of the basic development length for
different concrete grades are shown in Table 2.10. A
refined development length equal to 0.75 of the basic
development length can be used subject to complying
with AS 3600 Clause 13.1.5.3 but is not shown in
Table 2.10.

2.10 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

Table 2.10 Minimum lengths for hooks and cogs (mm)

Min. greater of, 4db or 70 mm Min. greater of, 4db or 70 mm

La on bar La on bar La on bar

Pin dia. di centreline Pin dia. di centreline Pin dia. di centreline
(< 8db)
db db db

di/2 + db di/2 + db di/2 + db

Dimension in Dimension in Dimension in
bar schedule bar schedule bar schedule
COG 135° HOOK 180° HOOK

Min. pin Bar diameter, d b (mm)

diameter
Type of bar (mm) 6 10 12 16 20 24 28 32 36

Fitments: D500L and R250N bars 3d b 100 110 120 * * * * * *

D500N bars 4d b 110 130 140 170 200 230 270 300 340

Reinforcement other than those below 5d b 120 140 160 180 220 260 300 340 380

Bends designed to be straightened 4d b 110 130 140 170 * * * * *

or subsequently rebent 5d b * * * * 220 260 * * *
6d b * * * * * * 330 380 430

Bends in reinforcement epoxy-coated 5d b 120 140 160 180 * * * * *

or galvanised either before or after 8d b * * * * 290 340 390 440 500
bending

 * Not to be used
Notes:
— 5d b pin is the one most commonly used.
— The overall sizes are nominal. No allowance for spring-back is included, nor is the real oversize diameter of a deformed bar
taken into account.
— 135° on fitments is the most common hook used, which has the same internal diameter and length as 180° hook.

Hooks and cogs cannot be used to reduce the

development length in compression. For example, with For column size and
the use of cogged starter bars in a footing, the overall reinforcement refer
to column schedule
depth of the footing must allow for the development
length of the starter bar in compression, the cog, the
bottom reinforcement and the bottom cover as shown
in Figure 2.5.
AS 3600, also has rules for the development lengths
of plain bars and bundled bars in compression (see
Lsy.c
schedule

Clauses 13.1.6 and 13.1.7).

Refer

2.3.6 Splicing of reinforcement

[a] General As reinforcing bars come in lengths up to Refer schedule Allow for
about 12 m maximum, splicing is required for most cog, bottom
reinforcement
concrete elements during construction, including
and cover
across construction joints. This is a necessary part of
the detailing of the reinforcement for any project. Figure 2.5 Development length of column starter bars
in compression
AS 3600 Clause 13.2.1 requires that splices are
to be made only as permitted in the drawings
or specification. Therefore, the designer has the

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 2.11

responsibility to detail where and how splices are Lsy.t.lap = k7 Lsy.t
or can be made. It is important to specify which db
splices are full strength splices and which are not;
otherwise full strength splices may be detailed by the
reinforcement scheduler for all locations. The designer,
knowing how the structure works, should do this
detailing, eg crack control reinforcement may not need
full strength splices. BARS IN CONTACT OR LESS THAN 3db APART

Splices in tension members can be only welded or

Lsy.t.lap = larger of k7 Lsy.t and Lsy.t + 1.5s b
mechanical splices.
[b] Lapped splices in tension For webs of beams where db
spliced bars are in contact or spaced less than 3db
sb
apart, the lap splice length is the development length
multiplied by the factor k7 (determined from AS 3600
Clause 13.2.2) and which is generally 1.25 times the
development length Lsy.t..
Bars spliced by non-contact lap splices in flexural
BARS MORE THAN 3db APART
members, eg slabs and flanges of beams, spaced
transversely further apart than 3d b shall have a splice
Figure 2.6 The lap-splice length of adjacent bars in
length not less than the larger of k7 Lsy.t (generally
tension in webs of beams and in columns (narrow
1.25Lsy.t) and Lsy.t + 1.5s b, where s b is the clear
elements)
distance between bars of the non-contact lapped
splice (mm) as shown in Figure 2.6. The length of the
lapped splice can be calculated by multiplying the Table 2.11 Basic development lengths Lsy.cb and
development lengths in Tables 2.7 and 2.8 by the factor lap‑splice lengths (mm) for Grade D500N bars in
k7 (usually 1.25). However, if s b does not exceed 3d b, compression
then s b may be taken as zero for calculating Lsy.t.lap.
Concrete Bar size
Designers should remember that in most designs
strength
for bars in tension, bars should not be lapped at the f 'c (MPa) N12 N16 N20 N24 N28 N32 N36
point of maximum tension and good design practice
will minimise bars being lapped in high stress areas. 20 300 390 490 590 690 790 890
An example is top bars in a cantilever beam or slab, 25 260 350 440 530 620 700 790
which are usually spliced at about the quarter points 32 260 350 440 520 610 700 780
40 260 350 440 520 610 700 780
in the back span, depending on the length of the
50 260 350 440 520 610 700 780
cantilever span and back span. AS 3600 allows a
65 260 350 440 520 610 700 780
pro rata reduced development length (and lap splice)
80 260 350 440 520 610 700 780
where the stress in the bar is less than the yield stress

100 260 350 440 520 610 700 780
both in tension and compression. For the situation
where the stress in the bars is less than 0.5fsy and Lap-splice length for bars in contact or spaced
only half the bars are being spliced at the location, at less than 3d b apart – development length
k7 can be taken as 1.0 (see AS 3600 Clause 13.2.2). or 40d b (see AS 3600 Clause 13.2.4 (a))
For tension, there is a minimum development length 480 640 800 960 1120 1280
1440
of 12db or D, whichever is the greater, for slabs as
permitted by AS 3600 Clause 9.1.3.1 (a) (ii). 0.8 Concessional value*

A lapped splice for welded mesh in tension shall 380 510 640 770 900 1020
1150
be made so the two outermost cross-bars (spaced
 * If certain conditions are met (see AS 3600 Clause 13.2.4
at not less than 100 mm or 50 mm apart for plain or
(b) and (c) for details).
deformed bars respectively) of one sheet of mesh
overlap the two outermost cross-bars of the sheet
being lapped as shown in AS 3600 Figure 13.2.3. The
minimum length of the overlap shall be 100 mm. A
lapped splice for welded deformed and plain meshes,
with no cross-bars within the splice length shall be
determined in accordance with AS 3600 Clause 13.2.2.

2.12 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

[c] Lapped splices in compression AS 3600 Clause
13.2.4 (a) requires that the lap-splice length for Primary beam
750 x 750
deformed bars in compression be a minimum of
180 Slab
300 mm and not less than 40d b which are independent 180 Slab
of the concrete strength. However, there are two
750 x 750
conditions in AS 3600 Clause 13.2.4 which allow Secondary beam column under
the lap splice length to be reduced to 0.8 of the 750 x 750 and over
40d b value. This reduced value of 0.8 has also been
included in Table 2.11.
A A
2.4 Detailing
180 Slab Cantilever slab
Structural analysis is only one part of the design
process. Good detailing is equally important and
PART PLAN (NTS)
requires an understanding of what each bar, fitment or
piece of mesh is doing in the structure and what forces
Note: Cover to Ensure enough room
it is resisting.
secondary beam to place concrete
Detailing of reinforcement is the interface between the reinforcement
set by primary See DETAIL A
theoretical design and what can be built in practice
beam
on site. There is no point in having the most refined
analysis and design, if it cannot be constructed.
Detailing also has an impact on durability as poor
placement of reinforcement leads to insufficient cover
and premature failure. Designers need to be practical Crank bottom reo to
miss beam bars or
in terms of what is readily achievable on site and
provide a splice bar
clear in their drawings and their details to allow their
concrete structure to be properly built. Move bottom and top
As bottom bars in primary beam
It is important not to expect reinforcement to end up in bars will clash, to miss column bars
precisely the position nominated in the documentation. provide drop-in
As with all site work, some tolerance must be allowed. splice bar Column bars beyond
In general, ±10 mm is realistic, while ± 5 mm is SECTION A-A (NTS)
the tightest that should ever be specified. Note
that AS 3600 Clause 17.5.3 allows –5 mm +10 mm Note : Cover to beam If corner bar has to move to the right
deviation from the specified position controlled by reinforcement is set by use smaller diameter bar to fit into
cover for beams, slabs, columns and walls. cover to slab and size radius of fitment. Also bar may clash
of top reinforcement with column bar beyond so may have
Generally, reinforcement fixing is a three dimensional in slab to move into slab
problem. Lines, dots, cogs, hooks and laps on
drawings have real sizes and location in the formwork.
Some adjustments of the reinforcement in formwork
will be necessary to make it all fit, especially with
larger bars. Reinforcement cannot be shifted quickly Beam bar
from its position without bends and cranks. Figure 2.7
illustrates this point.
To gain an understanding of how reinforcement is fixed
and the practicalities of work on site, designers should N32 spacer
bars at 1000
be encouraged to inspect their design work in the field.
It should not be assumed that the builder and/or the Check that standard radius
for both fitment and secondary Fitment
scheduler will 'work it out', nor that the detailing will beam reinforcement will pass
just 'happen'. Comprehensive detailing (particularly of between main reinforcement Secondary
complex reinforcement) is vital. Check that if main bar is displaced beam bar
it will not clash with any other bar Rather than cog top
Some examples of poor detailing and suggested
bar, can beam bar run
improvements are shown in Figure 2.8, 2.9 and 2.10. DETAIL A (NTS) into cantilever slab?
Guidance on detailing of reinforcement is provided in
Figure 2.7 What was shown on the drawings and how
Reinforcement Detailing Handbook 2.11.
it fits differently on site

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 2.13

 Potential crack Sealant 1 2 3 4
12 000 12 000 12 000
600 x 400
280 slab columns 1200 wide band beam
A
IB1 IB2 IB3

PART PLAN

Column
Fireproof filler Potential crack over

POOR DETAILING IB3

IB1 IB2
Joint is likely to fail due to diagonal cracking 1200 x 1200 1200 x 1200 1200 x 600

ELEVATION
Provide neoprene bearing
pad or bearing as required
Additional 1 1a 2 3
U bars fitments Sealant
Column over 18N36 2 layers
9N36 8N36

3W12@300

12N36 in 2 layers 8N36

U bars IB1 IB2
Fireproof filler Additional fitments
POOR DETAILING
GOOD DETAILING
1 Many bars exceed 12 m length in IB1 and IB2.
Note details are indicative only and are subject to final design
2 9N36 cogged into column or edge beam and will not fit at grid 1.
Consider drop-in bars to match moment into column or reduce
Figure 2.8 Detailing of corbel
number and size of bars.
3 12N36 in 2 layers in bottom of IB1 could be in 1 layer.
4 No side face reinforcement shown.
5 W12 is the wrong designation. Consider N12 fitments at 200 centres
in pairs to reduce fixing and to comply with transverse spacing.
6 Starter bars for column at 1a not shown.
7 Cogging 8N36 bottom at grid 3 not required. Suggest 8N20 bars
with 4 bars cogged into column.
8 As splice lengths not shown, the scheduler will assume a full splice.

Column Column starter bars −

over refer schedule 18N36 in 2 layers
9N36 9N20 8N36
1500 300 1000 1000
5
Consider 6N28 6 6
drop-in bars
N12 fitments
1000 N12 at 200 N12 fitments at 200 in pairs
1000 EF at 200 in pairs 8N36
12N36B 8N20 x 3000 long 8N20
lap 1200 nom drop-in bars
each side into columns
BETTER DETAILING 800
1000
1 All detailing are subject to final design.
2 Splices generally shown so scheduler will not use full strength splices.

Figure 2.9 Detailing of beam

2.14 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

N12 @ 200 References
Slab 2N20T 2.1 Sirivivatnanon V Fitness for Purpose of
Residential Slab-on-Ground Proceedings of
Concrete 07, 18–20 October 2007, Adelaide,
Concrete Institute of Australia.
N12 @ 200 2.2 AS 3600 Concrete structures Standards
Australia, 2009.

900
W10 fitments
@ 200 cts 2.3 AS 1012 Methods of testing concrete
N12 @ 200 Cantilever slab Standards Australia.
Beam
2.4 AS/NZS 1170 Structural design actions,
150 Standards Australia,
Part 1: Permanent, imposed and other actions
2N28B N12 @ 200
2.5 Deformability of concrete structures – basic
POOR DETAILING assumptions Bulletin D'Information No. 90,
1 N12 top bars to cantilever slab are not properly anchored. Comité Européen du Béton (CEB), 1973.
Also hooks in 150 cantilever slab difficult to fit in depth. 2.6 BS EN 1992, Eurocode 2 Design of concrete
2 N12 top bars to slab at top of beam not properly anchored. structures British Standards Institution, 2004.
3 No side face reinforcement to beam.
2.7 AS/NZS 4671 Steel reinforcing materials
4 Designation of fitments is incorrect.
Standards Australia, 2001.
5 Can it be cast in one pour?
2.8 Lecture 8, Steel reinforcement National Seminar
Series AS 3600—2009, CIA, EA and CCAA.
N12 @ 200 Construction joint if required 2.9 AS/NZS 1554 Structural steel welding
provide 10 x 10 joint Standards Australia
Slab 2 N20T
Part 3: Welding of reinforcing steel, 2008.
Beam off-form finish Part 4: Welding of high strength quenched and
as specified tempered steels, 2010.
900

CJ
2.10 Welding Technology Institute of Australia
L10 fitments 4N12 Non slip (WTIA), Technical Note 1, 1996.
@ 200 cts as sideface surface 2.11 Reinforcement Detailing Handbook (Z06),
reinforcement Cantilever 2nd Ed, Concrete Institute of Australia, 2010.
300

slab

1N12 additional 2N28B L1O U-bar at 200 centres

slope as required to fit in
N12 @ 200 150 depth

GOOD DETAILING
1 Note details are indicative only and are subject to final design.

Figure 2.10 Detailing of cantilever slab

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 2.15

blank page

2.16 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

Chapter 3 Durability and
fire resistance
3.1 DESIGN FOR DURABILITY
3.1.1 General
Concrete is one of the most widely used materials in
structures and durability is one of its key advantages.
Durability can be defined as the ability of a concrete
structure to resist during its design life the effects
of weathering, chemical attack, abrasion and other
deteriorating influences (acting on the structure
or its members) arising within the concrete, from
the environment or from processes being carried
out inside the structure. Although not specifically
mentioned in this definition, deterioration due to the
corrosion of reinforcement, tendons or other inserts
cast into the concrete is an important aspect of
durability.
In designing for durability the environment in which
the structure is to be built, including micro-climates
generated by the structure itself, has to be evaluated.
The following also need to be taken into account:
n Aggressive agencies and actions of the processes
to be carried out in or around the structure
n The expected wear and deterioration through the
intended service life of the structure
n The amount of periodic inspection and
maintenance the structure is likely to receive during
its working life (particularly external parts exposed
to the environment)
n The length of time the concrete structure is
expected to be operational without repair
n The difficulty of carrying out repairs and their
economic impact.
Durability of concrete is covered in Section 4 of
AS 3600 Concrete structures 3.1. The Standard
applies to plain, reinforced and prestressed concrete
structures and members with a design life of 50 years
± 20%, but notes that:
n More stringent requirements would be appropriate
for structures with a design life in excess of
50 years (eg monumental structures), while some
relaxation of the requirements may be acceptable
for structures with a design life less than 50 years
(eg temporary structures).
n Durability is a complex topic and compliance with
these requirements may not be sufficient to ensure
a durable structure.
The second point should alert designers to the issues
involved in the design and construction of concrete
structures for durability and to think about these issues,
rather than just meeting the minimum requirements of
the Standard.
Nevetheless, structures designed to AS 3600
have generally performed satisfactorily in normal
environments and properly designed, proportioned,
inspected, placed, finished and cured concrete is
capable of providing many years of durable service.
The information in this chapter is based on that given in
AS 3600, unless noted otherwise.
Guidance in AS 3600 is, however, given for only a
limited number of aspects of durability – corrosion
of reinforcement (based on the concrete strength
and cover for various exposure classifications),
aggressive soils, freeze-thaw and abrasion – and is
restricted to a limited number of exposure conditions.
For specific durability-related issues reference to
publications relevant to the specific issue in question is
recommended (eg abrasion resistance, acid attack, or
corrosion of embedded steel in concrete). Documents
such as Durable Concrete Structures 3.2, Performance
Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments 3.3 and
Guide to Durable Concrete 3.4 provide sound guidance.
3.1.2 AS 3600 requirements
The 2009 edition of AS 3600 includes some important
changes to exposure classifications. Specifically
for surfaces of maritime structures in seawater the
exposure classification C has been split into:
n C1 (spray zone) and
n C2 (tidal/splash zone).
It should be noted that there is now a separate
standard guide on maritime structures, AS 4997
Guidelines for the design of maritime structures 3.5.
Also, CCAA has published a document on Chloride
Resistance of Concrete 3.6.
AS 3600 now includes specific guidance for
sulfate soils and saline soils. There is considerable
background information on aggressive soil conditions.
CCAA's Technical Note Sulfate-resisting Concrete 3.7
and Guide to Residential Slabs and Footings in Saline
Environments 3.8 provide background information in this
complex area.
Importantly, while durability is a complex topic, for
the criteria discussed, AS 3600 essentially manages
issues of durability from a compressive strength and
cover specification perspective for the particular
exposure classification. Concrete mix designs
Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 3.1
 Flowchart 3.1 Designing for durability in accordance with AS 3600

Is member Is member Is member

no no no
subject to abrasion? subject to freeze-thaw subject to aggressive
cycles? soils?

yes yes yes

Determine f 'c and

Determine f 'c from Table 3.4 air entrainment requirements Is member
from Table 3.5 yes
subject to sulfate
soils?

Input f 'c1 Input f 'c 2 no

Is member
NO
subject to saline
soils?

yes

Determine
Determine f 'c Determine f 'c
exposure classification
from AS 3600 Table 4.4 from Table 4.8.2
from Table 4.8.1

Input f 'c 3

Determine exposure classification

for each surface of member
from Table 4.3

Determine f 'c and curing period

for each surface from Table 4.3
and adopt largest value
no Is exposure
classification U?

(Optional see Clause 4.3.2) Is member external yes

yes but with external exposure
Adopt f 'c for next lower concrete
grade – and increased cover essentially on one Obtain advice and recommenda-
surface only? tions (f 'c , curing,
cover etc) from other sources
no

A stop

3.2 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 A

Input f 'c3

Input f 'c 4 (for strength

and serviceability)

Adopt largest f 'c from f 'c1, f 'c2, f 'c3

and f 'c 4. This should be specified
along with associated curing period,
and any other additional requirements

Is member to be Is member to be
Is member to be
constructed using normal no constructed using intense no no
constructed using spinning
compaction and standard compaction and rigid
and rolling?
formwork? formwork?

yes yes yes

Determine cover from Determine cover from Determine cover from

Table 4.10.3.2 Table 4.10.3.3 appropriate Standard
See Clause 4.10.3.6

Is concrete cast yes

against the ground? Outside
scope of
AS 3600
no

Adopt cover value Increase cover in accordance

determined above with Clause 4.10.3.5

Ensure cover will permit reinforcement to be

fixed and the concrete with specified nominal
aggregate size to be compacted around rein-
forcement, tendons and ducts
(Clause 4.10.2)

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 3.3

 120° 130° 140° 150°
Thursday Is

10° Weipa 10°

Ashmore Is Yirrkala
DARWIN
Troughton Is
TROPICAL
Katherine
TEMPERATE Cooktown
Wyndham
ARID
Derby B1* Normanton Cairns
Halls Creek
Broome
Camooweal Townsville
Tennant Mt Isa
Port headland Creek Hughenden
20° Mackay 20°
North West
Cape Wittenoom Gorge Longreach
Alice Springs
Mundiwindi Rockhampton

Carnarvon A1* Birdsville Bundaberg

Taroom
Meekatharra Charleville
Oodnadatta
Laverton BRISBANE
Geraldton Marree A2*
Forest Cook
Tarcoola Bourke
30° Kalgoorlie
Port Agusta 30°
A2* Eucia Cobar
PERTH Ceduna
Dubbo
Esperance
Mildura Newcastle
Cape Cape ADELAIDE SYDNEY
Leeuwin du Couedic CANBERRA
Albany Wollongong
50 km Echuca Cooma
A2* MELBOURNE
B1* Portland
Sale Point Hicks
1 km
Currie Burnie
B2* Launceston
40° 40°
Cape Sorrell A2*
Coast
HOBART
110° 120° 130° 140° 150° * Unless close to industry

Figure 3.1 Climatic zones and exposure classifications (after AS 3600)

using supplementary cementitious materials (SCM),
maximum water-cement ratios, cementitious binder
types, etc are not discussed in any detail in AS 3600
except that for exposure classification B2, C1 and C2
special class concrete must be used.
Appendix B of AS 1379 Specification and supply of
concrete 3.9, lists the various criteria for special class
concrete which are additional to or different from those
for normal class concrete. As concrete mix design is a
specialist area, designers are recommended to seek
specialist advice if special mix designs are required for
durability.
There are number of important issues that designers
should discuss with their clients on the durability of
concrete at the beginning of any project, including:
n The design life for the concrete structure and
whether Clause 4.1 of AS 3600 with an implied
design life of 50 years ± 20% is appropriate
(eg an iconic building such as a church might have
a required design life of 100 years or more)
n The need for maintenance and repairs during the
life of the building
n Any specific durability requirements for individual
concrete members, as the durability issues may
not be immediately apparent
n The level of inspection during construction to ensure
that cover requirements are achieved on site
The above should be part of a durability plan and
durability report for the building being designed which
is accepted by all parties as part of the project risk
management.
Such durability issues may require a re-assessment
of covers and concrete strengths and the need for
special concrete mixes.

3.4 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

table 3.1 Required concrete properties

Concrete properties
Exposure
Surface and exposure environment classification f 'c (MPa) Curing period (6) (days)

External surfaces above ground

Within 1 km of coastline(1) B2 40  (5) 7
Within 1 to 50 km of coastline B1 32 7
Further than 50 km from coastline and
– within 3 km of industrial polluting area(2) B1 32 7
– in tropical zone (3) B1 32 7
– in temperate zone(3) A2 25 3
– in arid zone(3) A1 20 3

Internal surfaces
In industrial building subject to repeated wetting and drying B1 32 7
Non-residential A2 25 3
Residential A1 20 3

Surfaces in contact with the ground

In contact with aggressive soils(4)
– Sulfate bearing (magnesium content <1g/L) A1 – C2 25–50 3–7
Refer AS 3600 Table 4.8.1
– Sulfate bearing (magnesium content >1g/L) U Designer to assess (7)
Protected by a dpm A1 20 3
in contact with non-aggressive soils
– residential buildings A1 20 3
– other members A2 25 3

Surfaces in contact with water (8)

In soft or running water U Designer to assess (7)
In fresh water B1 32 7
In seawater
– permanently submerged B2 40(5) 7
– in spray zone C1 50(5) 7
– in tidal/splash zone C2 50(5) 7

Other situations U Designer to assess (7) (8)

Notes:
(1) See Figure 3.1. AS 3600 states that the coastal zone includes
locations within 1 km of the shoreline of large expanses of salt
water (eg Port Phillip Bay, Sydney Harbour east of the Spit and
Harbour Bridges, Swan River west of the Narrows Bridge). Where
there are strong prevailing onshore winds or vigorous surf, the
distance should be increased beyond 1 km and higher levels of
protection should be considered.
(2) Industrial polluting areas are defined in AS 3600 as areas where
there are industries that discharge atmospheric pollutants. The
3-km distance should be increased if there are strong prevailing
winds in one direction.
(3) See Figure 3.1.
(4) Severity of sulfate attack depends on the type of sulfate, which
must be in solution. For example, magnesium and ammonium
sulfates are more aggressive than sodium sulfate. The use
of sulfate-resisting cement would be adequate for sodium
sulfate conditions. For the magnesium and ammonium sulfates
conditions, specific consideration should be given to the cement
and the concrete that are likely to resist this type of sulfate.
(5) Special-class concrete is required for B2, C1 and C2 exposure
classifications and this may require items such as the minimum
cement content, the cement type, SCM and water-cement ratios
to be specified by the designer.
(6) AS 3600 makes provision for accelerated curing regimes to
be used by specifying average compressive strengths at the
completion of the curing period in column 4 of AS 3600 Table 4.4.
Exposure
classification f 'c (MPa) f 'cm at end of accelerated curing (MPa)
A1 20 ≥15
A2 25 ≥15
B1 32 ≥20
B2 40 ≥25
C1, C2 50 ≥32
(7) Classification U represents an exposure environment not
specified in this table but for which a degree of severity of
exposure should be appropriately assessed and will involve
special class concrete. Protective surface coatings may be taken
into account in such an assessment. Further guidance on
measures appropriate in exposure classification U may be
obtained from AS 3735 Concrete structures for retaining liquids 3.10.
(8) For water-retaining structures, designers should consult AS 3735
as its requirements supplement and take precedence over
those of AS 3600. It provides more-detailed advice for particular
situations and sets out more-stringent requirements for concrete
quality and cover to reinforcement and tendons.

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 3.5

AS 3600 sets out the minimum requirements for the
design of concrete structures for durability. As noted
earlier these will be adequate in many situations, but in
others (particularly when there are unknowns) it will be
prudent to exceed these requirements.
A sequence of steps in designing for durability in
accordance with AS 3600 is provided in Flowchart 3.1.
Details of the Standard's requirements for particular
concrete members are provided in Tables 3.1 to 3.6,
while information for the achievement of appropriate
durability in specific circumstances is provided in
Sections 3.1.5, 3.1.6 and 3.1.7.
In Table 3.1, classifications A1, A2, B1, B2, C1 and C2
represent increasing degrees of severity of exposure.
For most capital cities in Australia, external surfaces
above ground will be B1 or B2 exposure classification
as a minimum. Exposure classification B2 (within 1 km
of the coastline) requires the use of special class
concrete.
3.1.3 Concrete properties
Frequently, the concrete properties (including strength)
required to meet the requirements for durability will
control that for the design, while the requirements for
cover can influence the member size.
3.1.4 Cover to reinforcement
AS 3600 sets out the minimum cover required to
protect the reinforcement and tendons from fire and
long-term corrosion. Since cover has a very significant
influence on concrete's durability, greater cover should
be specified when there are any durability concerns.
Inadequate and inappropriate cover to the
reinforcement has been an ongoing durability problem,
particularly with concrete exposed to the elements,
and especially that in marine or other aggressive
environments. Marosszeky and Gamble3.11 have
reported that on a number of building sites, where
corrosion occurred the cover was as low as 5 mm. In a
similar paper, Clarke et al3.12 recognized the difficulty
of achieving the right cover on site. Problems with
cover were also discussed in a series of papers in
Concrete in Australia 3.13.
Reinforcement can be complicated and congested.
AS 3600 Clause 4.10.2 requires the designer to con-
sider the cover depending on the the size and shape
of the member, the size, type and configuration of the
reinforcement (and, if present, the tendons or ducts),
the aggregate size, the workability of the concrete and
the direction of concrete placement.
It is important to recognise that reinforcement cannot
be expected to end up in precisely the position shown
on the drawings. An accuracy of ± 5 mm is the best
that can be expected. AS 3600 Clause 17.5.3 allows
3.6 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook
–5 or +10 mm deviation from the specified position
for beams, slabs, columns and walls (–10 or +20 mm
for slabs on ground and –10 or +40 mm for footings)
where cover is critical. These tolerances are, however,
sometimes difficult to achieve on site, especially with
larger bars.
If, for example, 30 mm cover for a wall or beam is the
absolute minimum required, then 40 mm should be
specified (35-mm bar chairs are not available) as the
reinforcement will then end up between 35 to 50 mm
from the face of the wall or beam, based on the toler-
ances in AS 3600 (or between 30 and 50 mm for ±10
mm tolerances).
Table 3.2 Required cover (mm) − Standard formwork
and standard compaction
Concrete Exposure classification
strength
f 'c (MPa) A1 A2 B1 B2 C1 C2
20 20 [50]
25 20 30 [60]
32 20 25 40 [65]
40 20 20 30 45 [70]
≥
  50 20 20 25 35 50 65
Use of figures in brackets to the right of the zigzag line
(with the related characteristic strength) is limited to when
essentially only one surface of a member is subject to the
particular exposure classification.
Where concrete is cast on or against ground, then the figures
in this table should be increased:
Where protected by dpm – add 10 mm
Where not protected by dpm – add 20 mm
Table 3.3 Required cover (mm) − Rigid formwork
with repetitive procedure and intense compaction or
self‑compacting concrete
Concrete Exposure classification
strength
f 'c (MPa) A1 A2 B1 B2 C1 C2
20 20 [45]
25 20 30 [45]
32 20 20 30 [50]
40 20 20 25 35 [60]
≥
  50 20 20 20 25 45 60
Use of figures in brackets to the right of the zigzag line
(with the related characteristic strength) is limited to when
essentially only one surface of a member is subject to the
particular exposure classification.
Table 3.4 Concrete strength for abrasion resistance

Member and type of traffic Minimum f 'c (MPa)

Footpaths and residential driveways 20

Commercial and industrial floors not subject to vehicular traffic 25
Floors and pavements in public car parks, driveways and parking areas, subject only to light traffic
(vehicles ≤ 3 t gross) 25

Floors and pavements in warehouses, factories, driveways and hard standings subject to:
– medium or heavy pneumatic-tyred traffic (> 3 t gross) 32
– non-pneumatic-tyred traffic 40
– steel-wheeled traffic (to be assessed but ≥ 40)

Table 3.5 Freeze-thaw resistance

Entrained air for nominal aggregate size (mm)

Exposure condition Minimum f 'c
(cycles per annum) (MPa) 10–20 40

< 25 32 8–4% 6–3%

≥ 25 40 8–4% 6–3%

Table 3.6 Exposure classification for concrete in sulfate soils (after AS 3600)

Exposure conditions

Sulfates (expressed as SO4 )* Exposure classification

In soil (ppm) In groundwater (ppm) pH Soil conditions A** Soil conditions B***

<5000 <1000 > 5.5 A2 A1

5000–10 000 1000–3000 4.5–5.5 B1 A2
10 000–20 000 3000–10 000 4–4.5 B2 B1
>20 000 >10 000 < 4 C2 B2

* Approximately 100 ppm SO4 = 80 ppm SO3

** Soil conditions A – high permeability soils (eg sands and gravels) which are in groundwater
*** Soil conditions B – low permeability soils (eg silts and clays) or all soils above groundwater

Table 3.7 Strength and cover requirements for saline soils (after AS 3600)

Soil electrical conductivity, ECe* Exposure classification Minimum f 'c Minimum cover (mm)

4–8 A2 25 45
8–16 B1 32 50
>16 B2 40 55

* ECe is saturated electrical conductivity in deciSiemens per metre

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 3.7

Table 3.8 Effect of chemicals on concrete (after ACI 515.1R3.17)

Material — Effect Material — Effect

Acetone — Liquid loss by penetration. May contain acetic Castor oil — Disintegrates concrete, especially in presence
acid as impurity. of air.
Acid Cinders — Harmful if wet, when sulfides and sulfates leach
acetic — Disintegrates concrete slowly. out (eg, see sodium sulfate).
carbonic — Disintegrates concrete slowly. Coke — Sulfides leaching from damp coke may oxidize to
formic — Disintegrates concrete slowly. sulfurous or sulfuric acid.
humic — Disintegrates concrete slowly.
Copper sulfate — Disintegrates concrete of inadequate
hydrochloric — Disintegrates concrete and steel rapidly.
sulfate resistance.
hydrofluroic — Disintegrates concrete and steel rapidly.
lactic — Disintegrates concrete slowly. Creosote — Phenol present disintegrates concrete slowly.
nitric — Disintegrates concrete and steel rapidly. Ethylene glycol(4) — Disintegrates concrete slowly.
oxalic — Not harmful. Protects tanks against acetic acid, Fermenting fruit, grains, vegetables or extracts(5) —
carbon dioxide and salt water. Poisonous. Should not be Industrial fermentation processes produce lactic acid.
used with food or drinking water. Disintegrates concrete slowly (see also fruit juices).
phosphoric — Disintegrates concrete slowly.
Ferric sulfate — Disintegrates concrete of inadequate
sulfuric — Disintegrates concrete and steel rapidly.
quality.
sulfurous — Disintegrates concrete and steel rapidly.
Ferrous sulfate — Disintegrates concrete of inadequate
tannic — Disintegrates concrete slowly.
sulfate resistance.
Acid water (pH of ≤ 6.5)(1) — Disintegrates concrete slowly.
Fertilizer — See ammonium sulfate, ammonium super-
Attacks steel in porous or cracked concrete.
phosphate, manure, potassium nitrate and sodium nitrate.
Alcohol (ethyl, methyl) — Liquid loss by penetration.
Fish liquor (6) — Disintegrates concrete.
Alum (potassium aluminium sulfate) — Disintegrates
Fish oil — Disintegrates concrete slowly.
concrete of inadequate sulfate resistance.
Flue gases — Hot gases (200–600°C) cause thermal
Aluminium chloride — Disintegrates concrete rapidly.
stresses. Cooled, condensed sulfurous and hydrochloric
Attacks steel in porous or cracked concrete.
acids disintegrate slowly.
Aluminium sulfate — Disintegrates concrete. Attacks steel
Fruit juices — Hydrofluoric, other acids, and sugar cause
in porous or cracked concrete.
disintegration (see also fermenting fruits, grains, vegetables
Ammonia, liquid — Harmful only if it contains harmful
or extracts).
ammonium salts.
Hydrogen sulfide — Not harmful, but in moist, oxidizing
Ammonia vapours — May slowly disintegrate moist
environments converts to sulfurous acid, disintegrates
concrete or attack steel in porous or cracked moist concrete.
concrete slowly.
Ammonium chloride — Disintegrates concrete slowly.
Kerosene — Liquid loss by penetration.
Attacks steel in porous or cracked concrete.
Linseed oils — Liquid disintegrates concrete slowly. Dried
Ammonium hydroxide — Not harmful.
or drying films are harmless.
Ammonium
Lubricating oil, machine oil — Fatty oils, if present,
nitrate — Disintegrates concrete. Attacks steel in
disintegrate concrete slowly.
porous or cracked concrete.
Magnesium chloride — Disintegrates concrete slowly.
sulfate — as above
Attacks steel in porous or cracked concrete.
superphosphate — as above
Magnesium sulfate — Disintegrates concrete of
Automobile and diesel exhaust gases(2) — May
inadequate sulfate resistance.
disintegrate moist concrete by action of carbonic, nitric or
sulfurous acid. Manure — Disintegrates concrete slowly.

Beef fat — Solid fat disintegrates concrete slowly, melted Margarine — Solid margarine disintegrates concrete
fat more rapidly. slowly, melted margarine more rapidly.

Beer — May contain (as fermentation products) acetic, Milk

carbonic, lactic or tannic acids.
Calcium chloride — Attacks steel in porous or cracked
concrete. Steel corrosion may cause concrete to spall.
Calcium sulfate — Disintegrates concrete of inadequate
sulfate resistance.
Carbon dioxide(3) — Gas may cause permanent shrinkage
(see also carbonic acid).
fresh — Not harmful.
sour — Disintegrates concrete slowly.
Mine water, waste — Sulfides, sulfates, or acids present
disintegrate concrete and attack steel in porous or cracked
concrete.
Ores — Sulfides leaching from damp ores may oxidize to
sulfuric acid or ferrous sulfate.
continues

3.8 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

Table 3.8 continued Effect of chemicals on concrete
(after ACI 515.1R3.17)
Material — Effect
Paraffin — Shallow penetration not harmful, but should not
be used on highly-porous surfaces like concrete masonry (7)
Petroleum oils — Liquid loss by penetration. Fatty oils, if
present, disintegrate concrete slowly.
Pickling brine — Attacks steel in porous or cracked
concrete.
Potassium nitrate — Disintegrates concrete slowly.
Seawater — Disintegrates concrete of inadequate sulfate
resistance. Attacks steel in porous or cracked concrete.
Silage — Acetic, lactic acids (and sometimes fermenting
agents of hydrochloric or sulfuric acids) disintegrate slowly.
Sodium chloride — Magnesium chloride, if present
attacks, steel in porous or cracked concrete. Steel corrosion
may cause concrete to spall.
Sodium hydroxide
1–10% — Not harmful(8).
20% or over — Disintegrates concrete.
Sodium nitrate — Disintegrates concrete slowly.
Sodium sulfate — Disintegrates concrete of inadequate
sulfate resistance.
Sugar — Disintegrates concrete slowly.
Turpentine — Mild attack. Liquid loss by penetration.
Urea — Not harmful.
Urine — Attacks steel in porous or cracked concrete.
(1) Waters of pH higher than 6.5 may be aggressive if they
also contain bicarbonates. (Natural waters are usually of
pH higher than 7.0 and seldom lower than 6.0, though
pH values as low as 0.4 have been reported. For pH
values below 3, protect as for dilute acid.)
(2) Composed of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, and water vapour. Also contains unburned
hydrocarbons, partially burned hydrocarbons, oxides of
nitrogen, and oxides of sulfur.
(3) Carbon dioxide dissolves in natural waters to form
carbonic acid solutions. When it dissolves to extent of
0.9 to 3 parts per million it is destructive to concrete.
(4) Used as deicer for airplanes overseas. Heavy spillage
on runway pavements containing too-little entrained air
may cause surface scaling.
(5) In addition to the intentional fermentation of many raw
materials, much unwanted fermentation occurs in the
spoiling of foods and food wastes, also producing lactic
acid.
(6) Contains carbonic acid, fish oils, hydrogen sulfide, methyl
amine, brine and other potentially reactive materials.
(7) Porous concrete which has absorbed considerable
molten paraffin and then been immersed in water after
the paraffin has solidified has been known to
disintegrate from sorptive forces.
(8) However, in the limited areas where concrete is made
with reactive aggregates, disruptive expansion may be
produced.
3.1.5 Abrasion
The abrasion resistance of concrete is the ability of
a surface to resist being worn away by rubbing or
friction. Abrasion can be caused by foot or vehicular
traffic or other sources such as mechanical equipment.
The resistance is generally proportional to concrete
strength. The use of mixes with a low water-cement
ratio improve strength and thus the wear resistance of
the surface.
Table 3.4 sets out requirements for abrasion resistance
for foot and vehicular traffic after AS 3600. For other
forms of abrasion, specialist advice may be required.
3.1.6 Freezing and thawing
Freezing and thawing of concrete is generally not a
major problem in Australia except in sub-alpine and
alpine areas and in specialist facilities such as cold
stores. Table 3.5 sets out the requirements in AS 3600.
The entrained air content is determined in accordance
with AS 1012.43.14.
3.1.7 Soil conditions
Acid sulfate soils The National Strategy for the
Management of Coastal Acid Sulfate Soils3.15, 
indicates that substantial low-lying coastal areas of the
Northern Territory, Queensland and New South Wales
are affected by acid sulfate soils (ASS). It also notes
that there are similar conditions along the northern
coastline of Western Australia, and around Perth,
Adelaide and Westernport Bay near Melbourne as
shown on Figure 3.2. In Australia, the acid sulfate soils
of most concern are those which formed within the
past 10,000 years, after the last major sea level rise.
DARWIN
BRISBANE
PERTH
SYDNEY
ADELAIDE
MELBOURNE
Potential pyritic sediments HOBART
Figure 3.2 Indicative distribution of coastal acid
sulfate soils in Australia. (from National Strategy for the
Management of Coastal Acid Sulfate Soil)
Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 3.9
Table 3.9 Protective barrier systems (after ACI 201.2R – 013.18)

Severity of
chemical Total nominal Typical but not exclusive uses of protective
environment thickness range Typical protective barrier systems systems in order of severity

Mild Under 1 mm Polyvinyl butyral, polyurethane, – Improve freeze-thaw resistance

epoxy, acrylic, chlorinated rubber, – Prevent staining of concrete
styrene-acrylic copolymer – Protect concrete in contact with chemical
Asphalt, coal tar, chlorinated rubber, – solutions having a pH as low as 4, depending
epoxy, polyurethane, vinyl, neoprene, – on the chemical
coal-tar epoxy, coal-tar urethane

Intermediate 3 to 9 mm Sand-filled epoxy, sand-filled – Protect concrete from abrasion and

polyester, sand-filled polyurethane, – intermittent exposure to dilute acids in
bituminous materials – chemical, dairy, and food processing plants

0.5 to 6 mm
Severe Glass-reinforced epoxy, – Protect concrete tanks and floors during
glass-reinforced polyester, – continuous exposure to dilute mineral,
precured neoprene sheet, – organic acids (pH is below 3), salt solutions,
plasticised PVC sheet – strong alkalies

Severe 0.5 to 7 mm Composite systems:

(a) Sand-filled epoxy system – Protect concrete tanks during continuous or
topcoated with a pigmented but – intermittent immersion, exposure to water,
unfilled epoxy – dilute acids, strong alkalies, and salt solutions
Over 6 mm (b) Asphalt membrane covered – Protect concrete from concentrated acids or
with acid-proof brick using a – combinations of acids and solvents
chemical-resistant mortar

Table 3.10 Recommended surface finishes (after Guide to Industrial Floors and Pavements 3.19)

Exposure / service
Typical applications Anticipated traffic conditions Finish

Office and administration Pedestrian or light trolleys Pavements to receive carpet, Steel float
areas, laboratories tiles, parquetry, etc

Pavements with skid-resistant Wooden float or broomed

requirements tined (light texture)

Light to medium industrial
premises, light engineering
workshops, stores,
warehouses, garages
Light to heavy forklift trucks
or other industrial vehicles
with pneumatic tyres
Smooth pavements
Dry pavements with
skid‑resistant requirements
Steel trowel
Steel trowel (carborundum
dust or silicon carbide
incorporated into concrete
surface)

Wet and external pavements Broomed/tined (hessian drag

light to medium texture) or
grooved

Sloping floors or ramps or Broomed/tined (coarse

high-speed traffic areas texture) or grooved

Heavy industrial premises, Heavy solid wheel vehicles Pavements subject to severe Steel trowel/burnished finish
heavy engineering works, or steel wheeled trolleys abrasion (use of special aggregate
repair workshops, stores monolithic toppings)
and warehouses

3.10 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

In themselves, acid sulfate soils are not necessarily a
problem. The problem is that the coastal regions are
home to the majority of the Australian population and
to various industry and production activities including
utility supply, agriculture, aquaculture as well as sand
and gravel extraction, which can disturb acid sulfate
soils. Once disturbed and exposed to oxygen, these
soils oxidise and produce sulfuric acid. The economic
consequences of exposure to acid sulfate soils have
the potential to be significant and can impact on
agriculture, fishing, industry, urban development and
infrastructure.
The requirements for exposure classifications
for concrete in sulfate soils provided in AS 3600
Table 4.8.1 are reproduced in Table 3.6. The Standard
includes extensive notes to Table 4.8.1. See also
CCAA's Technical Note Sulfate-resisting Concrete 3.7.
Saline soils In saline conditions, or where they
are likely to develop over time, the requirements
for concrete in contact with the ground need to be
assessed to ensure its durability and satisfactory
performance over the design life of the structure.
Table 3.7 sets out AS 3600 requirements for saline soils.
Designers can also refer to Building with concrete in
saline soils 3.16 and the CCAA Guide to Residential
Slabs and Footings in Saline Environments 3.8 for further
information.
3.1.8 Effect of chemicals
The effects of a comprehensive range of chemicals
are shown in Table 3.8, while recommended barrier
systems are shown in Table 3.9.
3.1.9 Floor finishes
The surface finish always needs careful consideration;
the recommended finishes are set out in Table 3.10.
3.2 DESIGN FOR FIRE RESISTANCE
3.2.1 General
Both engineers and regulators consider concrete
structures to be inherently fire resistant and that
high levels of fire resistance can be achieved
by adopting certain axis distances and member
dimensions. The reason for this is that concrete has
both low thermal conductivity and high heat capacity;
concrete elements are therefore naturally resistant
to temperature rise due to fire exposure. In addition,
experience in real fires has shown that concrete
structures generally perform well. CCAA's Fire
Safety of Concrete Buildings 3.20 covers these issues
including advice on the performance of high-strength
concrete.
The deemed-to-satisfy provisions for Design for Fire
Resistance are set out in Section 5 of AS 3600, which
should be read in conjunction with the requirements
given in the Building Code of Australia (BCA)3.21. The
BCA sets out the requirements for fire resistance
for elements of a building. These depend on the
building classification, rise in storeys and exposure to
a fire-source feature, taking into account applicable
concessions and other general requirements relating
to the performance in fires. The rules for design for
fire resistance in Section 5 of AS 3600 are based on
Eurocode 2 3.22.
Designing for fire resistance using the deemed-to-
satisfy approach largely involves the specification for
the various members of the required Fire Resistance
Level (FRL). This is a composite number of the grading
periods in minutes for each of structural adequacy/
integrity/insulation, as appropriate. The grading
periods are specified in Specification A2.3 of the BCA.
It is implied that the grading periods are intended
to reflect the Fire Resistance Periods (FRP) for the
respective criteria when the element is tested in a
Standard Fire Test.
The BCA provides procedures to meet those
performance requirements. There are three basic
approaches:
n Deemed-to-satisfy constructions specified in terms
of required Fire Resistance Levels (FRL) for various
elements of construction
n Alternative solutions
n By fire tests.
The data in AS 3600 is provided to complement the first
of these three approaches. The Fire Resistance Level
(FRL) is the Fire Resistance Periods (FRP) for structural
adequacy, integrity and insulation, expressed in that
order.
Section 5 of AS 3600 sets out deemed-to-satisfy data
to determine Fire Resistance Periods for the various
member types. While this approach is used for the
great majority of buildings, a small but increasing
number of buildings are being designed using the
other two approaches, involving fire engineering.
These approaches involve neither the use of AS 3600
in general nor Section 5 in particular.
The BCA clearly states that in the event of conflict
between it and clauses in referenced standards, then
the rules in the BCA shall take precedence.
The fire resistance requirements in AS 3600 nominate
'axis distances' for longitudinal reinforcement (see
Figure 3.3), not 'cover' (to any reinforcement, including
fitments) as is the case for durability.
Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 3.11

h ≥ b b
a 2 a 
a 1
b
Figure 3.3 Axis distance, a (after AS 3600)
Note: Axis distances are nominal values and no
allowance for tolerance need be added
Interpolation is permitted between adjacent values in
the tables. It should also be noted that in many cases
the axis distance will not control the design. For
example, in a beam with a single layer of reinforcement
with a main bar diameter of 20 mm, fitment size of
10 mm and a cover of 30 mm (for durability), if the axis
distance required is less than 50 mm it will not control
the design.
In cases where small axis distances imply small or
negative covers, the minimum cover for durability and
concrete placement will determine the axis distance
actually provided for the member.
Definitions for Fire Resistance Level (FRL), Fire
Resistance Period (FRP), structural adequacy, integrity
and insulation are given in AS 3600 Clause 5.2.
Generally, there are no specific rules for integrity; it
is assumed to be satisfied when the requirements for
structural adequacy and insulation are met.
AS 3600 Clause 5.3.1 states that the FRP for a member
shall be established by either one of the following
methods:
(a) Determined from the tabulated data and figures
given in this Section. Unless stated otherwise within
this Section, when using the tabulated data or
figures no further checks are required concerning
shear and torsion capacity or anchorage details.
(b) Predicted by methods of calculation. In these
cases, checks shall be made for bending, and
where appropriate, shear, torsion and anchorage
capacities.
NOTE: Eurocode 2, Part 1.2 provides a method of
calculation to predict the FRP of a member.
3.2.2 Spalling of floors, beams and columns
Spalling is defined as the breaking off of pieces of
concrete from the surface of a structural element
when it is heated in a fire. Malhotra3.23 defines three
types of spalling: surface pitting, corner break-off and
explosive. Surface pitting is when pieces of aggregate
fly off from the surface. This usually occurs during
the early part of the heating. Corner break-off occurs
3.12 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook
during the latter part of the heating after cracks have
developed in the member and pieces fall off from the
corners and arrises of beams and columns. Explosive
spalling occurs during the early part of heating when
large pieces of concrete, up to 300-mm long, forcibly
burst from the member. This is regarded as the most
important type from a practical point of view.
BS 8110 Part 2 3.24 Clauses 4.1.6 and 4.1.7 suggest
that with covers exceeding 40 to 50 mm, rapid rates
of heating, large compressive stresses and moisture
contents over 2% to 3% by mass of dense concrete
there is a high risk of spalling. Forrest3.25, reporting the
findings of the committee that formulated the BS 8110
requirements, notes that fitments act to retain concrete
around the main bars and that this limitation on cover
should be applied to the surface of the fitment and not
the main reinforcement. This is the basis of the shaded
area on Charts 3.1 and 3.2, suggesting where spalling
may need to be considered.
When spalling has to be considered, the alternative
strategies for its prevention are:
n the use of polypropylene fibres;
n the use of an applied finish of plaster or vermiculite,
etc or lost formwork;
n the provision of a false ceiling as a fire barrier;
n the use of lightweight aggregate or (for columns)
limestone aggregate;
n the use of sacrificial tensile steel reinforcement;
n if it does not conflict with durability requirements,
the use of a supplementary mesh in the cover zone
of concrete 20 mm from the concrete face.
The use of 500-MPa reinforcement of itself will not
tend to influence the spalling tendency, though
consequential detailing practices may. However, it has
been reported 3.26 that the use of high strength concrete
(f 'c > 50 MPa), increased the spalling tendency.
Plank3.27 states that for reinforced concrete structures
in fire and in particular for slabs, two important
phenomena, spalling and diaphragm action are not
accounted for in the current simple code approaches.
Ignoring spalling in slabs is unconservative but in
contrast, tensile membrane action, which is also
ignored in simple approaches, can significantly
improve the performance of a fire-exposed structure.
3.2.3 Joints
AS 3600 Clause 5.3.5 requires that joints between
members or adjoining parts be constructed so that
the FRL of the whole assembly is not less than that
required for the member. Data on the performance
of various generic joint and sealant types is limited
and information on specific proprietary sealants
(including limitations on joint geometry) should be
obtained from the manufacturers. The CIA's Design
of Joints in Concrete Buildings 3.28 includes charts for
calculating the extent of non-combustible fibre blanket
needed in a butt joint to walls to provide the required
fire‑resistance periods.
3.2.4 Chases and openings
AS 3600 Clause 5.3.6 requires that chases in concrete
members subject to fire be kept to a minimum.
Openings will normally require a fire rated infill to meet
the same FRP as the wall, eg fire rated doors and fire
rated dampers for services.
3.2.5 Increasing the FRP by addition of insulating
material
AS 3600 Clause 5.3.7 provides guidance on how to
increase the FRP of an element by various techniques.
More information is given in Section 3.2.10.
3.2.6 Beams
Charts 3.1 and 3.2 reflect the information in AS 3600
Figures 5.4.2(A) and (B). See the discussion in
Section 3.2.2 for the basis of the shaded area where
spalling may need to be considered. They can also
be used for beams exposed on all four sides (see
AS 3600 Clause 5.4.6).
3.2.7 Slabs
Tables 3.11 to 3.15 reflect the information in AS 3600
Clause 5.5 and Tables 5.5.1 and 5.5.2(A), (B), (C)
and (D).
AS 3600 Clause 5.5.1 states that for insulation the
effective thickness of slab shall be taken as: for solid
slabs, the actual thickness; for hollowcore slabs, the
net cross-sectional area divided by the width of the
cross section; for ribbed slabs, the thickness of the
solid slab between the webs of adjacent ribs.
For structural adequacy for slabs, AS 3600 requires
the following:
n For solid or hollow-core slabs supported on beams
or walls the average axis distance is not less than
the value shown in AS 3600 Table 5.5.2(A).
n For flat slabs, including flat plates, the average axis
distance is is not less than that shown in AS 3600
Table 5.5.2(B); and at least 20% of the total top
reinforcement in each direction over intermediate
supports is continuous over the full span and
placed in the column strip.
n For one-way ribbed slabs, for the appropriate
support conditions, the slab is proportioned so
that the width of the ribs and the axis distance
to the lowest layer of the longitudinal bottom
reinforcement in the slab complies with the
requirements for beams given in AS 3600
Clause 5.4.1, and the axis distance to the bottom
reinforcement in the slab between the ribs is not
less than that given in AS 3600 Table 5.5.2(A).
n For two-way ribbed slabs the slabs shall be
proportioned so that the width and the average axis
distance to the longitudinal bottom reinforcement
in the ribs is not less than that given in AS 3600
Tables 5.5.2(C) and (D) as appropriate, and the
axis distance to the bottom reinforcement in the
slab between the ribs, and the axis distance of the
corner bar to the side face of the rib, is not less
than that value plus 10 mm.
A slab shall be considered continuous if, under imposed
actions, it is designed as continuous at one or both ends.
Table 3.11 Minimum effective thickness of slabs for
insulation (after AS 3600)
Fire-resistance period Effective thickness
(min) (mm)
30 60
60 80
90 100
120 120
180 150
240 175
3.2.8 Columns
Insulation and integrity of columns is required only
where they are part of a wall with a fire-separating
function. In this case they must comply with AS 3600
Clause 5.7.1 for walls.
The structural adequacy for columns can be
determined from Table 3.16 (axis distance and smaller
column cross-sectional dimension are not less than
the tabulated value for the desired FRP). Where the
column is a wall (ie the longer cross section dimension
is more than four times the shorter dimension),
Table 3.18 can be used. AS 3600 Clause 5.6.2 also
provides for an alternative method for columns in a
braced structure.
Generally, the value of the load level, N *f  / Nu, will be
taken as 0.7 but designers can calculate the value if
they wish.
When As is greater than 2% and the required FRP is
greater than 90 min, then bars need to be distributed
along all faces with a minimum of two bars in any face.
The effective length of columns shall not exceed 3 m,
and eccentricity shall be limited to 0.15b. Braced
columns can be up to 6 m long. For longer columns
designers will have to use the Eurocode 2, Part 1.2
method of calculation to predict the FRP of the column.
Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 3.13
 chart 3.1 Simply-supported reinforced concrete beams exposed to fire on three or four sides

FRP (min) = 30 60 90 120 180 240

100
a
90
am
b
80
a

70 am
b
a
60
a

D≥b
50 am
b

40
Average axis distance, am (mm)

30

20

10

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Width, b (mm)

chart 3.2 Continuous reinforced concrete beams exposed to fire on three or four sides

FRP (min) = 30 60 90 120 180 240

90
a
80
am
b
70
a

60 am
b
a
50
a
D≥b

40 am
b
Average axis distance, am (mm)

30

20

10

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Width, b (mm)

3.14 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

Table 3.12 Structural adequacy of solid and hollowcore slabs supported on beams or walls and for one-way
ribbed slabs (after AS 3600)

Axis distance to lower layer of bottom reinforcement (mm)

Simply-supported slabs

Fire-resistance period Two-way Continuous slabs

for structural adequacy
(min) One-way l y / l x ≤ 1.5 1.5 < Ly / l x ≤ 1.5 ≤ 2 One- and two-way

30 10 10 10 10
60 20 10 15 10
90 30 15 20 15

120 40 20 25 20
180 55 30 40 30
240 65 40 50 40

Notes:
1 l y is the longer span and l x the short span for two-way slabs.
2 The axis distance assumes slabs are supported on four sides, otherwise they are treated as one-way slabs.

Table 3.13 Structural adequacy of flat slabs including flat plates (after AS 3600)

Fire-resistance period Minimum dimensions (mm)

for structural adequacy
(min) Slab thickness Axis distance to lower layer of bottom reinforcement

30 150 10
60 180 15
90 200 25

120 200 35
180 200 45
240 200 50

Table 3.14 Structural adequacy of two-way simply supported ribbed slabs (after AS 3600)

Minimum dimensions (mm)

Possible combinations of axis distance, as , and width of ribs, b Flange thickness, hs
Fire-resistance period and axis distance, as
for structural adequacy Combination 1 Combination 2 Combination 3 in flange
(min) as b as b as b as hs

30 15 80 — — — — 10 80
60 35 100 25 120 15 ≥ 200 10 80
90 45 120 40 160 30 ≥ 250 15 100

120 60 160 55 190 40 ≥ 300 20 120

180 75 220 70 260 60 ≥ 410 30 150
240 90 280 75 350 70 ≥ 500 40 175

Note:
1 The axis distance is measured to the lowest layer of the longitudinal reinforcement.

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 3.15

Table 3.15 Structural adequacy of two-way continuous supported ribbed slabs (after AS 3600)

Minimum dimensions (mm)

Possible combinations of axis distance, as , and width of ribs, b Flange thickness, hs
Fire-resistance period and axis distance, as
for structural adequacy Combination 1 Combination 2 Combination 3 in flange
(min) as b as b as b as hs

30 10 80 — — — — 10 80
60 25 100 15 120 10 ≥ 200 10 80
90 35 120 25 160 15 ≥ 250 15 100

120 45 160 40 190 30 ≥ 300 20 120

180 60 310 50 600 — — 30 150
240 70 450 60 700 — — 40 175

Notes:
1 The axis distance is measured to the lowest layer of the longitudinal reinforcement.
2 For prestressing tendons, the axis distance shall be increased as given in Clause 5.3.3.

Table 3.16 Fire resistance periods for structural adequacy of columns

Minimum dimensions (mm)

Combinations for column exposed on more than one side Column exposed on one side
Fire-resistance period
for structural adequacy N*f /N u = 0.2 N*f /N u = 0.5 N*f /N u = 0.7 N*f /N u = 0.7
(min) as b as b as b as hs

32 200
30 25 200 25 200 25 155
27 300

36 200 46 250
60 25 200 25 155
31 300 40 350

31 200 45 300 53 350

90 25 155
25 300 38 400 402 4502

40 250 452 3502 572 3502

120 35 175
35 350 402 4502 512 4502

180 452 3502 632 3502 702 4502 55 230

240 612 3502 752 4502 — — 70 295

Notes:
1 as = axis distance
b = smaller cross-sectional dimension of a rectangular column or the diameter of a circular column.
2 These combinations for columns with a minimum of 8 bars.

Table 3.17 Minimum effective thickness for insulation for walls (after AS 3600)

Fire-resistance period (FRP) for insulation Effective thickness

(min) (mm)

30 60
60 80
90 100

20
1 120
180 150
240 175

3.16 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

Table 3.18 Fire resistance periods (frp) for structural adequacy for walls

Minimum dimensions (mm) combinations of as and b

N*f /N u = 0.35 N*f /N u = 0.7

Wall exposed Wall exposed Wall exposed Wall exposed
Fire-resistance period on one side on two sides on one side on two sides
for structural adequacy
(min) as b as b as b as b

30 10 100 10 120 10 120 10 120

60 10 110 10 120 10 130 10 140
90 20 120 10 140 25 140 25 170

120 25 150 25 160 35 160 35 220

180 40 180 45 200 50 210 55 270
240 55 230 55 250 60 270 60 350

Legend:
as = axis distance
b = wall thickness

Table 3.19 Thickness of vermiculite/perlite concrete or gypsum-vermiculite/gypsum-perlite plaster to provide

increased cover

Increased cover required (mm) Plaster thickness (mm)

5 4
10 8
15 12
20 15
25 19
30 23

Table 3.20 Thickness of plaster to increase the insulation value of slabs

Nominal thickness of topping to be added (mm)

Increase in thickness required (mm) Plain concrete Vermiculite/perlite Gypsum

10 20 18 16
20 30 26 22
30 40 34 28
40 50 42 34
50 60 50 40

3.2.9 Walls
Tables 3.17 and 3.18 reflect the information in AS 3600
Clause 5.7 and Tables 5.7.1 and 5.7.2.
The FRP for insulation depends on the effective
thickness as shown in Table 3.17. The effective
thickness of the wall to be used in Table 3.17 shall be:
for solid walls, the actual thickness; for hollowcore walls
(and sandwich walls or similar), the net cross-sectional
area divided by the length of the cross-section.
AS 3600 requires that for walls that have an FRL, the
ratio of the effective height to thickness shall not
exceed 40, where the effective height is determined
from AS 3600 Clause 11.4. This latter restriction does
not apply to walls where the lateral support at the top
of the wall is provided by an element not required
by the relevant authority to have an FRL. AS 3600
Clause 11.1.(b) (ii) limits the slenderness ratio to 50
assuming the wall is designed as a slab.

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 3.17

The FRP for structural adequacy for a wall given in
Table 3.18 shall be used, provided the axis distance to
the vertical reinforcement and the effective thickness
of the wall is not less than the corresponding values
given in the Table.
For walls where the lateral support at the top of the wall
is provided on one side only by a member not required
by the relevant authority to have an FRL, structural
adequacy will be considered to be achieved by
satisfying Table 3.17. This would apply to single-storey
buildings with precast or tilt-up walls.
AS 3600 Clause 5.7.4 covers recesses and chases in
walls under various conditions.
3.2.10 Increasing FRPs by use of insulating
materials
The information given in Tables 3.19 and 3.20 is
derived from AS 3600 Clause 5.8
References
3.1 AS 3600 Concrete structures Standards
Australia, 2009.
3.2 Durable Concrete Structures (Z07), 2nd Ed,
Concrete Institute of Australia, 2001.
3.3 Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine
Environments (Z13), Concrete Institute of
Australia, 2001.
3.4 ACI 201.2R-08 Guide to Durable Concrete, ACI
Manual of Concrete Practice, 2008.
3.5 AS 4997 Guidelines for the Design of Maritime
Structures Standards Australia, 2005.
3.6 Chloride Resistance of Concrete, Technical
Report, Cement Concrete & Aggregates
Australia, 2009.
3.7 Sulfate-resisting Concrete (TN68), Cement
Concrete & Aggregates Australia, 2007.
3.8 Guide to Residential Slabs and Footings in
Saline Environments (T57), Cement Concrete &
Aggregates Australia, 2005.
3.9 AS 1379 Specification and supply of concrete
Standards Australia, 2007.
3.10 AS 3735 Concrete structures for retaining
liquids Standards Australia, 2001.
3.11 Marosszeky M and Gamble J Design, Detailing
and Construction of Reinforcement for Durable
Concrete Building, Research Centre, The
University of New South Wales, 1987.
3.12 Clark LA, Shamas-Toma MGK, Seymour DA,
Pallet PF and Marsh BK 'How can we get
the cover we need', The Structural Engineer,
Volume 75, No. 17, September 1997.
3.18 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook
3.13 'Concrete Cover', Concrete in Australia, Vol 36,
No. 1 March 2010.
3.14 AS 1012.4.1 Methods of testing concrete
Part 4: Methods for the determination of air
content of freshly mix concrete Standards
Australia, 1999.
3.15 http://www.ozcoasts.org.au/indicators/econ_
cons_acid_sulfate_soils.jsp.
3.16 Lume E and Sirivivatnanon V Building with
Concrete In Saline Soils, Proceedings of
UrbanSalt 2007 Conference, 22–23 May 2007.
3.17 ACI 515 A Guide to the Use of Waterproofing,
Damp proofing, Protective and Decorative
Barrier Systems for Concrete, ACI Manual of
Concrete Practice, 2000.
3.18 ACI 201.2R-08 Guide to Durable Concrete,
ACI Manual of Concrete Practice, 2009.
3.19 Guide to Industrial Floors and Pavements (T48),
Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia, 2009.
3.20 Fire Safety of Concrete Buildings (T61),
Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia, 2010.
3.21 Building Code of Australia Australian Building
Codes Board, 2010.
3.22 European Committee for Standardisation (CEN)
(2004), – Eurocode 2: Design of concrete
structures Part 1-1: General rules for buildings,
The European Standard EN 1992-1-1:2004.
3.23 Malhotra HL Spalling of concrete in fires
Technical Note 118, Construction Industry
Research and Information Association, 1984.
3.24 BS 8110 Structural use of concrete Part 2:
Code of practice for special circumstances
British Standards Institution, 1985.
3.25 Forrest JCM 'New Fire-Resistance Data for
Concrete', Concrete, UK, Vol. 18, No. 11,
November 1984.
3.26 Phan LT Fire performance of high strength
concrete: a report of the state-of-the-art, NISTIR
5934, US Department of Commerce, December
1996.
3.27 Plank R The fire resistance of reinforced
concrete structures, Concrete Institute of
Australia, Biennial Conference, 2007.
3.28 Design of Joints in Concrete Buildings
(CPN 24), Concrete Institute of Australia, 2005.
Chapter 4 Beams
4.1 Applicability to Ductility Classes
of Reinforcing Steel
The Charts, Tables and Spreadsheets in this
Handbook are dependent on the Ductility Class of the
reinforcement.
AS/NZS 46714.1 covers three Ductility Classes of
reinforcement: N, L and E. Only two of these are
available in Australia, ie N and L. Designers should
note that they must specify that reinforcement complies
with the requirements of AS/NZS 4671 for building
projects where AS 36004.2 is used in conjunction with
the BCA4.3.
AS 3600 imposes limitations on the use of reinforcing
steel of Ductility Class L, eg AS 3600 Clause 1.1.2
states that Ductility Class L reinforcement:
n may be used as main or secondary reinforcement
in the form of welded wire mesh, or as wire, bar
and mesh in fitments; but
n shall not be used in any situation where the
reinforcement is required to undergo large plastic
deformation under strength limit state conditions.
These limitations on Ductility Class L bar preclude its
use as longitudinal tensile reinforcement in beams.
As a result, it is not considered in any of the charts
and spreadsheets in this Chapter. In addition, the use
of Ductility Class L reinforcement is further limited by
other clauses in AS 3600.
Reinforcing steel of Ductility Class N may be used,
without restriction, in all applications referred to in
AS 3600 and the Charts and Spreadsheets herein are
based on it.
It is the designer's responsibility to ensure that the
Ductility Class of the reinforcement specified and
used on site: reflects the assumptions in the analysis
methods, and is appropriate to the situation and the
member being designed. The capacity reduction
factor, f, for a strength check using a linear elastic
analysis for Ductility Class L reinforcement is lower
than that for Ductility Class N reinforcement, see
AS 3600 Table 2.2.2 to allow for its lower ductility,
compared to that of Ductility Class N reinforcement.
4.2 Rectangular Beams in Bending
4.2.1 General
To ensure a beam section has adequate ductility (at
ultimate strength under bending and/or compression),
AS 3600 Clause 8.1.5 states that ko (the ratio, at
ultimate strength, without axial force of the depth to the
neutral axis from the extreme compression fibre to d )
should not exceed 0.36 and M * should not exceed
0.6 Mu unless specific requirements are met.
It should be noted that kuo is not the balanced design
condition as balanced sections are not ductile. The
basic outline of a rectangular beam in bending is
shown in Figure 4.1.
The general theory of bending in reinforced concrete
members is discussed in more detail in textbooks such
as Concrete Structures4.4 and Reinforced Concrete
Basics4.5.
Cross-sections where kuo is greater than 0.36 are
referred to as 'over-reinforced' or 'non-ductile' and have
limited ductility. Over-reinforced members may have a
number of unfavourable characteristics such as:
n susceptibility to sudden, brittle failure with little
warning;
n reduced ability to redistribute moments due to
unexpected loads or settlement; and
n limited energy-absorption capacity under seismic
or blast loading.
When the structural analysis has been carried out in
accordance with AS 3600 Clauses 6.2 to 6.6 and an
over-reinforced cross-section cannot be avoided, then
a minimum amount of compression reinforcement
has to be provided, viz 1% of the area of concrete in
compression. The design strength in bending of an
over-reinforced section is not to be taken as more than
the ultimate strength in bending, f Muo , when ku = 0.36,
with the force in the tensile reinforcement reduced
to balance the reduced compressive force in the
concrete. An over-reinforced cross-section is therefore
not an economical or preferred design solution.
Equivalent stress block
α 2f 'c α dn/ 2
b
εc
dn α
αdn C
D d z z M * = Tz
Ast εst f sy
T
Cross-section Strains Stresses Forces
Figure 4.1 Basic sections, strains, stresses and forces
Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 4.1
The charts, tables and spreadsheets in this chapter
for the strength of beams in bending are based on the
principles set out in AS 3600 Clauses 8.1.2 and 8.1.3.
The rectangular stress block assumes a maximum
strain in the extreme compression fibre of the concrete
of 0.003 and a uniform compressive stress of a2f 'c
acting on an area bounded by the edges of the section
and a line parallel to the neutral axis under the loading
concerned and located at a distance g kud from the
extreme compressive fibre.
To calculate the equivalent rectangular stress block the
factors a2 and g  are taken as:
4.2.2 Basis of Chart 4.1
The non-dimensional curves in Chart 4.1 are useful for
initial sizing and are derived from the following basic
equations:
M */bd 2 = f f 'c q (1 - q /1.7)
This equation assumes α2 = 0.85, the value given in
Table 4.1 for concrete strengths from 20 to 50 MPa.
The chart is therefore limited to that range of concrete
strengths. This will cover most design situations for
beams in bending.
For the above equation:

a2 = 1.0 − 0.003 f 'c (within the limits 0.67 ≤ a2 ≤ 0.85),
and
g = 1.05 − 0.007 f 'c (within the limits 0.67 ≤ γ ≤ 0.85).
The values of α2 and γ are shown in Table 4.1 and
graphically in Figure 4.2.
Table 4.1 Value of γ  and a2 for various concrete
strengths, f 'c
f = 0.6 ≤ (1.19 − 13kuo /12) ≤ 0.8 from AS 3600
Table 2.2.2. (When ku ≤ 0.36 as set out in As 3600
Clause 8.1.5, then f = 0.8.)
q = Ast fsy / bd f 'c and
fsy = 500 MPa.
The maximum design strength in bending, fMuo
allowed by AS 3600 occurs at the ductile limit,
ie kuo = 0.36. At the ductile limit:

pmax = 0.85 g f 'c / fsy kuo = 0.306 g f 'c / fsy and

Concrete strength f 'c (MPa)
g = 1.05 − 0.007 f 'c (within the limits 0.67 ≤ g ≤ 0.85)
Factor 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100 and g  varies from 0.85 for f 'c = 20 MPa to 0.67 for
f 'c ≥ 65 MPa and
g 0.85 0.85 0.826
0.77 0.7 0.67 0.67 0.67
a2 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.805
0.76 0.7 Mud / bd 2 = 0.306 g f 'c (1 - 0.18g ).

4.2.3 Design of rectangular beams

The bending moments in a beam are determined from
0.9 the structural analysis. Generally they vary along the
0.8 α2 beam, eg from maximum moment at the middle of a
simply-supported beam reducing to nil at the ends.
0.7
γ They vary from positive to negative across a span
0.6 depending on the continuity and spans, as determined
0.5 by the analysis. It is the responsibility of the designer
to establish the critical section(s) for bending and the
0.4
design ultimate moments.
0.3
Spreadsheet 4.1 can be used to calculate the
0.2 reinforcement requirements for a reinforced rectangular
0.1 concrete beam cross-section in flexure in accordance
with Flowchart 4.1. It uses the requirements of AS 3600
0
and the standard design principles for ultimate
20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100
strength design. It checks the minimum reinforcement
Concrete strength f 'c
and assumes that ku ≤ kuo but it does not check cover,
Figure 4.2 Relationship of γ and a2 with the concrete spacing requirements or detailing requirements,
strength, f 'c nor does it cover cross-sections with compression
reinforcement.
As with many design calculations, some initial design
parameters are assumed and then checked and
adjusted as required. For the design of concrete
beams, once the size and concrete strengths are
chosen, then an initial area of reinforcing steel is
required to be input.

4.2 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

chart 4.1 Rectangular beam without compression reinforcement

Ast /bd
f 'c (MPa) = 25 32 40 50
0.030
d
0.029
A st
0.028
b
0.027 fsy = 500 MPa

0.026

0.025

0.024

0.023

0.022

0.021

0.020

0.019

0.018

0.017

0.016

0.015

0.014

0.013

0.012

0.011

0.010

0.009

0.008

0.007

0.006

0.005

0.004

0.003

0.002

0.001

0.000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
M */[bd 2] (MPa)

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 4.3

 As noted in Reinforced Concrete Basics 4.5 , for an 4.3.2 Design of T- and L-beams
under reinforced beam, the ultimate moment capacity, Spreadsheet 4.2 can be used to calculate the
Mu ≈ 0.85 Ast fsy d (within 10% of a more accurate reinforcement requirements for a singly reinforced
calculation), ie it is independent of the concrete rectangular T- or L-beam in flexure in accordance
strength and width of the beam. This approximation with Flowchart 4.1. It checks minimum reinforcement,
can be used to make an initial estimate of the area of but it does not check cover, spacing requirements or
reinforcement required. detailing requirements.
The designer then enters an area of reinforcement The spreadsheet assumes the T- or L-beam is not over
approximating to this estimate (usually a number of No
reinforced and that ku ≤ kuo and calculates an initial
eet
Sh

bars of one size, eg 3 N24). The spreadsheet then

No

approximation of the reinforcement required as noted

Job
By
e:
Dat
tor
ac
nF s

calculates the actual moment capacity for the chosen cit

pa ate 0.8
Ca & M
uc
tio ertie
ed rop
y R rial P

32
a
MP a
MP
above for rectangular beams.
0

area of reinforcement and compares it with the design

φ 50
f' c 6 mm
0.3
. f sy 12

The spreadsheet then checks the flange thickness to

use
its D k uo r
for me
te
ble dia
nsi nt

moment. If the calculated moment is less than or

spo me reo
t is re Fit ed
g uir

see if t ≥ Ast fsy / (α2 f 'c bef ).

shee req ired
read din
is sp
en d
et
N o the qu
g th -B e of o re
n Sh on
sin sig No ati of re

significantly greater than the design moment, it will be

nu
erso De Jo
b xim rea
pro e a
b
Th
ep am mm ap t th
er: n Be mm By rst ge
clai
m t io
rete 30
0 te: a fi to

If t ≥ Ast fsy / (α2 f 'c bef ), the area of concrete in

a mm
Dis ut nc d 0 Da is ired
mp 45
Co Co force mm ure qu
lar r rein fig s re

necessary to repeat the calculations with a revised

40 ars
nt b u 0 is a 2b
lie o g d e 39 Th rate
tan un
C /J of
ject Ite 40 0
Pro ec t are um 6 inim
d R tha φM
ct 2 u
12 2
bje mm *< am
Su m
rce eams kN 1.4

compression is rectangular and within the flange width.

the t M 36 0 se
95 enion 2.0 0
info r b e to 17 ns n 10 .76
2 .U

area of reinforcement.
8 em 2 left
Re sign fo nc 23 uirte 25 ox
De ut - d mm
ista ) d
u re.te reoqf 32 4nsio n 1 2.0 0 wb ge
Inp
ire
e qu
x rs te llo nta
iz st 5 A .re
fle stae f 8 .23nsio
0 4 y e
rce
M*
in r li2m.itla2y8 ers o f2te
ta ts al
st 0
n 2 the Pe .61%
Da en neare min
o 3.0 sio
y to 5
etr , b fitm No ams fo rre 61y6

The strength of the section in bending can be obtained

it in 10
om idth D en
ts
en de
t - d to
be sizt efl(1 xou 2 la rs . 41n2 sioninput
.9y1e ern of 2te
e.
Ge W pth, fitm th d fitm un
De er to dep r to o, ro
te &ein n 2e4 or.r 2la
.0v rs . tenand
OK 8%
us v e re c tio
n
φM u n crebeersm m th5e2a r.2 g3o y
(1 8e ern of ble M 01.6 8%
s o e v < o a n 7 ioon ay la 4 u
1
r c nuamnbge emine s 3t.9rs
v e 4 φ
(1 m 2 1govyers
it ti - co sile s 8 e ta 1.6
C
ec at M* orvn.
<
for n
for M* 10 4%
4t.0s 8 or ay lam
Eff = D e te nt OK
ible me ed ula baarrrte20 gm ento vabe n. 0.1
ally of th mo ng tednecl re rr3ba1en4a2 eminm en (1 0 m 2 ogo OK

Spreadsheet 4.1 is available at www.ccaa.com.au from the first part of Spreadsheet 4.2 for beams with
uir
po
ns su
(U ntroid s
on ng
th req t ta gesscte
enc ugn o l ate 5.7nagmire en1tn8 ts(1 oarreaayfr over . m <φ
Mu
OK
res cti stre l A st edmre S er L16 ste cere l aterrrbae6e.0qnu4germemeentnatnsd m ay g vern kN M* < φM
u
ce iv
t is d a ate itia n e
g g o o n i o * 6
rr rc a T ern2c0.9.3 tecereentarr1a8equgem
1
bae
e e In a 0 8 rs m g 1 M .3
he pli ltim t afo fored giv 25 <0
ds Ap U enin la608ncosenm el t r an nuoiroef m ents may .8
forc121r3naguS3iv
m k u0
rea emre tion er 9r0c.0. s9te en arroeseq kN ≤0
sp fog rcly c in n fo 8agguila 6fo01n80 em el hto r em ents φM uo m ≤Ø
c1tato A uir
the stress block within the flange, using the width of
is n sin ere e g3nmivefo0r0c. stemeCn t req irem
2.0 kN
0.6
sig egsly ecetidore
in 5.8r n 24 .0
.0 Ar Sa
5
g th ser
d are th tsn1fo c1ta6to its 0.8 5
De etinore m n6 n2rc.e en 2
sin fo f sin e src mute 8aere Sig3ivefm
u 24 4 lim γ≤
nu tspo ityr oa m 2 foirbe mecemdiennoi ts n fo
0rb o00 req φM u 7≤ 2≤
0.8
rso am ePnro acfo o frethin u f src
ars
re
18 m
utorAa8 reSi3nm6mmor0c.em ent φM u
0.3
0.6 ≤ α
Be m q m ti c m
e e m o e 2
s
ptssiz itfgybly a reo inirfo ln inni ts fo8m 7
eerirerTesocetaocm n 1 0 0A reSi3n6f 0 2rcem
e r . it
ep bd
d k
uir ceaBnar acin o galoNfreth lim s 0.6
u
Th e rewqh e2 metio imuto9m
quthmula 99 o)
ion ret req inegm apresa creinittigcbyaly
it
A inmfom
the compression flange as bef.
ku 0
er: t c nt enqduir gfocr AasTphpeaaoscin llainby gsaorsnrefgmw
rs uhqeurireesecmienntsm3uto e,
19 ma 0.8 lim
uta
laim re
c on e
em nnt t bre in d a s
ac
ndntsangfoclreAastcoppreaaarecoitcflain
b re th e
tabgs f sth.peuro ir mien 1u7 r eed m
e n i ts m7 8 rn g am
mp ou
tu vid
Dis
dC
ed
ow Aq -0.5 =
rireem insim 26
vid
forc oemmee ntebmeeenndnt in elb 07 uo (1
.pro

Co ce tsabndceaAdtopasaccitaybgs re . =A st 0.8 5
rein mrc euir emeepnlict ain grce s p l in dwhqeu rxeurem , M , 20 ma k
or itie hA 0.8 3%
s
ck
t
ile atefo omqfoercunirtebam pendinfoaabngldca stopasc abgs re flee ac an wit s blo
inf
en ob n m 4.9
Cli t/J ns ltimrein enmt reinm lyemberepnlict in blde nlypaseclm inenAst.stw focrhap . onngsm a0rs.3o6 f'c ga M* es
= 85
jec Re s te ensuile imeamtem
qarrc )) = str
inti
mtiocrein
re ulmfoeinnlgtyelyambpeenpdnlict aans loe storc luambing ) A stula o e= 2 = OK

If t < Ast fsy / (α2 f 'c bef ), then the area in compression
.m L
, tPk uo lpha
2
Pro , d f' c crete m
bje
ct
u late ss th te t).ufoltrcimuamteeanrtre r arercnt ampe eaicmaabnindfo Mtobineimsn2d01in0 &Carlces st Micuosa itial A
oauslfo s f sy / (b r con 2)
mm kN
lc te n e e p m
imis umteforticinm rrc ye b l t e , .m tu k
rellint)m.uin
u l an c /1 95 2.0
S
Ca lcuula lateemsseth ltrc a l or Lampeepanr ire aebl innt 1M eusotrigunc teomBe = Phi
in blo (A st d fo ku
o
17
2
24 15
2

: n e fo e tim anspm a re m o ulfo c ss .5/α2 k u) b 13 a in ed

mm
a lc rc te
te a in e in im o c in l ye l e S rme
P A stm provid
la eersmsseth i r Tarrc sh ppstem ng D 0.0 8
e −
sllnht)emfl.ueltcetitim
M
n Ca inlcfouula is uateartre
C re str - 0 9 M
tio ncu ck φM
γ <A
st
ulafondrly aionenudlati rete oxim
oicin (1.1 φM 0
u

: ip re a lc id rc te
te a daeth e e in im p m s
uo
ing d (1 (1-0.5 .require
d
f' c = 9 2 18
a s la e
rsmss ddsllht)em.u etim lt s u n t c s =
cr i arrearcularessAm
C C Ch .3
le C oinnlcfouuslaperete n e in ecstiuopm lc n a e tu f sy A st Ø 7
0 ’ 3 m
city
p
es ptingin csa, ioCno. rced
M
0. en A st γ k u ing .36 m

is T- or L-shaped, ie the flange and part of the stem

0.0 3 f c
Tit Cre a lcenfo
CTahoin suidrclapte
la a aeth i shertim 60om M u = f'c d us =0 5- pa
ereersmsadasllnht)la
C ca ratio A st
lD m.r s tim 0 1
era Cre
C aalclceussidrclapteerersm egushm eein forisopf acooraessulkteens einfo A Sec3k Mheck φ M u = Ølculate w it
hk
uo
=
1.0 − 0.0 = 21 ing
nd emen ose
t n
n C h n fou
oinlc sidrcetanadallsig ee ts co s F in , R n t rp tr a h φ γ .0 e
d in C
) 1 b h
Ge TC C k a d l c
Cahoenfo
re s c e e h c n prell &ers ick ec k u c 2.2
.2 = nd *d) s tua forc el
inr residperorst dadseffe9 (Ifor H se Ch eck α2 *a
.85 tio
=
Ac Rein of ste
TCreFTohoeness nspsreth-e20ll0owanm
ab
, em ilpa
tr yu Ch (Ta
ble
nt tM * 0 ra a
rall me
en Are

resist compression. The strength in bending can then

CDo e re 0 t a ngfor nd K ns om *f sypth
ne ies ula
tio rce .1.3) e.th m / (Øde
TIghno36s0no Rbale r a ge utrlaeng
as ert Calc reinfos (Cl 8 M*
= n to d
ADSoe rneur,ita oste on rop .3)form
s
A st pa
0.5 bw
s: n
n tion ate ) / f sy
n l a t s F ti u t l p io ti o 8 .1g im s ( f' c
ca r, ota inp teria s ula a (Csin u
l lt ly f
No arne
f'
tio W
ten Calc mp .1) = 0
.6 2 ct
rm ts u on )
ita reti dn ata ma of info enlly ed co t,/d

be calculated from the second part of Spreadsheet 4.2

D
Lim eo W an ed or emca bas to l 8.1 f' ct
.6 f
ee( en
Th ols uir ove
r, ers uiratints reoed sh0.2 os
s/ mb lay ns reqmme (C =ad
req try, c * tio gthutouire
of
on em men
ts
pst.mrein ch mm

4.3 T-Beams and L-Beams in Bending

de : Sy lls M r for
1 op en a eq lati de ly As es
Co sis
e
ce e to Str d R lcu d uir mpis siz .1
Ba o w geom ents ete n er u late ial ca an
g req cgo th e nt 134 44 mm
: ll lc ars In in eng th d in
ye tion mom r diam de ig it to m

for a T- or L-beams with the stress block in the flange

re c d es d ca b fo rc str egma
erd
rce n 0.3 .8
0
tu g n g fo
Se din & ba t gra lerts in um Dree 1 1
la u in rein
d
nc n n a gro forc ion re Mincim ing ba
ck
me Be ber eme sed
ku
ck in a ile xis
No ba of re tors d sp ed ns tral a ter
d

4.3.1 General
m γ ku
Nu forc ll is u e n g r an d an e r fe n n te e u m e
d o to para n bloc
: k
in gre cin nt oth
and part of the web. This uses the outstand of the
ut Re ere fi ith spa shea eme or se pth is
Inp Wh sw d ns ba De tral ax ressio
ell e an φM u inforc
,
tio lts u p
dc es su Ne com
xe r, siz acity um re gg Re of

Concrete beams will often be part of the floor or roof

Bo e p su De
pth
mb nt ca im s,

compression flange, bef – bw, times the full depth of

Nu min on
me for cti
Mo cks rre A
co CCA
e ts,
t: Ch en t the

structure; in these cases they will be T- or L-beams mm ntac

u
utp o

the flange, t f , and the dimensions of the web resisting

O rc o
Fo ase c
ple

for part of their span, usually at the centre portion of

Fe
ed
ba
ck
:

compression is the width of the web times the effective

.

the span where the flange is in compression. A T- or depth, ie bw α dn.

L-beam is significantly stiffer than a rectangular beam
Based on the initial area of tensile reinforcement
of the same depth and web width. AS 3600 Clause 8.8
calculated and depending on whether the flange or
sets out the width of flange that can be adopted for
the flange and web are in compression, the designer
such beams. However, over a support, a T- or L-beam
then enters an area of reinforcement approximating to
will normally be considered as a rectangular beam.
this estimate (usually a number of bars of one size).
The determination of the flexural strength of a T- or The spreadsheet then calculates the actual moment
L-beam depends on whether the depth of the assumed capacity for the chosen reinforcement and for the
rectangular compressive stress block lies within the chosen design case and compares it with the design
flange thickness, t, only or if it lies both in the flange moment.
and in part of the lower section of web.
For both design cases, the spreadsheet checks that Sh
eet
No

If t ≥ Ast fsy / (α2 f 'c bef), the area of concrete in

No
Job

the actual moment capacity exceeds the design

By
te: ctor MPa
Da n Fa s 0.8
tio MPa
uc ertie 25
Red Prop 0
ity l 50 mm
ac eria
Cap Mat 0.36
& φ 12

compression is rectangular and is within the flange.

tf f' c
eter

moment capacity. If the actual moment capacity is less

f sy
diam
k uo ent
b ef D Fitm

o
use. tN .
ee reo er.

The beam may then be designed as a rectangular

r its
onsib
le fo Sh o ed low
uir be

than or significantly greater than the design moment,

resp bN req bly .
shee
t is Jo the ba ed
read
bw of pro uir
ing on ill req
is sp By
d
g th nd ati d w reo
Be
usin - te: xim uire of

beam with the web width equal to flange width, bef .

pers
on
s ign mm Da p ro q
ap o re are
a
Th
e De mm rst e re t the
er: n am a fi th
0

it will be necessary to repeat the calculations with a

laim t at io mm e
Be
40
Disc L-
00
mm is am to g
ure be ed
11
mpu or 0
Co 12 mm fig or L quir
t T- 5 mm
Clien t/Job te forced 72 is
Th r a T as re 2
ec cre rein 40
Proj t on der 65
0
Fo rate mm
bjec d C e un Ite
rce at ar
2
Su
info s th n m mm 42
sio kN 67

revised area of reinforcement.

Re r beam
ten sion
42 40 rs
the

If t < Ast fsy / (α2 f 'c bef), the area in compression is

b ef 67 60 2 ba
re. of
Fo t e, to 14
90 12 4 of
pu ng ce = 5. %
a In
Dat
of
fla t f stan )
xu n n
uir
ed
6
inim
um M 4.08

fle layers of te nsio

- di m 36
, b dth nge,
req 11
ry
w
A st. φM u 60 EA
ze t 5m M*
20 am LB
met W idth iv e wi of fla ts t si *< 10 6 75
Use lue IN
Geo en ares tM 6. va OR CK
ct en
in
m orre2. layers of te
s
Effe knes fitm fitm ne men 32 4
7 ft. is AT
t - d to x le e th LO
ic D r to 40 SB
Th th, ve h d men unde a xu 2
ire 80 4 71 w bo t us N AS
be t fl(1
qu RES WEB NS
ers n.
co pt fit n ) re llo no IG
Dep ttom e de r to o, ro ctio
8.

n e or.r
d d 85 *d ate 28 ye D
E ST TIO
lay ver
9 the e do DES AN
rete ein
Bo ctiv cove ile re se φM u it st

T- or L-shaped and includes the full depth of the flange

an
. t at *< M* sy * 0. 6 36 into tiv TH GE ULA AM
ea or 2y go ern.
Effe D - tens
se
t lim 61 72 H
m nsth(1
ga
nc geam
en M it AN LC
r en *f r .9 t WIT BE
su
= ne E FLE CA R L
e
ally of th mom d fo momM* /
(Ø s fo 10 pu
. If S
it su th
c o n e e
ire
a v . th size 24 2 11 d in y
Onl Web
tf TH O ES E
m y go ern
(U ntroid ng requ an t> E TH A T
for lar arrtea b gm emin ent (1
ns
tio e stre
ng = & 76
ble TR NG
ge and E S FLA
stre rs 45 .9 67 tage
ts US
nts
ce A st A st e ta
d ac mat mbe R
ible gu ecl re men ate
a ov
Flan ge rcen 8%
al 14
plie Ulti Initi na ov FO H TH THE
r nu 20 the Flan
rrbae gemme ts m y g
15
tan te
ire ultim

Spreadshee 4 2 s ava ab e om www ccaa com au

ab Pe .9
WIT
ns on
requ on EB
Ap ba 4 80 m in IN 49
ted 67 fro the mm
rec nL sc cerel ate rranquire men s ma
31 .5
CK ND W
po
th sed o
reng ts ba of re
t
en gges
ea lock in
res
21 d ar s B ck BLO A
ed givoer oste
7

and extends down into the web of the beam. The

St 22 an
em Su 16 es Blo
nt
n 13
ate remen atio
t is n l a re ire rang
1
20 .5 69
08
ba
rs
Str s

forc read T ivlaernc0. steeent requ reme

im ul
ox equi calc t ar of the Stres OK
ee pr R al en 33 no e
sh NS
e ith
rein onfofo
Ap 34 w th =
Initi em 12
rc aggu 360en c.em nt
os t
ad forc
u i 11 .7
3 68
34 Cho am with TIO ITH E
W

sp
re r n
ly ctiin fota ASgiv fo00 m rein
r e eq 59 L be am
LA
CU EAM IN TH

ing ere n c tor a reSi3n6 r0c.e ent r

ed
n 60 or L be u AL
L B CK
os
rT < φM EC
2
m2 rs
this a s egsly ecetidore
op 80

sig
Pr ze bar m of ba d 67 mm Fo r T or M* TH T OR B LO
ts fo mA in6fo0 em
S
r si mm USE R A RES D W
EB
ing for of sthin src
De etinonmuto
Ba ea of No. quire tal Fo

strength in bending has then to be calculated using

00
reS3 rc
64
us Ar tical rs re m2 To 0 2 FO E ST AN

nts ityr a thinefoirem mA einfo

E
ec ienni ts uto
re ba m 65 mm 2 m TH ANG
on m eo
Th tual bars
kN .92%

ea me acfo ofre que s m

ed mm FL
ers
99
m m r
Ac of vid 05

ire anpts itgyly re thheuriree mienni ts um

pro 64 5
ep
eB
ea A st. 25 74
Ar .83%
qu inegmce apascincinyg of re
64
Th n
d re
t
68
ly
er: io e re w q rireem inim fle
xu
re φM uo
on
t cr a it s for flexu
t d ir c a e e
en enqu gfodr sappacsclainbg s re
IL

uta
im hqu m A st r )
lan
g FA

on tsan c topa abg w here

um A st fo * b ef
cla
em nnt tbre ndnin
ns

two components: the compression stress in the flange

* f' c
eF
im

mp
Min imum latio OK
Dis
dC
(γ th
2

g
forc oemmee tebmeeendt inabnlde s o ascl in bs w
in cu / kN N S
Cal in TIO ITH E

Co t
M
* f sy
ce ck
ign
u
kN φM

rein tefomrc mqeunir embenpnlict a blde st p sla

2 W
LA
A st
bd
00 *< CU EAM IN TH

for
Des t≥ lo on 32 m m M
sB
o) si 00 AL
ck am
EC L B CK
sile ain mt ore foercnltyeampe pnlict aan le to
be ma ku es 32 1 36
en ob Che lar es mpr < 0. TH T OR B LO
Cli ein
16
Str
m
t/J
ten suillteimre amteenreinomlfo
gu ga co k u0 S EB
USE R A RES D W
arrc ampe icab
m
m an e in
jec ion
.5
R ea rect (1-0 kN

Pro
s e e m m u l r B g a kuo ss
ng
fla t b ef
FO E ST AN
E

outstands beyond the web and the compression stress

t te n im i cin l y e the 2 f' c
T .8 TH ANG
la ss th te t).ufoltrcimuateartre arrc app ula min ma pre
88
c ng assu gam α γb
ef
14 .60%
bje ulfo
of f sy
lcu te
FL
om rt C f = f' c 99
ne p cta .36 α2
Su rellint)m.uinltim is um artre rly
st

icin
pa
lateemsseth
T =A n =
eC
f'c
eb
Ca lcuula Re =0 pha2 with d 0.25 .70%
n e eeintim s upm ula s a at k uo al Al h th dW 83

n: C
am
a lc la te aeth s a uo
late rtic
ku
an
Ca inlcfouurc wit
be d n)
iti lar
tio rsms dsllht)m . i on ent M Phi in 5γ e
a aen eeintim pa
IL

a lc sidrc eete la om
lcu M φM uo
ti = ea
m ctan
gu
(dn-
0.
lan
g FA
: rip re
Caoinnlcfo
ula pereersm dsllhm t is LB a re
C eF
T*
Ca imum heck
sc
kN OK
le r ing
ssidrcprersa a shee
in part of the upper section of the web including the
th
Tit To
u=
φM
De CCahoenfo
re Max C
sa
as
su
m
yiel
d
ck
in 17
85 kN
kN φM
u

l TC in e d a ks at 00 *<
ra re henssid rea
m
s oc it is lo 32 m M
sB
bl
ne on
g 15 36
ss 14 6
min
es < 0.
TCo sp lati stre e )
Ge
su 19
lcu ing flang g as Str - bw
m k u0
e ion
t f (b
ef

Ca t us in in kN
Th en rce forc f' c
Mom on
fo rein ss = α st f sy )
2
f
T-C b w .1
≤ 0.
8
pre
84
si e in Cf γ 14 .83%

portion in the flange.

ck T =A T - C
f
≤Ø
om
f' c
Che pres forc t α2 0.6 85 16
48
) ≤ 0. 0.85 m
eC
=( =
Com ion γd 0.30
ed
en vid Cw dn
n its
≤γ ≤
kN
lim
h th
ns om A st.
pro .5
Te eM ing (d-0 0.67 ≤ α2 2
ku 0.0
mat ed
us
wit t) +
cw
lim
its
0.67
0.02
5 mm
Ulti at m .5 its OK
late lcul ea (d-0 lim 00
LB
ca Cf 64
cu ku th
Cal ck r eld wid 0. 80
To
u=
yi φM m
Che at eb kN
φM
u
nd it is to w
a sa tsta ing ua
l
=
0.85 p
0.3
2

s ou 85 mm
in ed
m eq 0. 5
on
e A stm provid A st
ng assu nge MPa 0.02
< A nly ty
lati
st
fla
in rcing d fla = o ci 00
lc u e an 2 e 64
ng ca ratio
pa
forc reinfo web =
3.00
Ca sion in e in
mm
Fla nding ent en
the be cem chos φM
u
es rce 8
pr fo forc =
38
in Actual einfor steel p
Com ion sion is
Te
ns es
pr en
t
vid
ed /12) ck
R
ea
of
W eb A st
om pro k uo = B lo Ar d
Com eM
A st. 13
7 f' an paci
ty
ing am 9− ss
c

mat ed
us
f be (1.1 00
- 0. ’ c S tre n ge ing ca t ratio
Ulti at o =
Fla bend cem chos
the
f en en
lcul es .36
Ø 1.05 003
late the tual or
typ k uo=0 en
ca l
cu ku − 0.
Cal ck γ = 1.0 wh in Ac Reinf of stee
oth ith
d
Che
r b 2) w
= bw m k is
0.5
ea
α2
( f' c
) / f sy ea loc Ar
s fo 2.2. 0.6 2 f' ctf
LB sB
on able /d
)
or es
lati (T 1) ctf = (D
aT Str
lcu ns 1.3) 1.6. f' 0.2
for mm the
Ca culatio l 8. l 8. = nt
Cal
(C ts
(C
me 1 en
wh
n
ns mi
latio men A st. ge 161. 8
cu ire ply a n mm a m
be
m
Cal requ co arr 0.24 9
th to
nt 6. rL
ng med me d n To
13
stre
um
Dee rce ku for mm
im info l axis nt
Min
n re utra eter
γ dn me 8
ge 195. 1
d o ne ram k an mm
se th to pa bloc arr 0.30 5
ba Dep l axis ession nt 6.
lts tra pr me d n
16
su Neu com rce

4.4
Re

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

ku
th
of fo
in l ax is
γ dn
Dep n re utra eter
d o ne ram k
se th to pa bloc
ba Dep l axis ession
lts tra pr
su Neu com
Re of
th
Dep
4.4 Beams in Shear
4.4.1 General
The vertical shear forces in a beam are determined
from the structural analysis. They vary from maximum
shear at the supports at each end of the beam
reducing to nil in the middle of the beam for uniformly
loaded beams, to nearly uniform shear for a heavy
point load in the middle of a beam. The designer
needs to determine which are the critical sections for
shear design. (Note that the critical sections for shear
will usually differ from those for bending.)
Shear reinforcement in the form of fitments
(sometimes referred to as ties, ligatures, stirrups or
links) is generally provided in beams for shear (and
sometimes torsion). They also support the longitudinal
reinforcement within the beam. The fitments are usually
vertical due to practical fixing considerations. In the
past, fitments could be inclined from the vertical, while
bent-up bars from the bottom reinforcement to the top
reinforcement were sometimes used as shear bars.
These methods are not used in modern construction
because they are difficult to fix and AS 3600 does
not cover bent-up bars. See Figure 4.3 for a typical
arrangement of shear reinforcement.
Fitments need to anchored at each end, and for
practical reasons, are typically closed. For band
beams, however, open fitments are used to allow fixing
of the beam reinforcement, with the slab reinforcement
supporting the top bars. AS 3600 Clause 8.2.12.4 has
specific requirements for anchorage with hooks and
cogs, and specifies that cogs must not be located
within 50 mm of any concrete surface.
Top bars
Shear bars (fitment)
Positive moment reinforcement
Figure 4.3 Typical arrangement of beam reinforcement
Mesh or bar (or bar made from coil) can be used for
fitments. Fitments can be made from either round
bar R250N, round bar R500L, deformed bar D500N
or deformed bar D500L. Generally, only six sizes of
fitments are available, from 6 mm to 20 mm as noted
below.
Fitments are normally made from either round bar
grade 500 low ductility (R500L) or deformed bar
grade 500 low ductility (D500L) for the 6-, 8- or 10-mm
diameter sizes or from deformed bar grade 500 normal
ductility (D500N) for the 12-, 16- and 20-mm diameter
sizes. Mesh is generally not used.
Designers need to specify the type and spacing of
fitment they require for the beam, eg L8 fitments at 200
centres or N16 fitments in threes at 150 centres.
Note that an L8 fitment is actually 7.6 mm in diameter
and it can be made from either low ductility grade
500 round or deformed bar. The smaller diameters 6,
8 and 10 L bars were previously known as wire. As a
result, the designation W6, W8 and W10 is still often
used for L6, L8 and L10 fitments indicating grade 500L
bar (wire). Grade 250 normal ductility R6N and R10N
fitments are only available in some locations.
As noted above, fitments generally have two legs and
are usually of the closed type with two 135° hooks. A
combination of fitments is sometimes used for beams
(which might not be rectangular, eg a beam with an
upstand section) or for wide shallow beams, especially
if the shear is high and a considerable area of shear
reinforcement is required, eg one overall fitment and
two smaller fitments to form a triple fitment. Detailing of
fitments is discussed in more detail in Section 13 of the
Reinforcement Detailing Handbook 4.6.
Logical models for shear are very complex, so, like
most design codes, AS 3600 Clause 8.2 uses an
empirical approach to the design for shear.
The first check is to ensure the applied shear does not
exceed the web-crushing limit, otherwise the beam
size and or concrete strength will need to be increased.
For the determination of the shear strength of a beam
without shear reinforcement, AS 3600 Clause 8.2.7
provides an empirical formula relating the shear
strength to the amount of tensile reinforcement and
the concrete strength. Modifying factors are included
to allow for the effect of the overall beam depth,
axial tension or compression in the beam, and for
concentrated loads near the face of a support.
The determination of the contribution to shear strength
by the shear reinforcement is based on the truss
analogy method, using an angle of the concrete
compression strut to the horizontal that varies from
30° when only the minimum shear reinforcement is
required to 45° when the shear approaches the upper
Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 4.5
 r
t is ign 16
%
ee es 38
dsh (D
rea do b
sp
this
usi
ng 8.2
on Cl OK
ers ar
h ep S he m m
t No
er:
T
n- mm ee
cla
im io
n
sig 30
0
Sh o
at
De mm
bN
0 2.8
Dis ut 45
mp mm Jo e 8.
am 50 ax us
Co
nt Be .2.6 39
0
φV
u.m Cla
By
b in
Clie ct/Jo te l8 *< ified
cre rC te: V
on
ec
je ea the
Da
sp
Pro
dC
ct sh to area
for
2
bje e ce m sion
Su rc id th n m um
ista m ) im es
(av)
info ut ctiv
ew -d
ze st 5m 18
60 kN the
min mpr th
Re
co
ffe d) kN ial leng
Inp =e
me
nts t si
en eare ore ded 0 74
9 kN than
ter 1.1 t to
ax the
ta y bv fitm to n ch 20 er
Da ometr idth, D r to fit bjec
an st.pro 4 ov
grea 1 ≥
vi
t- d lly A 52 su sion
Ge W th, ve d o men unde (fu l to
or β rs es
p co pth fit , ro nt V* = 0.8 be mpr
De om e to e eq
ua
n ≥ m em co
sio β
d r o em
= 1
tt
Bo ctive cove sile re ax ) is for on
al
e - n forc n u.m ax .7 (A sv
te n n Ag) diag
ided re.
ff io
E = D e te Re
in ct V .2
of io 14 te
ns n r 1 + (N
u.m 8 */ =
se Cl crea
ally of th ile ØV t pr 1 xu
ov
d o) ) =
fle layers of te nsio
su ns oss nt to
(U ntroid Te a cr .6 me en o as ′ b v vd o
al at 8.2 rce rcem in1.
33 ion; so √ f c f c′ b
2.1 yers of te tens ion

limit of web-crushing failure. Concrete Structures 4.4

ed 10
ce din rce CL info info √
itu ns r fo ea 1ea
r re m o1.rre ial s e orientat + 0. 0.10
r re
(1xu 2 la rstnto.ax ten t io
33
ng
ar n
Vuc uc +
ax
tio ea s V u.m
≥ 1.b
Lo ea
on mit nt fle or.r0.8 larsyosuevbjeecrrs o.f suteppnors
ac n sh sh
sh
Ø(V
0)te
of
ed lati g li d o

Spreadsheet 4.3 is available at www.ccaa.com.au

e.
g ut ea
ein
pli Desi ho l ar c /1re a r.2beg ye rndothfe
lcu rushin f c′ b v (1
00
us Ap a wit 1/3 iona − n e m
m≥ 0.
8
th e e
s o do
g a n o n y la v srs
n C eb = 0 }
s-se 1(r1.c anb/1e00 emineβs1 nt ≥rs ma
it c .2 m ct 0) = em an .
(10sioform r1 2 goloy
6
ea
for sig w max ab = la
ade rn
Ast
{ os
e cr gu
1.
arrte− do gm e to g)nt
o aypliela
2 ov rn.
e

and Reinforced Concrete Basics 4.5 provide more

ible De lculate V u. of d
ns th f cv do
b v re th nβ1 ec1(l re
1.6 aenβ1a em in 5Ae =t (1 m ap
s er g uir
ed
po Ca ng
tre β 3 b v
do
whe cta o=n1. l aluteerrfobr nag−m
sβ1cte 3.m
ir*/e eβ n nt ed thoma1y goMvP rn.
2 ea eR
eq
d regivoer nL ste rrbaoereq1 ugememeeprnovtid=n(1
(N
res rs
crtere
rs
ea be yb
β2 va
ts y ve ma
is sh =β mem e
ncoInnse cerelndante intg; r an uir m ma3.17 y gokN
1
et late For rc ad T 2, 3e eo No ed
he V uc
info Rfo reE ivlaer 00.oste nre bee arrreaqtenrgtheirem en= ts rR uir d
an β
lcu a74.7 kN ea eq
a ds Ca re n WIS a g
rc g u 6 n c puem el nt grea u m Sh o R equir
e
re
β1
ly ctiOin E e
oTHfo fotar n Sg3ivlaecfrot 0tor0c. stemet lnoat rrreq rem nts 52.3 f cv e
rR oR

information on the concept of the truss analogy.

sp ing ere ui
n c torAnarsgresu
d
is n uibj3n6 en c.e bue nt e= ea
Sh ar R
e ire d
a s egsly ecetidore
qu
g th sig be ASgm iv fo0r2d0 o/savteme t req iremV ucV uc = kN
φV m e Re wa
ive
nots nr mfo tam uc
Sh
De for oaf sthin efosrc cem aeraeSi3nniv 6asenrc.e en eo
.9
sin β1
e re uto r b q u2.7 Ø 8.2 74.8 kN .5
<0 50 m rR is
u m ti m fo mAatakeg in6fo0 em nt rt C 0 e l ed ing
ecemd1,iennoi ts
* a
ts ityr 8. C kN
frethinqueires=rc
fo V >7 e uir
am
l
on
.4
en acfo n te t * Sh rc
uto be re 3 c. en 52
< V in eq
ers o re r r e kN D info
Be
en
m p ts fo e m tic
r e cn iennonr uto imts fo S f o0 0 em = .4
oR 0 d
mA ei3n6 rcerem
c
ire an itgyly re thinheβ2
p ay em 75 e ire
rc u r re
ueirrseceom
m rc
e d .8 f V Vu.m r R 25 q u
qu inegmce apascincinyglyofre
o

Th e 1,o im
fo
9reinfo+ 0.6 b v = = ea
ion
ra S foear in 52 ea D> Re
ret
r: re w q la r e m c ti n ts A 9 9 r 0.5 < φ Sh o sh mm
e t t d ir c a a itgabgs orefgth u e ir = e ien 1/m 4m
P
reiout
n sh , 1she Vu 0.6 b v
a d kN * in e m
en enqu gfodr sapapascin m in′cni3ts≤uto
rR
l in n whqthueβ3 sreem
o)
c
c M V .m u
uta
Vu mm
rneum
im ea
on inim
=
tsan cr topasaccitcaytabgs ore
7
cla
em nnt tbre ndnin >φ
.2 Sh
ir um with c+ or

mp gfo s re l in f whqeu re=em omuinim0.6 b vd o Ø(Vu V u.minu.min nm

26
Dis
dC me inim V*
f 4d f chev
the mm
forc oemmee tebmeeendt in
am
tsaabnldeceadptopasaccitaybgs re elb
a be 7 kN c whi
Co
4.4.2 Basis of Spreadsheet for design for shear
(i) 8
ce efcvir sof. ith + 0 ØV Vu 33 5
rein tefomrc mqeunir embmenepnnlicdt in e s p l in whqu e mngieth , Mm w V2uc 0 <φ 0
= kN .5
or fogbrc
.2
V* > 25 /2 8.2 22
nldca o asc s re er stcreit anbea b vdoo)n≥,
t 26

inf
Cl
en ob sile ain mt ore foercunirltyeeambpeere n in lict aa gblde st nply sclainbegnst. wcShahepara in. ngthmof a0√ fac′ rs
.8 D Bw
Cli φV 52 5 (i) eb
uc
t/J kN 5
ten suillteimre amteenreinoremqlfo 22 cing
>
Re arercngt lyampeepnndiin 0.5 8.2. ew
D ired
jec ns o stopaemlab g ) st.m Loeng 0.1Pe =
s e e m t u ltc aa in A , tr uc +s,
.8 Cl f th 00 Sp
a
requ
ro
late ss th tent).ufoltrc im umteenrticinmsinrrc ye le = 52 o 5
a el nt bampepneaicmaabnindforctobesn2d01in0 & rsehesar sn =sVic
eb
ct x t
P w
idth o r 00 Ma no
bje a a re mriocain ulm .2.5 φV the kN
uc
g is
Su lcu te n e ltim
rellint)m.uin imeismupm fo lye L pbepnl rt reablein t 1, uo.muclatu mia l8 0.5 min of ew 0.7
5D o r 3
Ca lcuula lateemsseth spafortre arrc
mm rcin
=
rct imoante te V u.B gC idth 52 lf th of 0.5D

Spreadsheet 4.3 is based on Flowchart 4.2 for

n einhfo miocin ulfo olryeam ea lic el n M tr lcu te φV mm info
u.

eeinim
ew ha er
n: C rcin f
a lc la te aeth is uamteartre
0 r re
sh ppstemeng SCa cre
ss r o
Ca inlcfouurc late lf th in
sllnt)emfl.ueltcetitim ruTlfo
arrc kN and
45
rsmss re info L e sse .m ea
tio
in 0
Vu
nd y a n ndlati rete
eete u.m d ha = mm
s oicin
sh
φV
adaeth n 15 m Le
a lc sidrc e in imis upm r re <φ
lapte r a arlssAiomaelcuonc d Co
en
20 50m
0
ss ddaesllnht)em.ultetim
an
:
crip re
Caoinnlcfo ea
C ula ereete
rsm onartre sh
m = V* e th
eraticuplre
le f2
aalcenufo e. insecistiupsm 0. nts for Vuc ativ
0m
Tit D es Cre
CC s sidrc
u la
la terersa eth hm
m s h m n gin c , Cn. rce 6 0 r of
25 V uc
Ø
=
ate
ro mm
mm
neg
h s t ti s io
ral
is
TC oainlclceussidrc peete adallnt)lareeinim foris pf acooraess lkens info 3 e 5φ in
grea
te D =
g re 8 re 22
5
AS equireif V* ≤
m 0. .m gu
re
CTahoin nlcfoula e Vu the
33
pereersmngdusllhm
reinforced concrete beams in accordance with
ne C if fi s
ign t o rpstr Fainu te , Re
5
≤φ the uc 22 eter
V* ceed
Ge d in
kN
ssidrccptarersadaesshffeeec(Itsncporell &ers
te
C R eck V* ed V
Cahoenfo ce *≤ φ m web No diam
re ic k se Ch c< t ex if V 250m f the te
x =
s 52.8 kN
= tio
us
TC in r idre s e o t a d e 9 r
fo, Hem pa a b tr u Vu
t no k f o no rio
0.0
reFTohoeness nspsreth-e20ll0owanm y 5φ
einn if D does Chgecreatere width D doe 0.75 D th ra =
o s va
20 .8
kN
rall
0. = of
il k if kN ing ts 8
CDo e re 0 t a ngfor nd K ne s Ch
ec
eVum .m
k the half
th
ean.d D p
0.5 de 1.0 2 ac
g fit
men
V*
74 kN
ge * rc
sp
TIghno36s0no Rbale r a >φ .7
Vla
ec mm 2
rtie 74
21
Vfo Øu
um 2 le
ch ed ax
s ms to

AS 3600 Clause 8.2.
in
uc
S r, te a e ce
rm ing n m im of u.m kN
ADoe rneuita os p if ex min m ax s V
nhecre Wide tiodnoes n
ea t ≤ a φV 2 c=
s: n pro
k B o
gs iffoV imum ts ly sp
* ac u. 47
mm
m
area
tio
sp = Vu .4 kN
n l a t s r, F u t l io C
a in 46
at
us 75 .0
a No arne ta p a s 1
tio
rio
c W o ri n w D se m
Max men p 21

4.5 Beams in Torsion

a
in allo
yideub
va on
dn foCrm
47
reti
k if t) for
f te fit m
=
ta mate
in
ita o W a n d a o
Sh
in hec
a ll
w of co V us et,
e f sy
= rc
en
em mm
2
left se
cti .m
Vu us
Lim tillocw l 8.1.12 d to
s
or
to
e ers
.2 .f
info s
ire over, sh b v s / .f
d V
Th ols
= ro
/ b u y n s m haa e .2 d r re 243 e an ac
s q c la tio r s C
m .2 a ea ov a t
ukto
8 35
m ee re 0. b v s / .min f sh ab
s re etry, M* for 1
Cl rce
de :
ts lar
Sy
sy
fo e
sp
do
o e ll op d haec Fit
men
d d g Vus
is f′ c A sv dicu = ee
tabl
a r fo } 1/3
bb
v

C sis r to
0 .6

The designer has to determine the ultimate shear

c r late
C f en S
w geom ents ete
e
an
o in √ 2 do t 0
ing forc th rp h
n s f c′ b v
{ As o +
Ba
0.06
ne
pe 4
ing f sy.f
s
: llo
ye tion mom r diam de sig lcu ars Spac ing rein
(for leg 31
8 2 sig
De = 0.2 f cv
d
b v d o) ≥
V uc
ca 62

4.5.1 General
r 2 16 mm
re de rc ar
ard b v s / A sv do
nd ing b info s fo
he ′ b
reg ≥0.35
v
c 1 bv
latu Se ding & ba t gra lerts
fs deg rea 20 √ fc
ax
2 V u.m β 2 β 3
rou no mm
d a 12 2 14
.10
nc n n a kg info
rc n re cing ibutio V uc ack / f sy.f = 45
an 40 β1 +0
me Be ber eme sed
t θv 3
rsio pa Contr= V*/Ø - edb f′ c b v s 11 1 =
ac Ad
op ters 13 V uc = V + Vu
uc s
No
6 =
n b g of re nd to nd s me 10

forces, V *, in a beam from the analysis and determine

m 22
Nu forc ll is u fe 06 √ dia c
in
e V us er θ v) t 1 V u.m = Vu
ta
t n 7
t: in re in a oth in =
0.
me g s =
Re ere fi
co 2
h g pac hear men
t θv 2 le Vu
co o / s) Fit 8 14
pu
Although torsion occurs in most concrete beams, it
In h wit s s e s or A sv.m do
/ s)
(f sy
.f
d
45 area
of
s d M u, on
W forc
f /( ut
ell an sti fsy. = V us 91 Inp wed gs
d c size ity φ rein
6
allo
ge
sv
(A A sv 28 2 le
xe
which sections need to be designed for shear.
s= ts
Bo ber, apa imum
c ug Vu efo
re
al) 57
en
ith
,s Th
er min 2 of
fitm
tw
m nt c ns (no m
ing en
Nu min tio ia bar m 2

becomes important only in a few cases: eg a spandrel

ac m
me for ec A
tD
e n one s m
m sp ge
o rr Fitm a of 2 leg
um an
M s o A im rr mm
k , c CC Max ta
ec nts
Are a of en mm
t: Ch me ct th
e Are
fi tm 10
tpu
1
on 13
om onta ed ter
Ou
Analysis for shear requires the input of the material
rc s me

beam supporting significant offset loads (especially Fo ase c s ba dia pacin

g
s ult me
nt S
ple Re Fit imu
x
m
Ma
:
ck
properties of the concrete and fitments, the cover and if it is not cast with an adjoining slab), a curved beam Fe
ed
ba

the section properties of the beam along with the area (again if it is not cast with an adjoining slab) or a beam
of tension reinforcement used. For T- and L-beams the where loads are offset and cause significant torsion in
flange is ignored for shear design, so they become the beam.
rectangular beams.
AS 3600 Clause 8.3.2 states Where torsional strength
The maximum shear (web crushing), Vu.max = 0.2 f 'c bv do , is not required for the equilibrium of the structure
is then calculated along with the shear strength of the and the torsion in a member is induced solely by
beam without shear reinforcement and the shear the angular rotation of adjoining members, it shall
strength of the beam with minimum shear reinforcement. be permissible to disregard the torsional stiffness in
If the ultimate shear forces exceed the maximum shear the analysis and torsion in the member, if the torsion
then the concrete strength and/or the section size of reinforcement requirements of Clauses 8.3.7 and the
the beam need to be increased. detailing requirements of Clause 8.3.8 are satisfied.
The Standard then requires a series of design steps In discussing combined bending, shear and torsion,
with various outcomes depending on which path has to Warner et al4.4 note that the approach of AS 3600 is
be taken. The spreadsheet takes the designer through to determine if the torsion is large enough to require
the various design steps. The first is to determine the special reinforcement. If it is, then the reinforcement for
shear strength of a beam, Vuc , assuming no shear a beam is designed separately for flexure, shear and
reinforcement, ie: torsion and the results combined.
Ast 1/3
Vuc = β1 β2 β3 bv do fcv   For beams subject to torsion combined with bending
bv do and shear, AS 3600 Clause 8.3.3 requires the strength
of a section to be determined for torsion and shear
Then it checks the shear strength of a beam with acting separately and compared to their respective
minimum shear reinforcement where: factored web-crushing limits. The combined action
Vu.min = Vuc + 0.10 √f 'c (bv do ) ≥ Vuc + 0.6 bv do must not exceed the following simple interaction
equation:
The need for shear reinforcement is then determined
T * V *
depending on whether V * ≤ 0.5fVuc or + ≤1
0.5fVuc ≤ V * ≤ fVu.min. For shallow beams if V *< fVuc fTu.max fVu.max
shear reinforcement may not be required. For beams
Torsional reinforcement is not required if:
greater than 750 mm in depth (even if V *≤ 0.5fVuc),
minimum reinforcement, Asv.min, shall be provided in T * V *
T * < 0.25 f Tuc or + ≤ 0.5
accordance with AS 3600 Clause 8.2.8. fTuc fVuc
For the case where V * > fVu.min, the spreadsheet
or where the overall depth does not exceed the greater
also gives fitment sizes and spacing to provide the
of 250 mm and half the width of the web and
minimum shear reinforcement of Asv /smin = 0.35 bv /fsy.f .
T * V *
The component of shear Vus= V */ f - Vuc is then + ≤1
determined along with the spacing of fitments and is fTuc fVuc
assumed to be 45°, ie cot qv = 1, which is conservative.
Torsional reinforcement consists of both closed
fitments and longitudinal bars and is designed using a
simple truss analogy equation.

4.6 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 resp ign met
er 3
t is es mm
ee (D D Dia
sh
read
sp
this
ing 8.3
us Cl
rson
rs ion N o %
he
pe
To mm e et 74
n-
:T 24
mer t io n mm do Sh o
clai sig 0
mm bN
%
De
a 50 18
Dis ut 0 b
Jo 33
mp am 70 mm
Co Be 40 OK
nt
Clie ct/J
ob te 8.2.
6 0 By
re te:
l 62
Pro
je nc rC
Da m
ject d Co sh
ea OK
the
2
for
Sub
rce
m
th to mm
info wid ce 0
ut iv e stan ) m 70 ax OK
Re fect - di m
08 kN .m
Inp
18 Tu
ta = ef ts ze t 5m
t si ares d) 0
kN m = <φ
T* ax
Da ry , b
v
fitm
en en
fitm to ne ch
ore ded
rovi
38 0 kN y
Vu
.m
met Width , D
36
r to t- d y an A st.p <φ
Geo th cove h d o men unde ull 50
n V*
Dep tom pt
de r to fit o, ro t (f M* mm 3 sio ing
ten sion
en V* kN sh
Bot tiv e ve ile re mm ru mm
re. of
rc em * 0 7 C
ec co T 8.8 kN mm 70 is
Eff D - tens nfo n Web
xu ers f ten ion
50 +0 or er
= e Rei ctio n ct 5E 28 kN 4d f chev ter
2.1
ally of th se ctio 5.77
fle s
in 2. lay ers o f ten ion
su sile t at se s se 20 .0 kN whi grea
(U ntroid Ten en oss cros x
= = 50 the

4.5.2 Basis of Spreadsheet for design for torsion

15
ce
ud
inal mom a cr at a Jt= < 1.
m
a xourre lay rs o. tens n
0 = 85
.0
0 5d b
be t fl(1
th at t 10 20
git ns ng rce en
2 e n f io
n e or.r
=
lay ver no. tens
on tio e stre r fo l mom 3 V* max ax

rete mein
L 3. 58

Spreadsheet 4.4 is available at www.ccaa.com.au

T
e.
u.m
0.
d ac mat shea na L 8.
u. =
φV
ea nr.2y go yers
+ ax

us plie Ulti ign torsio s s Jt C nc t (1

ØT r f
u.m
m
a la ove rs o.
T*
co ngeea minensh (1ioom
ax
its Ap es n o n φ T u.m V
ax
=
ti ulu u.m

for lar arrtea b gm e entot rsts or a2y glayevern

D ig ax
m
Des ula mod 3 ØV
u.m
kN =
ib le alc nal 8.3. u
g ecl re aena min ent (1 m r 2 go . m ing ts
tan scte ern .
CL kN en
n C rsio V* u.max .6 ac
ns n arrb gm

Spreadsheet 4.4 is based on Flowchart 4.3 for

po sig te to
it
c o e emen ts o ay + φV v
86
at
sp
fitm
lim l te n a i r n o .6 2
s De cula re nL ere bae u m e t (1 m ay g vern mm ed
T* 60
ing
ed givoer oste nc el aterr reqngeiremen nts
los
ax
re sh φT u.m = 4 mm
is Cal cru o 2,32 fc
et forc read T ivlaernc0. ste
tf’c
creenl tarrraeqnugermeme nts m ay g so
=
he
22 8
w eb 2
tail
rc aggu 360erncoc.enm
2J 1,92
rein onfofo
mm
ds late = 0. do
t i De
r n iv fo0r0 stemeenl arrraequ reme nts m
Tuc 2.8
rea ′ bv
cu ax
f =
ly ctiin 8.
ctatorAnaSggeuila
c 5 3
sp Cal T 2 ØTuc e
ing ere
u.m

n fo 8.3. i 11

ign
= 0. = us
n6 n e e t qu me
reinforced concrete beams in accordance with
Cl Cla
is
a s egsly ecetidore r S3ive r0c. te en 20 in
g th
es mrAaeagemi3n6fo0enrcs.em nt re quire
ax
m n
notsn focutato
V u.m 4 ified
for oaf sthin efosrc
ea lygo = (av)
ab 31
sin e sion
ec
u D m ti re
m b r S iv of
fo mAa g in6fo0 em nt r0 e ress
e a po t s sp es th
ts ityr ecediennoi ts leg 16 1
rest of for A mpr leng
f thin uiresrc
area
on
am
th
en acfo n te uto ng
3 opc. ea r2 co the
tsn formAreS in6fo0r0 eme
s
ylyo re qthineeforireem mcnticinre ial
um
ers = ar fined
Be
stre 20 kN
em pts nim
eter s fo
er
dn inim ax ov
ep uir cean acinitg g orefrew
At
hque rseceom
al an de am ea 1 2 m to
ion 5.6 kN sion
metio imuto mAreS3 nforc
n t
t A the
te 99
sw di
Th d ar
n req inegm ap s cinitgyly tors
ts lygo en ous 3 12 1 bjec es

cre ulaerire ec ienntsmuto

en mpr
19
11 than 1.
tio
an .9

AS 3600 Clause 8.3.
su
er: s re th fitm vari
nt enqduir gfocr asppaascin
tm √f’c po
ter β1 ≥ 0.8
late i the ers 87 rs
lainbg onfgwhqthue sreem
d fi 3J t
co
e,
/s
uta m inni ts m re
im ing ts of s= be al
tƟ met 10
on
v
grea ≥
me t tbre
cu se of em on
tsandcraatopasaccitcaytabgs ore
0.
cla din Cal
e ir clo T uc =
urn
co eter form men dia
Tu s = or β1 rm diag

mp rce mmeenn bmenennt in gfolde sadp rescl iny f re me inim u 71

dC
t r fo
Dis whqu rireem
t to
lbo 07
u t
2A ri m ba e fit Tu l te
ho ts
men
Ø ua Ag) crea
Wit en f sy.f = pe of
o
th */14
e fo oe t e e d tsa b
n c e o a c it b s e s .
tm sw e ea r of Fit 8
= 1.
0
) is
eq to d
C t ir embenenlict a grcle st ppa sclaing whqu e m
ut
rc rein tefomrc mqeunrc d fi = A M 0 l ar (N as uire
racitie n, 1+
,2 na of ba 45 t θv (A sv so
en o b f o il e a in ore n t
ir e mpepnndininfoabndca topa bgs re
a a
foqeu lyemberepnlict ing le s ly sclainen w ap t. h e
h cl
ose T us
m a o n ctio eas d co
Cl
8.2
.7
ided
ion;
or
ntat
ed Req d
li t/J in ns ltimre enmt inm Wit . ng rs s se ar 6 g an t pr
ov 1
orie Reo uire
Re
C os inous nt 1. 8 tens
arercngt lyampeendicaabnsd onstopaemlabinsg c) ea
al
s te ensuile imeamtem
Req
jec me ial are
en
mtiocrein
re ulm o t cr .m ri 28 de
1.07 sion
lye b pnl t m bnldeforco snd 10 & A es, L s, P
rcem ort d
Pro fo sainrrc Inpu fost r va = 45 rce
ax
Tor Reo uire
late ss th te t).ufoltrcimuamteeanrtre
t to
ct info pp

The designer has to determine the ultimate torsional

θv
info al
foenltyeampebpenlaict are
low 1.1 subjec
riocain
r re e su Req
bje ulm a in le tbe, 20 tur sic
pt on
lcu te r re d
orsi
n e ltrc imeis upmtefom e be 2 Ado d th
ea 1
rellint)m.uin
Su in Dia mm be uire
lateemsseth arrcor Lampeear icaebl innt 1M truc te Ba
sh rs T
Ca lcuula
ea
artre
.mbl t ≥ 1. be an ay
miocin
of
t imoanspm uota en bar t sh 1 ads m Req
n einhfo eeinim ulfo 0.8
ea 0) = em
ou φΤ
n: C
See a
te aeth
uc
lyesh ppsl temeng S β1 for m Reo
l ar /100 0) ≥ lo
a lc la late
Fitm a of MP be
Ca inlcfouurc re ith 1/3 ied 1
sllnt)emfl.ueltcetitim
is uateartre Tarrc d
tio rsmss re oicrin
/s na do 0 pl 25 5 al ay
uire
ndrlysaionenudlaticrete Conc
re w 00
eete ulafo
A tƟ} v ct io
6− /1 ≥
g) β2 = the ap <0. ≤ 0.
sion
m
adaeth
m kN
: r ip re
C aalcnfos idrcla
la te
r e
rs d e h me. inltimis upm n s r t {
co
ab
ea A st d o os
s-se 1(1. 6 − do
*/3.
5A 2.92 5 kN
T* V* uc Tor al
Reo Req
C oinlcuuspeetemss dasllnt)e u etim tiopa rear ulares Amalc on 1. 1. ed =
t eo
sc
2A +
le e in cis usmhertic p ngin c , Cn. rced . o f b v the
cr = 1( β1 (N id 9. φ V on R
Tit for 1 − prov β3 = 17 6 si
C a lcenfosuidrc a eth hm 00
f sy.f f cv β1 = 1. al

moment, T *, along with the associated shear forces, V *,

De lapte gth T* Tor
re
CTahoin la s dasllnt).r seetim
5.
ereete
do re on
C lue or
c
2, φTu
rsm m ti s io 36 =A
sw
ren whe β1 fcv = 12 orsi ired
ral
0
lceussidrc foris pf acooraess lkens info
bv an
alc
va g; m 25 T
st requ
β th
AS
in
Cre a e la e in T us r 3 rs rt nd ter V uc = kN <
CTahoin nlcfoula pereersmngdusllhm
be
ne
β2 Inse be If D
C ign t o rpstr Fainu te , Re sh
ea
=β
em ea V uc reo
is
d in
1
t gr 2
Ge
rm re
ssidrccptarersadaesshffeeec(Itsncporell &ers
Ø .2
C late < b/
Cahoenfo
E pu t no .0 al
re ic k se cu
V uc Fo
WIS t to bu
os
15 D ≤1 sion
in re e t d r b u Cal ER bjec V* uc
ra= ti
TC s e a tr o/av Tor
r id o a 9 fo, Hem pa lly t β1 TH su 3.7
reFTohoeness nspsreth-e20ll0owanm n
O rs 2d φV +
il me for mem taken
be as
era pth =
T*
CDo e re 0 t a ngfor nd K
in a beam from the structural analysis and determine
e.
c

rce
φTu

TIghno36s0no Rbale r a en s
ula duce 0
rtie
be
sg
0
info β2 =
1, 70
φT
n0.25to V*
may ≤ 1.
ADSoe rneur,ita oste na pe or Pa rm
n re
T*
pa
0
s: n 1, ≤ 4M g fo
s

pro φTu
25
n a l a t s r, F ta tio p u t
a l s io a ti=o
in
(a)
3.4 ly s
1/3 +
φV
= uc

tio W No arne us
7
ten
′
c o ri p T*

4.6 Deflection of Beams

β3 8.
in
c 3.
f
dn rm Cl
reti
c

ing com
φTu
ta mate
=
ita an da of info
= lly th et, th
eo W ca
which sections need to be designed for torsion.
forc Dep he Wid
f
Lim or
cv m
ire over, ers ati rein d to
=
Th
kN
/ b ols u la y n s m al e a d s f the 0.6 .0
50 0 kN m
m

req try, c * tio m

n
s m to tors ee
io m
0 m re
al 2
de : Sy 1 au
H V*
25 sp
kN
op
0.
mm
Co sis lls M r for for dc d
+ 36 8
e ted
uc
φV T* 8. kN
ce ter is
of
r to
=
w geom ents ete en an
T* 5 28 .0 m
ts φTu
0.5 ea th V*
ula
kN
Ba ne
c
φTu 54 50
the ing
gr
em ≤g0.25
llo
≤ 2 15 .6
: ye tion mom r diam de sig alc rs equir if in V* mm k
ax

4.6.1 General
86
re ce ard
40 T u.m
d c g ba RinChefockrc T*φTu φ not exre
T* Vuc ed
de
+ T* = 60 ax
5.6
c g
latu
5 V u.m
Se ding & ba t gra lerts un φT 54
us 12 43 12
in
c
0. 0 T uc
gro forc ion re Ccheinckg
es k
nc
eb

Analysis of the cross-sections for torsion requires

if
ce w (b) .6) φM
u
n =
e e n er e n da k pth bof a
do th
3.4 8.3 *< 1.
60 ctio V uc
m B c in a dth = t M 36 ok
mb
8. l
em se
12
a rs p l en se n
No
l deeid gC
n b g of re nd to nd s
gC ing oss ctio
Nu forc ll is u
eral fe w .0 em 20
e e ovelfr the ≤1
rcin rcin ) uir
10 53 ac a cr ss se
sp
ta
* fo .6 q 0. 0
: in re cin a th
V fo .3 e re 32 4 nt e at cro
Re ere fi rein ).
rein
Th d ha
ut hg ar en r oan
l8
+ uc 1.
φV me forc at a

Reinforced concrete structures deflect or move in

a al gC stat 20
wit d sp u, she rcem
al 80
Inp
T*
so
ne
ion din ile zo mit 28 0.680
10 Fit ion rce
rcin ).
Wh
c
φTu itu
tors r li
lls on tors r fo
if

the input of the material properties of the concrete

e a n φM fo ti Che
ck
for .0 lo ng e tens info zone s fo 61
6 1.
4 ign shea }
dc es
re 1/3
e in ts ≤1 al th
ina
l
sion
ze 88 80 mm Des ign 2Jtf’c b v d o
xe r, siz acity um re
si
ion ) (in
0. 0
gg
en & 24 Ast d o
o u em T*
uir if dit cot θ it ud mpres ers
2 v
2 1. 0 Des = 0. 2 f c
′ {
,s
T d 6
e g 23
us
b
B p Req ck
φ a u n t 45 61 0. ’c bv
mb nt ca for / s)(
co en num f cv
ax
im ns T u.m ax =
t
l lo the 1.210 √f do
u in o Che ts na ) (in gem bar 20 t
bv

response to loading, changes in the environment and

ti n V u.m = 0.3J
N m e io n 2.
me for
= β3
ec A
A d sw
m / f )( dit t θ ra te 4 4
2 v
β2
ire ad u co t ar es 31 90 T uc
orr
sy

Mo cks en ugg β1

and fitments, the cover and the section properties

A qu f for / s)(
.f
2.710 t
=
, c CC Re = (0.5
sy
em S 16 V uc
e nts A forc 1 3.
nts
2
me / f )(
Ch e sw
20
t: rein
A 94 w ed
lt

me ct th ire 2.710 sy
allo
tpu
qu f ion
al 12 .f

om onta Re = (0.5
sy
3.
ion
dit 3 3 ts
Ou
11 en
rc
60
d ad ors

as the concrete dries out. It is important to ensure that

4.820 fitm
Fo ase c
A lt
se of rT
po m2 rs 5.
5 ing fo

of the beam. For T- and L-beams the flange is

Pro m
r of ba d 56 ac t
ple size ba
Bar a of No. quire otal um
sp
em en
en ts
Are etical rs re m2 T im ng fitm
or l ba m Max rra sed
ta
c k: The ctua bars
A of en h clo
mm
ba
the concrete structure, including the beams, performs
Are
a
fitm s w it
ed on 2 leg 12 mm 2

ignored for torsion design, so it normally becomes a

Fe b
ed
as ed on 23
0 mm 2
. s s r 5 mm
s ult Ba ete m 54
Re dia ac
ing 54
5
nt Sp
me

satisfactorily during its life as discussed in Chapter 1.

Fit um eo Reo
xim n R n

rectangular beam. In addition, the longitudinal tensile

Ma sio ssio
ten pre
al om
it ion al c
d n
Ad ditio
Ad

reinforcement is required along with fitment diameter Assessment of deflections of beams involves the
and a notional spacing. prediction of the time-dependent behaviour of
The spreadsheet can be used to calculate the torsional concrete; this is complicated by the fact that concrete
modulus, Jt. is a non-linear material. Deflection is mainly due to
cracking, tension stiffening, creep and shrinkage. This
It then calculates Tu.max = 0.2 Jt f 'c and the maximum
is discussed in more detail elsewhere4.4, 4.7, 4.8.
shear (web crushing) Vu.max = 0.2 f 'c bv do
AS 3600 Clause 8.5 gives a three-tier approach to the
T * V *
Then it checks + ≤1 design for deflection as follows:
fTu.max fVu.max
n Refined calculations
If it exceeds unity, the member size and or the n Simplified calculations
concrete strength will need to be increased.
n Deemed-to-comply span-to-depth ratios
The torsional strength of a beam in accordance with for reinforced beams. Flowchart 4.4 and
Clause 8.3.5 is calculated with: Spreadsheet 4.5 set out this approach.
Tuc = 0.3 Jt √f 'c without fitments and Refined calculations The calculation of the deflection
Tus = Asw fsy.f 2At cot qt /s for a given fitment size of a beam by refined calculation needs to make
allowance for cracking and tension stiffening,
 and spacing.
shrinkage and creep properties of the concrete, the
The spreadsheet then determines the shear strength of
expected load history, the expected construction
a beam, Vuc, excluding shear reinforcement, ie:
procedure and the deflection of formwork or settlement
Ast 1/3
of props during construction (particularly when the
Vuc = β1 β2 β3 bv do fcv  
bv do beam formwork is supported on suspended floors or
beams below). This method is too complicated for
It then checks the requirements for torsional
most designs; specialist advice would be required if it
reinforcement in accordance with Clause 8.3.4 (a).
was to be used.
T * V *
This includes if T * < 0.25 f Tuc or if + ≤ 0.5 Simplified calculations This is commonly known as
fTuc fVuc
the Branson formula and involves the calculation of a
or where the overall depth does not exceed the greater short-term and long-term component.
of 250 mm and half the width of the web and It was noted 4.8 that for lightly reinforced beams the
T * V * Branson formula can overestimate the stiffness of a
+ ≤1
fTuc fVuc beam after cracking; the Eurocode 2 may be a better
design model.
If this equation is not satisfied torsional reinforcement
The short-term deflections due to external loads, which
is required.
occur immediately on their application, are calculated
The spreadsheet then calculates the requirements for using the value of Ecj determined in accordance with
both additional tensile and compression reinforcement AS 3600 Clause 3.1.2 and the value of the effective
and fitments as required. The total shear reinforcement second moment of area of the member, Ief .
and tensile and compression reinforcement can then
be calculated by adding all the reinforcement required
for flexure, shear and torsion.

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 4.7

This value of Ief may be determined from the values of ys + kcsy l for imposed actions (live loads) and
Ief at nominated cross-sections as follows: both total deflection and deflection that occurs after
Ief = Icr + (I − Icr) (Mcr /M *s)3 ≤ Icf.max the addition or attachment of brittle partitions or
finishes.
For beams, AS 3600 allows a simplified calculation of
Ief using equations 8.5.3.1 (2) and (3), ie: Where kcs = (2 - 1.2 Asc / Ast) ≥ 0.8
Again, it should be noted that compression
Ief = [(5 − 0.04 f 'c ) p + 0.002] bef d 3 ≤ [0.1/ β 2/3]
reinforcement will reduce kcs and normally some
 b 3 p ≥ 0.001 (f 'c)1/3 / β 2/3
cf d  for reinforcement is provided in the compression face
or of a beam to support the fitments, etc that should be
Ief = [0.055(f 'c )1/3 / β 2/3 − 50 p] bcf d 3 ≤ [0.06 / β 2/3] included.
 b 3 p < 0.001 (f 'c)1/3 / β 2/3. The effective design action (load), Fd.ef , is then
cf d  for
calculated as follows:
In the absence of more-accurate calculations, the
long-term deflection due to shrinkage and creep is Fd.ef  = (1 + kcs) g + (ys + kcsy l) q for total deflection
calculated by multiplying the short-term deflection or
caused by the sustained loads by a multiplier, kcs, Fd.ef = kcs g + (ys + kcsy l) q for the deflection that
given by: occurs after the addition or attachment of brittle
kcs = (2 - 1.2 Asc / Ast) ≥ 0.8 partitions or finishes

It should be noted that compression reinforcement The formulae given for k1 = Ief /bef d 2 in AS 3600
will reduce kcs and normally some reinforcement is Clause 8.5.4 for rectangular sections assume that
provided in the compression face of a beam to support β = bef / bw ≥ 1.0 and p = Ast / bef d at midspan, viz:
the fitments, etc that should be included. k1 = (5 − 0.04 f 'c) p + 0.002 ≤ 0.1/ β 2/3
Deemed-to-comply span-to-depth ratios for for p ≥ 0.001(f 'c)1/3 / β 2/3
reinforced beams This method (see AS 3600
or
Clause 8.3.4) involves a simple calculation but is
k1 = 0.055 (f 'c)1/3 / β 2/3 − 50 p ≤ 0.06 / β 2/3
limited to beams that are
for p < 0.001 (f 'c)1/3 / β 2/3
n of uniform section;
n fully propped during construction; The factor k2 for various end-restraint conditions is:

n subject to uniformly distributed loads only and For simply supported beams k2 = 5/384
where the imposed action (live load), q, does not For continuous beams where the ratio of the longer
exceed the permanent action (dead load), g. to the shorter of the two adjacent spans does not
Deemed-to-comply span-to-depth ratios are likely to exceed 1.2 and where no end span is longer than
o
tN
ee
Sh o
bN
Jo
By
e:
Dat ctor
n Fa s

an interior span
tio rtie
uc pe

result in conservative beam depths and the long-term

Red Pro a
ity ial 0.8 MP a
ac ater MP
Cap & M 32
φ 0
50
f' c
f sy

deflections will be small. The simplified calculations k2 = 2.4/384 in an end span

are likely to give a more appropriate depth.
D
ψl
d
ctor

k2 = 1.5/384 in an interior span

s an
sψ rm
fa
ctor -te
ng (ψ l)
n fa Lo
.4 tio
na
8.5 0.4
No mbi
e.
us Cl ) or
r its o s DH d o et d co fact 0.4
e fo rati C e an erm )
on
sibl ly in R Sh o
b
-ter
m ort-t (ψ s 0.4
mp n bN
0.4
Sh

Beam deflections are deemed to comply with the

resp ng
co sio , lo .0 )
ee
t is
to cus Jo erm 70 ,Q
0.7 0.6
0.6
sh ed dis rt-t S 11 n

Spreadsheet 4.5 calculates the above deemed-to-

read em to mm ns 0.7
is sp De fer mm B y Sho er A actio d ac
tio
0.7 0.4
(aft sed
te:
th - 0 se tic
ing ns e. Re 30 mm po es 0.7
Da
po im dom
us
tio 0
mm
Im 0
ec ativ
30 uted and 1
rson fl 0 m rib tial 1
pe 60
De serv
m
e Dist siden

requirements of AS 3600 Clause 2.3.2 if the ratio of

n - on
: Th n 50 es
0 Re ctur
mer io sig e c 55 stru ces 0.7
clai
Dis t at De to b 2
Offi ing 2/3 )

comply span-to-depth ratios.

mpu m e mm rk 0.7 β
Co B ea kely fla
ng Pa
tail
1/3
c)
nt ob te li or 60
2
Re age pe 1 (f'
cre are
th
Clie t/J wid 18 mm Stor er ns floor
-ty
0. 00
ojec t on ults am
be essive Oth
tio
for p/(
d C res n
Pr 0 ac of
bjec lar 62 of ed
rce ote mpr
sio
gu Ro s us io
m Rat
d
Su

effective span to effective depth satisfies the following

an co
ten sion
ide of
the kN m s
info n rect th of
ov
pr Ro itie ofs
Re ase put
A st.
of
idth e w
id ce
to d kN
. of
tiv
ac er ro

ure
le ide 15 Oth
(P ta In = w fectiv
an
dist m )
ov
n
ers f te sion
6
ex
.pr
e - t 5m A sc
Da , b = ef
fl
in 2. lay ers o f ten ion
ry th t ts siz )
met W id , b fitm
en en ares ef ored ) g
Geo th D r to fitm ne ch ored
t - d to 7m
q
W id th,
ourre lay rs o. tens n
an ch
e0.a0.4 (1
ve h d o
co men de lly an
Dep tom dept to fit roun t (fu lly
b x 2 e n f io
te nt fle mor.mr y er o
t (fu
ns
men

equation:
e
Bot ctiv ver reo,
men

Spreadsheet 4.5 is available at www.ccaa.com.au

e. 2 la ov rs n. te
ce
cψ re mein 80t00h(1
ile
Effe D - cotens nfor
us
ce
a
on ψ eam n e ioonr.ay glayoeverrs o.f
s
= e Rei nfor
ally of th
its
r c anbge emine s t rs
Rei
l
su ile
(U ntroid ns 4.1
for l Te sion
ble (1 m r 2 g ye ern
ula arrte L gm

k1(Δ / Lef ) bef Ec   1/3

pres .5 ts o y
dina
ento
ce
ible e14n (1 ma 2 lagov n.
Ta
ng necl re rrbaena eminm
itu om .0 ef
lC
o l ate nag/dmire entnt3s(1 or ay over .
70
ns
ng
cta scte
Lo 11
dina
po itu /m AS
res d reesgivoer nL ste cere l aterrrbaeeLqnugermemee0.n331.tn60ts m ay g vern
ns kN —
Lo
ng tio ad /m from an
r sp
ef

et
is d acead lo ad kN tio
ns
e n
o erent a ui m e o
2/3
rio
forc forrevaadlu Tpporivlatsernc0. ste
/β
c e l arrreqn= gerem 01n13ts m ay g
lie ac inte
1/3

Lef / d ≤
D lo
he App Live term (f'c)
rc l ofasuggu 360erncoc.enm
an
ng or in
2/3

ds nfohtfo
0
e t a q= ui m0.e s m .001 than
/β 10 0
an rm fa re
1/3

rea
d lo
iv fo0r0 stemenl arr
ct ≥0 c)
lyfactorctotithin oe rig Crn 00t
np
er 20

ctatorAnaSggeuila e 1 (f'
6 enrc.e teeent r q= uire me1.n 32
long
sp n
rm rt teg
L tofo Whe 00 80 0 42
s ng Seee taslye re am
rt te Shoin term ble
3niv
is
Cn < 0.
this
60

sig
an
g ofebecetidore
1(1)
Sho
tamAraSagm fo0e0n sem nt re =uire 0.00 or use K
np d sp 39
ing e fo r a Lof sthin s e n tsn /dfo
c u e
torb reSst iv or0i n
3 6 c .
Whe en 65 0
D an rc q no
s o orets fo e 40
cratidtioinLnim mArscA/Aa gei3n6f 0 rc.em nt re =
k2 Fd.ef
esm
re
u
ityr a ffefctreivtheinefo
ct
nts cfo
37
1 fa he
ef

on m
sp
he teuto dw
rs a e u ir e
rc m e o n
re e
rK
2 an
a Eo cs r S
Be qthetofodereemcnticnnim A spani3n6fo00 cem
Fo
e m
ire ceanptsacinitLgylyg orefre ir scensomie otsn fouto
pt 1.
ep
39 50 0
Km
in
pa he
ef 0.04 ed
e u u 9

idre
ce
Th
80
n t q g m
n
q e r m ti m
i themA info S r 9
=
t ex
ire caap sacinitgAyctly
34
s wCth ualculaela rireesec ienntsdm
0

cre
er: tio t re din
l
ua re
S tio m
9 89 no s n

en enqu gfodr sapapascin lainbgesoignsnfgre at uto ,1 -0.3 es ab tio

uta whqA u/Ae rireem re = s do d sl limita vers

rne
im
on m /binni ts st

cla
em nnt tbre ndnin tsan cr topasaccitcaDyta
39 an s an ion ntile
late th um
sc

mp gfo s re l inbalgcuof whqeuratiorepe=m

0.04
ou
ef/ sp
Dis
dC me inim
40 0 am
A = nt be eflect for ca 4) 2
st

forc oemmee ntebmeeenndnt in tsabnldeceadptopasaccitCaybgs re

jace
elb 07β ote 00
80 of D ef) re

Co t ce ir . (N 5 = 0. 4 whe to
2/3
o ad
grce s p l in orciwnghqeu 1.r0 e m
32 ns
euir emeepnlict ain ies
(∆/L
rein mrc
ctio n
, M ,00220≤ 0.1/ 06 /β
= e

or
tw
fle itatio 1/12= 0.00 mad ct of
pendinfoaabngldca stopasc aReibnfgs re >e cit / β
r of
ile atefo omqfoercunirtebam an
2/3
de

inf
en n0. 2/3
orte lim ans 0 n is effe ise
ine=nbest.f /wbwchapa1 (f' ) in. ngβ m) a04rsf′c)po+ − 50 p ≤
al
ob
ns lteimrein teenmt reinm
rtic ion r sp 2) 1/25 isio the herw
Cli lyetm bepreepnlicdt in
sh
sclm
0.
t/J e lde nly the
1/3
32 0 ve ct
ed efle ef) fo 1 and 4 re provimize t, ot 002
jec te qlarrc ly b a
2/3

R u re o n o o e or er to
c
il
e s imemum nmtticin a re u foenlgyeambenpnlict ams lde src a o t pe a b g 10
ulat D /L es 0.00 he en 0 rer’s t

The serviceability load factors in accordance with

.m
s ) 0. st L(f'c) P−
in
1/3 2;
β 30 0 = tu
bn fo toesnl d0inFa1ct0or&= Are( s0.00, 1 icficsient, (5 5(f′c) /
00 0. 2/3 (∆ m em t no
teearre oamslainrrc
lc = w
Pro tent).ufoltrc
30 long to
late ss th
t β
0.01 the
ca ot
(N 250 0.002 ade of mov 1/50 ufac n bu 0 =
jec t for
1/3

b u im am ricin fo n a p e e a c
u me rlyem bpnli t rein le b , 2o.m ctua
a sef 4= be 1/ = m ct Man catio 1/25
imeis upmtefom
of its
alc ula te n e ltrc to 0 n is effe ise
Su rellint)m.uin
in m ifi
a rcor Lampeear icaebl innt 1M u truRatio telectBioan co efficient
38
late msseth
p/ tio 2 n 50
0.05 5/ . Li isio the herw an
artre
io ed 1/ ec
of e ra 30 sp e th 004
miocin
s,
: C aalc lcu laete n einhfo t imoanspm ulfo
0.01
25 0 00 lect ider ction provimize t, ot 001
eeinim
am re th ; or YS 36 mor 0 25
m Def ns
are lyesh ppsl temeng S DA 0.00
be 70 AS en = 0 rer’s t
C inlcfouurclate rsmsseth eDef e — kN fle min em
sllnt)emfl.ueltcetitim
is uateartre ruTlfo ted s, whe span ans.
on arrc
co that n
a n ndlati rete onckr eflection
26 t no =
C co ov n as 28 of
tal
de 00 tu 0=
ab ke ppor 3.2 ion ditio mov 1/10 ufac n bu 500
ti a lc id rceetete a da e in im pm s oc in n d l y io
)
from , ta y su beam an en rior
d sp
= .04 m
ES
AT
e 2. e to flect e ad the
Man catio
1/40
e e 1/
1(1

lapereersmsseth
47
: rip re
CCaoinnlcfo
sula d sllht)m.ult tim is u nartre i r a arss m lcu nc nt kN TI bl r Th

dC
in te R be de th of ifi

AS 1170.0 Table 4.1, combined with the long‑term

)
K1 ta pl us r
sc n e eein ecstiuopm a ul g A ca Co.
D Ta e t
le a lcenufo
K ns sim inuo 625 in in E 20 Th afte men
1(2 ec
0.factor or mem
.04
Tit ssuidrc teeadaeth i he tic pre
OP sp than 002
)
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ce
C k n co for 0 5
De lapte
1(2 nt 0.00 391 32 PR rs ch ns 4
re
CTahoin la , n 60sert ther K
of e 0
)
00 at 12
rsms dsllht)m
cu
C erete .r s tim n ctio (a) for co 4 = 0.00 = rs oc atta partitio n th tion mor 0.00
ein forsspf acroomratiss inlkenssio infor
1(1
TE 24 pe 0.00
ral
be
lceussidrc S3 InUse ei K2 k2 = de
RE Ty 0=
aalc
fle or ctio di re

e Cre
C la r e
rs a aenulahm e n i e u te A
(b) 2.4/38 4 =
(i) 1.5/38 = NC
CO (MPa) All
mem
ortin
g fle e ad the
e de ter th t of 1/80
0=
2
whe to 1/25
n n fo
CThoinlcu speemngdasll ig etts oorpstr Fain e in
pp ns 00 ad
e of

Ge sidrcctaea es he c ncprell &ers ick, R

a) su rtitio Th af en ve 0.
(ii) f'c (MP a n (li m ct r
C Cahoenfo
re ed
ctor
0s
MP rs
be ry pa cu
rs chm h
tio 0 = n is effe nsfe mm
inr residperorst dadseffe9 (Ifor H
Fa Ec oc atta finisd ac mic 1/50ovisio e the e tra
TC ab tr us t lues
ra30ti
10o
Memason g or se na n pr imiz of th the e,
0
60 0
mm
mm 2
, em Kilpa
po d dy ctio
reFTohoeness nspsreth-e20ll0owanm lly r va
en above fo ction F ion F
m ortin

deflection multiplier as defined in AS 3600

on
min ction ber ructur
f
e im an 30
fle mm 2
d.e f pp es 00
e ra m
d.e

p th su ish Th load ct) de fle em d st e 80

mm
CDo e re 0 t a ngfor nd rceK2 options tal de l deflect lae.
rs fin de D
en d=e
m is 60
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ies
fle be ittle to pa b 18 0
ted n im
TIghno36s0no Rbale r a Mem r br pp othe
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62
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1/10
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be r or pec / 25
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de

ns at s r, F ut lp
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ca ota inp teria
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Clause 8.5.4, are:
ata ma of inEfo e de
sign
caso et,
rs
or all
tic
an
be f/d
W
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el
or Effectiv atic
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Tr

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n

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un rcing rein g
1 + kcs for permanent actions (dead loads) for total n cla Se ding & ba t gra lerts ro c k re OM
PLY
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.5

me Be be eme sed ck rein fo ac

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Inp ith p he m or CO
MP 15

deflection, and kcs for permanent action (dead s w and s M u, s force

UT
Wh ns INP = OK PLY
OM
ell tio TO TC
d c size ity φ rein es
lue = NO
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ES

Bo ber, apa imum u ht

,s ING
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the RN
m c n s WA LIE
S

min
to
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e an
me for
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n

loads) for deflection that occurs after the addition

ov fle ctio = OK
Mo cks orr
ed ab de fle
A us ns tal de
, c CC tal
be tio To
f to op 1/3 =
e nts
)] en

Ch
Le See
e em
t:
f
t ∆/ F Incr
me ct th
d.e
)/(k
2
Inpu
tpu
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om onta
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)(b F
Ou
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rc
2
(∆/L
ef
n

Fo ase c
E c
ctio n
[k 1

or attachment of brittle partitions or finishes.

ctio
ef
)(b fle
/L ns ef de fle
(∆ io tal de
ple lect tal
[k 1
To 1/3
Def )] em
en
f
ults F d.e
1/3 In
cr
)/(k
2
Res Ec f)]
: )(b ef F d.e
ck )/(k
2
(∆/L
ef

ba
Ec
[k 1 )(b ef
ed (∆/L
ef

Fe
[k 1

and
.

4.8 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

4.7 Longitudinal shear in Composite
and Monolithic Beams
AS 3600 Clause 8.4 applies to the transfer of
longitudinal shear forces, across the interface shear
planes through webs and flanges of composite and
monolithic beams. Generally, for insitu monolithic
beams, this is not a critical design case but designers
should always satisfy themselves that their designs
do comply.
The purpose of composite construction is to form
a single flexural element. For concrete beams, this
requires the transfer of longitudinal shear across the
interface between the abutting concrete surfaces.
It is important to check the shear at the interface
between concrete elements that are cast at different
times. Examples of this could be precast concrete
beams with insitu concrete slabs on top, or beams
constructed in two or more sections for particular
design or construction reasons. The latter case could
be an upstand beam cast after the bottom section of
the slab is cast; the amount of shear to be designed for
will depend on whether the lower section is propped or
unpropped.
The design procedure assumes a degree of roughness
of the hardened surface as set out in AS 3600
Table 8.4.3. With such composite members, the
shear stress at the interface can be high and vertical
reinforcement additional to any shear reinforcement is
sometimes required across the interface to increase
the longitudinal shear strength. See Figure 4.4 which
shows a precast pile cap and roughened surface for a
future section to be cast on top.
Designers should refer to AS 3600 for specific design
requirements when design for longitudinal shear is
required.
Figure 4.4 Precast pile cap with roughened surface
4.8 Crack control in Beams
It is important to understand that all reinforced
concrete beams crack when subjected to design
loading. Such cracking is inevitable, as it is needed
to allow the tensile reinforcement to act. Uncracked
beams will occur only in members which cannot
flex and/or are limited in span, are significantly
overdesigned or are in areas of low stress, eg the ends
of simply supported beams.
For beams, the crack width should be limited to about
0.3 mm to reduce the risk of long-term corrosion.
Unlike some overseas codes, AS 3600 does not
provide methods for calculating crack widths but
rather provides an approach in Clause 8.6 where it
gives minimum requirements to limit the spacing and
stress in the bars.
AS 3600 Clause 8.6.1 specifies that cracking in
reinforced beams subjected to tension, flexure with
tension or flexure shall be deemed to be controlled if
the appropriate requirements in Items (a) and (b), and
either Item (c) for beams primarily in tension or Item (d)
for beams primarily in flexure are satisfied. For regions
of beams fully enclosed within a building (except for
a brief period during construction), and where it is
assessed that crack control is not required, only items
(a) and (b) need be satisfied.
For crack control in the side face of beams, AS 3600
Clause 8.6.3 requires that where the overall depth of
the beam exceeds 750 mm, longitudinal reinforcement,
consisting of 12-mm bars at 200-mm centres or
16‑mm bars at 300-mm centres, shall be placed in
each side face.
4.9 Detailing of Beams
For all reinforced concrete beams, appropriate
detailing must be shown on the drawings.
AS 3600 Clause 8.1.10 sets out general rules for
the detailing of flexural reinforcement for beams. It
requires the tensile reinforcement to be extended
from the theoretical shape of the bending moment by
D + Lsy.t past the cut-off point. Clause 8.1.10.6 sets
out a deemed-to-comply arrangement for continuous
beams that must be used for beams which have been
designed using the simplified method of analysis.
Detailing for shear and torsion reinforcement is covered
in AS 3600 Clauses 8.2.12 and 8.3.8 respectively.
Designers should also refer to Chapter 13 of the
Reinforcement Detailing Handbook 4.6 for further
guidance.
Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 4.9
Areas that designers need to consider in detailing of
reinforcement for beams include:
Column bars
n The top cover to the flexural bars in beams
will often be controlled by the cover to the top
Negative moment
reinforcement in the slab and its size. This often reinforcement
results in covers to top beam bars being of the
order of 65−100 mm rather than the 30−50 mm
cover to the side or bottom reinforcement.
n Beams that intersect will have different effective
depths (because of the bars being in layers) and
different covers.
n Where beams are heavily reinforced, bars in layers
may be required to allow placing of concrete. It is
Continuity bars
usual to use an N32 spacer bar at about 600- to
900-mm centres. This of course will reduce the
effective depth for flexure which needs to be taken
into account.
In addition, the following are recommended: Basic cage
n Avoid lapping bars in tension in high-stress zones
Figure 4.5 Intersection of a beam and column
and ensure that all laps and splices are adequately
detailed on the drawings. Typically, bottom bars are
lapped at the points of support and top bars in the
n Avoid cogging bars into columns because of the
middle third of the beam.
congestion it will cause. Top bars can sometimes
n Allow adequate space (typically 70−100 mm)
run into the slab. If cogged bars are required,
between top bars in beams to facilitate the placing
consider drop-in bars.
of concrete and the use of vibrators. AS 3600
n Provide a minimum of two bars top and bottom
Section 17 requires the reinforcement to be placed
to support the fitments. Also provide continuity
so as to allow the concrete to closely surround it.
in longitudinal reinforcement at the supports with
Generally, this means a minimum clear spacing
the bottom reinforcement and in the middle of
between parallel bars of the greater of 25 mm, d b
the beam for the top reinforcement. The area of
or 1.5 times the maximum nominal aggregate size.
the bars should be of the order of 25% of the
n Try to use the same size bars in each section of
reinforcement in the other face (where possible) to
the top and bottom faces as the use of multiple
allow for reversal and robustness.
bar-sizes complicates the fixing on site, ie do not
n Always curtail the reinforcement where not required,
specify 2N36 + 1N24 + 1N20 when 3N36 bars
eg excessive top bars in the middle of beams and
would be appropriate. Where bars are lapped it
excessive bottom bars at the ends of beams.
is permissible to change the size but again keep
the same size of bars for that section of the beam, n Consider spreading top bars into the slabs at
eg 2N20 not 1N20 + 1N24. the junction of beams with columns to reduce
n
congestion and facilitate concrete placing.
Use the same size fitment and vary the spacing
to suit shear requirements (but use only a limited n Provide seismic detailing as required in AS 3600
number of different spacings). The spacing Appendix C.
must not exceed the limits specified in AS 3600 n Ensure that any compressive reinforcement is
Clause  8.2.12.2 but may need to be less for adequately restrained by the fitments.
earthquake design. n For cantilevers, ensure that the top bars are
n Always look at the beam/beam and beam/column anchored well back in an area of low stress.
junctions especially when the column and beam n If beams are shown in a schedule on the drawings
widths are the same, as the beam bars and column then check the schedule to ensure that all detailing
bars will usually clash, assuming the same cover to fits within the constructed shape.
both. Figure 4.5 illustrates the situation.
n Always provide elevations, sections and details of
complicated or unusual beams on the drawings.
See Figure 4.6 for an example.

4.10 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

Lenton 18N32 in 2 layers 1500 lap min. N12-200 side bars
terminators midspan (typ) each face (typ)
10 9 8 7

4N32 7N32
A B C D E

A B C D E
10N32 4N28 4N28 4N28

N12-300 N12-300 N12-200 N12-200 1000 lap (typ)

fitments fitments fitments fitments
(in pairs) (in pairs)

ELEVATION – 1B1 ELEVATION – 1B2 ELEVATION – 1B3 ELEVATION – 1B4

Figure 4.6 An example of a beam elevation

n Ensure that construction joints in beams are
properly considered and specified.
n Provide side face reinforcement for beams deeper
than 750 mm.
4.10 General Guidance
The following will assist the designer in sizing and
designing beams for a particular project.
n AS 3600 Clause 8.9 sets limits on the slenderness
of beams
n The size of beams needs to be considered in the
context of the overall building. The depth of beams
generally needs to be minimised to reduce the
storey height of the building and to allow building
services to pass under them, generally above a
ceiling.
n Where beams are exposed, eg around the
perimeter of the building or opening, they should
have the same depth irrespective of the span,
subject to the architectural requirements.
n Generally, small horizontal penetrations in the
middle third of a beam are possible. However,
large horizontal penetrations through a beam will
require careful design and detailing; in many cases
they may not be possible. The reduced section
needs to be analysed and the design checks
carried out; any additional shear and crack control
reinforcement required around the penetration may
introduce congestion in the beam.
n Large services such as sewer, storm water or water
pipes should not be built in since they will cause
problems if they leak.
n Beams should be of a uniform depth in a span.
Haunched beams (deepened at the ends) should
be avoided if possible because of the formwork
costs and extra detailing.
n If beams are notched in the middle to accommodate
ductwork, shear often becomes a design issue.
n Beams which are deep or have dapped ends
(reduced depth to sit on a corbel or accommodate
ductwork) are usually designed using strut-and-tie
methods (refer to Chapter 9).
n Linear elastic analysis is recommended for major
projects and the simplified methods for small
projects and simple elements, subject to the
computer analyses available.
The following beam design data is divided into:
Bending
Flowchart 4.1 pages 4.12–4.13
Shear
Flowchart 4.2 pages 4.14–4.15
Torsion
Flowchart 4.3 pages 4.16–4.17
Deflection
Flowchart 4.4 page 4.18
Spreadsheets 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4 and 4.5 may
be downloaded from the Cement Concrete &
Aggregates Australia website www.ccaa.com.au

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 4.11

 Flowchart 4.1 Design of reinforced concrete beams for bending AS 3600 Clause 8.1

Input design bending Input material properties f 'c and fsy AS 3600 Section 3
moment M * from Input cover for: durability AS 3600 Section 4
structural analysis and axis distance for fire resistance AS 3600 Section 5

Calculate a 2 and γ  for f 'c

AS 3600 Clause 8.1.3

Adopt preliminary cross section to suit:

— Architectural requirements Is beam
no
— Serviceability (Lef /d) cross section known?
— Economical tensile and shear reinforcement

yes

Is section yes
a T- or L-beam? Input flange thickness t f

no
Calculate effective width
bef  and ku

Design from no
Is it a
first principles rectangular beam?
Calculate the approximate area
of tensile reinforcement
yes eg Ast = M u / fsy 0.85d

Increase Calculate φ Muo for kuo = 0.36

cross section (see AS 3600 Clause 8.1.2
dimensions if curvilinear stress-strain used)
yes
Is t f < Ast fsy / (a 2 f 'c bef )?

yes

no
Can cross section no
dimensions be Is moment M *≤ φ Muo?
Use bef as the compression
increased? flange width and t f  as the depth
of compression block
no yes

A B C

4.12 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 A B C

Calculate tensile reinforcement

Calculate compression capacity
Asl for moment φ Mu
of outstanding flange Cf
As2 for moment M *– φ Mu

Calculate total tensile reinforcement Calculate compressive capacity

Ast = Asl + As2 in web Cw

Calculate compression reinforcement

Calculate dn and check ku < kuo
Asc = As2

Input dsc Calculate the ultimate moment capacity

Calculate tensile reinforcement Ast
with compression in the flange and web

Is compression
yes no
reinforcement at yield
stress?

Calculate increased
compression reinforcement
Asc = As2 fsy / εsc Es

Is compression reinforcement
yes
Asc more than minimum?
AS 3600 Clause 8.1.5(b)

no

Does Ast
no Increase tensile reinforcement
Increase Asc to minimum required satisfy requirements of
to minimum Ast
Clause 8.1.6?

yes

stop

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 4.13

Flowchart 4.2 Design of reinforced concrete beams for shear AS 3600 Clause 8.2

Input design shear force V * and

area of longitudinal reinforcement
from structural analysis

Input material properties f 'c and fsy.f  AS 3600 Section 3

Input cover for: durability AS 3600 Section 4
and axis distance fire resistance AS 3600 Section 5

Input section dimensions

depth D and web width bv

Calculate web crushing limit Vu.max (Clause 8.2.6)

Calculate shear strength without shear reinforcement Vuc (Clause 8.2.7.1)
Calculate shear strength with minimum reinforcement Vu.min (Clause 8.2.9)

no Increase section size

Is V *≤ φ Vu.max?
and/or concrete strength

yes

4.14 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 A

no
Is V * > 0.5 φ  Vuc?

yes

no
Is V * ≤ φ  Vu.min?

yes
Is D >750 mm?
yes

no

Calculate shear strength required from Is V * ≤ φ  Vuc

and D < 250 or 0.5 bv yes
shear reinforcement No shear reinforcement required
Vus  = (V */φ ) – Vuc whichever is greater?

no

Calculate minimum shear reinforcement stop

Calculate shear reinforcement Asv
Asv.min = 0.06 √f 'c bv s /fsy.f ≥ (0.35 bv s) /fsy.f
and spacing s (Clause 8.2.10)
(Clause 8.2.8)

no
Is V * ≤ φ Vuc?

yes

Is s ≤ smaller of
yes
0.5 D and 300 mm?
Is s ≤ smaller of Reduce s to smaller of
no
0.75 D and 500 mm? 0.75 D and 500 mm
no

yes
Reduce s to smaller of
0.5 D and 300 mm

Ensure transverse spacing

< smaller of 600 mm and D

stop

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 4.15

Flowchart 4.3 Design of reinforced concrete beams for torsion AS 3600 Clause 8.3

Input design bending moment M *

design shear force V * and design torsional moment T *
from structural analysis and
longitudinal tensile reinforcement

Input material properties f 'c , fsy , fsy.f ,

fitment diameter and spacing and diameter of
longitudinal reinforcement AS 3600 Section 3

Input section dimensions x, y

Calculate torsional modulus Jt (Clause 8.3.3)

Calculate web crushing limits

Tu.max (Clause 8.3.3) and Vu.max (Clause 8.2.6)

Is
no Increase f 'c and/or
(T */φ Tu.max) + (V */φ Vu.max) ≤ 1?
section dimensions

yes

Calculate torsional strength Tuc (Clause 8.3.5)

Calculate shear strength Vuc (Clause 8.2.7)

4.16 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 A

no
Is T * ≥ 0.25 φ  Tuc?

yes

Is
no
No torsional reinforcement required (T * / φ Tuc ) + (V * / φ Vuc ) > 0.5?

yes
stop

Is
no
D > greater of 250 mm
and bv /2?

yes

no
Is Calculate reinforcement polygon area (Clause 8.3.5)
yes
(T * / φ Tuc ) + (V * / φ Vuc ) > 1? At and perimeter ut

Calculate area Asw and spacing s of torsional ties

so that (T */ φ Tus ) + (V * / φ Vus ) ≤ 1

Minimum torsional reinforcement to be in form of

closed fitments (Clauses 8.3.7 and 8.3.8)

Calculate longitudinal torsional reinforcement

A lt and A lc in flexural tension and compression zones
(Clause 8.3.6)

Comply with detailing requirements (Clause 8.3.8)

Add fitments to those for shear and

stop
add flexural reinforcement to that required for bending

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 4.17

Flowchart 4.4 Deemed to comply span-to-depth ratios for reinforced beams AS 3600 Clause 8.5.4

Does beam
comply with limitations yes
Input material properties f 'c and ρ
in Clause 8.5.4 ?

no
Calculate modulus of elasticity Ec (Clause 3.1.2)

stop
Can't use method
Input section dimensions b, bef and d,
area of tensile reinforcement Ast and
area of compression reinforcement Asc

Calculate Asc /Ast and multiplier kcs AS 3600 Clauses 8.5.3.2 and 8.5.4

Input dead load g and live load q per unit length

Input short-term ψs and long-term ψl load factors from AS/NZS 1170.0 Table 4.1

Calculate effective design load Is span-to-depth ratio Calculate effective design load
yes no
for total deflection to be calculated for total for incremental deflection
Fd.ef  = (1.0 + kcs) g + (ψs + kcsψl ) q deflection? Fd.ef  = kcs g + (ψs + kcsψl ) q

Calculate stiffness factor k l = Ief  /bef d  3 using formulae given in AS 3600 Clause 8.5.4

Select appropriate deflection limit ∆/Lef  AS 3600 Table 2.3.2

and deflection constant k2 for given support conditions

Calculate span-to-depth ratio Lef   /d = [ k l(∆/Lef) bef Ec / (k2 Fd.ef )]1/3

Are calculated
Increase dimensions no span-to-depth ratios > actual yes
stop
(principally depth) and recalculate span-to-depth ratios?

4.18 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

References
4.1 AS/NZS 4671 Steel reinforcing materials
Standards Australia, 2001.
4.2 AS 3600 Concrete structures Standards
Australia, 2009.
4.3 Building Code of Australia Australian Building
Codes Board, 2010.
4.4 Warner RF, Rangan BV, Hall AS and Faulkes KA
Concrete Structures Longman, 1998.
4.5 Foster SJ, Kilpatrick AE and Warner RF
Reinforced Concrete Basics 2nd Ed, Pearson,
2010.
4.6 Reinforcement Detailing Handbook (Z06)
2nd Ed, Concrete Institute of Australia, 2010.
4.7 Lecture 4, Design for Serviceability National
Seminar Series on AS 3600—2009, CIA, EA
and CCAA, 2009.
4.8 Design for Deflection and Crack Control
National Seminar Series on Serviceability,
Concrete Institute of Australia, 2010.

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 4.19

blank page

4.20 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

Chapter 5 Suspended slabs
5.1 General
Suspended slabs can be both floors and roofs. They
are usually relatively thin members acting in flexure
supporting their own mass and other vertical loads
and transferring lateral loads into walls and columns.
In particular, deflections, shear at supported edges,
shear at columns and the design of free edges for
slabs always require careful consideration.
The type of suspended slab chosen will depend on
various architectural, structural and construction
considerations, which are discussed in the Guide to
Long-Span Concrete Floors 5.1. Reinforced Concrete
Basics 5.2 also has a chapter on the design of
suspended slabs and background on flat slabs.
(For slabs-on-ground, reference should be made to
CCAA’s Guide to Industrial Floors and Pavements 5.3.)
Types of suspended slabs include:
n Flat plate
n Flat slab (with drop panels at columns)
n Ribbed slab (waffle slab or similar where the ribs
are at close centres)
n Slab and joist
n Beam and slab
n Band beam and slab
n Precast and composite.
However, this chapter does not cover precast and
composite slabs, only insitu suspended reinforced
concrete slabs.
'Flat plate', 'flat slab', 'beam and slab', and 'band beam
and slab' are the simplest types of insitu slabs. They
generally require only simple formwork and can be
used economically for spans up to about 6−8 m,
but can span further if required. Deflection will often
govern the thickness of slabs (see Guide to Long-
Span Concrete Floors for guidance on span ranges for
the various slab types).
Generally, for spans over 8 m, insitu post-tensioned
slabs or pretensioned precast systems should be
considered. Because deflections usually govern
the design of slabs, they are typically not heavily
reinforced for flexure and the values of ku tend to be
low. Where edges of slabs are visible and deflection
is obvious, consideration should be given to using an
edge beam or similar stiffening member.
The span-to-depth ratios shown in Table 5.1 can be
used for initial sizing of suspended slabs.
The bending moments in insitu concrete slabs are
determined from the chosen method of structural
analysis as discussed in Chapter 1. Concrete slabs
can have the maximum bending moment at the middle
of the span for a simply-supported slabs or varying
moments (positive and negative) across a span based
on the extent of continuity, spans and any cantilevers
as analysed. It is the responsibility of the designer
to establish the critical section(s) for bending and
shear and the design ultimate moments and to design
ultimate shears at these sections.
AS 3600 Clause 9.5 requires vibrations in slabs to
be considered and appropriate action taken where
necessary.
Designers should be aware that concrete slabs are
not necessarily waterproof even with high levels
of reinforcement. Because of the greater control of
cracking, post-tensioned slabs perform better than
reinforced slabs in this respect. Careful detailing,
particularly of joints, is nevertheless always necessary
if the risk of water penetration is to be minimised
in exposed slabs unprotected by an applied
waterproofing membrane or similar.
Section F1 in Volume 1 of the BCA covers the
requirements for damp-proofing and waterproofing
in Class 2–9 buildings. These minimum requirements
may sometimes need to be exceeded.
Table 5.1 Span-to-depth ratios for reinforced
concrete slabs
Simply-supported End Internal
Type of slab span span span
One-way slab 24 26 28
Flat plate 28 30 32
Flat slab 28 32 36
5.2 Applicability to Ductility Classes
of Reinforcing Steel
Charts and Tables are provided for Ductility Class L
and N reinforcing steel.
Designers need to remember that AS 36005.4 imposes
limitations on the use of Ductility Class L reinforcing
steel. Therefore, it is the designer’s responsibility to
ensure that the ductility class of the reinforcement
specified is appropriate to the situation and member
being designed. Other clauses in the Standard impose
further restrictions on its use.
Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 5.1
 The capacity reduction factor, f, for a strength check Ductility Class N bar reinforcement (capacity reduction
using a linear elastic analysis for Ductility Class L factor f = 0.8) while Charts 5.5 to 5.8 are for Ductility
reinforcement (ie reinforcing mesh) is in the range Class L mesh reinforcement (capacity reduction
of 0.60–0.64 compared to that for Ductility Class N factor f = 0.64).
reinforcement (ie bar) of 0.6–0.8 which reflects its lower The stress in the equivalent stress block is f 'c
ductility, see AS 3600 Table 2.2.2. As a result, using multiplied by a factor α2 = 1.0 − 0.003 f 'c (within the
Ductility Class L mesh reinforcement may require up to limits 0.67 ≤ α2 ≤ 0.85). From 20 to 50 MPa, α2 = 0.85
25% more area of reinforcement for a chosen design but decreases after this for higher strength concrete to
moment, than is required when using Ductility Class N α2 = 0.7 for 100-MPa concrete. The charts are limited
bar reinforcement. to 50 MPa with α2 = 0.85, which will cover most design
situations.
5.3 Flexural Reinforcement The design bending moment for a given area of
5.3.1 Spreadsheet 5.1 for flexure reinforcement in a one-metre width is derived from the
Spreadsheet 5.1 can be used to calculate the equation:
reinforcement requirements for reinforced rectangular * = f f 'c q (1–q /1.7)d 2/1000 kN.m/m
M 
concrete slabs in flexure. The concrete strength
where
and f value are input. The spreadsheet checks the
f = 0.8 or 0.64 as appropriate
minimum reinforcement to AS 3600 Clause 9.1.1 and
assumes that kuo ≤ 0.36, but it does not check cover, q = p fsy /f 'c
spacing requirements, crack control, shrinkage and p = Ast /(1000d )
temperature reinforcement or provide the detailing and
requirements to AS 3600. fsy = 500 MPa
As Reinforced Concrete Basics notes, for an under- At the ductile limit, ie kuo = 0.36:
reinforced section, the ultimate moment capacity,
pmax = 0.85 g f 'c /fsy kuo = 0.306 g f 'c /fsy
Mu is approximately equal to 0.85 Ast fsy d (within
about 10% of a more accurate calculation), ie it is and
independent of the concrete strength and width of the g = 1.05 − 0.007 f 'c g (within the limits 0.67 ≤ g ≤ 0.85)
slab. This approximation is used to estimate the area of and g varies from 0.85 for f 'c = 20 MPa to 0.7 for
tensile reinforcement required. Then the spreadsheet Sh
ee
bN
tN
o

o
f 'c = 50 MPa and is 0.67 for f 'c ≥ 65 MPa.
Jo

calculates the actual moment capacity and compares

By
e:

then
Dat
tor
Fac
ion ties
uct per
Red Pro

it with the design moment, which has been input.

a
ity ial MP
ac ater 0.8 a
Cap & M MP

f Mud /bd 2 = f 0.306 g f 'c (1 - 0.18g )

25

D φ 0
50
f' c
0.36
. ) f sy
se
its
u
ingNo k uo
for ildet
le bSuhe
sib ea o

If the calculated moment is less or significantly greater

on
sid bN
resp Jo
t is e d in
los

As reinforcing mesh comes in standard sheet sizes,

By
ee
sh
nc
b
reo d
read te: ed uire
sp g (e d
Da uir q
is
din req as re
g th en the
sin

than the design moment then a further iteration with the

nu -B of erate
ign on It
so mm ati tive.
he
per
D es mm xim a

the moment capacity of slabs reinforced with mesh

T ro serv
er: S lab 10
00
mm n ap
p
on
sio a first to be c quired
m n 0
clai tio te 19
Dis puta cre n is n ds
re. of te gunresio
0
m e. n
Co ed
15
reo
re ally

input of a revised reinforcement area will be required.

us lar inforc
n
Co
xu it te na of
su
flem yers Thoisf telabsnsio
nt fi eu
its tangu der re
ob 40
n ar
Clie ct/J are
s in kN2 la ers Foor fsgetet the
60
for d Recat are un
je 12 ow s

is limited by the various sizes of mesh commercially

of
lab .1 or 2lay y sh slab
Pro ct er
htl for
ible
bje s (1 rs . 36 ss
rce abs th r2 ye rn
Su 21 mmto s ligriate mm is le
t 20
,600
ns rete men (1 o 2 lagove rn.
id 10
info for sl ntro u
ing 12 80 area rop 0 ars
o nc
4 φM ,0 38 of b
Re t r Bar t app
sp
ce )
co ngoert en (1 omay gove n.
M* 41 *< 32 ac 10 0
ign the m M sp 40 g
ut
4 no
re
t 00 in
lar rrapp em
Des to t 5m 80 d 8, 0
r an 10,2 0 ac
Inp
d
ce t en
7,20 0
=
gu eal asu abng menents may gove
ire
sp
is an ares requ
irem 28 er 16 2D ax
et
ta st A et 8, 30

available. Slabs with bar reinforcement can have larger

st. u 0 2D
tan ste
m
Da di ne m
r- inal req 6,80 9
6, 0 te m or
e ry ba wn c
to
a t asrrla ge em ts y ate 61
6 dia 040 5,60 0 No
sh a 18
met th, b l n r Nom n bar 8,
enbs teete rra qui me ts m
2 5,82 0
d re la
r to d do 0m F12 12
n it st 24 5,04 2
d d 6,43 0

Spreadsheet 5.1 is available at www.ccaa.com.au

en 30
Geo Wid D pth - cove unde ctio 5,10 3
rea rce ategivs eonnsc.reteel ant re quire men
th, lim giv 4,58 0 11
de s-se th for 2
for 160 5,36 4 4,53 0 18
Dep ctive d = D o, ro wid 45
4,20 0
sp info fo ing m) F11 9
os
r r c60n0 seme t re uire
6, 8 4,59 0
cre a lagiva cr tre 4,08 9
re
Effe ally nsile forc 20 m2/ 4,92 7 3,60 0 89
is re n n t at n me 4,02 3 3,70 0
th
su
(U e te ly tioco en rgu S3ive r0c. u
e er eq rein 4 (m 0
4,10 0 3,57 6 3,15 18
ing elacr ntafontorAa gein3f6o0 rce. m ent r
< φM tp of 31 bar 4,52 6 3,40 4 F10 9
ing
moment capacities because of the higher value of
th
ns mom M* en rea 16 of 3,52 0 3,21 4
a s thnegsu ectireocnts fo
of 61 91 70
tio ing r
rS o 0 m A ea 3, 08 2,
us
3 0
ge
ign
92
n m A inf60 em
d ac bend d fo ar 0 3, 8
for ocf ta an
1 3,01 3 2,73 4
2, 0 2,55 8
d nal 3,14
e se metio muto m AreS3 nforc
ire
9 20
2,68 7 F91 1
on es
plie ign
nts ityre th
Ap Des requ
forcire ec ienni ts uto nt
arr
99 ctio 2 2,58 0 2,46 0
ers
2,51 3 2,29 0 58 ft.

bD ,1
.8 12 se 2,26 9
rei
me x le
me aecd ofin que s m
A st
=0 ss 0 2,09 4 2,24 3 2,01 8
rne
al 3
m rce m bo
ep ire aprc ityreg oref thheuriree mienni ts um
Initi Ø 11 Cro 2,01 8 2,00 8 2,05 0 F81 4 llow
Sla info ith 1,79 0 e
Th qu inregincfoapinagcly ou 1,80 4
u
rw 1,60 0 1,76 0 φM 45 ye ntag

the capacity reduction factor, f, and the fact that a

iny w q d re e m im
Ba lb 1,57 6 *< the
rete
: re d g ac s paacitabgs c rese r
e ir e n
i . e 0 7 1,34 9 1,64 7 1,54 t M F718
ce
er
0 into Per
t ies
N 1,39 6
im io n n c m en binegnly in fo r d sap ascl in s re
Pro
po
whqu recmCla
ss
it a n , M , 20
n
1,13 4 1,14 5 1,25 2
1,50 1
1,29 0 irem
en
35
8
inpu
t it

cla tat o e ena t s d n c

ns a g le stop lainbgnt. whapa . gm e 90 00
rso
3 1, 14 q u d
dC
lity m 3 1,13
tieoendt in
1,
forc om
75 7
m2/ e re F81 an
for entrabm b d pasecmebsg c) cti
Dis mpu on
89
ea 1,04 7
in 6 4 bles
en lict aan lde storc
Du size bar m stat
rce
64 4
rein cm la in A , L s, P
.m 80
ity st m 5 45 ta
ly s 89 it u
1
a oommpfoercnet bampepn icaabnin
e
fo toesnd010 & res
Bar a of m 56 5 < φM
Co t ile aapte rtie
73 r lim 2 ov
info
ar 2 78
Are fb 0 ic 50 0
s fo F10 4
ab M*
ns ltim c te Cmre lye pepnl rt reablein tb1, 2 uctu Bas pe
greater area of reinforcement can be provided with
in o 10 5 2 67
from
Re inm arrc .ming 45 3 ze
s te eeuar imdato
35
miocin pro
62 h si
en ob ulfo rlyeam a elen M Str uoac 12 1 ze
he plictem
3 h si
u
Sp
al
41
Cli ete
0
sh t).umlt eimuamteartre
t/J 50 Mes F92 < φM u
late ss th
7
g 15 mes
tinrete oncr teri
m
d lsy aiopnesndla
jec a rc 5 37 M*
ulafo
0
lcu late < φM
3 kN
Pro t a te e n eee inltims upmontlyicin
th n r u c
17
0
ma
32 29 r or ar M* 36
arerearcularessAcmalcCo.n ed C
3
c
u la etemss D llnt)em.u etim i 20 ba
NB < 0.
: C aalc
28
bje lcu rc aeth he in laibssupm 0. 22
5
nd F82 ea
of
ss k u0
Su n C la
la te rs m . h r t i p n g , n c 0 0 a 7
e ar ty Cla
m
0.8
tio s s
C inlcfouu eetems dasllnt) r etimr pa omrati s in essio fo r 6 25 22 kN
3 gth
uo
os

larger bar sizes and/or closer spacings. In addition,

a lc sidrc
5
.64 til φM m
0.8
a e la e in fo is f c o es lk n in AS Cho Duc Ø
en
27
: rip re
Caoinnlcfoula ing= 0 F72 9
kN
C pereersmngdusllhmign t o rpstr Fainu te , Re
0 0.6
le sc str
Ø
d in
30 Ø se
ssidrcctaea aes heectsncorell & forc
U
Tit
0 its
De CCahoenfo
re k 35 wit
h 17
0.6
rs se te
2 lim
inr residperorst dadseffe9 (Ifor pHm
u

a be atric mm
0
rein
φM
ral
its 0.85
TC yu cre 40 e sh lim
FTohoeness nspsreth-e20ll0ow anm
u
re ilp on LM mm φM 0.85
rall
γ
ne ,e er sh 7
r, c
ku
Ge CDo e re 0 t a ngfor nd K ss
me
37
0.67
ne
2
ign la 0 2

cto
C
ge or mm its
TIghno36s0no Rbale ter a es
15

where high levels of reinforcement are required for

m 0.67
lity m2/
lim
s d fa cti n t
na
its
ADSoe rneur,ita Fos by n u m
: tio
D h ereo
lim
ns l at s r, tio ut uc Mes a ofem =
inp
d

ca WNo arne ota red forc

ide

tio A re ov
e
dn
pr
=
reti M* rein
A st.
ita ata ity ntag
d
ide

an
=
W ed ac
prov
eo
d ce
Lim nts sion
A Per
st.
re =
Th ols uir ap 0.5%
2
xu d As
me ten
crack control for flexure, shrinkage and temperature
ith block
r, c
fle )b
mb
13
s/ req for s =
on *w
red
36 k uo
de : Sy ve mo rs of lati =0. .5 = M stress
A st
lls OK
=
o
2
o
C sis c e c o g c h um
lcu k uo (1-0
d f'
c)) /12) mm 8.8%
y,
im rete
s in e an Min Ca
at
lay
k uo 2)
Ba w etr nd
uo k uo s / (b nc 10
ule t M 2 f' c 13
llo
/1
ign
4
: Ye mod eom be r 1 lly s m en b lock st f sy 2 for co .1 9 13
k uo 41 in d K
t fu
a
re De
(A A O
Mo = Ø
stm ide
ress 5/ 2 k u) bd = (1 .19 MP
ign r fo d ored
prov
g en 4.1 7.4%
latu <A
um φM uo
st
Ø =
g st - 0. .5
All ction es ete ore = (1 ed

effects, standard meshes may not be adequate

= 13
em 7 f'
im sin d (1
ch anch
c

nc ble
d 2
Max Check
Ø us 3.00
g d iam
-0 mm
ire

5.3.2 Basis of Charts 5.1 to 5.8

tu f sy k u (1 A st.re
qu 00 ’
me Se forc Ta
in
- 0. OK
an
Ø d

V* men = A st 3f
36 c A stm provide
din r d
g
lly t fully
0. 05
No ce e rein
o in
0.0
f'c = 0.00 9
1. <A
st
k M φM = Ø us
en & ba
u
28
hk γ = =
uo
r fu 17 ec ed 0 2
b t en Ch Check φM u lculat wit
: r
Fo ber r fo sil n
me rcem S1
= 1. mm in

ut
d

ea l ten
ck 2)
ca
2.2. *d) A stm provide
2
=
p m h o s e A Che ck k u le 85 7 A st
In Nu s ina rc m 0. 34 <
rati info reinfo
in the secondary direction without additional bar
ab
fro Che *
dd
ign ud s (T
2

on * an
*f sy mm
es ngit tors
These charts for the strength of slabs in bending
ly re lati
(Ø
ion
tM */
mp ile
=
rd fac =M
cu en d 4
lo co tens ress Cal 27
Fo a of mom bw
on
1) A st )0.5 / f sy
l 8. th m
p ( f' c
d to inal com L) binati reng f' ctf kN
s (C
2

Are me ud l L lati
on
e. l 8.
1.3) ate st =
0.6
(D
/d
)2
d
= mm 2
mm 2 21
.1 kN
m

ee ngit dina and com

bw
ula
reinforcement.
y cu (C ultim f' ctf
0.20 / f sy
9
da Cal 24
d ts mm
r lo gitu L form
en d on = f' 6
M*
3

are based on the principles set out in AS 3600

28
1) ctf

Fo a of (D term )2 50 0.00
1.6.
2
em base n
mm
lon ns at
mi
uir 5
ing
/d
y A am
2
l 8.
st.
(D d t Mu
g req ents = 85 m en φ 0. 80
Are a of actio d lon lab
o pl b w m
ity
(C
us
re m be m
0.24
2
gth uirem ts co as a / f sy Mo ity p 7
tic n of mm 2
= 37
lly
en = 3
en to 2 f' ing pac o
an las
ctf
atio
fs
s =
Are lied
Str Req em 33
ca ul ir ed ab mi
n ) = m m d ti φ
u m 5 g ca t ra
p term an o tant
sl /d
fe ati yA Ben
lc
req
st.
ca Dee for er (D 67 A st
p o al mpl r corn ign endin en
A sp m Initi
th 0.19 97
lus
s ng co = 11 Des al b rcem sen sen
ort on t uto stre to thei =

Clauses 8.1.2 and 8.1.3 with a maximum strain Sh ctive on c tan du da

nfo
u o o
med ns at =
n
Act Rei ar Ch l ch

Note that for each chart the minimum reinforcement

um
mi

mo
A st.
ns
ee m y s
late
im ee
e cti Min
D lu mpl side =
N B of st
Eff fle co the lcu M* d by
co co on 4
lass rea
on
to
de cti of ca orte med wal
ls yC A
k fle value ed nd ents ars
pp
Dee s or
= ctilt
us
3 bD Du
s su
de rou 1.75 bD=
am
be b slab n
an kg mom ing
be
for tio of 5
k

in the extreme compression fibre of the concrete

4 =
e to c d by ec 75% of 3. bD
ing
for a particular slab needs to be checked along with
M /L ef ba g forc
orte
ary
Dir % 6.0
ac
pp 75
en ndin rein
of
E c
s su rim % =
ut gre e of sp slab ol
P 75 n
bD
Inp
75 =
ith ign b ing nd for ntr tio of 1. 5 bD

sw c ta Co irec
y D 100% of
3. bD=
os
en
en
ck
s 0
ell g de spa Cra dar 0% of 6. ch mm
dc em on 10
es

of 0.003 and the appropriate capacity reduction

d Sec 0%
xe ndin e an φM inforc
the minimum reinforcement for crack control for flexure,
u ol 10 siz mm
o ntr nt
B e iz y re Co me
r b r, s cit m ck
rce
Fo mbe capa imu Cra dn
fo
V* rein k u

nt min
is
Nu rce
d
ile ax
me for
γk
u
s al

factor, f, depending on whether Ductility Class N bar

n tr er
r fo
et
Mo cks
neu am ck
n te

shrinkage and temperature effects. See AS 3600

t: ea
in o to par blo
u.m
ØV
d f th
tpu Ch
e
n sh F nF bda
sfe
.e d.eDep al ax ssio
is n
u d on ectio
tr pre
O s ig an cti su
lts Neu com
r de v Ø V uc uc /d
L defle l defl ef Re et, of
Fo Ø n n he
th

V* os tio
in
l tio tio ds
Dep

reinforcement or Ductility Class L mesh reinforcement

.m
ax,
ØV ta
rati th ra tota men
u
ec ec rea
Clauses 9.1.1 and 9.4 for when these requirements
u.m
ØV cks if *> ply dep d for re ld
efl ld
efl sp
e if V m in c ta ta is
Ch cks co n to n lo
a
for To me
n g th
e to p a ig d 1/3
re in
Ch d
me ctual e de ign lo
s s a .ef
)] c ard
(F d )]1/3 In reg ED
is used.
ee v c)/

are applicable.
sa cti s ck
rd
Fo ulate s effe tive
de 0E (F d
.ef
ba CK
ec f)1
00 c)/
r fe
ed HE
lc
Ca ulate s eff 0E YC
/L e 00 the
lc
Ca ulate k 4(D /L ef)1 o ro U LL
lc s [k k 4(D
3
ns F
Ca late es
tio BE
The Standard does not allow the use of Ductility Class L s [k TO
3
lcu gg
Ca ulate su
on
s, ILL
Ca
lc
cti ST
rre A T ARE
, co CCA N
nts ME TS
bar as main reinforcement. Charts 5.1 to 5.4 are for
e
me ct th OM HEE
om onta
rc
Fo ase c R C DS
FO EA
ple FT PR A S
: DR HE
ba
ck 1.2 TE T
Fe
ed NO
.
n
rsio
Ve

5.2 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 5.4 Slabs in Shear
5.4.1 Spreadsheet 5.2 for slabs with shear
Spreadsheet 5.2 can be used to calculate the shear
capacity at supported edges of slabs where shear
failure can occur across the width of the slab, without
shear reinforcement. Designers should note AS 3600
requirements for the reinforcement to be properly ee
tN
o
dR
efer
en
ce
int
s

ed
)

Sh o an t pr

anchored; this may require a hook or cog at simply

ts no
bN
is
men ction
Jo Com this
se
ote
By
(N

te:
Da
o
tN

supported edges for bar reinforcement or the mesh

ee 00
Sh o 36
bN
h
r AS gt
Jo pe stren
r as te
By ctor sh
ea ncre

ion
e: Ø t co
Dat n Fa s Inpu
ns n
tio tie
uc oper 00
Red l Pr
e. re. of te nsio n
36
ity ia 0.7 MPa AS
bo
th
ac ater

anchored sufficiently beyond the shear plane.

us
4 of
xu Cap & M 8.2.
or
fle yers of te nsio
25 th

its
Cl ng
fer
φ stre
s in r 2 la yers of te
Re

for
f' c or
b o ctio
n) size

ible sla (1 la
rn.
rete
r 2 layevrs
s se
nc
s te n t o e a cr
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se

po
at ea
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r IL
D If FA
is ula arrup ge entnts y
et ng teal suse. rrabn emm e s ma g(Doesv
he cta n sste a its asla g re nt ay
ds d re la e b ble foter etel rranqui me ts m
rea
Spreadsheet 5.2 is available at www.ccaa.com.au rce ategivsresponeonsinsc.reteel ant re quire m e2n .0% 4

s p fo r ivc 0 e Cl
8. 17
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rein fo cre eet isgr 60n s m nt re - Suhieare

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d g ac s paalieccntitaybgobs re hqeuriree e m
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rein tecm ity mpelyn embenpnlict a blde st rc

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10
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al

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ato e eng M GStrWuidth,th, Dete
4A
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sh acco
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*/1
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te
Cli icin
o
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pth - cove unde crea in
ct/ t 1+ is ea lef ired
la s r re a rc s n epcrive de = D o, ro men ri to K" sh
je u te s nt)ee im s upm l
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or the requ

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as "O then

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D ce n; If to
alc ula ma ØV ent Cl 8.
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u.m

Pro i s oanrtre
2.7 is
i in a larlssiom lcu nc
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ax
If No ow r reo
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4 u.m

C s r
sh
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th ns n to "O en
of ctio rcem
t are If th

3itu6dina ns force at se
6 4
bjec
tio
ort
eete adaellnt)lareein th
8.2. info 1.58 If No

ng
Figure 5.1 Long-term deflection of unsupported edge
su
a lc sidrc fo is f c o es lk n in ASng
0.8 pp
CL r re
: rip re
Caoinnlcfo ula 00g
rs
e su
C pereersmngdusllhm ign t o rpstr Fainu te , Re in Lo pplied acign shea lations limit Vd stre without sh
ea be

rcd /1in
0) d th
ax

sc
tio r
le = em

ssidrcctaea aes heectsncorell &

u.m
rm 1
Tit
s an
1

De CCahoenfo
re k ed 0 fo
in1(1.fo
o

rs cu hing f b te
inr residperorst dadseffe9 (Ifor pHm
ad

a be atric us
6 d lo
o

ral
A Des )
m)
2 re
kN
TC
v
plie
Cal crus 0.c .5Ag =
lly h re e for
= 1.
c
(bea
FTohoeness nspsreth-e20ll0ow anm
re ilp ign web o=n
ap .0
ne ,e
*/3 kN
r the 1 OK
1/3 2
t } 30
{ As b d es
ab (N 1 1

CDo e re 0 t a ngfor nd K era ne DCesalculatetor,V c a sl MPa 5.0

Ge
ax
u.m 1 ided o

n ig
of
m or 52 kN
v
lu
f prov
e r ing;
cv
th
h o 0
TIgn 36s no Rbale ter a s c
d Va

sg
o
V*
to
2, 92 .1
de
ng =

of insitu concrete slab

re b nd v
2. K 76
n fa late shea V =
kN
than
3
r st be 3 O
en
ax
kN
ADSoe rneur,ita Fos na by
re ter ØV
2 u.m
8.7 kN
tio
pu 1

: tio ut em
t to t gr
ea = 10 =
76
.6

ns at s r, uc
uc f ØV
uc
bjec .1 cv

l inp
t no
forc
76
ota
cu
ca No arne red
su
tio W Cal rs 1 bu = if

dn
o/av
in
kN ck
reti
be V uc

ita ta M* rein
=
ØV
u.m

ity mem Che φ V uc

da
2d
ØV
uc

an
8.8 kN n
for
eo W ac
n as 2.7
<
ctio
Lim nts sion
V*
ire
1, 10 5 kN
take l 8.
ap
if
Th
s se
ols
9.
tC 2.9
qu
10 5 ck

me f ten
be

r, c
= kN cros
in

s/ mb
may
2 en l 8. = 9. Che φ V u.m
tC the
e y re e o re d or
info
rcem en b d
10
.6 > o

lls
e at
d : S v o 1, = 76 V*

g m ers
v

ho =
em
co
re 6 ) rc d o

Co sis ce s
r rc 0. d = o } b 1/3 v
Pa ea info V + f b kN r fo
y, nc
v
st 6b
4M t sh
din
ea d {A + 0.
o

y
3
r re
uc c d
w
= kN o

etr ya
sh b
Ba
v
ou
ule
b
llo
.0
en 1 la
v
ea 0.10 ign f
1/3
with 2f
cv
f sh 38 in
d V c o
uc

full
c

: Ye mod eom
V Des = 0.
u.m
ab 30 b v

n b r for
um bd
o)
a sl
in
kN
re
= d o 3 v
inim ØV
nt
v u.m

drength oredab with m V + 0. 4.1

ax
of 6b f 2

g f cv = kN V u.m c

latu sig
1
.6
All ction me
= 10
oearer st
= 76

de mete
+ 0.
uc
V uc

nc chSh nch of a f b ble

30
rce
5.4.2 Basis of Charts 5.9 to 5.12
sl d
=V
o)
ØV
uc uc

me Se an lly astrength + 0.10 .0 Ta

v

ing r dia
=

5.5 Deflection of Slabs

V* info
V* c in
V u.m
(ii)
o d e ll y
=
N en & ba fu nt fute sheaV = V 170
2.5
rc e re
in
r 8.
ØV V*
uc u.m
l
: rb r fo nsil nt e la 1 gC

Fo ber
in

me rcem Calcu
rcin
ut AS
u.m

ea te info
Inp m sh inal os rce r re
Nu m
rati info reinfo fro
ea

ign ud
sh
for

es ngit rs ts t

These charts give punching shear strength for slabs

ly re
ion
men
mp ile cto
en
rd
ire
rcem
lo co tens ress n fa
requ ØV

5.5.1 General
Fo a of
uc

ck info
to l p ti o Che ck if
V*
r re
Are d ina l com LL) bina ea in
Che
me ud e.
V sh
u.m
>Ø
no
ee ngit dina and com if V*
da ased
y on ula
rd
ck
lo gitu L Che
rm

at circular columns with no moment transfer and with

Fo a of (D term 28 s b g fo
lon ns g at esult sin
Are a of actio d lon lab ity R

Deflection is probably the most important design

tic yu
Are lied an of s t e las c all
p rm n n f a ti
Ap rt te spa sta t so tom
o on ulu au
no shear head, based on the equation in AS 3600 Sh ctive on c n
sta od ted
Eff
e cti on em ula *
n c of th
criterion for slabs. Control of deflection is discussed in
fle alc
de tio ed d c nts rs
M
k 3 eflec alue us un a
d v e ro e b
k4 an b kg om g

Clause 9.2.3(a): Ec
Me /L ef to
Inp
ut
wit
hg nb go
nb
ree end f re
ig
ac g m forcin

in
in in
ta
nd
sp
ac
ing

general terms in Section 1.4.3. Designers must review

lls des spac en
d ce g d rc em
xe din a n M u
fo
Bo ben size ity φ rein
V * = f u dom fcv r
Fo mbe capa imu
Nu
r,

me for
nt
c
min
m

for
ce
V* all slabs and satisfy themselves that the allowable
t: Mo cks ar in
u e he V u.m f d.e
f

deflections or span-to-depth ratios to be used are

tp C h n s Ø F d.e nF
Ou sig nd on ectio
where e a c /d cti
rd ØV .min L ef defle l defl et,
uc u
Fo Øv on on he
ax,
V* os tio l ta cti cti ds
ØV rati th ra r tota men
u
u.m
ØV cks if > e fle e fle rea
V* ly
mp to de ad fo incre
p d d sp

appropriate for the location. Figure 5.1 illustrates

e tal tal this
Ch cks if co n lo d fo
r To en
an 1/3
rem ing
Ch
e d to l sp esig a f)] c rd

f = 0.7
e a lo a
d (F d )]1/3 In reg
m .e
ee ctu tive sig
n D
rd sa c de 0E
c)/ .ef
ba
ck KE
Fo ulate s effe tive (F d EC
long‑term deflection of unsupported edge of slab.
00 c)/ ed
lc
Ca ulate s eff
ec f)1 0E r fe CH
/L e 00 the LY
lc
Ca ulate k 4(D /L ef)1 ro UL
lc [k 3 n so F
dom = d for uniform slabs
s (D
Ca late k4
ge
sti
o
BE
s [k O
3
lcu ug
Ca ulate
ns
,s LT
Ca
lc
, c CC
orr
ec A
tio
A
NT S AR
ES
TIL
As noted earlier for beams, AS 3600 Clause 9.3 has a
fcv = 0.17 (1+2/b h) √f 'c ≤ 0.34 √f 'c
n ts e M E T
me ct th OM HEE
om onta
Fo ase c
rc
ple FT PR
FO EA
R C DS
A S
three-tier approach to deflection of slabs as follows:
DR HE
b h = 1.0, for circular columns
:
ba
ck 1.2 TE T
ed NO
n Refined calculation
Fe
.
n
rsio
\ fcv = 0.34 √f 'c ; and the critical shear perimeter Ve

n Simplified calculation
u = p (column diameter + d)
n Deemed-to-comply span-to-depth ratios for
and reinforced slabs.
M *v = 0
Refined calculation This method is too complicated
5.4.3 Basis of Chart 5.13 for most design. AS 3600 Clause 9.3.2 requires at least
This chart gives punching shear strength for slabs six items to be considered; specialist advice is usually
at rectangular columns with no moment transfer required if this method is to be used.
or shear head, based on the equation in AS 3600 Simplified calculation This involves the calculation
Clause 9.2.3(a): of a short-term and long-term component using
* = f u dom fcv
V  AS 3600 Clause 9.3.3 which in turn refers to AS 3600
Clause 8.5.3 for beams. This method will give thinner
where
slabs than the deemed-to-comply solutions, so it
f = 0.7 should be used where possible, even though it is more
fcv = 0.17(1+2 / b h) √f 'c ≤ 0.34 √f 'c tedious when calculated by hand. A number of the
b h = (longest dimension of the effective loaded available commercial software programs will carry out
area, Y ) / (shortest dimension of the effective these design checks.
loaded area, X ) Deemed-to-comply span-to-depth ratios for
and the critical shear perimeter reinforced slabs This method is set out in AS 3600
Clause 9.3.4 and involves relatively straightforward
u = 2 (Y + X ) + 4dom
calculations but will generally give more conservative
and results. It is limited to slabs of uniform section and
M *v = 0 that are:
n fully propped during construction;

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 5.3

 n subject only to uniformly distributed loads and 5.6 Crack Control of Slabs
where the imposed action (live load), q, does not AS 3600 Clause 9.4 has additional requirements for
exceed the permanent action (dead load), g. crack control in slabs both for flexure and for shrinkage
Slab deflections shall be deemed to comply with the and temperature effects irrespective of the ductility
requirements of AS 3600 Clause 2.3.2 if the ratio of class of reinforcement. Generally, crack control
effective span to effective depth satisfies the following reinforcement is provided in both faces of the slab
equation: except when the slab is very thin.
(Δ / Lef )1000 Ec    1/3 For flexure where the slab is internal in a
Lef / d ≤ k3 k4
Fd.ef building (except for a brief period during

construction), AS 3600 requires the minimum area of
es
nc
fere d)
d Re t pri
nte
an
ts is no
en
mm ction e
Co s se tiv
thi erva
ote ns
(N e co
s ar
on

reinforcement to be in accordance with Clause 9.1.1

cti
fle
de
rally
t No ne

5.5.2 Spreadsheet 5.3 for deemed-to-comply

ee Ge
Sh reo
b No sile
Jo 00 ten
36 ength inal
By r AS e str ud
te: pe ret longit
Da ctor as nc
n Fa s
Ø ut co s of
es
ctio ertie Inp

and the centre-to-centre spacing of bars in each

str bs
du op ld sla
Re l Pr Yie in
city ia 0.8 MPa n reo
pa ater MPa sio

span-to-depth ratios
Ca & M 25 res
0 mp
φ co
50 no
f' c ally
rm
No
f sy

direction to not exceed the lesser of 2.0Ds or 300 mm.

OK
D

Spreadsheet 5.3 can be used to calculate the deemed- d

ψl fact
or

Bars with a diameter less than half the diameter of the

o rm
an
ψs -te )
tN
s ng (ψ l
ctor
ee
Lo
n fa
Sh
b
tio 0.4 0.8
o na

to-comply span-to-depth ratios for reinforced concrete

or
bN
mbi fact
do
d co erm ) 0.4
e. 5.4
Jo rm
an ort-t (ψ s 0.4
us -te Sh 0.4
l 8.
8

By
its ng 0.6
for sC lo ) 0.7 0.6
le m,
t-t:er 1170 n
.0 0.6

largest bar in the cross‑section shall be ignored.

sib tio ,Q
y ra orte
on ns
DSha(after AS
resp tio 0.7
mpl
tio
t is d ac d ac 0.7 0.4
ee co se se tic
sh to mm po po es
im dom 0.7

slabs based on the method set out in AS 3600

read mm
Im 0
this
sp med 00 uted and
rib tial
1
ee 10 mm 1
us
ing -D 19
0 Dist siden s
re
rson ns 0 Re uctu
e pe ctio 15 str
fices
0.7
efle
n
Th Of
er: -D rking
2
mm 2 0.7
snsio or-type
laim tion
ign
Pa
tail
mm
Disc puta
Stor r n
Re age
Des
he actio for flo n
1

. re. oOtfRote
m 41
lab
io

For flexure with slabs exposed to the weather, in

Co

se
2
us ns
t S 45

Clause 9.3.4.
xu
b
Clien ct/Jo ete
ion
of /m ed

su fle layers oRoacf tivte

cr kN
Proje ct
d
ofs s
/m
r ro ns
on ide
kN itie ofs
dC
r it b
rov
5.75
in
bje id A st.p ed

bs or 2 layers of te
vid
ce Su ntro
to
pro he
nfor
3

puf
ce A sc. Ot
the m )
Rei
la
ata le
e to t 5m
s rs .
te ent (1 or 2 layevern .
In sla nc g
Dib
of ta es ) )
h dis near ed
ored chor
ns omet h, b = d (d) r to ba down lly anch lly an
q
widt r- 0.7
4re
ry to

n0.c mm t (1 r 2 go
addition to the requirements above, AS 3600 requires
po Ge WDeidt pth,ctiDve dellypth= D - coo,verounded rcementrc(fuement (fu co anpg00oert mmen (1 omay gove n.
rn
o

res 4.1 ψ
ψ r
s

ula arrup 60 ge entnts er

re
Effe usua info info ble
is y
ile l

ng teal s rrabn .0 emm e s ma gov

tens Re Re Ta

et
o
(d .0
the ns
ile sion 70

he cta n sste
es 11

ay
of
a L asla 40 g re nt
l Te mpr AS

e b teetel/d arraenqui0 eme ts m

dina l Co m

ds d re la
ef
itu s fro

Spreadsheet 5.3 is available at www.ccaa.com.au

ng dina

rea
ctor

rce ategivs eonnsc.rete

Lo itu
n fa
L el r 10 r n
nt e1. q0.80ui eme
compliance with Clause 9.4.1 (c) and (d); this involves
ng ns
Lo tio /m tio

sp invafo
0
d ac d kN /m
r
na ef

r c 00 s me
10

giv
plie mbi
lues fore
0
r
loa kN
c ir
co 20

ocsuonppnorts forgaulaSg3iv6efon0r0ce. = =ent requ

Ap Dead load

his re
42
e term 80

t ly for 0
ti
Liv ng
g
60
d lo ht
c r n A m
ing t
39

suetolaCl of ocnta tor a reSin36 or0ce.

an ctor
r into th
rig

factos e en
fa e 65
term rm

us thneabgCL ctire nts fouto

0
Sh Shor term a e ta
ign m A ein3f60 rcem
ort
40
t te
r Se fblta
37

on es
Lo fo
ng
ocan of sl ercseeedmcetionim rS 99
nts ityivre fo u/d ir se miennAsts m A info
limiting the stress in the reinforcing steel in flexure,
ers th 19
bD
50

me aecdfect ofinratioqth c/As uto

e, a
t

ts m re
e sp 80
0

ep ire aprcL Ef ityregpthore

L e
e m inknim
34

Sla f hqeunsrire m ls urn of

ef s n
ab

Th qu inregincfoapinagcly me imu
d sl itatio rs
o ch side
ef cs

inde wlatio
d g ac s pSpaaancctoitaynbCgalscu/Are hqeuriree mieikennsas.— withou,tdrdropMpaeneiolbn on eah no0t le0thsse7drops
ne
s an n lim ileve
te
1.00

er: n
pa

e t re nly
op ls am nt
ctio r ca 4)
r
40
n
be
c e g s l 2 fle 0
e in
of

foar ndcaptopDaesslccigulate Abgs re w De ) fo ote 002

re it, ta ab; ababawinth ch direeroallnde,beyond
80

on em enat sbin eonsdin

st

laim tatio
ns

t. whanepconsatacnte wainywa.sly feltfegslltm

or ct pt (N 32 ef
ctio n ( /L 0. ere
sc =
5=
C g a 4 wh to
fle
c s l n
tio
rc in

depending on the size and spacing of the reinforcement.

r b ti t l e s c e rs l de ita s 1/12 0.00 ade ct of

Dis mpu n in b d
s
ny L/ haeve a thic ov ess
sl ea

ed info m m paectmorlaK bin=sdeg0fle=ctc)1.0 A

Ca m

yofo pelyntraembeenpdnlict aan le storc

an
rtica ion limspan 2)
in
o-o
on 6 an kn sp 0 = on is e effe rwise
a tw L
io a .m o-
le andP slab
c
wa ast nt ve ct for 1/25ovisi th othe 2
for st
for , s
d 32

r re it s , jace ated Defle /L ) 1 an 4

3 0
c m d d s s pr mizeent, 0.00

Co t b ie
tw
te k 1
10

info ile aapa moom foercnt ampe lict aaninfoe toben20 in &'=tu
r a nd at ne o ad —
r05e ex ntreice D is
ef
the lcul
rt
95 fo ini em 30
Fa 0. 3
tw ( es 0. 00 e m 0= r’s ore
ns ltr im pe
-li an ot

lye pepnr reabl in t 1, uo.muc '= 1. whicpphBortace3Ds, wher

te ca er
r of r sp for (N 0= mov 1/50 ture not m 4
e
2 wh to
te c ate Creinomlarrc orte terio
ro
be 1/25 0.00 ade ct of ufac t
R
its
u
00
n
ea lic el n M tr
b
eea ed to
Lim = is m effe ise an ion bu = 0.
u fo rlyeam
e sh an in
p
to
e o s
umte m al 2.1 1 kN/m
n 0
Cli
M
tesu an 1. th . 0
t/J
sh t).umltim sh ppstemeng S cre th
rw
ctio ered
icin
on e at

late ss th
to
than
00 1/50ovisi th othe 1 25 ific 1/25

artrelyculfo teri
36
jec a rc
er fle id 0
pr mizeent, 0.00 ec

n ee im saupm
ction 25

nd y a n ndlati rete on
er 70 sp than
long ng
lcu te
AS De cons YS
— mini em 00 = 26 0.00
2 of
ma =
fle rs DA
s; the is lo r’s ore
Pro lateemsseth Dell t)m.uinltim i s oanrtre i inr aularerlssAiomaelcuonc d C
n as slab .4 0=
ct
/m de cu 28 mov 1/10

Ca lcuula
of 13 kN 2.3. tal oc ture not m002
ke d an
e to thation or S AT 1/40
bje : te n e e t im b p a
a he in lais umhe tic p ng c , Cn. ce
K
. tant pp
, ta orte ratio d sp 3

n d ble r Th e TIE ufac but = 0.

00 n co pl
the ctionaddit of th
a lc la 7.66 Ta be Manation 500
u en

late
ctor

Ca inlcfouurc
For crack control in the primary direction, no additional
ER 20

rsmseth a
e em
S ns su

on C
no fle OP 0 .94

sllnt)m.r setimr sparomrati s in essio for

fa om e t 1/

3or6K = deflect1.io4 for sim us slab1.s,2 and orwh

y er m
ere = 00 41
rt Fr e de r th en ns
PR ific
eete th
wh of Th afte chmrtitio rs specan
5 4
d
24
Inse
ti
TE
g
12
lc a c S 0.00
pe
a id a la in s n
rs
e fo
RE
rc lk atta pa cu
e
00
: re n
th
sulaprersm gushmn t isof rpotre au te ein
Caoinnlcfo ing
Ty
rip
0=
A ct
be
= 0.
4 NC ) oc .54
C s. e
= em CO at or 0 50
Pa 1/25
sc sidrceetaenadaellsig eectsncores & F in k, R sp str
m th ion ish ere
le
= or ;
in Fa k
g
uo ed an 4
All (M ) 1/80

Tit C
ntin exce d sp
rc ortin ction dit fin
f' c
a MPa wh to
d
an Pa
e re s h
co
fo
pp ns (M fle e ad the e 2 e of
C hoenforecper rst d ds ffe (I r p ll ers ic se te
t
no an en rior
D for su rtitio Ec
e deter th ent of (liv ct) 0.00is madfect fer

ral rein
rs n
do 75 or in in re
0 =
inr sid o a e 9 fo Hm a b atr yu
te pa
TC
es be ry Th af m tio pa 0 on e ef trans ted
= 1. 1 fo nc
70
Memason 26 ch d ac im 1/50ovisi th the ppor e

FTohoeness nspsreth-e20ll0ow anm

re
r

ilp
atta se mic

rall
r

ne
f

,e sh
2. o
he
mm
er
nF pr mize of e su wis
d.e
m
g ot
f po na on

CDo e re 0 t a ngfor nd K r,Kc

nF
d.e r
ctio
me
e im d dy cti mini ctionon th othe 1
Ge
mm
ne
ortines
ign
reinforcement is required to control expansion or
= Th d an defle 0
fle ctio = pp fle r , 00 19
de be ture = 0. mm
to
de
e r
tal
fle su finish
0 s
00
h o a
loa
o a c
c
g o
de rs d to memstru 1000 10 2
TIgn 36s n Rble ter de
tal
r to be ittle
mm 2
nt
00

n fa rt fa
4

s or fo en em br cte ian 1/ D 60

ADSoe rneur,ita Fos na

M bje str ction
by
ct
load mm
tio Inse ctive desi load for eme
em su de 1
incr fle b 41
:
rs pe

ut
gn

tio
y be r or de 2
tal
ns at s r, uc
da ula traffic
L 45
Mem
l inp
To

forc
28

ca No arne ota red

hic

tio W
at ve
Effe sign ity 0

dn
/ 25
reti M*Effect rein
tic

ita ata
de

ity
ive elas rs =1
Slab
an ed
be
W ac
of

eo nts sion
em

contraction cracking if the area of reinforcement in

Lim
ulus rm

Th ols uir ap
/d an ed
mod sfe L ef

me f ten
Tran Sp

r, c
the tual id

s/ mb req
lues ov
of Ac
ided
d ove for va
.0 pr
lue
d :e S y s v e m o o n va
re
40
A st prov
ll co ho ns ab
ed
Co sis ce s
ea A sc

ing yers
M .0 us

y, nc e optio
tE
c 40 /L ef
w y a Se
ed

etr nd
Inpu
Ba llo ule la
lat
lcu
: Ye mod eom be r 1 full
Ca .94

re
41

nt
the direction of the span of a one-way slab, or in each
g ign r fo red
f/d

latu d 4.1
Le

All ction es ete me ore cho

.54
tual 50

nc rce ble
Ac 40.0

g d iam ch
5.5.3 Basis of Chart 5.14
n
04

me Se V* info an lly a Ta
0.0

No din ar d
.0
e ll y .0 40
n t fu 70
ated
re
S

e b c fu
for nsile
= LIE
lcul 4
r b er & nt men 11
MP

: Ca .9 CO

t r e
S
o 41 OK

u F a m S LIE

mb e A

direction of a two-way slab, is not less than:

e te MP

Inp sh inal os rce forc

CO
= .54

Nu m lues OK

rati info fro

50

ign ud in t va
inpu

ply ile re ion re

=

es ngit tors
This chart gives the proportion of load carried in the
for
ht,
d m c
co tens ress
rig
r lo
S
fa the

Fo a of
LIE

on
d to n MP
ctio
p
n CO

d to inal com L) binati

e an fle ctio OK S

Are
ov de LIE
ed ab tal fle

me ud e.
us de MP
L
ns To tal
l be tio = CO

ee ngit dina and com

1/3
to e op )] en OK
y )/(F )] Increm ula
ef f
/L

da 000 E
Se d.e

rd
t

n the area required by Clause 9.1.1; and

lo gitu L Inpu
rm
c =
ios
1/3

shorter span direction, Lx, for slabs supported on four

Fo a of (D term 28 /L )1 0 E )/(F gnfo
f
Rat
d.e

lon ns at k (D
ef
ply
g
c

Are a of actio d lon lab ity [k k (D/L )1 sfleinctio ction

4
00
Com
u
3

c
ef

ti to
y l
an of s las a)] llTota ental de
de

Are lied
med
4
fle
c
3
[k
t f e Dee
ti 1/3

p rm n tan m0 aE )/( )] Incr

ts
Ap rt te spa so
f
ul F em d.e

ns Res
to
c

o t lu u
1/3

sides as specified in AS 3600 Clause 9.3.3(b) for slab

e n u )100
Sh ctiv c d ka( /L )1000 E )/(
f

od
F d.e

on onsta
n 75% of the area required by one of Clauses 9.4.3.3
ef
c

e cti em late [k
4

Eff
3

fle n c of th lcu M*[k k (

ef
/L

de tio ca
4
3

k 3 eflec alue ed nd nts rs

d v us rou ome g ba
k4 an be kg

deflections by simplified calculations. The curves are E c

Me /L ef to
Inp
ut
ith
en
gre ben of re
n
b ac g m forcin
din
g
in
ta
nd
sp
ac
ing
to 9.4.3.5, as appropriate.
s w esig pacin en
ell d s em
d c ing and M u
derived from the equation: x e fo rc
d
Bo ben size ity φ rein
c

For crack control and shrinkage where the slab is free

r r, m
Fo mbe capa imu V*
Nu nt min ce
me for for
: Mo cks ar in

Proportion of load in Lx direction = 1/(a L x4/ L y4 +1)

ut e he V u.m d.e
f

f
tp C h n s Ø F d.e nF
Ou
to expand or contract in the secondary direction, the
d on ectio
e sig an c /d cti
rd ØV .min L ef defle l defl et,
c u
Øv
u
Fo os tio on on he
ax,
V * V u
rati th ra r tota men
l ta cti cti ds
ØV cks if
u.m
>Ø e fle e fle rea
* p ly p
de ad fo incre d l d sp
e V m tal is

where Ch cks if nta

minimum area of reinforcement in that direction shall
co to
n lo d fo
r To me g th
an 1/3
Ch
e
e d to l sp esig
a lo a f)]
In cre a rdin
m d .e g
ctu tive n
ED
d
ee sig (F 1/3
k re
sa c)/ )]
rd
Fo ulate s effe tive
c de 0E (F d
.ef
db
ac CK

be 1.75 D mm2/m width.

00 HE
a = values in AS 3600 Table 9.3.3 for various
c)/ fee
lc ec f)1 0E
Ca ulate s eff /L e 00 oth
er YC
Ca ulate
lc k 4(D /L ef)1 or LL
a lc s [k 3 (D o ns E FU
k ti
C late B
4
es
s [k O
3
lcu gg

conditions of edge continuity. Ca ulate

lc on
s,
su
TIL
LT
Ca
The requirements for crack control and shrinkage with
cti
rre AA ES
ts, e C
co C
E NT S AR
n M T
me ct th OM HEE
om onta
rc R C DS

5.5.4 Basis of Chart 5.15

Fo ase c
ple
:
FT PR
FO EA
A
DR HE
S restrained slabs in the secondary direction inside a
ck 1.2 TE T
building are:
ba
Fe
ed NO

The curves in this chart were derived for the Ve

rsio
n
.

slab‑system multiplier k4 (not the deflection coefficient) n Where a minor degree of control over cracking is
given in AS 3600 Table 9.3.4.2 , for each of the required, Ast must be at least 1.75 D mm2/m width.
edge conditions listed. (Note that a value has been n Where a moderate degree of control over cracking
interpolated for Ly / Lx = 0.75.) is required and where cracks are inconsequential or
hidden from view, Ast must be at least 3.5 D mm2/m
5.5.5 Basis of Table 5.2
width.
The moments of inertia of cracked reinforced concrete
n Where a strong degree of control over cracking
slabs one metre wide provided in this table were
is required for appearance or where cracks
derived from the formula:
may reflect through finishes, Ast must be at least
Icr = 1000 d 3[k 3/ 3 + n p (1 - k)2] 6.0 D mm2/m width.
where The requirements for crack control and shrinkage with
k = [(n p) 2 + 2n p] 0.5 - n p restrained slabs in the secondary direction elsewhere
n = modular ratio = Es / Ec and in exposure classification A1 and A2 are:
p = Ast /1000d n Where a moderate degree of control over cracking
Icr is used in calculating Ief which in turn is used in is required and where cracks are inconsequential or
determining deflections by the simplified calculation hidden from view, Ast must be at least 3.5 D mm2/m
method as set out in AS 3600 Clause 9.3.3. width.

5.4 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

TABLE 5.2 Moment of inertia of cracked reinforced concrete sections Icr per metre width (mm4 x 106)

np

d (mm) 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.15 0.20 d (mm)

80 4 8 11 14 17 20 22 25 27 29 38 46 80
90 6 11 16 20 24 28 32 35 38 41 55 66 90

100 8 15 22 28 33 38 43 48 52 57 75 91 100
110 11 20 29 37 44 51 58 64 70 75 100 121 110
120 14 27 38 48 57 66 75 83 90 98 130 157 120
130 18 34 48 61 73 84 95 105 115 124 165 199 130

140 23 42 60 76 91 105 119 131 144 155 206 249 140

150 28 52 74 93 112 130 146 162 177 191 254 306 150
160 34 63 89 113 136 157 177 196 214 231 308 372 160
170 41 76 107 136 163 189 213 235 257 278 369 446 170
180 48 90 127 162 194 224 252 279 305 330 438 529 180
190 57 106 150 190 228 263 297 328 359 388 515 623 190

200 66 123 174 222 266 307 346 383 418 452 601 726 200
210 77 143 202 257 308 355 401 444 484 523 696 841 210
220 88 164 232 295 354 409 461 510 557 602 800 966 220
230 101 187 265 337 404 467 526 583 636 688 914 1104 230
240 115 213 301 383 459 530 598 662 723 781 1039 1255 240

250 130 240 341 433 519 600 676 748 817 883 1174 1418 250
260 146 271 383 487 584 674 760 842 919 993 1321 1595 260
270 163 303 429 545 654 755 851 943 1029 1112 1479 1786 270
280 182 338 479 608 729 842 950 1051 1148 1241 1650 1992 280
290 202 375 532 676 810 936 1055 1168 1276 1378 1833 2213 290

300 224 416 589 748 897 1036 1168 1293 1412 1526 2029 2450 300

310 247 459 649 825 989 1143 1289 1427 1558 1684 2239 2704 310

320 272 504 714 908 1088 1257 1417 1569 1714 1852 2463 2974 320

330 298 553 783 996 1193 1379 1555 1721 1879 2031 2701 3262 330

340 326 605 857 1089 1305 1508 1700 1882 2056 2221 2954 3567 340

350 356 660 935 1188 1424 1645 1855 2053 2242 2423 3222 3891 350

360 387 718 1017 1293 1549 1790 2018 2234 2440 2637 3506 4234 360

370 420 780 1104 1403 1682 1944 2191 2426 2649 2862 3807 4597 370

380 455 845 1196 1520 1822 2106 2374 2628 2870 3101 4124 4980 380

390 492 913 1293 1643 1970 2276 2566 2841 3102 3352 4458 5384 390

400 531 985 1395 1773 2125 2456 2768 3065 3347 3617 4810 5809 400

Table 5.3 Total area of reinforcement, Ast , for crack control and shrinkage (mm2/m width)

Depth of slab, D (mm)

Ast (mm2/m width) 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250

1.75 D 175 193 210 228 245 263 280 298 315 333 350 368 385 403 420 438
3.5 D 375 413 450 488 525 563 600 638 675 713 750 788 825 863 900 938
6.0 D 600 660 720 780 840 900 960 1020 1080 1140 1200 1260 1320 1380 1440 1500

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 5.5

n Where a strong degree of control over cracking
is required for appearance or where cracks
may reflect through finishes, Ast must be at least
6.0 D mm2/m width.
For restrained slabs in the secondary direction in
exposure classification B1, B2, C1 and C2, Ast must be
at least 6.0 D mm2/m width, which can be a significant
amount of reinforcement.
Table 5.3 shows the various areas of reinforcement per
metre width required for crack control and shrinkage in
slabs up to 250 mm deep.
5.7 Detailing of Slabs
For all reinforced concrete slabs, appropriate detailing
must be shown on the drawings.
AS 3600 Clause 9.1.3 sets out the detailing of flexural
reinforcement for slabs. This requires the determination
of the shape of the theoretical bending moment and
the extending of the tensile reinforcement by the depth
of the section D  past the cut-off point. The clause also
includes other requirements and a deemed-to-comply
arrangement for continuous one-way and two-way
slabs using the simplified method of analysis.
Detailing for shear reinforcement is covered in AS 3600
Clause 9.2.6. Wherever possible, shear reinforcement
in slabs should be avoided, because of the difficulty in
fixing it in thin members. Allowing for cover and fitment
sizes including bends, a slab at least 200−300 mm
thick would be required if shear reinforcement is
required. It is usually more economical to increase the
depth of slab and /or the concrete strength.
Designers should also refer to Chapter 14 of the
Reinforcement Detailing Handbook 5.5 for further
guidance.
Areas that designers need to consider in detailing of
reinforcement for slabs include:
n Minimum reinforcement in accordance with
AS 3600 Clause 9.1.1.
n One-way slabs with bar reinforcement in the
direction of the span will also require transverse
reinforcement for support of longitudinal reinforce-
ment. AS 3600 Clause 9.4.1 requires the maximum
spacing of reinforcement for crack control for slabs
in both directions to be the lesser of 2.0 Ds or
300-mm centres. Typically N10 (if available) or N12
bars are used in the transverse direction.
n For two-way slabs with bar reinforcement, it is
important to nominate on the drawings which bar is
to be placed first in the bottom layer and in which
direction and which bar is to be placed last in the
top layer and again in which direction.
5.6 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook
n For both one-way and two-way slabs with square
and rectangular mesh reinforcement, it is important
to nominate on the drawings for each layer, where
the top and bottom wires are placed.
n For rectangular meshes, the area of cross wires is
limited to 227 mm2/m so additional bar reinforce-
ment may be required in the secondary direction
for flexure, shrinkage and temperature control.
n For two-way slabs with diagonal edges, up to three
layers of reinforcement both in the top and bottom
of the slab may result. This may cause congestion
and will need special consideration.
n 12-mm and 16-mm Ductility Class N bar can be
either stock length bar or, more commonly, cut to
length from coil.
n Stock length bars should be used where possible.
Large size bars (20 mm and larger) are usually
supplied in stock lengths of 12 m. For example,
specifying a bar 4.00 m long instead of 3.75 m long
will save cutting and wastage as three bars can be
cut from one stock length bar. Staggering will often
effectively allow the use of stock length bars.
n For flat slabs and flat plates with column and
middle strips, the use of different size bars in the
column and middle strips will make it easier to
check the reinforcement layout on site, eg 20-mm
in the column strip and 16-mm in the middle strip
in the bottom and 24-mm in the column strip and
20-mm in the middle strip in the top.
n Slabs will often act as horizontal diaphragms
carrying lateral actions such as wind and
earthquake forces back to the vertical elements
such as walls and columns. Designers may need to
check the transfer of shear forces between the slab
and vertical elements as well as the bending in the
slab when acting as a deep beam. Section 5.6 of
the Precast Concrete Handbook 5.6 covers this.
n Lapping of reinforcement in tension in areas of
high moment should be avoided, and all laps
and splices should be adequately detailed on
the drawings. Typically, bottom reinforcement is
lapped at the points of support of the slab and top
reinforcement in the middle of the slab where laps
are nominal.
n The reinforcement should always be curtailed
where not required, eg excessive top reinforcement
in the middle of slabs and excessive bottom
reinforcement in the ends of slabs.
n For cantilevers, the top reinforcement should be
anchored well back in an area of no or low stress if
possible.
n Small diameter bars provide better crack control
than large diameter bars (of the same area).
n Construction joints in the slabs (often at the quarter
point of the span) should be properly detailed and
shown on the drawings.
n Standard reinforcing meshes are manufactured in
sheet sizes of 2.4 m by 6 m and again by proper
detailing, cutting and wastage can be minimised.
n Care should be taken when lapping reinforcing mesh
in thin slabs as up to eight layers of wires can occur
in one location for one layer of reinforcement. There
are techniques to reduce this by offsetting the laps
and the sheets of mesh and by the use of tie bars.
n For slabs exposed to the weather, adequate
slopes for drainage (taking into account long‑term
deflections) should be provided. Also, where
there is no structural reinforcement, crack-control
reinforce-ment should be provided in the top of
the slab.
n Even with simply-supported slabs, concrete edge
beams, walls and end supports will provide some
restraint to the slab; nominal top reinforcement in
the slab will therefore be required in these areas to
control cracking.
5.8 General Guidance
n The depth of a slab, unless it is a short span, is
usually controlled by deflection considerations.
The amount of reinforcement and its location
are then determined to meet bending and shear
requirements and constructability.
n The strength of concrete chosen must be
appropriate for the exposure classification. For B2,
C1 or C2 exposure classification, special class
concrete needs to be specified as required by
AS 3600. It is recommended that designers discuss
these special requirements with the concrete
suppliers and concrete technologist.
n In multi-storey construction a slab may be
required to support the construction of other slabs
over before it has attained its design strength
(at 28 days). This may require higher strength
concrete and consideration of the construction
design loads as a design case5.7.
n As with all concrete members, suspended insitu
concrete slabs will shrink. If restrained by stiff
elements such as supporting walls or core walls,
unsightly cracking can result. Techniques to
minimise this cracking include the use of pour
strips or slip joints.
n Slabs are generally not suitable to support heavy
line loads (such as masonry walls) or heavy point
loads.
n Vertical penetrations through slabs for services or
other openings, embedded items and unsupported
DRAF T Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 5.7
Charts 5.1 to 5.15
Charts 5.1–5.4 Flexural reinforcement in slabs
Ductility Class N reinforcement pages 5.8–5.11
Charts 5.5–5.8 Flexural reinforcement in slabs
Ductility Class L mesh reinforcement
pages 5.12–5.15
Charts 5.9–5.12 Punching shear at circular
columns where M *v = 0 pages 5.16–5.17
Chart 5.13 Punching shear at rectangular
columns where M *v = 0 page 5.18
Chart 5.14 Slabs supported on four sides –
proportion of load carried in shorter direction
page 5.19
Chart 5.15 Slabs supported on four sides –
deflection coefficient k4
page 5.19
Spreadsheets 5.1, 5.2 and 5.3 may be
downloaded from the Cement Concrete &
Aggregates Australia website www.ccaa.com.au
edges always require careful consideration.
Generally, vertical penetrations less than, say, D in
size are not a problem unless there are many close
together. Additional reinforcement may be required
around larger penetrations.
n Sometimes, services such as electrical cables
may need to be cast into the slab as shown in
Figure 5.2. Large services such as sewer, storm
water or water pipes should not be built in since
they will cause problems if they leak.
n Set downs may be required to the top of the slab,
eg for balconies, toilet areas and falls to drains.
n Consideration must be given to the finish and
class of formwork to the formed surface of the slab
(ie the underside of the slab) if exposed to view.
n Linear elastic analysis is recommended for major
projects and the simplified methods for small
projects and simple elements, subject to the
computer analysis software available.
Figure 5.2 Electrical ducts cast into a slab
 chart 5.1 Flexural reinforcement in slabs Ductility Class N reinforcement

1000
180
d
A st

230 f  = 0.8
f 'c = 25 MPa
160
220 fsy = 500 MPa

210

Minimum reinforcement
140 200 for slabs supported by
beams or walls on 4 sides
190

Minimum reinforcement
180 for slabs supported by
columns at their corner
120
170
For one-way slabs
interpolate between the
160
two values shown

100 150

140

80

130

120
60

110

100
40
90

80

70
20
Effective depth (mm)
Note:To right of dashed line
M * (kN.m/m)

sections are over reinforced

0
100 300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900
Ast (mm2/m)

5.8 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 chart 5.2 Flexural reinforcement in slabs Ductility Class N reinforcement

1000
180
d
A st
230
f  = 0.8
220 f 'c = 32 MPa
160
fsy = 500 MPa
210

200
Minimum reinforcement
140 for slabs supported by
190 beams or walls on 4 sides

180
Minimum reinforcement
for slabs supported by
170 columns at their corner
120

160 For one-way slabs

interpolate between the
two values shown
150

100
140

130

80 120

110

60
100

90
40
80

70

20 Effective depth (mm)

Note:To right of dashed line

sections are over reinforced
M * (kN.m/m)

0
100 300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900
Ast (mm2/m)

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 5.9

 chart 5.3 Flexural reinforcement in slabs Ductility Class N reinforcement

1000
180
d
230
A st

220 f  = 0.8
f 'c = 40 MPa
160
fsy = 500 MPa
210

200

Minimum reinforcement
140 190 for slabs supported by
beams or walls on 4 sides
180
Minimum reinforcement
170 for slabs supported by
columns at their corner
120
160
For one-way slabs
interpolate between the
150 two values shown

100 140

130

120
80
110

100
60

90

80
40

70

Effective depth (mm)

20
Note:To right of dashed line
sections are over reinforced
M * (kN.m/m)

0
100 300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900
Ast (mm2/m)

5.10 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 chart 5.4 Flexural reinforcement in slabs Ductility Class N reinforcement

1000
180

230 d
A st
220
f  = 0.8
f 'c = 50 MPa
160
210 fsy = 500 MPa

200

190 Minimum reinforcement

140 for slabs supported by
beams or walls on 4 sides
180

170 Minimum reinforcement

for slabs supported by
columns at their corner
120
160
For one-way slabs
150 interpolate between the
two values shown

140
100

130

120

80 110

100

60 90

80

40
70

Effective depth (mm)

20

Note:To right of dashed line

sections are over reinforced
M * (kN.m/m)

0
100 300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900
Ast (mm2/m)

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 5.11

 chart 5.5 Flexural reinforcement in slabs Ductility Class L mesh reinforcement

1000
90
d
A st
230 f  = 0.64
f 'c = 25 MPa
80
220 fsy = 500 MPa

210

200 Minimum reinforcement

70 for slabs supported by
beams or walls on 4 sides
190

180 Minimum reinforcement

for slabs supported by
columns at their corner
60 170

For one-way slabs

160 interpolate between the
two values shown
150
50
140

130

120
40

110

100

30
90

80
20

70

Effective depth (mm)

Note:To right of dashed line
10 sections are over reinforced
M * (kN.m/m)

SL82 SL92 SL102 RL818 RL 918 RL 1018 RL 1118 RL 1218

RL 718
0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Ast (mm2/m)

5.12 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 chart 5.6 Flexural reinforcement in slabs Ductility Class L mesh reinforcement

1000
90
d
A st
230
f  = 0.64
220 f 'c = 32 MPa
80
fsy = 500 MPa

210

200
Minimum reinforcement
70 for slabs supported by
190 beams or walls on 4 sides

180
Minimum reinforcement
for slabs supported by
170 columns at their corner
60

160 For one-way slabs

interpolate between the
two values shown
150

50 140

130

120
40
110

100

30 90

80

70
20

Effective depth (mm)

10
M * (kN.m/m)

SL82 SL92 SL102 RL818 RL 918 RL 1018 RL 1118 RL 1218

RL 718
0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Ast (mm2/m)

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 5.13

 chart 5.7 Flexural reinforcement in slabs Ductility Class L mesh reinforcement

1000
90
d

230 A st

f  = 0.64
220 f 'c = 40 MPa
80
fsy = 500 MPa
210

200
Minimum reinforcement
70 190 for slabs supported by
beams or walls on 4 sides

180
Minimum reinforcement
170 for slabs supported by
columns at their corner
60
160
For one-way slabs
interpolate between the
150 two values shown

50 140

130

120

40
110

100

90
30

80

70

20
Effective depth (mm)

10
M * (kN.m/m)

SL82 SL92 SL102 RL818 RL 918 RL 1018 RL 1118 RL 1218

RL 718
0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Ast (mm2/m)

5.14 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 chart 5.8 Flexural reinforcement in slabs Ductility Class L mesh reinforcement

1000
90
d
230 A st

f  = 0.64
220
f 'c = 50 MPa
80
fsy = 500 MPa
210

200

Minimum reinforcement
70 190 for slabs supported by
beams or walls on 4 sides
180
Minimum reinforcement
170 for slabs supported by
columns at their corner
60
160
For one-way slabs
150 interpolate between the
two values shown

140
50

130

120

40 110

100

90
30
80

70

20 Effective depth (mm)

10
M * (kN.m/m)

SL82 SL92 SL102 RL818 RL 918 RL 1018 RL 1118 RL 1218

RL 718
0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Ast (mm2/m)

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 5.15

 chart 5.9 Punching shear at circular columns where M *v = 0

Column diameter (mm) = 1000 750 500 250

2500 d/2
Column
diameter
d/2
Critical
2000 shear perimeter

f 'c = 25 MPa

1500

1000

500
V* (kN)

0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
d (mm)

chart 5.10 Punching shear at circular columns where M *v = 0

Column diameter (mm) = 1000 750 500 250

2500 d/2
Column
diameter
d/2
Critical
2000 shear perimeter

f 'c = 32 MPa

1500

1000

500
V* (kN)

0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
d (mm)

5.16 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 chart 5.11 Punching shear at circular columns where M *v = 0

Column diameter (mm) = 1000 750 500 250

3000 d/2
Column
diameter
d/2
Critical
2500 shear perimeter

f 'c = 40 MPa

2000

1500

1000
V* (kN)

500
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
d (mm)

chart 5.12 Punching shear at circular columns where M *v = 0

Column diameter (mm) = 1000 750 500 250

3000 d/2
Column
diameter
d/2
Critical
2500 shear perimeter

f 'c = 50 MPa

2000

1500

1000
V* (kN)

500
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
d (mm)

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 5.17

chart 5.13 Punching shear at rectangular columns where M *v = 0

c1
d/2

c2

d/2
Critical
shear perimeter

2500

f 'c (MPa)
50 2000

40

32
1500
25 V * (kN) = 500 1000

c1 + c2 (mm) = 500
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1000
c1 /c2
450

1500
400

350 2000

300

250

200

150

d (mm) 100

5.18 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 chart 5.14 Slabs supported on four sides – proportion of load carried in shorter direction

Ly
2.4

Lx
2.2

2.0

1.8

1.6

1.4
Edge condition = 5 8 3 1, 6, 2 7 4
1.2
α = 5.0 2.5 2.0 1.0 0.5 0.4 0.2
Ly/Lx

1.0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
PROPORTION OF LOAD IN Lx DIRECTION

Slab edge
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Support

EDGE CONDITION – Slabs supported on four sides

chart 5.15 Slabs supported on four sides – k4 for deflection calculations

Ly
4.0

Lx
3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5
k4

1.0
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0
Ly /Lx
1 Four edges continuous 6 Two adjacent edges discontinuous
2 One short edge discontinuous 7 Three edges discontinuous (one long edge continuous)
3 One long edge discontinuous 8 Three edges discontinuous (one short edge continuous)
4 Two short edges discontinuous 9 Four edges discontinuous
5 Two long edges discontinuous

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 5.19

References
5.1 Guide to Long-Span Concrete Floors (T36)
2nd Ed, Cement Concrete & Aggregates
Australia, 2003.
5.2 Foster SJ, Kilpatrick AE and Warner RF
Reinforced Concrete Basics 2nd Ed, Pearson,
2010.
5.3 Guide to Industrial Floors and Pavements
(T48) 3rd Ed, Cement Concrete & Aggregates
Australia, 2009.
5.4 AS 3600 Concrete structures Standards
Australia, 2009.
5.5 Reinforcement Detailing Handbook (Z06)
2nd Ed, Concrete Institute of Australia, 2010.
5.6 Precast Concrete Handbook 2nd Ed, National
Precast Concrete Association Australia and
Concrete Institute of Australia, 2009.
5.7 Multi-Storey Formwork Loading (Z35), Concrete
Institute of Australia, 1990.

5.20 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

Chapter 6 Columns concrete columns. Their design is in accordance with
AS 3600 6.2 and will depend on the end fixity adopted
and whether or not they are braced.
Concrete columns can be subject to a combination of
actions including:
n Vertical actions. These are calculated by
apportioning the actions on each floor to the
column by the selected frame-analysis software
or on an area basis, sometimes known as column
6.1 General rundowns or similar.
Concrete columns are small but important structural n Bending moments from slabs and beams. The
elements in most buildings. Their design can be more bending moments are usually assessed from the
complex than other concrete elements, while, along slab or beam design or by the selected frame-
with walls, they are frequently the most obvious, and analysis software.
sometimes intrusive, parts of a structure. Architectural n Horizontal actions on the structure resulting in
and engineering judgement is required to determine shear forces and bending moments in the column
their position, size, shape, the spans of the horizontal when it is used to resist lateral actions as part of
elements they support and their location for the the building frame and when there are no shear
economy of structure. Prior to final design, it is walls. These actions are usually assessed by the
important to ensure that the design team agrees the selected frame-analysis software.
proposed column sizes and positions, especially
where they are located in car parking areas and
architecturally sensitive areas.
It is also important to consider the implications of
the location of each of the columns on each floor
and, if possible, to avoid offsetting columns from one
storey to another. Such changes in position usually
involve transfer beams, which can be expensive and
time‑consuming to build. This might occur for example
in a building where there is a basement car park,
ground floor retail and upper floor residential areas
and optimum column locations will be different for
each area.
Off-form columns to a country bank
Generally, columns are designed for axial actions
(loads), and bending moments about each axis as
required, for the various load cases at each floor level.
For single-storey buildings and higher buildings where
the last lift of columns is supporting a lightweight roof,
they may act as vertical cantilever beams carrying only
small vertical actions and resisting lateral actions.
Insitu concrete columns can require expensive
formwork and take time to build. In recent years,
there has been a trend to precast concrete columns,
particularly in low-rise buildings, for ease of
construction and to reduce costs. To facilitate erection
and the casting of the floor over, precast columns
are usually most economical as single-storey-height
elements. Two-storey-height columns are possible,
especially if the bracing is kept below the floor and
the connection to the floor in the middle of the column
is appropriately considered. When precast columns
are used, they need to be temporarily braced in two Column bars offset at the top to facilitate joining above
directions until the floor over is cast. The Precast the floor level with fitments through the floor level and
Concrete Handbook 6.1 includes information on precast also closer spacings of the fitments

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 6.1


Polished round reinforced and post tensioned precast
columns These are unusual non-vertical columns, but
illustrate how complex columns can be.
6.2 Initial sizing and actions
For the design of a column, an initial size, concrete
strength, number, size and location of longitudinal bars
and fitments, cover for durability and axis distance
(for fire) are assumed along with an assessment of
whether the column is braced or not and its effective
length. The chosen configuration is then checked for
adequacy and the various parameters adjusted as
required. The quickest way to size a concrete column
is usually to design the chosen configuration using
appropriate concrete column design software or
spreadsheet. It is recommended that designers start
with the design of the lower lifts of columns where
the actions are highest and the maximum concrete
strength will be needed.
Initial sizing, concrete strength and reinforcement for
columns can also be based on experience, previous
designs or chosen from the design Charts 6.1 to 6.6 in
this Chapter. Further advice on designing columns is
also given by Warner et al 6.3, 6.4.
The implications of Clause 10.8 for the transmission
of axial forces through the floor systems must be
assessed early in the design process. Where possible,
the requirement of AS 3600 Clause 10.8 should be
met by specifying a concrete strength for the floor
system of not less than 0.75 of that specified for the
columns (eg 40 MPa for columns with 32 MPa for
floors, or 32 MPa and 25 MPa respectively). Where
the floor strength is less than 0.75 times that of the
column strength. The effective strength of the column,
f 'ce, in the column/slab or column/beam area can be
significantly less than the strength of the column, f 'c.
This reduction is sometimes of the order of 20–30% for
very-high-strength columns. Additional reinforcement
can be used to compensate for this reduction at the
floor level. However, these extra bars in the junction
area, in what almost certainly will be heavily reinforced
columns, may lead to congestion and difficulties
in placing and compacting the concrete. Solutions
6.2 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook
to overcome these difficulties include: the use of
mechanical end splices; and, where the reinforcement
percentage is high, locating the lap splices outside
this area; or, as AS 3600 suggests, confining fitments
can be used to increase the effective strength of the
concrete in the joint – presumably in accordance with
Clause 10.7.3 but the specifics on how precisely this is
to be achieved are not spelt out. Alternatives such as
'blobs' of high-strength concrete placed at the column
joint when the slab is being cast can result in cold
joints in the slab. Further, such processes are difficult
to supervise on site, are usually impractical and
therefore generally not recommended.
For columns there should be a minimum of four bars in
a rectangular section and six bars in a circular section.
The minimum area of reinforcement, Asc, required by
AS 3600 is 1% of the gross concrete area. Generally,
the reinforcement ratio should be kept below 2.5%
for economy and ease of splicing. AS 3600 permits a
maximum area of reinforcement of 4% and this implies
a maximum of 8% at laps. For over-sized columns
(eg for aesthetic reasons), AS 3600 allows a lower
value for Asc to be used provided Asc fsy > 0.15 N *. It
is suggested that the minimum area of reinforcement
should not be less than about 0.5 %.
In the lower levels of high-rise buildings, to keep the
columns to a reasonable size, the longitudinal bars
are sometimes spliced using end bearing splices,
mechanical splices, welding or the bars are bundled
and high-strength concrete is used. It should be noted
that end bearing splices may not be readily available,
mechanical splices will take up more space and
welding is an expensive alternative.
Assessing the vertical actions carried by columns (and
walls) requires a full understanding of the building
structure and its behaviour and knowledge of all
actions to be carried by the building. These vertical
actions from permanent and applied floor actions
are calculated by assessing the actions supported
by each column (or wall) on a floor-by-floor basis
based on the tributary areas to each column (or wall).
This can be determined by using a spreadsheet
to calculate the actions on the column or using
appropriate structural analysis software (or by hand).
Nevertheless, judgement is required in assessing the
vertical actions regardless of the method used.
One of the problems when using a full 3D building
model to assess the column actions is that it may
not take into account all loading cases and usually
does not take into account construction sequences
and the redistribution of actions that may occur
due to deflections or shortening in some supports,
etc. As a result, the 3D building model may be
non‑conservative in some cases. On the other hand
the use of tributary areas may be conservative in
some cases and non‑conservative in others. Column
rundowns calculated by spreadsheet (or by hand)
are usually based on a simple area or length basis,
with the proportion of the actions to each vertical
element calculated by taking half the distance in each
direction to the adjacent vertical element supporting
vertical actions. Further, the column rundown may not
include all the loads to the column (or wall) because of
continuity and frame action. These additional actions
are sometimes known as moment shears and can be
up to 15% of the floor actions. For example, an edge
column will generally have less actions on it than is
implied by a calculation on an area basis while the first
column in from the edge of a building will have more.
Actions at each level are usually calculated just above
the floor below. (For example the heading 'On Level 4'
as shown in Table 6.1 on the column rundown means
the actions from the floors above, just above the fourth
floor and these actions would be used to design the
column from Level 4 to Level 5.)
In addition, for imposed actions reductions can
be deducted from rundowns, where applicable, in
accordance with AS 1170.1 Clause 3.4.2 (including
a reduction from the moment shears). Structural
designers should always check the architect's and
other members of the design team's drawings to
see that all loads have been included. Actions to be
considered in the design of columns for a multi-storey
building can include some or all of the following:
n Roof (including finishes)
n Floors (including finishes)
n Internal masonry walls
n Internal lightweight walls
n External walls including precast walls, curtain
walls, etc
n Beams framing into the column
n Precast and tilt-up concrete walls
n Fascias and sun hoods
n Lift machinery
n Air conditioning and other mechanical plants
n Stairs
n Heavy load areas, eg storage areas
n Special equipment, eg water tank, generator, etc.
The bending moments and horizontal shear actions
in a column will be determined by the frame-analysis
software used or by other structural design methods.

Table 6.1 Sample column rundown

Permanent Permanent Permanent Imposed Imposed Imposed

Unit Permanent Imposed axial bending bending axial bending bending
area actions actions actions moments moments actions moments moments
Load element length (DL) (LL) (DL) E/W N/S (LL) E/W N/S

On Level 4
1 Roof 12.96 0.6 0.25 7.8 3.2
2 Precast edge beam 2.8 7.68 21.5 0.0
3 Wall load 0 1 0.0 0.0
4 Column 2.8 11.52 32.3 0.0
5 Moment shears 0 0 0.0 0.0

Total this level 61.5 0 0 3.2 0 0

Total on Level 4 PA (DL) 61.5
IA (LL) 3.2

On Level 3
1 Floor 12.96 8.4 4 108.9 0 35.2 51.8 10.3
2 Precast edge beam 2.8 7.68 0 21.5 12 0.0 3
3 Wall load 4.5 3 0 13.5 0.0
4 Column 3 11.52 34.6 0.0
5 Moment shears 12.96 0.84 – 0.4 10.9 – 5.2

Total this level 189.3 12.0 35.2 46.7 3.0 10.3

Total on Level 4 PA (DL) 189.3
IA (LL) 46.7

Notes:
— Actions (loads) are in kN or kPa. All loads are unfactored.
— Moments are in kN.m.

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 6.3

The bending moments in the columns are the moments
at the top or bottom face of the slab or beam at the
beam/slab-column joint and not at the centre line of
the slab or beam. In column design, it is important to
correctly calculate the applied moments, particularly at
the top of the building where columns can be relatively
slender, vertical actions low but bending moments can
still be large.
When there are a large number of columns, it is usual
to group them into a series of typical columns, in
order to rationalise the design and to avoid detailed
analysis of every column. Normally, at least one corner
column, one edge column, one internal column and
all non-typical columns should be designed at each
floor level, keeping the size and details as uniform as
possible. For example, if the cover (and axis distance
indirectly) and concrete strength are determined by
durability considerations for the external columns, then
the designer should consider using the same size,
cover and concrete strength with less reinforcement
for internal columns, even though they could be
smaller, use a lower strength concrete and could have
less cover to the reinforcement. Since the volume of
concrete in columns is generally small, the benefit of
helping to avoid errors on site will far outweigh the cost
of additional concrete.
6.3 Design Process
The design process for columns will follow these
general steps.
Step 1
Assume an initial size of column, concrete strength
and reinforcement
See Section 6.2.
Step 2 column is exposed on more than one side, a minimum
Assess the actions on the column
These will be determined from the structural analysis
of the building in accordance with one of the strength
check/analysis procedures given in AS 3600 Section 2.
These are usually carried out using a proprietary
computer program or a column rundown for vertical
actions. Note that the choice of method has a direct
influence on the design procedure to be adopted in
accordance with AS 3600 Clause 10.2. See Step 4.
Columns are usually designed only for strength.
Stability and serviceability are considered only for
slender and unbraced columns.
The strength action effects will be in accordance with
Table 1.1 in Chapter 1 of this Handbook. Considering
the entire possible axial actions and bending moment
combinations for each loading case for a given cross
section for each column at each floor, and manually
checking the strength of the chosen column size and
6.4 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook
reinforcement configuration can be a tedious process.
Frequently the load combination 1.2G  + 1.5Q will be
the critical design case. Table 6.2 shows an example
of various load combinations that may have to be
considered for the design of a particular column.
Table 6.2 Load combinations for a particular column
Load Axial load BM top BM bot
case Load combination (kN) (kN.m) (kN.m)
1 1.35 G 1776 10 14
2 1.2 G + 1.5 Q 1850 45 55
3 1.2 G + ycQ + Wu 1650 50 65
4 0.9 G + Wu 1147 45 60
5 G + ycQ + Eu 1550 45 60
Step 3
Assess the durability requirements, cover and fire
ratings to determine the axis distance and the cover of
the longitudinal bars from the column face
This is done in accordance with the requirements of
AS 3600 Sections 4 and 5. See also Chapter 3 of this
Handbook.
For example, an external column in a coastal area
within 1 km of the sea would have a durability
classification of B2 and would require 40-MPa
concrete minimum (Special Class Concrete) and
45-mm cover to the fitments, ie 71-mm axis distance
assuming 12-mm fitments and 28-mm main reinforcing
bars. Suggest adopting a 75-mm axis distance.
Next determine the required fire resistance period
(FRP) from the BCA. Then determine the required axis
distance (cover plus fitment plus half-bar diameter) for
the FRP, eg from AS 3600 Table 5.6.3. Assuming the
required FRP is 120 minutes, N *f /Nu = 0.7 and that the
column size of 350 mm and an axis distance of 57 mm
is required.
Finally, check whether durability (cover) or fire-
resistance (axis distance) will govern the axis distance
to the main column bars from the outside face of the
column. In this example, durability governs and the
required axis distance is 75 mm. (However, if the
column was inland in an arid area with an A1 Exposure
Classification then the axis distance required for fire
resistance would govern the distance to the column
bars from the outside face of the column.)
Step 4
Choose a design procedure based on AS 3600
Clause 10.2
Generally, a linear elastic analysis (Clause 2.2.2) will be
used. Design using rigorous analysis, eg a non‑linear
analysis (Clause 2.2.5) will be appropriate only in
special circumstances, eg for long, slender columns,
tapered columns and columns of other special types
or shapes. This approach should be undertaken only Squash load point Clause 10.6.2.2
after careful consideration, because of the specific
and detailed requirements for these methods of
analysis. Where the axial forces and bending moments Decompression point
are determined by a rigorous analysis in accordance Clause 10.6.2.3
with AS 3600 Clauses 6.5 and 6.6, a column shall be
Clause 10.6.2.4
designed in accordance with Clauses 10.6 and 10.7
without further consideration of additional moments
due to slenderness.
Balanced point
Normally, column design will be carried out where Clause 10.6.2.5

Axial load
the axial actions (forces) and bending moments are Pure bending point
determined by a linear elastic analysis. The column is Clause 8.1
then designed as either:
Moment
n a short column, in accordance with AS 3600
Figure 6.1 Axial load vs moment diagram
Clauses 10.3, 10.6 and 10.7; or (after AS 3600 Figure 10.6.2.1)
n a slender column, in accordance with AS 3600
Clauses 10.4 to 10.7. 0.9
Where the axial actions (forces) and bending moments
0.85
are determined by an elastic analysis incorporating Squash load factor, α 1
secondary bending moments due to lateral joint 0.8
displacements, as provided in AS 3600 Clause 6.3,
a column shall be designed in accordance with 0.75
Clauses 10.6 and 10.7.
0.7
If the bending moment in a column causes significant
lateral deflection, the effective eccentricity of the axial 0.65
20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100
load at mid-height is increased, increasing the moment,
Concrete strength f 'c (MPa)
having an iterative effect. AS 3600 Clause 10.4 defines
when a column is sufficiently slender for this to be Figure 6.2 Variation of a1 with f 'c for calculating squash
taken into account. The design procedure applies load (Clause 10.6.2.2)
an amplification factor to the moment acting on the
column so that the short column moment-strength n Determine if the column is short, or slender.
interaction design curves can be used. n If the column is slender, determine the moment
Flowchart 6.1 covers the general design of columns in magnifiers including the buckling load depending
uniaxial or biaxial bending in accordance with AS 3600. on whether it is braced or unbraced.
Assuming a linear analysis is to be used, the general n Determine the (magnified) moments and choose
design procedure will be: the larger moment at each end of the column.
n Determine the unsupported length of the column, Lu. n For each load case chosen, check that the
applied axial actions and moment are less than
n Determine if the column is braced or unbraced.
the maximum allowed by the moment-strength
n Determine the distance of the longitudinal
interaction design curves calculated in accordance
reinforcement from the face of the column based
with AS 3600 for the chosen column dimensions,
on durability and fire requirements.
concrete strength and area and configuration of
n Determine the ultimate axial actions and the design reinforcement.
moments at each end of the column about each
n Iterate as required if the column is under-designed
axis, as required, and whether the column is in
or significantly over-designed.
single or double curvature.
n Check the design about the other axis, if required,
·n Determine the minimum moment, 0.05 D N *.
and comply with Clauses 10.6.3 and 10.6.4, if
n Calculate the effective length, Le , in accordance required, for bending about two principal axes.
with Clause 10.5.3, in both directions as required
n Check minimum and maximum reinforcement ratios
and calculate the slenderness ratio, Le /r. (For
along with the spacing of bars and fitments and
braced columns Le will be ≤ Lu and for unbraced
detail the reinforcement as required in accordance
columns Le will be > Lu .)
with AS 3600 Clause 10.7.

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 6.5

 Flowchart 6.1 Design of columns in uniaxial or biaxial bending

start

Increase Estimate column size and Increase

column size properties eg b, D, L, f 'c , p column size
or properties and cover/axis distance or properties

Is second order Is linear

no no analysis to be used?
analysis to be used?
AS 3600 Clause 6.3 AS 3600 Clause 6.2

yes yes

Is relative Is
dispacement at ends column braced?
no no
of column < L u / 250? AS 3600 Clause 10.1.3.1
AS 3600 Clause 6.3.1

yes yes

Calculate L e Calculate L e

Input Le = L u
for braced column for unbraced column
AS 3600 Clause 10.2.2
AS 3600 Clause 10.5 AS 3600 Clause 10.5

no
Is L e / r ≤ 120?
AS 3600 Clause 10.5.1

yes
Is non-linear stress Use AS 3600
no
analysis to be used? Clause 6.4, 6.5, 6.7 and
AS 3600 Clause 6.6 6.8 as appropriate

yes

Calculate M *
direct from analysis
AS 3600 Clause 10.2.3

A B C D

6.6 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

A B C D

Is column short? no Is column braced? no Calculate Nc from

AS 3600 Clause 10.3.1 AS 3600 Clause 10.1.3.1 AS 3600 Clause 10.4.4

yes yes

Calculate moment magni-

Is N *<  0.1 f 'c Ag? yes Calculate Nc from
fiers δ  b and δ  s
AS 3600 Clause 10.3.2 AS 3600 Clause 10.4.4
AS 3600 Clause 10.4.3

no

Calculate moment magnifier δ  b

AS 3600 Clause 10.4.2
no yes Are requirements of
Is N * ≤ 0.75 φ Nuo?
AS 3600 Clause 10.3.3
met?
Calculate M * AS 3600
no Clauses 10.1.2 and 10.4.1
yes

Is biaxial bending Is
∝ ∝
to be considered? yes )]  n
[(M *x / φ Mux + [(M *y / φ Muy)]  n ≤ 1? no
AS 3600 Clause 10.6.2 AS 3600 Clause 10.6.4

no

yes

no For each axis

is M * / φ Mu ≤ 1?

yes

Check reinforcement details Note: φ Mu , φ Mub , φ Nuo

AS 3600 Clause 10.7
no yes
Is design acceptable? and transmission of loads
through floor system
AS 3600 Clause 10.8
values can be obtained from
the design. φ Mu is the design
strength in bending under the
design axial force N *.

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 6.7

Because of the many variables involved, design is
usually best carried out using appropriate column
design software or a suitable spreadsheet developed
to AS 3600.
6.4 Basis of Charts 6.1 to 6.6
Load-moment interaction curve
In its simplest form, the load-moment interaction
curve for a column cross-section is constructed by
calculating four points on the boundary of the curve
and the connecting straight lines or curves between
them. These points plot: the axial strength at zero
moment on the vertical axis; the bending capacity at
zero axial action on the horizontal axis; the point at
which the neutral axis coincides with the outermost layer
of tension reinforcement; and the point at which the
tension reinforcement just begins to yield. Figure 6.1
shows a typical load-moment interaction curve for a
column cross-section using the rectangular stress block.
AS 3600 Clause 10.6.1 allows for the strength
of column cross-sections to be calculated using
stress‑strain relationships as given in Clauses 3.1.4
and 3.2.3. Note that a limit is placed on the maximum
value of concrete stress. While the CEB 6.5 curves may
be adequate for normal concrete, other stress-strain
curves 6.6 may be more appropriate for high strength
concrete and such curves can be used, provided they
comply with AS 3600. The design booklet 6.7 contains
a discussion on the design of columns and the
principles of design.
The squash load, Nuo, is a theoretical design point
because AS 3600 requires a minimum moment of
0.05 D N * for any concrete column. It is calculated in
accordance with AS 3600 Clause 10.6.2.2 where
Nuo = α 1 f 'c Ac + Asc fsy
and
Ac = the net area of concrete and
Asc = the area of column reinforcement.
The factor α 1 is to allow for shrinkage and the fact that
the concrete will carry less load in the long term than
it would when initially loaded. AS 3600 defines α 1 as
α 1 = 1.0 − 0.003 f 'c with lower and upper limits of 0.72
and 0.85 respectively. The modification of 0.9 f 'c is
Squash load, Nuo (kN)
included in the calculation of α 1.
Figure 6.3 shows graphs of the squash load for
a square column with various percentages of
reinforcement and various concrete strengths. As can
be seen from the graph, the addition of reinforcement
has the greatest effect for low concrete strengths.
The decompression point is calculated by taking
the strain in the extreme compressive fibre as 0.003,
the strain in the extreme tensile fibre as zero and
6.8 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook
using the rectangular stress block given in AS 3600
Clause 10.6.2.5.
For the transition from squash load to the
decompression point, AS 3600 allows the section
strength to be calculated using a linear relationship
between the decompression point and the squash load.
The transition from decompression point to the
balanced point to the bending strength is set out in
AS 3600 Clause 10.6.2.5.
The design strength in bending, Mub, and the
corresponding design strength in compression, Nub,
are referred to as the balance point and can be
determined as the locus of values for which kuo = 0.545
(with f = 0.6). The value of kuo is determined assuming
the balance point is the point at which the steel yields
at a strain of 0.0025 and the strain at the extreme
compressive fibre of the concrete is 0.003.
Because each load-moment strength interaction
diagram depends on so many variables, hand
calculations are generally not feasible. Either
spreadsheets or column design software are used to
develop a load-moment strength interaction diagram
for each chosen column size and configuration.
The calculated load-moment strength interaction
diagram as shown in Figure 6.1 is then modified by
applying the capacity reduction factor, f, to give a
design load-moment strength interaction diagram for
design from which the chosen column configuration
can then be checked.
The capacity reduction factor, f, varies in accordance
with AS 3600 Table 2.2.2.
400 x 400 column
4% reo
3% reo
2% reo
1% reo
Concrete alone
16000
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100
Concrete strength f 'c (MPa)
Figure 6.3 Squash load vs concrete strength
Design charts
The design charts provided in this Chapter give
the design strength of square reinforced concrete
cross-sections in combined uniaxial bending and
compression in one direction only and are for specific
design parameters only. The strength reduction
factor, f, is included. The square columns have equal
reinforcement only in two faces and have an axis
Design axial force
distance of 60 mm.
Preliminary design of circular columns can be made
using the square colmn charts with some interpolation.
The strengths were calculated based on equilibrium
and strain-compatibility considerations consistent with
the assumptions of AS 3600 Clause 10.6.1.
6.5 Axial shortening
All concrete compression members shorten under
axial load because of shrinkage and creep. Shortening
for columns is typically about 1 mm per m in height but
it can be calculated by various methods in accordance
with AS 3600. This shortening must be considered in
the design of taller buildings including for example:
the support of the facades of multi-storey buildings
to avoid non-loadbearing walls carrying load, in the
detailing of lift guide rails in the services core, and
the junction of the high-rise core, of a building with a
low‑level podium.
Further investigation is also required where a highly
stressed column is adjacent to a much-lower-stressed
column or wall. For example, an internal column
located, say, 2 m from concrete core walls to reduce
the floor span may result in significant differential
deflections of the slab across the short span.
There can also be problems if there is a change in the
plan dimensions of floors in a tall building resulting
in adjacent columns on the floor below the change
carrying significantly different loads, eg one column
might be supporting 20 storeys and the next, just a
roof. In such a case the designer should try to even out
the loads, eg by prestressing the lightly loaded column.
Another solution is to provide separation joints between
the low-rise section and a high-rise section.
6.6 High-strength concrete (HSC)
For the purposes of this Handbook, high-strength
concrete has been defined as a concrete where the
concrete strength, f 'c, is greater than 50 MPa. This
is consistent with AS 1379, where such concrete is
required to be Special Class Concrete.
High-strength concrete is becoming increasingly
available and is used to increase the load capacity of
columns or to reduce their dimensions. HSC is less
ductile than normal concrete, while its use results in
Region where the design action effects
of combined axial force and bending on
φ Nuo a section require confinement to the core
0.75 φ Nuo
φ Nu
0.6 φ Mu, φ Nu
φ 0.3 Agf 'c
φ Mu, φ Nu
φ Muo
Design moment
Figure 6.4 Confinement of the core (after AS 3600)
an increase in axial capacity but has limited effect
on moment capacity. Research in recent years has
shown that an increase in strength and ductility of
HSC columns can be achieved by well-detailed lateral
confinement reinforcement. Robustness and ductility
are important for columns and extra attention is required
in the detailing of the fitments in HSC columns.
AS 3600 Clause 10.7.3 sets out the requirements
for confinement reinforcement both in the special
confinement areas and outside these areas as shown
in Figure 6.4.
Where the fitment spacing does not exceed the values
set out in the Standard, AS 3600 Clause 10.7.3.4
provides a deemed-to-comply approach for the design
of the core confinement for rectangular and circular
sections in lieu of detailed calculations of the core
confinement by rational methods.
For further information on HSC, designers can refer to
Foster 6.8, Mendis 6.9, and other papers 6.10.
6.7 Detailing
Designers should refer to Chapter 12 of the
Reinforcement Detailing Handbook 6.11 for further
information on detailing of columns.
Designers should:
n Provide sufficient information on the drawings to
build the columns including elevations, schedules,
sections and details along with the column
orientations and the required concrete strengths.
n Provide the north point on the schedules to match
the plans and orientation of the column if the
column has different reinforcement in different
faces or is rectangular.
n Provide offset dimensions if columns are not
concentric on grid lines.
Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 6.9
n Show any special detail such as at the footings Provide 2 sets of fitments
and floors, column offsets, columns supported by at crank typically
Crank bars 1 in 6 max.
transfer beams, columns terminating or changing For circular columns
size, column heads, cast-in bolts, etc. no cranks required Additional fitments
if spacing is greater
n Always use the same bar size in one lift of a column than that specified
Note: Starter bars to
to avoid errors in fixing on site. be in outside face uno Terminate lower column
n Generally provide the longitudinal reinforcement ie bars from top to be bars if not required in
cranked inside column over
in one lift, ie one storey height as double-storey
column bars in larger sizes may be difficult to
restrain in the correct position above the formwork.
n Try to use larger and fewer bars rather than many
small bars to reduce the number of fitments. Construction joint

n Consider the beam/column intersection as Note: If f 'c of column is Sets of fitments

greater than 65 provide as noted in schedule
discussed in Chapter 4 of this Handbook and the sets of fitments at 100 cts or in sections
Reinforcement Detailing Handbook.
Figure 6.5 Cranking of longitudinal bars
n Consider using the cranked section of the column
bars at the top of the column when lapping column
bars so the straight bar can go through a beam. An
alternative is to crank the bars below the beam so
that the straight section goes through the beam.
This is not so critical for band beams or flat slabs.
Figure 6.5 illustrates this issue.
2 sets of fitments 1 set of fitments 2 sets of fitments
n Check that the longitudinal reinforcement 12 vertical bars 12 vertical bars 8 vertical bars
provided satisfies the requirements for minimum
Figure 6.6 Restraint of longitudinal bars
and maximum reinforcement given in AS 3600
Clause 10.7.1.
n Provide minimum bar diameter for fitments for Clause 10.7.4.2 (iv) Clause 10.7.4.2 (iii)
rectangular columns and helices for circular
columns in accordance with AS 3600 Table 10.7.4.3. Clause 10.7.4.2 (ii)
n Provide appropriate lapped splice lengths for the External fitment
longitudinal column bars depending on whether
the bars are in tension or compression.
Internal fitment
Designers should note that:
n While end-bearing splices are allowed by AS 3600,
Clause 10.7.4.2 (i) Consecutive fitments
the thin sleeve splices to the bars are no longer
alternated end to end
generally available in Australia. Several types of along longitudinal axis
thicker sleeve systems and a threaded coupler
system are available for splicing bars in line.
Figure 6.7 Lateral restraint of longitudinal bars
n Column cages can often be fabricated away from (after AS 3600)
the forms and lifted into place by a crane. Bundled
bars cannot usually be prefabricated. n For longitudinal bars in square or rectangular
n It is usual to terminate the column reinforcement columns, all corner bars, all bars spaced further
with cogs into the slab or beam at the top of the apart than 150 mm, and every alternate bar
building for fixity. Consider drop-in bars prior to the where the spacing is less than 150 mm have
column being cast, to allow easier alignment with to be restrained in two directions (see AS 3600
beam or slab reinforcement. Clause 10.7.4.2 ). Circular columns do not need
n Fitments are provided to prevent the vertical this restraint provided a circular fitment or helical
column bars from buckling under compression reinforcement (anchored in accordance with
loads, to resist shear and torsion, for ductility for Clause 10.7.4.4) is used and the longitudinal bars
earthquake actions if required and for HSC to are equally spaced around the circumference.
confine the core. A number of design conditions See Figure 6.6 for some examples of fitments and
therefore need to be satisfied in choosing the size restraint of vertical bars.
and spacing of fitments.

6.10 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

n To facilitate column construction an alternative
method of assembly of internal column fitments is
permitted by AS 3600 Clause 10.7.4.2. It allows
internal fitments to include a 135° hook at one end
with a 90° hook at the other, provided consecutive
internal fitments are alternated end to end along
the longitudinal reinforcement. This allows the
internal fitments to be fixed on site. See Figure 6.7.
n Where bending moments from a floor system have
to be transferred to a column and the column
is not fully surrounded by a slab or beams of
approximately equal depth, then lateral shear
reinforcement of area Asv ≥ 0.35 b s /fsy.f  in the form
of fitments must be provided through the joint
(Clause 10.7.4.5). This Clause will usually apply
to all external columns. This requirement can
sometimes cause difficulty with the fixing of the
beam reinforcement. See Figures 6.8 and 6.9.
n Where there are large changes in column
dimensions, column bars cannot usually be offset
and separate starter bars will be required to be
cast into the column below. See Figure 6.10.
n Seismic detailing, if required, in accordance with
AS 3600 Appendix C.
Closed
fitments
Construction joint
Figure 6.8 Lateral shear reinforcing
Figure 6.9 Columns requiring lateral shear reinforcement
Provide 2 sets of
fitments at crank
Crank bars 1 in 6 max. typically
For circular columns
no crank required Additional fitments
if spacing is greater
Note: Starter bars to than that specified
be in outside face uno
ie bars from top to be Anchor bars from
cranked inside bottom beam/slab
Construction joint
Note: If f 'c is greater Sets of fitments
than 65 provide sets as noted in schedule
of fitments at 100 cts or sections
Figure 6.10 Change in column size
6.8 General guidance
The following points will assist in the design and
inspection of columns for a particular project.
n While AS 3600 permits the use of 200-mm x 200‑mm
columns, a minimum dimension (for square,
rectangular or circular columns) of 250 mm is
recommended. Column dimensions are usually a
multiple of 50 mm.
n The position and shape of columns is often
dictated by architectural and spatial requirements,
eg circular columns for appearance or rectangular
columns in carparks and blade columns in
apartment buildings.
n For circular columns, thin spiral galvanised metal or
plastic is sometimes used as permanent formwork.
It is important that cleaning out of the bottom of the
column is achieved before placing of the formwork.
n Consider using HSC rather than increasing the
reinforcement ratio or changing column sizes,
subject to the transmission of axial forces through
the floor. AS 3600 allows the use of HSC up to
100 MPa but concrete strengths higher than 50 MPa
involve Special Class Concrete with the require-
ments of project control testing and extra detailing
for confinement. Also check if the local concrete
suppliers can supply the HSC concrete specified.
n Before specifying above 65-MPa concrete, an
alternative verification path will be required to
satisfy the requirements of the BCA until such time
as AS 3600—2009 is called up in the BCA.
n On successively higher floors, reduce the concrete
strength and or reinforcement rather than changing
the column sizes, as column formwork is expensive.
A uniform column size will also often be desirable
for visual reasons, particularly with facade columns.
Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 6.11
 M20 cast-in ferrule n Where bolts are cast into the top of the column for
the roof structure and the like, use a template to
align the bolts correctly. Avoid the use of threaded
reinforcement for this purpose because of the
2x M20 grade bolts
difficulty in accurately aligning the reinforcement
and achieving the tolerances usually required for
holding-down bolts.
n Consider using concrete spacer blocks when
SHS welded to pfc durability is an issue. Care is needed to ensure
with packer pl that voids do not occur under the blocks, so
PLAN
consideration may need to be given to the use of
Note: After installation site-measure super plasticisers and smaller aggregates.
position of ferrules etc before any
shop details are drawn for approval n For precast columns, be careful with choice of
dowel ducts, which are commonly used to provide
Figure 6.11 Cast-in ferrules to columns sleeves into which the projecting dowel bars from
the concrete below are grouted. Generally, dowel
ducts should be of thin galvanised steel 2–3 times
n Check that the layout of fitments will allow placing
the size of the dowel bar. Smooth-faced plastic
and compaction of the concrete and the forms to
dowel ducts should be used only where the joint is
be cleaned out.
pinned and there is no tension.
n Remember to check the transmission of axial
forces through the floor (see AS 3600 Clause 10.8).
n Edge columns and corner column are often more
critical for design than internal columns because of
high bending moments.
n Avoid, wherever possible, casting in large services
such as downpipes, sewer stacks, etc in columns
because of future maintenance and durability
problems. There is also the complication of getting
the services in and out of the column and clashes
with reinforcement, especially at the bottom of the
column. This area of a column is usually highly
stressed and there is the problem of assessing
what the reduced strength of the column will be
with a section of the column removed for a large
service duct.
n The column below a slab is sometimes cast with
the floor slab to minimise scaffolding and allow
access from the floor formwork to cast the column.
In this situation, columns should be poured at
least 1–2 hours before the slab over, to allow for
settlement of the concrete in the column to take
place, before the concrete in the slab is placed.
n Avoid cast-in bolts and cleat plates projecting from
the side of columns because of the complication
with formwork (especially in stripping) and the
difficulty of placing and compacting the concrete.
Consider using cast-in ferrules or a cast-in plate,
which allows some tolerance and onto which
cleat plates and the like can be welded after the
formwork is stripped. See Figure 6.11.

6.12 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 Charts 6.1 to 6.7
These charts have been developed on the
following assumptions:
n Equal reinforcement is in only two opposite
faces, resisting bending.
n An axis distance of 60 mm from the face of

concrete to the centre of the longitudinal bar,

ie a cover of about 30 to 40 mm depending
on the fitment and column bar size.
n Bending moments about the one axis only.

n Concrete strengths in the range of 25 to

50 MPa.

Chart 6.1 300 x 300 Columns

pages 6.14–6.15
Chart 6.2 400 x 400 Columns
pages 6.16–6.17
Chart 6.3 500 x 500 Columns
pages 6.18–6.19
Chart 6.4 600 x 600 Columns
pages 6.20–6.21
Chart 6.5 700 x 700 Columns
pages 6.22–6.23
Chart 6.6 800 x 800 Columns
pages 6.24–6.25

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 6.13

 chart 6.1 300 x 300 Columns

4000 Cover depends on fitment size

y 60 mm

3500 x x Depth = d
M
y 60 mm
3000 axis distance
Width = b
SQUARE COLUMNS
2500
f 'c = 25 MPa

2000
300 column 1%
300 column 2%
1500 300 column 3%
300 column 4%
Minimum moment
Compressive force (kN)

1000

500

0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150
Moment (kN.m)

4000 Cover depends on fitment size

y 60 mm

3500
x x Depth = d
M
y 60 mm
3000
axis distance
Width = b
SQUARE COLUMNS
2500
f 'c = 32 MPa

2000
300 column 1%
300 column 2%
1500 300 column 3%
300 column 4%
Minimum moment
Compressive force (kN)

1000

500

0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150
Moment (kN.m)

6.14 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 chart 6.1 (continued) 300 x 300 Columns

4000 Cover depends on fitment size

y 60 mm

3500 x x Depth = d
M
y 60 mm
3000 axis distance
Width = b
SQUARE COLUMNS
2500
f 'c = 40 MPa

2000
300 column 1%
300 column 2%
1500 300 column 3%
300 column 4%
Minimum moment
Compressive force (kN)

1000

500

0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150
Moment (kN.m)

4000 Cover depends on fitment size

y 60 mm

3500
x x Depth = d
M
y 60 mm
3000
axis distance
Width = b
SQUARE COLUMNS
2500
f 'c = 50 MPa

2000
300 column 1%
300 column 2%
1500 300 column 3%
300 column 4%
Minimum moment
Compressive force (kN)

1000

500

0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150
Moment (kN.m)

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 6.15

 chart 6.2 400 x 400 Columns

6000 Cover depends on fitment size

y 60 mm

x x Depth = d
5000 M
y 60 mm
axis distance
Width = b
4000 SQUARE COLUMNS

f 'c = 25 MPa

3000
400 column 1%
400 column 2%
400 column 3%
2000 400 column 4%
Minimum moment
Compressive force (kN)

1000

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Moment (kN.m)

6000 Cover depends on fitment size

y 60 mm

x x Depth = d
5000 M
y 60 mm
axis distance
Width = b
4000 SQUARE COLUMNS

f 'c = 32 MPa

3000
400 column 1%
400 column 2%
400 column 3%
2000 400 column 4%
Minimum moment
Compressive force (kN)

1000

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Moment (kN.m)

6.16 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 chart 6.2 (continued) 400 x 400 Columns

6000 Cover depends on fitment size

y 60 mm

x x Depth = d
5000 M
y 60 mm
axis distance
Width = b
4000 SQUARE COLUMNS

f 'c = 40 MPa

3000
400 column 1%
400 column 2%
400 column 3%
2000 400 column 4%
Minimum moment
Compressive force (kN)

1000

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Moment (kN.m)

6000 Cover depends on fitment size

y 60 mm

x x Depth = d
5000 M
y 60 mm
axis distance
Width = b
4000 SQUARE COLUMNS

f 'c = 50 MPa

3000
400 column 1%
400 column 2%
400 column 3%
2000 400 column 4%
Minimum moment
Compressive force (kN)

1000

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Moment (kN.m)

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 6.17

 chart 6.3 500 x 500 Columns

10000 Cover depends on fitment size

y 60 mm
9000
x x Depth = d
M
8000
y 60 mm
axis distance
Width = b
7000
SQUARE COLUMNS
6000 f 'c = 25 MPa

5000
500 column 1%
4000 500 column 2%
500 column 3%
500 column 4%
3000 Minimum moment
Compressive force (kN)

2000

1000

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Moment (kN.m)

10000 Cover depends on fitment size

y 60 mm
9000
x x Depth = d
M
8000
y 60 mm
axis distance
7000 Width = b
SQUARE COLUMNS
6000 f 'c = 32 MPa

5000
500 column 1%
4000 500 column 2%
500 column 3%
500 column 4%
3000 Minimum moment
Compressive force (kN)

2000

1000

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Moment (kN.m)

6.18 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 chart 6.3 (continued) 500 x 500 Columns

10000 Cover depends on fitment size

y 60 mm
9000
x x Depth = d
M
8000
y 60 mm
axis distance
Width = b
7000
SQUARE COLUMNS
6000 f 'c = 40 MPa

5000
500 column 1%
4000 500 column 2%
500 column 3%
500 column 4%
3000 Minimum moment
Compressive force (kN)

2000

1000

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Moment (kN.m)

10000 Cover depends on fitment size

y 60 mm
9000
x x Depth = d
M
8000
y 60 mm
axis distance
7000 Width = b
SQUARE COLUMNS
6000 f 'c = 50 MPa

5000
500 column 1%
4000 500 column 2%
500 column 3%
500 column 4%
3000 Minimum moment
Compressive force (kN)

2000

1000

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Moment (kN.m)

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 6.19

 chart 6.4 600 x 600 Columns

14000 Cover depends on fitment size

y 60 mm
13000

12000 x x Depth = d
M
11000 y 60 mm
axis distance
10000 Width = b
SQUARE COLUMNS
9000

8000 f 'c = 25 MPa

7000

6000 600 column 1%

600 column 2%
5000 600 column 3%
600 column 4%
4000 Minimum moment
Compressive force (kN)

3000

2000

1000

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Moment (kN.m)

14000 Cover depends on fitment size

y 60 mm
13000

12000 x x Depth = d
M
11000
y 60 mm
axis distance
10000 Width = b

9000 SQUARE COLUMNS

8000 f 'c = 32 MPa

7000

6000 600 column 1%

600 column 2%
5000 600 column 3%
600 column 4%
4000 Minimum moment
Compressive force (kN)

3000

2000

1000

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Moment (kN.m)

6.20 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 chart 6.4 (continued) 600 x 600 Columns

14000 Cover depends on fitment size

y 60 mm
13000

12000 x x Depth = d
M
11000 y 60 mm
axis distance
10000 Width = b
SQUARE COLUMNS
9000

8000 f 'c = 40 MPa

7000

6000 600 column 1%

600 column 2%
5000 600 column 3%
600 column 4%
4000 Minimum moment
Compressive force (kN)

3000

2000

1000

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Moment (kN.m)

14000 Cover depends on fitment size

y 60 mm
13000

12000 x x Depth = d
M
11000
y 60 mm
axis distance
10000 Width = b

9000 SQUARE COLUMNS

8000 f 'c = 50 MPa

7000

6000 600 column 1%

600 column 2%
5000 600 column 3%
600 column 4%
4000 Minimum moment
Compressive force (kN)

3000

2000

1000

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Moment (kN.m)

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 6.21

 chart 6.5 700 x 700 Columns

19000 Cover depends on fitment size

18000 y 60 mm
17000
x x Depth = d
16000 M
15000
y 60 mm
14000 axis distance
Width = b
13000
SQUARE COLUMNS
12000
11000 f 'c = 25 MPa
10000
9000
700 column 1%
8000
700 column 2%
7000 700 column 3%
6000 700 column 4%
Minimum moment
Compressive force (kN)

5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800
Moment (kN.m)

19000 Cover depends on fitment size

18000 y 60 mm
17000
x x Depth = d
16000
M
15000
y 60 mm
14000 axis distance
Width = b
13000
SQUARE COLUMNS
12000
11000 f 'c = 32 MPa
10000
9000
700 column 1%
8000
700 column 2%
7000 700 column 3%
6000 700 column 4%
Minimum moment
Compressive force (kN)

5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800
Moment (kN.m)

6.22 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 chart 6.5 (continued) 700 x 700 Columns

19000 Cover depends on fitment size

18000 y 60 mm
17000
x x Depth = d
16000 M
15000
y 60 mm
14000 axis distance
Width = b
13000
SQUARE COLUMNS
12000
11000 f 'c = 40 MPa
10000
9000
700 column 1%
8000
700 column 2%
7000 700 column 3%
6000 700 column 4%
Minimum moment
Compressive force (kN)

5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800
Moment (kN.m)

19000 Cover depends on fitment size

18000 y 60 mm
17000
x x Depth = d
16000
M
15000
y 60 mm
14000 axis distance
Width = b
13000
SQUARE COLUMNS
12000
11000 f 'c = 50 MPa
10000
9000
700 column 1%
8000
700 column 2%
7000 700 column 3%
6000 700 column 4%
Minimum moment
Compressive force (kN)

5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800
Moment (kN.m)

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 6.23

 chart 6.6 800 x 800 Columns

24000 Cover depends on fitment size

y 60 mm
22000
x x Depth = d
20000 M
y 60 mm
18000 axis distance
Width = b
16000 SQUARE COLUMNS

14000 f 'c = 25 MPa

12000
800 column 1%
10000 800 column 2%
800 column 3%
8000 800 column 4%
Minimum moment
Compressive force (kN)

6000

4000

2000

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Moment (kN.m)

24000 Cover depends on fitment size

y 60 mm
22000
x x Depth = d
20000 M
y 60 mm
18000
axis distance
Width = b
16000 SQUARE COLUMNS

14000 f 'c = 32 MPa

12000
800 column 1%
10000 800 column 2%
800 column 3%
8000 800 column 4%
Minimum moment
Compressive force (kN)

6000

4000

2000

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Moment (kN.m)

6.24 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 chart 6.6 (continued) 800 x 800 Columns

24000 Cover depends on fitment size

y 60 mm
22000
x x Depth = d
20000 M
y 60 mm
18000 axis distance
Width = b
16000 SQUARE COLUMNS

14000 f 'c = 40 MPa

12000
800 column 1%
10000 800 column 2%
800 column 3%
8000 800 column 4%
Minimum moment
Compressive force (kN)

6000

4000

2000

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Moment (kN.m)

24000 Cover depends on fitment size

y 60 mm
22000
x x Depth = d
20000 M
y 60 mm
18000
axis distance
Width = b
16000 SQUARE COLUMNS

14000 f 'c = 50 MPa

12000
800 column 1%
10000 800 column 2%
800 column 3%
8000 800 column 4%
Minimum moment
Compressive force (kN)

6000

4000

2000

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Moment (kN.m)

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 6.25

References
6.1 Precast Concrete Handbook 2nd Ed, National
Precast Concrete Association Australia and
Concrete Institute of Australia, 2009.
6.2 AS 3600 Concrete structures Standards
Australia, 2009.
6.3 Warner RF, Rangan BV, Hall AS and Faulkes KA
Concrete structures, Longman, 1998.
6.4 Warner RF, Foster SJ and Kilpatrick AE
Reinforced Concrete Basics 2nd Ed, Pearson,
2010.
6.5 CEB, Commission IVc Deformability of Concrete
Structures – Basic Assumptions Bulletin
D'Information No. 90, 1973.
6.6 Bridge R and Wheeler A 'Advanced Design of
Columns' One Steel September 2001.
6.7 Guide to Reinforced Concrete Design One
Steel Design Booklet RCB-3.1(1) Cross-section
Strength of Columns – Part 1 AS 3600 Design,
August 2000.
6.8 Foster SJ Design and Detailing of High Strength
Concrete Columns, University of NSW, 1999.
6.9 Mendis P Design of High-Strength Concrete
Members, Engineers Australia, 2001.
6.10 National Seminar Series on AS 3600—2009,
Engineers Australia, Lecture 3, 2009.
6.11 Reinforcement Detailing Handbook (Z06)
2nd Ed, Concrete Institute of Australia, 2010.

6.26 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

Chapter 7 Walls
7.1 Wall types
Concrete walls can be categorised in terms of their
method of construction, ie:
n Insitu
n Tilt-up
n Precast.
Insitu concrete walls require extensive formwork and
take longer to build than tilt-up or precast. In recent
years there has therefore been a considerable shift
to the use of tilt-up or precast concrete walls where
possible. For further information, designers should
refer to Guide to Tilt-up Design and Construction 7.1 for
tilt-up walls and to Chapter 2 of the Precast Concrete
Handbook 7.2 for precast walls.
Tilt-up or precast walls may need to be temporally
braced in accordance with AS 3850 Tilt-up concrete
construction 7.3, unless they can be fixed in place
top and bottom at the time of erection. There are
also statutory requirements in some States and
Territories and there is a National Code of Practice –
for Precast, Tilt-up and Concrete Elements in Building
Construction 7.4 for the design and erection of tilt-up
and precast concrete walls. This document requires
the design for erection of tilt-up and precast concrete
walls to be carried out by an Erection Design Engineer.
Walls can also be categorised in terms of their form
and function within a building, eg:
n Basement retaining walls including cantilever
retaining walls
n Core walls (to lift shafts, service ducts and
stairs, etc)
n External and internal walls to single-storey and
low‑rise buildings
n Cladding wall panels to the facades of multi-storey
buildings
n Internal walls in multi-storey buildings
n Walls for housing
n Other, eg curved walls.
Comments on these various types are given below.
7.2 General
Walls are thin vertical elements, commonly defined
as where the length is four times or greater than their
thickness. This definition is implied in AS 36007.5
Clause 5.6.2(b) relating to fire resistance but is not
mentioned in AS 3600 Section 11. Depending on
their function, walls can act like a column supporting
vertical loads, a slab resisting horizontal loads, a
cantilever beam in flexure (ie a shear wall), a deep
beam, or sometimes a combination of these.
The design of walls is set out in AS 3600 Section 11
and is in line with the rules adopted for columns in
Section 10. Generally, their design, when carrying
large vertical loads does not differ significantly from
the design of columns, in that axial loads and moments
about each axis need to be assessed and allowed for.
Walls resisting lateral loads perpendicular to their face
are usually designed as slabs.
However, AS 3600 Section 11 gives design rules for
only a limited range of walls. Where walls are outside
this range, the designer can adopt any appropriate
rational design method as permitted under the Building
Code of Australia (BCA)7.6. Flowchart 7.1 can be used
to determine whether or not Section 11 is applicable.
AS 3600 Section 11 applies to the following walls:
(a) Braced walls (as defined in AS 3600 Clause 11.3)
that are subject to in-plane load effects which
have to be designed in accordance with AS 3600
Clauses 11.2 to 11.7.
(b) Braced walls that are subject to simultaneous
in‑plane and out-of-plane load effects and
unbraced walls which have to be designed in
accordance with Section 9 for slabs and Section 10
for columns as appropriate.
Except that where the stress at the mid-height
section of a wall due to factored in-plane bending
Insitu and precast concrete walls
Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 7.1
 Flowchart 7.1 Design of walls AS 3600 Section 11

no
Is wall planar? Outside AS 3600 Section 11

yes

Is wall braced? no
(Clause 11.3)
Does the stress
at mid-height section due to
no yes
yes in-plane bending and axial forces Is Hwe / tw ≤ 50?
exceed the lesser of 0.03 f 'c
and 2 MPa?
Is wall subject to yes no
out-of-plane load effects? yes

no May design as slab using

Design wall using alternative Section 9  providing 2nd order
Sections 9 and 10  as appropriate deflections are considered in
calculation of bending moments

Is wall subject to only yes

in-plane vertical forces?

no
yes May design using simplified
Is Hwe / tw ≤ 30?
method in Clause 11.5

Is any horizontal
cross-section of the wall no no
subject to tension over part of
the section?
Design as column using
Is wall reinforced yes
Section 10  (Note Clause 11.7.4
yes on both faces?
may override Clause 10.7.4 )

no

Design for in-plane bending in accordance

with Section 8  and horizontal shear in
Outside scope of Section 11
accordance with Clause 11.6  or for both in
accordance with Section 12  if appropriate

7.2 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 and axial forces does not exceed the lesser of
0.03 f 'c and 2 MPa, the wall may be designed as a
slab in accordance with Section 9, provided:
(i) second-order deflections due to in-plane loads
and long-term effects are considered in the
calculation of bending moments; and
(ii) the ratio of effective height to thickness does
not exceed 50.
Designers should be aware that the ratio of effective
height to thickness may be restricted by design for fire
as set out in AS 3600 Section 5.
For off-form finishes to walls, designers should refer to
the Guide to Off-form Concrete Finishes 7.7.
Designers are reminded that AS 1170.4 7.8 Clause 5.2.3
requires that stiff components of a building such
as concrete walls need to be considered as part of
the seismic-force-resisting system and designed
accordingly, or separated from all structural elements
such that no interaction takes place as the structure
undergoes deflections due to the earthquake effects
determined in accordance with AS 1170.4.
The use of high-strength concrete in walls is not
mentioned in Section 11 except indirectly in
Clause 11.7.4 relating to the restraint of vertical
reinforcement. Designers should refer to AS 3600
Section 10 and texts such as Design of High-Strength
Concrete Members 7.9 for further information where
such concrete is used.
Concrete walls behave in different ways depending
on whether they are subject to in-plane or out-of-plane
bending. They can be subject to a combination of
actions including:
n vertical loads when the walls are commonly known
as loadbearing walls (walls supporting their own
weight only such as facade cladding walls are
known as non-loadbearing walls);
n loads perpendicular to the face of the wall (out-of-
plane bending), principally wind and earthquake
loads and sometimes other lateral loads such as
soil, surcharge and hydrostatic loads;
n horizontal loads in the plane of the wall (in-plane
bending and shear) when the walls are commonly
known as shear walls resisting the lateral loads,
although seldom is shear the critical design case.
Shear walls that act as vertical cantilever elements,
are able to resist large lateral loads such as wind and
seismic forces in buildings and usually also support
vertical loads. They are an efficient way to resist
horizontal loads and generally provide lateral strength
much more economically than a framed structure
using flexure in columns and beams or slabs. Shear
walls have three basic failure modes:
n Sliding (shear)
n Overturning
n Bending.
The possibility of any of these occurring can be
minimised by increasing the vertical load on the wall.
For low-rise walls this may be done by increasing the
dead load, eg by increasing the thickness of the wall.
AS 3600 Appendix C covers specific detailing
requirements for earthquake loads for ductile shear
walls, including boundary elements.
AS 3600 Clause 11.2.1(b) requires that when the
horizontal forces in the plane of the wall as shown
in Figure 7.1 cause tension over part of the section,
then such walls be designed as beams in flexure
in accordance AS 3600 Section 8 and that for
in‑plane shear they be designed in accordance with
Clause 11.6. Alternatively, they can be designed
for in‑plane bending and shear in accordance with
AS 3600 Section 12, if appropriate.
Concrete walls have good strength, fire resistance,
acoustic and thermal properties. Typically, two- to
four‑hour fire resistance levels can be met by walls
from 150–220 and 230–350 mm thick with 25- and
55-mm axis distances respectively. The varying
thickness of wall depends on the minimum thickness
for insulation. More particularly it depends on the
'structural adequacy', whether the wall is exposed on
one or two sides and the ratio of Nf* / Nu as set out in
AS 3600 Table 5.7.2.
th
ng
Le
Height
Thickness
Tension
Compression
Figure 7.1 Loads on a shear wall
Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 7.3
It should be understood that two-sided exposure
refers to walls within a single fire compartment which
can be surrounded by fire. A wall forming part of the
boundary of a fire compartment is deemed to be
exposed only from one direction at a time. Exposure
from the other direction implies that the fire has
breached the compartment boundary and the wall has
failed. However, if a wall projects beyond the facade
or compartment boundary and is exposed on three or
more faces then it is logical to assume that the wall is
exposed on two opposite sides.
However, all concrete walls have to comply with the
requirements for durability and fire resistance as
set out in AS 3600. Nevertheless, there are a large
number of walls for which the BCA does not specify a
Fire Resistance Level (FRL), eg internal walls in Type C
construction.
7.3 Basement and retaining walls
Concrete basement retaining walls (generally used
to retain soil at the base of a building) can be either
cantilever walls or, more often, walls spanning vertically
between supports such as the basement floor and
lower or ground floor. They sometimes span horizontally
between columns, walls, abutments or similar. They
can be constructed either of insitu or precast concrete.
For embedded retaining walls, piling systems or
diaphragm walls constructed from the top of the
ground can be used to form a retaining wall and then
the soil from the basement excavated from within
an enclosed area. Designers can refer to the ICE,
Specification for Piling and Embedded Retaining
Walls 7.10 for further information.
Retaining walls resist lateral actions due to soil, water,
surcharge loads, etc. When they resist soil loads, their
design should be in accordance with AS 46787.11 and
should be based on design lateral pressures provided
by a geotechnical investigation with appropriate
geotechnical advice They may also have to prevent
the ingress of water, which will require consideration
of hydrostatic pressures, tanking, drainage, sealing of
joints, the risk of damage from salts in the ground, etc.
The main reinforcement in cantilever walls retaining
soil will be located in the tension face. For walls thicker
than 175 mm, a layer of mesh or grid of small bars is
normally provided in the other face for crack control.
Retaining walls spanning horizontally are usually
designed as pinned each end. Retaining walls spanning
vertically can be designed as 'pinned' or 'fixed' at both
the top and bottom, giving a number of design options.
Where spans are not too great, it is common to design
them as pinned top and bottom. These walls can also
be loadbearing, so there may be a number of different
design criteria.
7.4 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook
Suspended floor Precast wall units can act as
formwork to beam face
Wall units to be braced off Precast wall units spanning
the basement slab until the between footing beam and
suspended slab is cast upper floor beam
Temporary braces Tanking to back face of wall
Granular backfill with
drainage system
Grouted dowel connection
to footing
Basement slab-on-ground
Figure 7.2 Precast retaining walls (after the Precast
Concrete Handbook)
Insitu concrete walls should be constructed with
vertical construction joints at 4- to 6-m spacing along
the wall. Constructing longer sections of walls may
result in thermal cracking/shrinkage cracking at the
bottom of the wall with cracks tapering up the wall, due
to restraint by the footing or slab under.
Retaining walls that span vertically between restraints
are typically supported on a strip footing, slab edge,
footing beam or similar. Restraint fixing to the top of
the wall is usually by cast-in bars to the slab, or similar,
as shown in Figure 7.2 for a precast wall. In cantilever
retaining walls and those retaining walls spanning
vertically, large horizontal forces (reactions) will usually
occur at the bottom of the walls, which the horizontal
joint may be unable to resist. A shear key or rebate
should be provided to give adequate restraint at the
base of retaining walls subject to large lateral forces.
7.4 Core walls (to lift shafts, service ducts
and stairs)
In multi-storey buildings the core walls are usually
loadbearing walls and shear walls and are usually
insitu concrete because of the need to transmit tension
and compression forces down the building and then
to the footings. For low-rise buildings, precast walls
are sometimes used. Precast walls, however, usually
do not have the same structural capacity as insitu
walls even when expensive and time-consuming site
connections are used.
Core walls generally are loadbearing and usually
function as shear walls and can be coupled to form a
group of walls in accordance with AS 3600 Clause 11.2.2.
They are usually designed in accordance with AS 3600
Clause 11.2. When there are number of shear walls, it
is common to assume that the concrete floor or roof
acts as a rigid element or diaphragm for loads in the
plane of the floor, and that the lateral loads on the
building are distributed to each shear wall in proportion
to its rigidity, based on gross section properties.

Insitu and precast concrete walls A series of insitu
concrete core walls including both stair and lift shafts,
constructed using climbing formwork before the floors
below are cast.
Precast wall panels The erection of precast concrete
core walls for a lift shaft and stair core. Note the
bracing of the panels with a minimum of two braces
per panel and the precast panels would sit over
projecting starter bars which fit into grout ducts in
the precast walls, and which are later grouted.
When resisting the lateral loads on the building as
individual walls, they are often considered as a
cantilever beam from the base of the building, which
adds flexural stresses to the calculated vertical
stresses. This may result in tension in the wall, in which
case the wall is designed as a beam in accordance
with AS 3600 Section 8. In addition, in-plane shear
forces will need to be checked in accordance with
Clause 11.6.
When two or more walls, or a wall with a number of
large openings, are joined together by a coupling or
header beam or similar, the effect of combining walls
or sections of a wall is to increase the stiffness of the
combined wall system – as a result of transfer of shear
and flexure through the beam (commonly known as a
tie or header beam). This tie beam must be designed
for these actions and the shear at the interconnected
vertical edges of the walls must be checked. These
coupling beams are often heavily reinforced, as their
depth is usually limited for architectural reasons. The
wall curvatures are also altered from that of a cantilever
wall because of the frame action developed, and
the combined walls and coupling beams will require
detailed analysis. These matters are discussed in
more detail in Chapter 5 of the Precast Concrete
Handbook 7.2.
7.5 External walls to single-storey
and other low-rise buildings
Precast or tilt-up concrete panels are commonly
used for external walls of single-storey and low-rise
industrial and commercial buildings. They can be
either cladding panels or, more commonly, loadbearing
panels combined to form a braced box where the roof
or floor acts as a diaphragm as shown in Figures 7.3
and 7.4 respectively. They are generally designed
as braced walls carrying the vertical and in-plane
horizontal loads in accordance with Clause 11.1(b)
and as slabs carrying the out-of-plane forces in
accordance with AS 3600 Section 9.
Each bay braced to create
redundancy in structure
Wind load acting on
side wall of building
Roof bracing designed to
transfer wind load to end walls
End walls act as shear walls
Figure 7.3 Single-storey concrete panel building
Figure 7.4 A two-storey precast concrete panel
building (after Hughes7.12)
Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 7.5
A discussion on the design considerations for a Non-loadbearing walls are subject to lateral loads
single‑storey building can be found in Briefing 087.13. usually perpendicular to the face of the wall, principally
It notes that the roof sheeting and purlins should not be wind and earthquake loads and designers should refer
used as part of the bracing system and redundancy in to the Precast Concrete Handbook (Chapters 2 and 7)
the bracing system is strongly recommended. for further information on the design of such precast
In general, the effective-height-to-thickness ratio for panels.
walls is limited to ≤ 40 (see AS 3600 Clause 5.7.3). In addition to lateral loads perpendicular to the face,
However, this restriction is waived where the top of the loadbearing panels need to be designed for vertical
wall is supported by a member not required to have and lateral loads in the plane of the wall as applicable.
a FRL, eg concrete panel walls used as cladding for The key design issues for precast concrete facades
steel-portal-framed buildings or walls for a concrete are appearance, the correct and adequate design
panel building with a steel-framed roof. For preliminary and inspection, durability, waterproofing, building
sizing, an effective-height-to-thickness ratio of up to 50 movements, and buildability. Coverage of this topic
may be used. can be found in Woodside 7.14.
A minimum practical thickness of external walls is
about 125 mm but, more typically, 150 mm or greater
thicknesses are used. For walls up to 170–200 mm
one layer of reinforcement placed centrally is generally
used; above that thickness, two layers are used, one
layer in each face. Designers need to exercise caution
when considering cantilevering heavy items such
as large awnings off concrete walls that have only a
central layer of reinforcement because of their limited
bending capacity.
Single-storey loadbearing and cladding walls are
usually supported on a strip footing, a slab edge,
beam or similar. Tilt-up or precast walls have to be
restrained at the base at the time of erection and
usually temporally braced until connected to the
structure. It is also important not to provide a moment
connection between the steel roof beams and concrete
Precast cladding wall panels
walls for buildings because of the wall's limited
bending capacity about its weak axis.

7.6 Precast external wall panels in 7.7 Internal walls in multi-storey

multi-storey buildings
Precast external wall panels in multi-storey buildings
may be either non-loadbearing, ie serve only as
claddings or, more commonly, loadbearing, ie serve
as cladding and have a structural role or roles. The
design, detailing and layout of panels will involve
considerable interaction between the structural
engineer, architect and precaster.
Non-loadbearing panels are typically supported
on a floor-by-floor basis using corbels and restraint
brackets. A suitable horizontal joint (15–20 mm) must
be provided at each floor level to accommodate both
manufacturing and construction tolerances and for
axial shortening of the building if it is a concrete frame.
The detailing of this joint is very important to allow for
these tolerances and movement.
buildings
In multi-storey buildings, internal concrete walls are
typically either precast or insitu. They often have a
fire‑separation role, carry vertical loads and usually
act as shear walls. They are typically supported on a
floor‑by-floor basis.
These walls are usually designed for vertical loads
in accordance with AS 3600 Clause 11.2.1, using
either Clause 11.5, the simplified design method,
or Section 10 Column Design. However, if they are
acting as shear walls they may need to be checked
for bending in accordance with AS 3600 Section 8 if
the wall is in tension and designed for in-plane shear
forces in accordance with AS 3600 Clause 11.6.

7.6 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook


Internal precast walls The internal precast walls shown
above include a column at one end of each wall
panel. They are loadbearing walls supporting precast
flooring. They also act as shear walls carrying in-plane
horizontal loads from the floors over into the floor below
and have vertical starter bars from the floor into dowel
ducts in the wall which are subsequently grouted.
The columns sections are used to support the precast
concrete beams on either side of the walls which in
turn support precast floor units. Note how the precast
walls are braced with two diagonal braces per panel
until the floor over is cast.
Precast walls for a garage and house extension
7.8 Walls for houses
Concrete is increasingly being used for walls in both
individual and modular housing. Designers should
refer to The Concrete Panel Homes Handbook 7.15 for
further information.
These walls are usually tilt-up or precast walls and
one- or two-storey in height. In traditional houses,
the structural engineer would typically design only
the concrete footings, concrete slab-on-ground,
suspended concrete floors, some wall bracing for
lateral loads and long-span beams as required.
However, when tilt-up or precast concrete walls are
used, full design for all the structure by the structural
engineer will be required to ensure adequate restraint
of the concrete walls both in the temporary and final
conditions.
Tilt-up or precast walls are typically supported on a
concrete floor and/or edge beams at ground level,
while the concrete slab-on-ground will often provide
a suitable element to temporarily brace the tilt-up or
precast panels during erection. Designers should
note that most temporary brace fixings used to fix
the diagonal braces to concrete slab-on-ground
are heavy-duty drilled load controlled, torque-
setting expansion anchors which commonly require
a minimum slab thickness of 125 mm whereas
slabs‑on‑ground are commonly only 100 mm thick
when designed in accordance with AS 28707.16.
The main structural design issue is how the concrete
walls are laterally restrained by either concrete walls
perpendicular to them or by the floor or roof, acting as
a diaphragm. Light timber-framed floors and roofs are
unlikely to be adequate to act as a diaphragm for the
restraint of heavy concrete wall panels under lateral
loads such as wind or to provide restraint in the event
of fire and/or earthquake.
7.9 Walls Designed as Columns
In Section 11 of AS 3600, the floor-to-floor height of
the wall is defined as Hw. However, in Section 10 of
AS 3600 (used when designing walls as columns), the
effective height of a column (wall) is referred to as an
effective length, Le.
In Table 7.1 and in Charts 7.1–7.5, the effective length,
Le , is in fact the effective height of the wall and not the
length of the wall in plan.
The charts in this chapter are based on the same
assumptions as the charts in Chapter 6. They
assume the wall is braced and short, ie L /r ≤ 25. For
a slender wall, a moment magnifier will need to be
applied in accordance with Clause 10.4.2 for slender
(columns) walls. As can be seen from Table 7.1,
walls 200–300 mm thick are likely to be slender.
The charts are for walls reinforced on two faces for
f 'c = 25, 32, 40 and 50 MPa with 50-mm axis distance
which should provide a FRR of 120 minutes. Because
they are relatively thin, such walls cannot resist high
bending moments about their smaller dimension.
The design procedure for walls when acting as
columns will be:
n Assess the actions on the wall.
n Assume an initial size of wall and concrete strength.
n Assess the durability requirements, cover and FRR
to determine the axis distance and the distance of
the vertical bars from the wall face.
n Choose a design procedure based on Clause 11.1
of AS 3600 and the Flowchart 7.1.
Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 7.7
Table 7.1 Slenderness ratios for braced walls when designed as columns

Maximum Effective length* Le

Thickness of braced wall Radius of height Hw
(mm) gyration (mm) Factor k = 0.7 Factor k = 0.85 Factor k = 1.0

short wall Le / r ≤ 25

200 60 1500 2143 1765 1500
300 90 2250 3214 2647 2250
400 120 3000 4286 3529 3000
500 150 3750 5357 4412 3750

Slender wall Le / r ≤ 120

200 60 7200 10 286 8471 7200
300 90 10 800 15 429 12 706 10 800
400 120 14 400 20 571 16 941 14 400
500 150 18 000 25 714 21 176 18 000

* Effective length factor, k, from AS 3600 Figure 10.5.3(A)

Table 7.2 Reinforcement area, Ast , for crack control (mm2/m)

Thickness of wall (mm)

Ast 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400 425 450 475 500

1.5 t w 150 188 225 263 300 338 375 413 450 488 525 563 600 638 675 713 750
2.5 t w 250 313 375 438 500 563 625 688 750 813 875 938 1000 1063 1125 1188 1250
3.5 t w 350 438 525 613 700 788 875 963 1050 1138 1225 1313 1400 1488 1575 1663 1750
6.0 t w 600 750 900 1050 1200 1350 1500 1650 1800 1950 2100 2250 2400 2550 2700 2850 3000

n Determine the effective height, the slenderness
ratio and determine the design moments.
n For the chosen axial load and moments determine
the area of reinforcement required.
(See Chapter 6 for a more-detailed discussion of these
design steps.)
Generally, walls are designed for strength only; stability
and serviceability are considered only for slender and/
or unbraced walls. The action effects in accordance
with Table 1.1 of Chapter 1 of this Handbook that
should be considered include:
n 1.35G
n 1.2G + 1.5Q
n 1.2G + ycQ + Wu
n 0.9G + Wu (not generally a design case – may be
applicable for a lightweight roof supported by the
wall in a cyclonic area and where large uplift forces
may have to be resisted)
n G + ycQ + Eu
Considering all the possible axial load and bending
moment combinations for each load case for a given
cross-section for each wall at each floor using manual
determination of the strength of a chosen wall size
can be a tedious process, although often the load
case 1.2G + 1.5Q will be the critical design case.
The design of a particular section is a trial-and-error
process and is much more easily accomplished with
a load-moment interaction diagram calculated for
the chosen wall section and reinforcement, using
appropriate design software or a spreadsheet that
complies with AS 3600.
When using Charts 7.1 to 7.5, note that the wall is
assumed to have reinforcement in each face.
Note that for walls designed as columns the vertical
reinforcement needs lateral restraint using fitments
when:
n N * > 0.5 f Nu , or
n the concrete strength is greater than 50 MPa and:
— the vertical reinforcement ratio is used as
compression reinforcement, or
— the vertical reinforcement ratio is greater
than 0.02, and a minimum horizontal
reinforcement ratio of 0.0025 is not provided.
For 200-mm-thick walls, it is difficult to place and fix
fitments unless the covers are small. 250 mm is the
practical minimum thickness for walls with fitments.

7.8 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 7.10 Simplified design method for walls The contribution to in-plane shear strength due to
subject to vertical compressive reinforcement, f Vus, is given by the equation in
forces AS 3600 Clause 11.6.4, ie:
The axial load capacity for a unit length of wall is given f Vus = f pw fsy 0.8Lwtw
in AS 3600 Clause 11.5.1, ie: where
N * ≤ f Nu = 0.6 (t w - 1.2e - 2ea) 0.6 f 'c pw is the reinforcement ratio and = p h
where ea is taken as = (Hwe)2 / 2500 t w. (when Hw / Lw > 1) s
ce
en
efer inte
d)
dR

This requires the effective height to be calculated, a

an t pr
ts no
n is
men ctio

or
se
Com this
ote
(N

factor k is determined (see AS 3600 Clause 11.4), and

.4
L 11
No eC
et se
She ight 2.2

pw = lesser of p h and pv (when Hw / Lw ≤ 1).

o he e
bN ive Tabl t
Jo fect ear em
en
s r ef forc
By Fo for Sh
ctor i rein

the unsupported height Hw is multiplied by k to give

Dat
e: n Fa s Ph of
tio rtie ress
uc rope el d st
tw Redial P Yi
ity
ac ater a
Cap & M MP
0.7 MP
a
40

The reinforcement ratios p h and pv are for horizontal

0
φ 50

the effective height Hwe.

Lw
f' c
o l f sy
e tN of
wal
She Plan
N o
ob

and vertical directions respectively.

J
us
e. By
r its te:

The simplified design approach given in AS 3600

sibl
e fo Da
on
resp
t is .6
sh
ee
e 11 mm Hw
sp
read us mm
this Cla mm r

Spreadsheet 7.2 based on these equations can be

0
ing s 6,00 0 Floo

Clause 11.5 is based on BS 81107.17. The equation

rce
mm
us
7,60 0 00 m2
e pe
rson
ar
fo
7,60 36 ion
Th
es
he 0
AS ns
er:
of f te
20
aim n 1.52 .7) 0.94
1.5 rs o
n
-pla
cl 11
Dis tatio 0.79 Cl
ekN1 ye
pu
in .0 with
Com
for 30
us 2 la
used to calculate the shear capacity for a wall.
ce
nt rdan 0.94
lls
C8 la or
gives a conservative estimate of the load capacity
Clie ct/Job
wa
co
je H w ac
Pro ct
no
f flo
or
=L
w h
it t (1
24
rn. ion l 15
in

e w men 15
je to
Sub
e sig n 1.1 all
flo
or rw
ise
c o ve te ns n of
wal
be
0.00
n e 0.00 25 yg
he ld
D isio
of
ot tio
rda g
w
e. a y) va ou
ma
Ele sh
ut all ht of L
us
co arran
an
Rev
ers
(if 0.00 tio th
Inp W heig wall orts
w
t ra . bo
its ta ry of d ac ntsy) tios lay Floor .5.1
or
en
for
in teel
pp
Da met upporte ngth of een su
em th
me likel reo ra r 2
of the wall and ignores any load capacity due to the
forc ng
ible Geo Uns
od rein 11 (ii) stre
s ire ost un cal o
Le
ns se
tw (b)
rall L be all t or
eth given rn.
w

quis is m0or verti t (1

um
po
lau
1 .1
Ove th w inim size
res s of
nm V*
t rebut th3riz6on0tal men ve the m
e 11
ete
go (Note t in C
ng us
Le knes
et
is ic
Th l area /L ectdio r a
sfise 0. meemnent A S ge
Cla
ncr

Spreadshee 7 2 s ava ab e a www ccaa com au

he p li w
fo 0 e ho
n a y u co
36 ceinforc erooff rra
al H
s
ima cr ction to
os se
th
m
w
d W
AS fore re .6
io ea
rea nts se
/t w
Rat io H rcesrcs e at a incr
w

sp
the e se t ratio ts to rengithnbystheis1th1e steel
less

vertical reinforcement. this

Rat r fo Fo
ea ar me as ) If F
AIL
d sh Sg ire 0.0015 d 30
00
ing lie sigin
he
th s en n m re u pw 36
us App Dues
n
oft ratio rcem t ratiome muear st0.79la ivent ratios qu ee
AS

all citceymenl reinforcemuenire .6.4 innito shith C t re

of
a g emen
n5
on xc
a w panfor onaltareinforeqenteCrl e11ntribmutcioe= w for l reinforc 600. men
tio

ep
ers t e 1.00 Sec

Th of g caRei Horerizticin g rcemwhno co aHn/L tion rtica 3 orce s no .S

ee

n th S
w
e ions
tio ng din ac fos en rdtio c or ve
e r: V
A f w
o 50 at
sp ar relainb=0 thccAos ra se ontal ts to rein
ider
sd
l to %
im
uta tre en ua ns 46
cla
lls ls tb nd Sheo s if p a the horiz es eq co 27
fire
mp
Dis n w
m kn
or

There are also a number of limitations/restrictions on Wa xia en t a e t(Note in o1f the eme nimu ed
to
than due
en abl all Hit/Ly er of
0.94
Co t of n a mom ir i w
thic less 40 OK
em plic f a w Wpheancthe less 1 quratiore m p to be the
w us d
sig ; an ends ratio ited
en ign de ate forc y ap th o g ca p is in/Lg> re
ds ss lim
tal e
en both
ob to k) w
0.62
es
Cli erne ay be
on h
ax

ht for
th
t/J the ultim ratio
rein ularl eng ndin
bo e or
riz w
1.0 V
w u.m
nd
ncH e ho
w
<φ
jec
m
ro .1 D s e p hea tha b s ement le11ig .4 tions
w at
ided ed at
on
e th
an
0.63
Sle /t V*
w

1 m
u rtic r s tr be s is l hC r
late th .
t or K H we
P rc
nd po s rein
c W op ov
pr ovid m O e
vweall w fo
kN
ion
fo th
lcu tes nt) inim pa ea ent
the use of the simplified method. These include the
bje th
or
n is is pr mm ote ng
t a e t Input ffigehtctiofee belo
0.3
w

Su (N kN
Ca lcula eme ll m et is n sh om
tatio n stre
vis
s) than
en abl t ro rotatio 3 side less
ains nsst . t on t not
8
or
Re etivee k
9,72 0
n : Ca forc ers a she esig te m em plic
he (s
ag ie 6,00
0 size
tio th int t ag it ai or bu des) L 6,81 ete
forc y ap ofE Fa 1.6bunckt.linre restarerastpraaincral su.pp
ffec ctor g
a
rein nsid read the d ltim
.0
30 ncr
: rip tio se 1wm
1
= kN
rein larl
4 si H co
ay ewhe no c (late.min
le sc Co e sp tes the u
w
t on where = se
Tit De um rticu e ra Clau Orc nee0.75 here
ing ling st
0dw buck& A
or >L
1
3,80
1 kN incr
ea

requirements that:
pp
l T h u la s t) . im a th fo k = 1. n l su H w ax
IL
ra ith in ke
V A
u.m

lc te n in p re ra re F
he e w r re in bTwo uwo.m (H /3L ling (la
=
ne
ay in 1
2
whe
Ca lcula eme all m et is
If both
ax
) te 69 kN
ØV
1 u.m
-3,2
Ge
or
n w nc ea el Mk= 1+ay buck1
w =

Ca forc ers dshe sio rda sh ste ting 1,30

7

rein nsid rea res acco r and ssion lcula

2 =
)
ow /L 1 (1)
Tw
mp
w
(H V uc

Co e sp co ar in she mpre in ca n.
a 1+ L .6.3 kN
1
k= = kN
s
on l H l 11
w

Th
(2)
2H we
tC kN kN
.6.2
s in she for f co ess tensio lati wal
V uc
%
11 en 30 8

n the wall is assumed to be braced in accordance

lcu ht of a
k= 1 13
ll a CL rcem 3,80 1 24 kN
a n o str in n C heig 50
(3)
1
s in sig ts
fo V uc

rw
ax
it V t ) r re
in u.m 2,66 2,66 kN
Fo wall t de effec r pre bers sig ive /t w
OK 8
De Effect H lim .8L ea V*
w w
= kN 63
hing f (0
we
t sh 9
r o fo
Fo es n s the llow mem
ck t
ou = kN 3,29
w
ØV
c uc
2
Che crus = 0. L w
with 0.8 max
web all f' }
t 2
ØV
us

Do ore ot a for
w
ax 91 Vu. n
aw 8L
c w
V ctio
uc
late V u.m 8
} 0. <φ
:
w 63
of /L
ØV
u
s se ent
Ign es n itable
ØV V*
uc
cu kN

with AS 3600 Clause 11.3; and

th 1H -1)
w

ns Cal
reng 1 -0.2 /L lue w
= os
a cr rcem t
tio o su r st f' va w
f' /(H
c
s
a D ea W
Inse
rt c =
4,71
3 kN at info emen
ce
it t sh /L
0. 66 * ce re
No
en H .1 W
or t rc
late ) for ={ >1 F ou fo
Lim
efer inted) cu (a V f' +0 c
V 9 ar ith rein ngth us
dR She th w
uc
Cal 0.79 t
No 3,29
W
t pr .3 /L 05 .6 .4 V gh .6 to us
re
an rH
W 0. tw (1) Ø =
ign e
t ts no
Cl
11 ={ L e ri l 11 reng th du ear st
ee n is fo w
men (b) V uc f' c Vuc to th tC Des ar st
Sh o Com se
ctio
l 11
.6.3
= 0.
17 rt
inse e bo
x
rcem
en =
She ar st
reng gn
si
sh
this
bN

7 12 Reinforcement requirements for

C th de
ote V uc info She red
Jo /L w in

n Hwe / tw ≤ 30.
(N Hw Hw
/L w r re to
io +V
us
Rat ratio sh
ea
ØV
u
Fac
By =V
uc
the th
by
te:
Vu
From reng
Da ea
r st
mm
sh t w
No n to 8 L w mm

walls
et tio 0. 0
She bu f sy
6,00 .0 mm
b No ntri = p w
Jo co 00
late V us 76 0
cu

Spreadsheet 7.1 can be used to calculate the axial

By s Cal 20
H we
00
e: or V us
Dat ct + 0.8
36 ion n Fa s r =V
uc
Lw
tio rtie ea
AS ns
Vu tw
uc rope sh
of f te Redial P in
ity gth Hw
1.5 rs o
ac ater
MP
a
Str
en ight
Cap & M he
e 1 ye 0.6

AS 3600 C ause 11 7 g ves equ emen s o m n mum

rted
us 2 la
load capacity for a wall using the simplified method.
40 po tw
up all
C o la r Uns th L of w
w
φ
lts
ith t (1 rn.
ng
ion
ss
y su Le ne
Re
f'
ew n
c

ns
ck
ve if an /L w
Thi
nc geme
t w
Hw
go
rts
f te po io
a Rat
e. y
w L
s rd an a o Sup or
rs

e n o cemen n wa s and o c ack con o These

u
co m 1 L
its ye es .
for ac el ausrre. en
ts .5.1
ible d in sblte 2 laforc 11
ns o n e fo
r its
i r em ossr ion . s e
o th u (1
e ivspeon ern lau
y 0.96
res
p si
q 0 t re if an
t re 60 enmp
l
d m r aeetgis re ov Supports in C wal H w

et
is
fie 00
. en AS3 geaml co yg ut
n of

Spreadsheet 7.1 is available at www.ccaa.com.au

Pla
he pli n refoadsh

equ emen s a e ndependen o he f va ue used

36 cem of anrtic ma mm 0.96
ds
sim ctithois sp to
rea AS for .6 arrve nts se
this
sp
the e suseing to rein e 11 teeclt to me
mm s
am
ing ing thrson ts
en mum Clau ensub
s s je ire 4,800 0 d 30 mm2 r
us ll us y: oThfe pe e m n i g iv ll r e qu 7,60ee mm
Floo
n a citer uir i ith r a r w a t c
o
ex 201.52
0
ers a w paclaim n q e m w fo 00
. en ot
mm

Th
ep of g caDis omputatioing re her ance on ofods 36 cem sn
.6 mm
n w AS for
25
th ti th oe
er: tio ng din c
plieant obbs cord secme
C .0
to rein
Fo m n mum ve ca e n o cemen he e n o cemen
sd
10 .6
im
uta tre en d sC jesctl/Ja ac theesign
l
cla
kN
s ls tb ts es
25 wal
Dis
mp all an tPoro ctin en um n of
kN
=L kn
xia en nt ble aubllje y oed d
f tio
w

em im
kN
Co t fW n a mom
ise ic 8 va
me plica a wS pacpitlifi 1 uir e min rw th 1,95 5 Ele

n o s ig e f q othe e
th 58 7
en e ate forc ly ap th o g ca Simevision ing re er
y)
ob sig e d ltim
3,22
1. .5.2
(if to
an
Cli t walhl ht H orts ht

a o pw sha be he a ge o 0 0015 1 5 w mm2 m o

t/J
r
c
D e th u in
re la en r g in c u
w
Cl
11
Floo
d pa Inpbsof W d heig n suppeig calculated=0.05*t
je R
1.1 tes the . um icu str t ben
w

Pro
d s atasletary rte twee e h
ct 1.00

ion ula s im art ar

t)
Su
bje t)
alc late en min is p she men an Dtoeom uppo L be tivall t as l load w pu
nt ble G UnsLengtheffeses cof w rtical loof verticacal lo.ad
l In
vis
ad 1
na

Re : C alcu rcem all heet ign mo me lica e ickn ea of ve ity vertiies es (O

ptio
)

ti on C fo ers ds
in id d es ate fo rce app o f thThW1al1l aren.6tricityt.eccentricricitypaofcit .on forc prog
ram
: rip re ns re the ltim a y n ca esinsi
rein larl
e
o

he va ue equ ed o s eng h
Ecc imeum cent
rati use eMm
th

Tit
le sc Co e sp tes the u in n ecg .m d by low9
be 0
um icu
pr 0.96
De the h Cla forc eDnesdin rt& Acomst late
ns20
d
Th lcula tes nt). inim part
ig ; an ends
tio,
30
ral ical alcu
on l to
ds
(C en both
re it in
he e w r re in b ulieo.m
N* e op
ne
in ad G
Ca lcula eme all m et is
ua
d ve thrs th
bo e or eq
ea
ad .4
Ge d Lo ad Q e Lo 1.0
n w nc ea el MApp Dea
at or
l 11 from on
Ca forc ers dshe lu,eP 0.71 than
Lo mat lC ided ed at an
sio rda sh ste ting wal e th rm /m
e vas prov ovid
lti less kN
Live l U mor
rein nsid rea
pe
res acco r and ssion lcula 0ht) prBoparisatic
of /m
ta n is is pr or io Nu 1 kN
To ig 0.3 Rat <Ø
o p p 0 1
he tatio tion des) 0.79 1,11
C e s m in ea pre ca .
e ro an K m 5
, tiv2 or k anteap
t ta si r
co
ro 3 th O pe 42
ains nst
in hear for sh com ss in nsion tEff1 FaCcthonoscre e ling straint agint agai pport but not le
ss N*

Fo m n mum ho zon a e n o cemen he

ec
Th mm
on l
wal
en
as
ØN
u

lls s OK th of
wa s in sign cts o restr in te
f e dm d Co way buwhere no rest(latera
ck re ra l su l is ng N*
s) 0 mm Wal tal le
r n side L 80
Fo wall t de effe r p bers me rce Onek = 0.750 wherecklin.g
4 1 4, to
t on 24 for th
g A info
H w /m
leng
r o fo bu 0 or re .08 kN
Fo es n s the llow mem k = way 60 1 )
rm
1. pp
tin whe 46 th
e o 3
l su 2
>L
1 kN pe leng
Do ore ot a for ora k, R Tw S /3L tera load r m
1

e n o cemen a o pw sha be no ess han

H w 1
A g (la 1,11 0 MP a
a ed pe
orp
w
: ic (H re
Ign es n itable in k= 1+ bucklin whe ctor load
ns nc ilpatr ed
8,44 MP e fa ed
tio Do t su 9 (I K us ay 1 =
Ulti
mat factor
ita ow l
00 and 2.12
2

lly
) ua
im N o 2 ra
Tw /L w
1
5.55 Act
L - r e k=
(H
00 oste
1+
en
L 1
=

0 0015 2 5 w mm2 m excep ha o a wa des gned

36 sg
w
0t
F 2H ns w
/250 N u =
tio l H
na
Ø
AS rner,
we 2
k=
ula wal =H th we

tio ut alc ht of leng L

7.11 Design of walls for in-plane shear

l Wa inp , etc
ity
rm
1

ca ota n C heig 30 cent

ric er
d pe ov

or
eti dn da
ta
wa
ll late
sig ive /t nal ec
De Effect H
load load
w
e.
an lcu
ored ctored
we

T he o ls u ire the c a
ck
Che an ad
ditio
ate
fact fa s
ate on
ula mm
mm
rm
s/ mb req y for as ultim ultimlati al
= .6
g fo
assum ng one way buck ng us ng AS 3600 C ause
e mm
a
25
um u actu able
de : Sy lls tc ds um
im lc
sin
00
Co sis ce ometr th e l loa Max l max ca
im 48

forces
low
yu
ss .1
ta r stre ss al 46
Ba w To ea
llo ge treng rtica h essi stre all
ve e

re
: Ye tion ve r s Comprpressivematic H
r
we

c s f fo e
ea
tu
a
te o to sh
la Se ncre ity w om
/L C
au
nc ns H we for

11 4 a and whe e he e s no es a n aga ns

ad
e o tr ic o a r f Hw d l lo
m C en acti ht e o late rti ca
50
No sh tio nd
ve
c lcu sds
ity
Ec lied heig
of H
for on ra
ntric
we

na
ty
: p tio ca sloulta trici height ecce

Ap ctive
l
sio
en
ut nd
The design shear strength of a wall subject to
g Ree Ecc ctive tiona
p e t ra d in u s iv d s ffe addi
re s
In ro loa
Eff tor k emen pen res
E
kg mp
an
ac
e
mp ive
a

co

ho zon a sh nkage o he ma movemen s h s may

c e
Fa forc V uc d nb co ress for
in
Re e of ree for p 30
hg all com ed
lu wit fw ce
in‑plane horizontal shear is given by the sum of the
Va r
lls all y o ll fo ex
d ce w tr icit f wa s n ot
s

be educed o ze o he wa s ess han 2 5 m w de

xe the ccen ity o loa
d oe
Bo a of e tric N* ial sd
Are imu ccen load
m ax es
for kn et,

concrete shear strength and the strength due to the Min ign
e
ate t H w y e a
e thic he
s im h it the th ion ds

o o 0 0015 1 5 w mm2 m eng h o he w se

De l ult heig ntric to ss rea
u t: o ta ve c e ht leng mpre sp
tp T c k ig is
Ou ec
ti le of he r m r co g th
Eff itiona lues ctive d pe d fo w a ll in

reinforcement, ie:
d va effe loa loa wall the ard
Ad ous red red reg D
ri the
Va cks facto facto s in th stres
e s in
ba
ck KE
e ed EC
Ch ate ate stres sive r fe CH
the LY
Fo c ack con o and sh nkage whe e he wa s
im im s
Ult l ult sive pre s ro L
ta s m lt o U

fVu = fVuc + fVus

To pre co u s F
res on
BE
m le ax
Co wab s V u d V u f the
.m sti
ge O
o
All ulate uc an ary o ug LT
,s
Ca e of
lc
lu
Va vides
V
su
mm

nts
, c orr CAA
eC
ec
tio
ns

CO TS
M ME RE
NT STIL
A
es a ned om expand ng o con ac ng n he
with an upper limit of f 0.2 f 'c (0.8Lw tw).
Pro me ct th R E
FO HE
ho zon a d ec on he m n mum a ea o ho zon a
om onta
rc FT DS
Fo ase c
RA EA
ple e D PR th E S
: or H

Vuc and Vus are determined from AS 3600 Fe

ed
ba
ck 1.1 TE T
NO
.
e n o cemen n ha d ec on sha be
n
rsio
Clause 11.6.3 and Clause 11.6.4 respectively. Ve

Fo exposu e c ass fica ons A1 and A2

The two equations given in Clause 11.6.3 to determine n whe e a m no deg ee o con o ove c ack ng s
Vuc together with the lower limit, which is the third equ ed A mus be a eas 2 5 w mm2 m
equation, are: n whe e a mode a e deg ee o con o ove c ack ng
f Vuc = f [0.66 √f 'c – 0.21√f 'c (Hw / Lw)] 0.8Lwtw s equ ed and whe e c acks a e nconsequen a o
for Hw / Lw ≤ 1 h dden om v ew A mus be a eas 3 5 w mm2 m

or n whe e a s ong deg ee o con o ove c ack ng s
f Vuc = f [0.05 √f 'c + 0.1√f 'c / (Hw / Lw – 1)] 0.8Lwtw equ ed o appea ance o whe e c acks may eflec
for Hw / Lw > 1 with the lower limit of h ough fin shes A mus be a eas 6 0 w mm2 m

f Vuc ≥ f 0.17 √f 'c (0.8Lwtw).

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 7.9

For exposure classifications B1, B2, C1 and C2, Ast in
the horizontal direction must be at least 6.0 tw mm2/m ,
which can be a significant amount of reinforcement.
Table 7.2 shows the various areas of horizontal
reinforcement per metre of length required for walls
up to 500 mm thick for crack control. Note that this
reinforcement is the total of all layers.
AS 3600 requires the spacing of the reinforcement to be
adequate to place the concrete but not less than 3d b.
Reinforcement must be in two layers, one near each
face when:
n the wall is greater than 200 mm thick;
n where in any part of the wall structure the tension
exceeds the tensile capacity of the concrete under
the design ultimate load (this means shear walls
may require two layers of reinforcement);
n when walls are designed for 2-way buckling.
The maximum spacing of the reinforcement is the
lesser of 2.5tw and 350 mm. For walls greater than
200 mm thick, or where the wall is in tension greater
than the tensile capacity of the wall, or where the wall
is designed for 2-way buckling in accordance with
AS 3600 Clause 11.4, the reinforcement has to be in
two layers, one in each face.
7.13 Detailing
All wall elevations and details should be shown on
the drawings.
Designers should refer to Chapter 15 of the
Reinforcement Detailing Handbook 7.18 for further
advice on the detailing of walls.
Designers should note that:
n Sufficient information should be provided on the
drawings (including plans, elevations, sections and
details) to enable the walls to be built.
n Standard details, if used, should be appropriate to
the walls being designed.
n The order in which the various layers, ie the vertical
and horizontal bars, are to be placed should be
specified.
n For ease of construction for insitu concrete walls,
it is often desirable to tie the horizontal bars on
the outside of the vertical bars or to place the
horizontal bars from one side only such as in a
core wall where the inside formwork is placed first
and the reinforcement then fixed. This should be
taken into consideration when designing the wall,
especially considering cover and axis distance,
see Figure 7.5. It is important to note that when a
wall is designed and reinforced as a column with
fitments to restrain the vertical bars, the vertical
bars cannot be on the outside.
7.10 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook
Placing order Placing order
3 1 2 4 4 3 2 1
Access Access Access
Near face
Far face
Figure 7.5 Placing order of bars
n When header or coupling beams are within an
insitu wall, the thickness of the wall must allow for
cover/axis distances, heavy reinforcement and
allow the concrete to be properly placed.
n The effect of bend radii at corner and T junctions in
plan where walls intersect, especially if they have
to resist bending moments around the junctions.
n Trimmer bars are needed at openings in walls
such as doors and windows to minimise cracking
at re-entrant corners. Note that trimmer bars at 45°
will form a third layer which may make placing of
concrete difficult.
n Minimum reinforcement is to be provided in
accordance with AS 3600 Clause 11.7.
n Trimmer bars usually are one N12 per layer of
reinforcement, around the perimeter of precast and
tilt-up wall panels. Larger diameter trimmer bars
may not fit within thin walls depending in which
layer they are in.
n Appropriate splice lengths for bars and mesh are
specified depending on whether the bars and
mesh are in tension or compression.
n For walls the strength of the concrete in the floor
slab also needs consideration, as the strength
of the floor cannot be less than 0.75 the strength
of the wall without specific design as set out in
AS 3600 Clause 10.8. This clause allows for the
concrete in the walls to be one strength grade
higher than that of the slab. For greater differences
in strength, additional calculations are required to
determine the effective strength of the concrete in
the wall for transmission of axial forces through the
floor systems
n Thin insitu concrete walls can be difficult to cast.
Designers should consider the use of 10-mm
aggregate and super plasticisers to allow adequate
compaction when thin walls are proposed.
n Avoid the use of fitments if possible as they are
difficult to fix.
7.14 General Guidance
The following will assist the design and inspection of
walls for a particular project.
n Stiff walls such as retaining walls, core walls or
other walls in a building, can significantly restrain
concrete floors and roofs when they are rigidly
connected to them. This can result in unsightly
diagonal cracking in the concrete floors and roofs
(or in the wall) due to shrinkage. Construction
techniques to minimise such problems include
locating the connecting bars in flat prestressing
ducts, providing slip connections and then grouting
the ducts after the floor over is cast and some of
the shrinkage allowed to occur. Insitu off form concrete walls Note the attention to the
n If the wall is to have an off-form finish and joint layout, construction joint locations (which will
is exposed to view, are there any specific occur at the expressed joints) and the locations of the
requirements for class of finish, type of formwork, bolt holes or the form ties in this insitu wall to form a
arrangement of form ties for insitu walls, etc. uniform pattern.

n For precast walls, are any special finishes required

including applied finishes such as painted,
acid washed, sandblasted, honed or polished?
Designers should refer to Chapter 10 of the Precast
Concrete Handbook for information on finishes, Charts 7.1 to 7.5
remembering that not all finishes may be available
These charts have been developed
in the given location.
assuming the wall is braced in both
n If the construction joints will be exposed to view, directions and is short. If the wall is a slender
consider providing a small vee or rebate to the braced wall then the appropriate moment
joints to give a neat appearance, and ensure that magnifiers in accordance with AS 3600
this is allowed for in the cover specified. Clause 10.4.2 must be used.
n For precast and tilt-up walls, a positive connection They are based on moments about the weak
must be provided at the bottom of the wall at axis only.
the time of erection to prevent kick-out prior to The design of walls as columns should be in
unhooking the panel from the crane. accordance with AS 3600 and appropriate
n When mixing loadbearing and non-loadbearing design aids or software should be used.
precast wall panels, differential movements can be Chart 7.1 200 Thick walls
a problem. pages 7.12 and 7.13
n Casting insitu columns and walls as a combined Chart 7.2 250 Thick walls
unit should be avoided because of the pages 7.14 and 7.15
complications of the formwork.
Chart 7.3 300 Thick walls
n The rules given in AS 3600 Clause 5.7.4 under pages 7.16 and 7.17
Fire resistance for recesses and chases are
Chart 7.4 350 Thick walls
empirical rules adopted to provide consistency with
pages 7.18 and 7.19
the rules for masonry. They should therefore be
Chart 7.5 400 Thick walls
viewed with caution.
pages 7.20 and 7.21

Spreadsheets 7.1, 7.2 and 7.3 may be

downloaded from the Cement Concrete &
Aggregates Australia website www.ccaa.com.au

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 7.11

 chart 7.1 200 Thick walls axis distance = 50 mm

8000 Wall reinforced on two faces

Note: Transverse reinforcement
not shown
7000 Moment 50
tw (refer chart)

6000 50
Lw =1000 mm

5000 f 'c = 25 MPa

200 wall 1%
4000 200 wall 2%
200 wall 3%
200 wall 4%
3000 Minimum moment
Compressive force (kN)

2000

1000

0
0 50 100 150 200
Moment (kN.m)

8000 Wall reinforced on two faces

Note: Transverse reinforcement
not shown
7000
Moment 50
tw (refer chart)
6000 50
Lw =1000 mm

5000 f 'c = 32 MPa

200 wall 1%
4000 200 wall 2%
200 wall 3%
200 wall 4%
3000 Minimum moment
Compressive force (kN)

2000

1000

0
0 50 100 150 200
Moment (kN.m)

7.12 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 chart 7.1 (continued) 200 Thick walls axis distance = 50 mm

8000 Wall reinforced on two faces

Note: Transverse reinforcement
not shown
7000 Moment 50
tw (refer chart)

6000 50
Lw =1000 mm

5000 f 'c = 40 MPa

200 wall 1%
4000 200 wall 2%
200 wall 3%
200 wall 4%
3000 Minimum moment
Compressive force (kN)

2000

1000

0
0 50 100 150 200
Moment (kN.m)

8000 Wall reinforced on two faces

Note: Transverse reinforcement
not shown
7000
Moment 50
tw (refer chart)
6000 50
Lw =1000 mm

5000 f 'c = 50 MPa

200 wall 1%
4000 200 wall 2%
200 wall 3%
200 wall 4%
3000 Minimum moment
Compressive force (kN)

2000

1000

0
0 50 100 150 200
Moment (kN.m)

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 7.13

 chart 7.2 250 Thick walls axis distance = 50 mm

10000 Wall reinforced on two faces

Note: Transverse reinforcement
not shown
9000
Moment 50
8000 tw (refer chart)
50
Lw =1000 mm
7000

f 'c = 25 MPa
6000
250 wall 1%
5000 250 wall 2%
250 wall 3%
250 wall 4%
4000 Minimum moment

3000
Compressive force (kN)

2000

1000

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Moment (kN.m)

10000 Wall reinforced on two faces

Note: Transverse reinforcement
9000 not shown
Moment 50
8000 tw (refer chart)
50
Lw =1000 mm
7000

f 'c = 32 MPa
6000
250 wall 1%
5000 250 wall 2%
250 wall 3%
250 wall 4%
4000 Minimum moment

3000
Compressive force (kN)

2000

1000

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Moment (kN.m)

7.14 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 chart 7.2 (continued) 250 Thick walls axis distance = 50 mm

10000 Wall reinforced on two faces

Note: Transverse reinforcement
not shown
9000
Moment 50
8000 tw (refer chart)
50
Lw =1000 mm
7000

f 'c = 40 MPa
6000
250 wall 1%
5000 250 wall 2%
250 wall 3%
250 wall 4%
4000 Minimum moment

3000
Compressive force (kN)

2000

1000

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Moment (kN.m)

10000 Wall reinforced on two faces

Note: Transverse reinforcement
9000 not shown
Moment 50
8000 tw (refer chart)
50
Lw =1000 mm
7000

f 'c = 50 MPa
6000
250 wall 1%
5000 250 wall 2%
250 wall 3%
250 wall 4%
4000 Minimum moment

3000
Compressive force (kN)

2000

1000

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Moment (kN.m)

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 7.15

 chart 7.3 300 Thick walls axis distance = 50 mm

12000 Wall reinforced on two faces

Note: Transverse reinforcement
11000 not shown
Moment 50
10000
tw (refer chart)

9000 50
Lw =1000 mm

8000
f 'c = 25 MPa
7000
300 wall 1%
6000 300 wall 2%
300 wall 3%
5000 300 wall 4%
Minimum moment
4000
Compressive force (kN)

3000

2000

1000

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Moment (kN.m)

12000 Wall reinforced on two faces

Note: Transverse reinforcement
11000 not shown
Moment 50
10000
tw (refer chart)
9000 50
Lw =1000 mm
8000
f 'c = 32 MPa
7000
300 wall 1%
6000 300 wall 2%
300 wall 3%
5000 300 wall 4%
Minimum moment
4000
Compressive force (kN)

3000

2000

1000

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Moment (kN.m)

7.16 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 chart 7.3 (continued) 300 Thick walls axis distance = 50 mm

12000 Wall reinforced on two faces

Note: Transverse reinforcement
11000 not shown
Moment 50
10000
tw (refer chart)

9000 50
Lw =1000 mm

8000
f 'c = 40 MPa
7000
300 wall 1%
6000 300 wall 2%
300 wall 3%
5000 300 wall 4%
Minimum moment
4000
Compressive force (kN)

3000

2000

1000

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Moment (kN.m)

12000 Wall reinforced on two faces

Note: Transverse reinforcement
11000 not shown
Moment 50
10000
tw (refer chart)
9000 50
Lw =1000 mm
8000
f 'c = 50 MPa
7000
300 wall 1%
6000 300 wall 2%
300 wall 3%
5000 300 wall 4%
Minimum moment
4000
Compressive force (kN)

3000

2000

1000

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Moment (kN.m)

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 7.17

 chart 7.4 350 Thick walls axis distance = 50 mm

13000 Wall reinforced on two faces

Note: Transverse reinforcement
12000 not shown

11000 Moment 50
tw (refer chart)
10000 50
Lw =1000 mm
9000

8000 f 'c = 25 MPa

7000 350 wall 1%

350 wall 2%
6000 350 wall 3%
350 wall 4%
5000 Minimum moment

4000
Compresive force (kN)

3000

2000

1000

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Moment (kN.m)

13000 Wall reinforced on two faces

Note: Transverse reinforcement
12000 not shown

11000 Moment 50
tw (refer chart)
10000
50
Lw =1000 mm
9000

8000 f 'c = 32 MPa

7000 350 wall 1%

350 wall 2%
6000 350 wall 3%
350 wall 4%
5000 Minimum moment

4000
Compresive force (kN)

3000

2000

1000

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Moment (kN.m)

7.18 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 chart 7.4 (continued) 350 Thick walls axis distance = 50 mm

13000 Wall reinforced on two faces

Note: Transverse reinforcement
12000 not shown

11000 Moment 50
tw (refer chart)
10000 50
Lw =1000 mm
9000

8000 f 'c = 40 MPa

7000 350 wall 1%

350 wall 2%
6000 350 wall 3%
350 wall 4%
5000 Minimum moment

4000
Compressive force (kN)

3000

2000

1000

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Moment (kN.m)

13000 Wall reinforced on two faces

Note: Transverse reinforcement
12000 not shown

11000 Moment 50
tw (refer chart)
10000
50
Lw =1000 mm
9000

8000 f 'c = 50 MPa

7000 350 wall 1%

350 wall 2%
6000 350 wall 3%
350 wall 4%
5000 Minimum moment

4000
Compressive force (kN)

3000

2000

1000

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Moment (kN.m)

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 7.19

 chart 7.5 400 Thick walls axis distance = 50 mm

15000 Wall reinforced on two faces

Note: Transverse reinforcement
14000 not shown
13000 Moment 50
12000 tw (refer chart)
50
11000 Lw =1000 mm

10000
f 'c = 25 MPa
9000

8000 400 wall 1%

400 wall 2%
7000 400 wall 3%
400 wall 4%
6000 Minimum moment
5000

4000
Compressive force (kN)

3000

2000

1000

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Moment (kN.m)

15000 Wall reinforced on two faces

Note: Transverse reinforcement
14000
not shown
13000 Moment 50
12000 tw (refer chart)
50
11000 Lw =1000 mm
10000

9000 f 'c = 32 MPa

8000 400 wall 1%

400 wall 2%
7000 400 wall 3%
400 wall 4%
6000 Minimum moment
5000

4000
Compressive force (kN)

3000

2000

1000

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Moment (kN.m)

7.20 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 chart 7.5 400 Thick walls axis distance = 50 mm (continued)

15000 Wall reinforced on two faces

Note: Transverse reinforcement
14000 not shown
13000 Moment 50
12000 tw (refer chart)
50
11000 Lw =1000 mm

10000
f 'c = 40 MPa
9000

8000 400 wall 1%

400 wall 2%
7000 400 wall 3%
400 wall 4%
6000 Minimum moment
5000

4000
Compressive force (kN)

3000

2000

1000

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Moment (kN.m)

15000 Wall reinforced on two faces

Note: Transverse reinforcement
14000
not shown
13000 Moment 50
12000 tw (refer chart)
50
11000 Lw =1000 mm
10000

9000 f 'c = 50 MPa

8000 400 wall 1%

400 wall 2%
7000 400 wall 3%
400 wall 4%
6000 Minimum moment
5000

4000
Compressive force (kN)

3000

2000

1000

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Moment (kN.m)

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 7.21

7.15 Some typical details 500 N12
700 N16
The following figures illustrate some detailing of larger
walls. They are for general information and show the
sorts of details that may need to be included on the
drawings.

For starter bars refer to wall

N32-20 N32-20 reinforcement schedule and notes

N20-200 EF
Refer to column schedule for size
Level 1 Offset wall
Figure 7.8 This figure shows the connection between
N28-150 EF a column and a wall in plan. Usually the column is
N16-300 EF poured first and either starter bars or cast-in ferrules
with screw-in bars which are then used to connect the
Mezzanine column to the wall which is poured later.

HB 2
500 N12
700 N16
Ground N28-150 EF

N32-200 EF
500 N12
700 N16

N20-300 EF
300

Basement 1A

N32-200 EF N20-300 EF

Figure 7.6 This figure shows a heavily reinforced core

wall with a header beam under the door openings and
heavy vertical reinforcement in each face.

12-N20 (EF) (V) Figure 7.9 This figure shows the corner detail between
N12-300 fitments and
a wall with a single layer of reinforcement and a wall
R6 ties
with two layers of reinforcement to achieve a moderate
degree of moment capacity at the corner.

Figure 7.7 This figure shows a reinforced wall with

straight bars to the vertical reinforcement, together with
fitments to all the vertical bars, so the wall is acting as
a column.

7.22 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 N20 (EF) RE N16-300 (EF) Fitments type A
N32-125 EF N32-125 EF

Typical header
beam reinforcement
EF 10N28 EF

C34
C34

(T)
Typical header
(L) (H) beam reinforcement
(B) 4N24 top and bottom

C34
C34

EF N16-450 fitments

10N32 EF
(T) Fitments type A
SW13-LB-02 Figure 7.12 This figure shows an elevation of a lift shaft
N12-300 (EF) N16-300 (EF)
with reinforcement on both faces including the header
Figure 7.10 This figure shows the elevation of an beam details, etc.
internal wall with two layers of reinforcement in each
face and a header beam over the door opening.
700 Lap
typical
N20-200-EF (V) N12-300-EF (H) 2N12
CORE 09 - W01
N12-300-fitments
N20-200-EF (V)

N20-200-EF (V) N12-300-EF (H)

2N12

2N12
CORE 09 - W04

CORE 09 - W02

175 THK
SL82 EF
Vertical bar to outer faces
40 cover FF, 30 cover NF
N12-300-fitments
N20-200-EF (V)

40 cover edge

D8
CORE 09 - W03 100
2N12
N20-200-EF (V) N12-300-EF (H)
2N12
Figure 7.11 This figure shows a section of a lift shaft 2-W10-150 U-bar
with reinforcement on both faces including the corner 110 wide x 300 legs 300
details, etc. to each vsl duct 110
Figure 7.13 This figure shows an elevation of a precast
wall panel with two layers of mesh reinforcement,
trimmer bars, grout tubes, etc.

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 7.23

References
7.1 Guide to Tilt-up Design and construction,
Cement Concrete and Aggregates Australia
and Concrete Institute of Australia, 2005.
7.2 Precast Concrete Handbook 2nd Ed, National
Precast Concrete Association Australia and
Concrete Institute of Australia, 2009.
7.3 AS 3850 Tilt-up concrete construction,
Standards Australia, 2003.
7.4 The National Code of Practice for Precast,
Tilt‑up and Concrete Elements in Building
Australian Safety and Compensation Council,
2008. http://www.ascc.gov.au/ascc/AboutUs/
Publications/NationalStandards/National
7.5 AS 3600 Concrete structures, Standards
Australia, 2009.
7.6 Building Code of Australia Australian Building
Codes Board, 2010.
7.7 Guide to Off-form Concrete Finishes, Cement
Concrete and Aggregates Australia, 2006.
7.8 AS 1170.4 Structural Design Actions, Part 4
Earthquake actions in Australia, Standards
Australia, 2007.
7.9 Mendis P Design of High-Strength Concrete
Members: State-of-the-Art, Engineers Australia,
2001.
7.10 Specification for Piling and Embedded
Retaining Walls, 2nd Ed, The Federation of
Piling Specialists in Association with BGA and
ICE, 2007.
7.11 AS 4678 Earth-retaining structures, Standards
Australia, 2002.
7.12 Hughes S R and Crisp B C Structural Precast
Concrete in Melbourne Australia Concrete
Institute of Australia Biennial Conference 2007.
7.13 Concrete Panel Buildings, Briefing 08, Cement
Concrete and Aggregates Australia, 2003.
7.14 Woodside J The Evolution of Architectural
Precast Concrete Facades in Australia over the
last 50 years, Concrete Institute of Australia
Biennial Conference, 2009.
7.15 The Concrete Panel Homes Handbook Cement
Concrete and Aggregates Australia, 2001.
7.16 AS 2870 Residential slabs and footings –
Construction, Standards Australia, 2011.
7.17 BS 8110 Structural use of concrete Part 1:
Code of practice for design and construction
British Standard Institution, 1997.
7.18 Reinforcement Detailing Handbook (Z06),
2nd Ed, Concrete Institute of Australia, 2010.

7.24 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

Chapter 8 Footings
8.1 General
Reinforced concrete footings support the columns
and walls at the base of a building. As they are
usually concealed, typically cannot be inspected,
or maintained, and are constructed in variable and
sometimes unstable ground, a particular level of care
needs to be given to many aspects of their design.
These include such matters as the allowable bearing
pressures, settlements, durability and cover to
reinforcement. In some ground conditions, a blinding
layer of 50−75 mm of about 10 MPa unreinforced
concrete should be used to seal the bottom of the
footing and provide a clean and stable surface for
fixing of reinforcement, especially when the excavation
is likely to be unstable, wet or muddy.
Footings transfer the loads from the structure to its
foundation—the natural soil or rock on which it rests.
('Foundation' is sometimes used to describe footings
defined above; in this Handbook, it is used to describe
the material on which the footing is supported.)
Founding conditions vary widely in Australia and
more often than not vary across a site. Before any
footing design is undertaken, the properties of the
foundation material must be determined. This involves
an appropriate geotechnical investigation by a suitably
qualified person, usually a geotechnical engineer,
and testing as required. In addition to assessing the
allowable bearing pressure for pad and strip footings,
the investigation should include advice on such
matters as the expected soil profile across the whole
site, any water tables and dewatering requirements,
likely short-term and long-term settlements and
differential settlements under load between adjacent
footings, whether the footing will be cast in aggressive
soils, etc. Also, with expansive clay soils, shrink-swell
movements may also need to be considered. Local
knowledge and contractor's experience will often
dictate appropriate footing types and construction
techniques.
The selection of the appropriate footing system is
often a key structural design decision. The design
of footings requires a disciplined approach and
consideration of many factors such as the site history,
geotechnical conditions including the various layers
of soils, the site levels and future levels, the site
conditions and constraints, environmental conditions,
the building and its constraints. Designers should
refer to texts such as Craig's Soil Mechanics 8.1 and
Structural Foundation Designer's Manual 8.2 for further
information on such matters.
Using the geotechnical investigation, a decision has
to be made on what stratum of soil will support the
footing, the allowable bearing pressure, skin friction if
it is a pile, the founding level of the footing, possible
types of footings and any potential problems with
excavation, aggressive soils and durability. This
founding level must take account of both the proposed
excavated and any future excavated levels, as
appropriate.
From all these investigations and considerations,
various footing options may be considered and the
footing system(s) chosen. Footings are usually one or
more of the following types:
n pad (spread) footings or combined footings
n strip footings
n piled (or pier) footings
n raft footings
n balanced or coupled footings.
It should be noted that there are a number of
variations within each type, including, in some cases,
unreinforced footings. Designers should refer to
appropriate texts for further information on these
various alternatives.
This chapter deals only with the detailed design of
reinforced concrete pad or spread footings with
concentric vertical loads, although strip footings
and piled footings are also mentioned. Raft footings,
combined and balanced footings and coupled footings
are mentioned only briefly. Generally, except for
small or light structures, footings should be founded
300−1000 mm into the ground, and 200−600 mm into
undisturbed material or engineered fill. The founding
layer and allowable bearing pressure should be
confirmed on site, by a suitably qualified person or
the geotechnical engineer, following the excavation
of the footing. Where ground conditions are difficult
or variable, changes may be necessary to suit site
conditions, eg deeper or larger footings.
There are a number of different types of raft footings.
Stiffened-raft footings are commonly used in Australia
for houses in areas with expansive clay soils and
sometimes for slabs-on-ground for houses that have
masonry walls. For domestic construction, the stiffened
raft footing consists of concrete slab, edge beams and
internal beams at close centres, usually all poured at
one time. The purpose of the stiffened raft footing in
Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 8.1
domestic construction is generally to provide a stiff
element, which will cope with soil moisture movements.
Alternatively, strip footings can be used where the
ground floor is above the ground level and where
lightweight floors are used. Bearing pressures are
usually not that critical for such domestic footings.
Designers should refer to AS 2870 8.3 for the design of
residential footings.
For high-rise buildings, raft footings can be thick
reinforced concrete plates, sometimes with thickening
of 900 to 2000 mm under the columns and loadbearing
walls to spread the column and wall loads over as
large an area as possible – ie in effect, a very large
pad footing.
For industrial and other single-storey buildings, strip
footings are sometimes combined with the slab-on-
ground as an edge thickening to support external
precast concrete walls or the like.
8.2 Spread footings
8.2.1 General
For pad or spread footings, the soil contact pressure
under axial load produces well-defined conditions
of moment, beam or slab shear, and punching shear
in the footing. Although it is recognised that the soil
pressure distribution is non-linear, for the simplification
of the design of concentrically loaded footings linear
distribution is usually assumed. The designer may
choose a more accurate soil pressure distribution to
suit actual conditions, based on geotechnical advice.
For a pad footing on deformable soils, it is assumed
that the loads are resisted by flexural slab action in
which adequate thickness is usually assured by a
strength assessment in accordance with AS 3600.
However, a footing on rock or other stiff medium
may require an assessment as a stiff shear element,
in which the ability to assume plate deformation is
limited by the stiffness of the supporting medium. In
these cases, the designer may choose to assess the
structural action from strut-and-tie theory, deep-beam
theory or similar.
The size of a pad footing is determined from the design
actions resulting from the appropriate combination of
loads or other actions. The footing may take vertical
loads, horizontal loads and moments depending on
the assumptions made in the structural analysis and
the ability of the footing and foundation to resist such
actions.
For a particular building it is preferable to maintain
similar soil pressures under all pad footings to avoid
significant differential settlements. However, large
footings will settle more than smaller footings with similar
soil pressures, due to a deeper zone of influence.
8.2 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook
P P P
M θ< B/6 θ< B/6
B B B
P/A 0
qmin
+ qmax qmax
M/S
=
q
Figure 8.1 Eccentric loads
For eccentric columns and walls or footings with
moments, the bearing pressure will vary under the pad
footing which should generally be proportioned so that
zero bearing pressure occurs at one edge in the worst
case—so that tension does not occur under the footing
and q max does not exceed the allowable bearing
pressure as shown in Figure 8.1.
Square pad footings are used where possible as this
simplifies the design, although rectangular ones can
be used. Pad footings generally are not reinforced
for one-way shear, consequently the thickness of the
pad footing may be a function of one-way shear stress
in the section. The initial thickness of the footing will
often be determined by the development length of the
column or wall starter bars, assuming full compression
development length is required for the starter bars.
The allowable bearing pressure provided by the
geotechnical engineer is the maximum bearing
pressure that can be applied to the foundation such
that there is an adequate factor of safety against
instability due to shear failure of the founding material
and the maximum tolerable settlement is not exceeded.
Settlements can be immediate and/or long term and
calculations of settlements if required are generally
carried out by the geotechnical engineer based on
the loads provided by the structural engineer. Exact
estimates of settlements are difficult and often of
the order of accuracy of 5−25 mm. Settlements can
affect services, finishes, the concrete structure and
the building as a whole. Generally, it is differential
settlement that is of most concern and whether
the superstructure can tolerate such settlements.
Examples of where differential settlements may
occur are at the junction between a tall section of a
building and a low-rise section, or a change in ground
conditions under a building, which might require
movement joints at appropriate locations. Experience
and engineering judgment is needed in assessing
such settlements and how to design for them.
The total allowable bearing pressure provided by the
geotechnical engineer is normally calculated from
the ultimate bearing capacity using a factor of safety
(usually of the order of 3). The footing size is then
based on the total load divided by the total allowable
bearing pressure. While it is possible to deduct the
weight of any surcharge loads to get a net allowable
bearing capacity for the design of the concrete,
designers need to check with the geotechnical
engineer that the allowable bearing capacity allows
this deduction, for the footing being designed.
For the design of both plain concrete pedestals and
plain concrete pad footings (unreinforced), designers
should refer to AS 3600 Section 15, and for reinforced
footings to AS 3600 Section 16, which in turn refers
designers to Section 9.
8.2.2 Development of column starter bars
The transfer of load from the column to the footing is by
a combination of end bearing of the column and the
starter bars in the footing.
AS 3600 Clause 12.6 requires that, unless special
confinement reinforcement is provided, the design
bearing stress at a concrete surface shall not exceed
0.9 f f 'c √(A2 / A1) or f 1.8 f 'c whichever is the less. This
usually means that the area of the starter bars does
not have to match that of the column reinforcement.
However, for both columns and walls, it is common
to use the same size and number of column or wall
starter bars as used for reinforcement in the column or
wall above as shown in Figure 8.2.
AS 3600 includes no specific requirements for the
minimum area of starter bars but ACI318 8.4 requires
a minimum area of 0.5% of Ag, which seems to be
prudent. This issue is discussed in more detail in the
Design Handbook for Reinforced Concrete Elements 8.5
and with design examples.
The initial estimate for the footing depth is often based
on the ability of the column or wall starter bars to
transfer the applied forces into the footing. The usual
condition is compression in the column or wall bars,
and sufficient depth must be available to develop
the expected compressive force (see AS 3600
Clause 13.1.5.1 and Chapter 2).
However, if the footing is fixed, ie resisting moment,
the development length of the bars on one or more
faces of the column or wall may be in tension under
certain loads. This may require the development length
in tension to be considered, frequently with cogged
starter bars being needed.
Starter bars same
number and size
as column bars
Splice length Scabble surface
Development Two sets of ties for
length 50 support of starter bars
Cogs
50-mm blinding layer Extend and cog
(if required) corner bars (typical)
Figure 8.2 Typical pad footing
Table 8.1 Footing depths (rounded to the nearest
50 mm) assuming full development length of starter
bars in compression
Starter bar size
N12 N16 N20 N24 N28 N32 N36
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Table 8.1 can be used for initial sizing of footings.
It assumes: a concrete of f 'c ≥ 25 MPa; a bottom
reinforcing mat consisting of two layers of N20 bars
each way; 50 mm cover to the bottom bar of the mat;
the column or wall starter bars have to develop their
full development length in compression. Note that in a
column the corner bars are usually cogged to support
the reinforcement cage off the bottom reinforcement
mat and fitments are used at about 300-mm centres to
allow the cage to be held in place and fixed.
If the column or wall bars do not need to develop
their full development length in compression then
the depths shown can be reduced. All of these
assumptions will need to be checked against the final
design requirements and adjusted appropriately.
With a minimum embedment length of 200 mm for the
column or wall starter bars required by AS 3600, and
using the design parameters above, the minimum
depth of any reinforced pad or strip footing will be
about 300 to 400 mm. The minimum depth of any
unreinforced footing allowed by AS 3600 Clause 15.4.1
is 200 mm.
Consideration needs to be given to the minimum
concrete strength of the footing required to meet the
durability requirements of AS 3600 Section 4.
Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 8.3
For large differences in concrete strength between N*
the column and footing, additional calculations may
be required to determine the effective strength of a do a – do
the concrete at the column/footing interface; this
may require additional starter bars and possible
confinement. This is particularly important for do
high‑strength columns and walls with combined or
coupled footings where the column or wall may be at
the edge of a footing, eg at a boundary. With this type qu qu
of footing the moments due to the offset column or
Critical section
wall are resisted by a combined footing or by a tie or A 2 = L 2 (a – do ) for beam shear
coupling beam back to an adjacent footing. Designers
can refer to texts such as Reynolds Reinforced
Concrete Designer's Handbook 8.6 for the design of
combined and coupled footings.
Having established an initial pad footing depth, then A2 c2 L2
the shear and bending at the following critical sections
are checked as required and the footing depth, c1
concrete strength or both are adjusted as necessary.

8.2.3 One-way (beam) shear action

The nominal shear stress appropriate to this condition
is calculated as for a beam across the critical shear L1
plane located a distance do (the footing depth) from
Figure 8.3 One-way (beam) shear action of spread
the face of the column. The beam shear perimeter
footing
extends across the whole width of the footing, and the
load carried is that portion of the total load located
between this perimeter and the outer edge of the N*
footing Figure 8.3.
dom
Shear is calculated along each axis of the footing
2
using the appropriate value of do for each direction
although it is conservative to use the lesser value of do.
The value of β1 used in calculating Vuc in AS 3600
do dom
Clause 8.2.7.1 will generally be about 0.8, assuming
no shear reinforcement is provided. This means that
the shear strength, f Vuc , will be up to about 30% less
qu qu
than when using the previous edition of AS 3600 and
it may be a critical design case especially for higher
Punching shear
bearing pressures.
A2 = L1 L2 – ∆ A1 perimeter
8.2.4 Two-way or punching shear action
Nominal punching shear stress is determined around
the critical perimeter at a distance of dom / 2 from the
∆ A1
column face, where dom is the mean value of do around
the column Figure 8.4. The total shear force to be A1 c2 L2
resisted by the punching-shear perimeter is the total
footing reaction minus the load on the zone inside the
punching-shear perimeter. At higher bearing pressures, c1
it also may be a critical design case.

8.2.5 Flexural action

The design of a footing is similar to that of a L1
cantilevered member. The critical perimeters for
Figure 8.4 Two-way or punching shear action of spread
bending moment are located, along each axis, at
footing
the column face for concrete columns or wall face

8.4 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 N* total allowable bearing pressure) for the design of
the concrete based on the actual bearing pressure at
the foundation less the weight of the footing. While it
checks the minimum reinforcement required, it does
not check cover, spacing requirements or detailing
d
requirements. It is limited to footings with a concrete
strength of up to 50 MPa.
qu The spreadsheet assumes the footing is not over
Critical section for reinforced and that ku ≤ kuo.
bending moment Critical section for bending
in L2 direction moment in L1 direction For an under reinforced section, the ultimate moment
capacity, Mu,is approximately equal to 0.85 Ast fsy d
within about 10% of a more accurate calculation, ie it is
independent of the concrete strength and the width of
the footing. This approximation is used to estimate the
c2 L2 reinforcing steel required.
The spreadsheet checks the actual bearing capacity
c1
against the allowable bearing capacity. If it exceeds
the allowable bearing capacity, the plan dimensions
of the footing will need to be increased. It also makes
an initial approximation of the reinforcement required
L1 as well as the minimum amount required. The designer
then selects and inputs an actual area of reinforcement
Figure 8.5 Flexural action of spread footing for
(provided by a number of bars, usually of one size
concrete members
in both directions) to satisfy the larger of these two
amounts.
for walls. The bending moment is calculated as the
cantilever moment carrying the design pressure over Then the spreadsheet calculates the actual moment
the full width of the footing Figure 8.5. For simplicity, capacity and compares it with the design moment,
the smaller value of do is sometimes used, as minimum which has been input. It also checks the one-way and
reinforcement can often control. Generally, pad two-way shear. If any of these is less than the required
footings are only lightly reinforced. or allowable values, then a further iteration will be
required. This iteration can involve larger areas of Sh
ee
bN
tN
o

An appropriate reference should be consulted for the

Jo
o
tN By

flexural reinforcement, higher concrete strengths or a

ee
Sh
No te:
b Da t N3
2
Jo en 0
pm 90
By elo
ev s
e:
ll d N28 rtie

position of critical sections for steel columns. It can,

Dat pe
e d fu 0 ro
ne 80 lP 0.8
r ria

deeper footing, or a combination of these.

ea h rb
ars te
ds rte N24 Ma 32
an sta 0 50
0
xu
re ing 70 φ 6
fle sion ss
um
f' c 0.3

however, conservatively be assumed to be at the

g in ten g a N20
tin of tin 0 f sy
foo yers foo 60
r of
rete la .
ea depth N16
k uo
nc r 2 use h
co (1 o .r its
d S ll
50
0
. are nt ernfo an ry ov 12
era
use s qu eme g osivble g a L 1
it s
or ng ayon in in N

edge of the column or, sometimes, halfway between

for lar rra msp
ntiss re
nd lim 40
0 L2
Be Pre

Spreadsheet 8.1 is available at www.ccaa.com.au

sib
le gu l a
on tan tee meet n-
resp rec n s ireshe ize epth
ed give quad sig rs
Ba rall
d
t rere De
t is C1
ee forc r a . enis sp e
sh
rein n fo 00
36 cegmth ng Ov C2
read
gly ctio AS forsin ing oti
sp
to reoinn uforc Fo

the column face and the edge of the base plate if it is

this ig n sin e se m
g s a ts rs te m
sin De for of th en eum pe rein re g
nu
ng nts ity em inTim h bar nc rcin mm
per
so
oti me ac uir e m
req hearim er: sing Co reinfo 50 m2
he Fo ire ap n rce tric bar
n qu g c ing cl n u tio 3,3 0
mm
mer
:T
tio te t re din ac s wis m ta l fo en ith 5
nc ed w 3,3 2 do
clai uta cre en en sp lab Dcolu pu zo
nta mm
mp on em nt b nd o s te om ori Co forc .2
11 0 Pla
n
N*

unstiffened.
Dis t a e t re C mm
Co t dC forc ome en abl onc t on
rt h
ob s. lar rein 0
rce rein te m em pplic r a c lie
eCn ject/Jcitie n gu nder 999 1,0 0
7
D
n o b
in fo ile
ns ltim
a rc
fo y a fo m a cta re e, u 1 r
Clie /J
rein ularl hear mo ent.Pro ap .min. 5
Re
ve
Pro
ject
te s te e u m i c s h no em ing c Abjestct d Re that a ourn 84 Co
th u ge
rce oting , Me 2007
bje
ct
ula s t). im ar t ay it fo rc nd & S u s lb
Su alc late en min is p 2 w ly w in be .min rce
nta
info r fo an on,
on r re in ) %
: C alcu rcem all heet and ds ea el M
uo m Pe 100.6
on C fo ers ds ay pa sh ste ng Re sign fo o1n.1gm ears g 5m mm
: ri pti re in sid
r e a 1w a re and sion ulati 0 )e ,o Ln , P o tin ce a rest m m
n s
revisi ics
D e

Designers should note that if straight bars are used

le c Co e sp ecks u 1 Fo n
Tit es sq ear res alc . 20 ctu Re Bas put Pad ista to
n
m2
lD Th d ch r or r sh omp s in c sion t 1, u - d ded 50
ra c n tr In f m 4
s ten rete ta
la fo of yo n
ne an gu n tre me S rd
o
ott
o
rou 0
45 25
Ge c tan desig ects pres rs in e nd crete onc Da metr th L 1 , D ea ze b reo, 0 a ctio
n
e C o sh e K
r re ot eff for b m
g A , Co rced
n e
0. Len
g L2 pth a rs d r si le 0 .2 kP S O
Fo es n s the llow mem tin 0G De om b re an - ba tensi
s 36 th al kN
Do ore ot a for ora aulke einfo AS Wid area omin bo flexu bars of the
tt
kN

in flexural action in footings, the development length

Ign es n itable orp R in d to for m 0 qu
nc ll & F ick, Pa rall N ver tto r 30 9
: ed d bo r laye
ns Do t su 9 (I a tr us co th
Ove oemnt dep over pplaee.
6
2,1 8
tio No 00 n, H Kilpa lly kN
ita -2 a era tt
Beom ive D -c orm f uu 89 kN <B
a
00 Rang r and en rtie
s
forc Effect epth trogidfo reo
Lim 36 sg pe kN Bp
AS rner, Foste na ro rein D censin to
L1
2 81 ed o
l Wa rner,
ti o ut l p
sio
n (= e
thlly
u lle
l
L 2 et, rge
) 4 8 kN uir d re
inp teria req ire
ca ota a
ten toca mn ara l to ha 3,3 86

of the bar must be checked at the critical section for

e kP
reti Wa dn ata ma of ati olu C 1 p ralle adsh B a surc 4,2 8 the requ
eo an ed tom fC of
Th ols uir ove
r, ers au y o ength C 2 p sp
a re ny 1.2 a the
s/ mb lay ga kP on
de : Sy req try, c * r1 ted etr L is din 29
8
a ati n of
lls ula om mn idth g th clu
Co sis ce ome nts M ter fo alc bars Ge Colu n W rdain t in e) Bp
kP
ro
xim atio
a w e e c m a
re ty u p
ap roxim
B e lu n gA b arg 3
: llo g
ye tion mom r diam de nd g
Co clukmre
aci
ap eigh ErcDh
t
m) m) B2p 7 idth
re c rou forcin ing g C g w CyKsu gra gra m) 0 lw th an p
is n ap

the bending moment at the face of the column (see

latu Se ding & ba t gra kg
ac f rein ac dbC
ao ns
tio earin xcl ft HgEan pro pro rogra 35 tota l leng
nc n n nb sp fee ac the the e p for ure is a
me Be ber eme ree cing
o nd er ed able G (E cl
B
YuC din by by y th .m tota fig
No m ta oth pli d L(ILn ted ted d b
g for is gure 40
Nu forc hg a en or Ap Allow Loa U ula lcula late gram f Foo
) tin kN
.m Th fi 60
: in wit d sp em 12
ad aFd
g

8.2.7 Basis of Charts 8.1 and 8.2

ut Re ns Q alc u 32 kN
Th
is
ells e an φM u inforc
tin
tio De eBLEo (C (Ca alc e pro ide o oo Mu
Inp dc es ht d (C th fF 1,2 2 < φ 36
o xe r, siz acity um re u gg T O
L iv eig Loa d N* d by nders eo 1 ,23 m m
2
t M* 20
s L id 10

Table 2.7). In addition, the minimum anchorage may

B e p , W
g rking Loa late at U 2 n 0
mb nt ca im ns TIL tin de
rs qu
mm me 3.4
Nu e r min e c tio S F oo l Wo ate alcu city t Un n 4 ,2 90 u ire 32 4.0 0
m
Mo cks
fo orr AA E ta lti m (C p a a g 90
q 4 4
NT S AR To l U ctor g Ca esi re
, c CC city 4,2 80 1 5,0 83
e ts E o ta Fa n pa for D d
s tate 4.2
h e 10
a ire
MM ET
n T ri
t: C ea gC 5.0 0
qu
e th ad ty mit 28

After calculating the flexural reinforcement, designers

ct
.re
tpu mm CO SHE Lo al B rin apaci A st quired r li ,10
Ou r co conta ct u ea C st.re fo 6 16 4 5 ft.
Fo ase R D A n B
ng
A es 5.3 81
3 x le ft.
FO EA

be needed to develop the stress in the bar at the outer

sig siz 4 0 bo
ari n 6.0 4 3.4
ple FT PR De d Be ctio n φM
u & 2 w ox le
A S et ire rs 2 ,82 4.0 llo b
N re d io *< be 45 6 4 0 40 ye
DR HE cto s ect 6.9 w
the yello
L1 u
Fa itie the L 2 dir r M < φM um 65 1 5,0 83
k: 1.0 TE T ac d fo r M* r n 20 7.0 2 4.2 to
ac ap nt
in
the ire ba 1 5.0 0 10 a in the

must check the minimum tensile reinforcement

db nC qu ed fo ted 14 are into
Fe
e NO s ig g o me t in
n re ir e s 3
9 .4 9 4,3 2
54 4
0
5,1 3
t
pu area
De ndin ate M ome ion qu gg .0 5.3 d in
Su 16

edge of the footing, as the moment increases. A cog

. ect n re 10 0 81 an inpu
t
OK
Be Ultim te M dir io nt 1 2 6.0 4 L1
n ma L 1 irect me 20 .66 4,5 1 2 d
OK
ge for 2 an
rsio Ulti
in d
an
13 .0 36
6.9
6 4,8 0 le L
Ve al
A st in L 2
arr 12 14 6 65 tab for Mu
Initi al A st nt 11
3 4,3 0
9 7.0 2 ove table <φ u
me .34 M*

required in accordance with AS 3600 Clause 8.1.6.1.

1 ab M
Initi rce 21 .0 25 9 4,3 2 the above <φ
22 2 9.4 54 ng M*
info .0 e

will usually meet that requirement. When using larger

re 2 1 0 u si th
d .96 4,4 5 20 rea usin
g m
se 37 .0 15 .66 4,5 1 kN
po 8 1 3 6 n da a m
Pro 3 3 a re
m2 6 u
94 .0 ng nd a kN M
ize bar m 4,2 8 14 6 aci a ,17
13 76 <φ u
rs
9 sp cing M* M
.34 4,3 0 <φ 6

Charts 8.1and 8.2 show these minimum reinforcement

8
Ba a of ars 21 .0 25 rs, a 13
,1
M*
ba .3
uo
n . of b of ars,
sp φM <0
Are tio 22 2

diameter bars in the footing, designers should also

ec al No uire otal mm
d 2 no b φM
uo
m k u0
Dir q .96 4,4 5 se o of kN
L 1 oretic ars re m2 f ba
T rs 37 .0 15 oo n m
Ch ose 69 kN
e m o 38 4
Th ual b bars cing ,29 Ch
o 1,7 9
ct f a 4 2 6
A a o l Sp bd 2
2
88 1,7 4

requirements assuming 50 mm and 75 mm cover

mm 2
u
Are mina o) φM
b ars m ku b d
M u 0 .0
No n . of m a o) φ
26

check the stress at the location where the cog starts; a

tio d mm a ku
ec al No uire otal mm 53 6 mm ga ku
Dir q T rs 53
2
-0.5 gam
m
L 2 oretic ars re m2 f ba
e m o 84
5 o (1 -0.5
Th ual b bars cing ion a ku o (1
Act a of l Spa ect n mm a ku

respectively with two layers of N20 bars and various

Are mina dir io ga
L 1 irect f'c mm
No d in d 2 ga

hook may be required.

de in L 2 lp ha f'c rovid
ed
vi 6 lA a 2 .p
ro ed d .3
ns =0 itia lph =A
st
.p
A st rovid
.p tio t kuo hi_in al A As
ith block
A st ula uo a = P i_initi *w
alc ent M ction = Ph = M stress

concrete grades. Pad footings are not usually heavily

n C om dire ion ck
s c))
d f' crete
sig m M L1 irect blo / (b n
De ximu φMuo L2 d tre
ss st
f sy for co
Ma Check φM uo
2
in gs / 2 (A ) bd
eck s .5 ku
Ch tu - 0 .5
en d (1 -0 ire
d

8.2.6 Basis of Spreadsheet 8.1

om

reinforced, so minimum reinforcement may be the

qu
f sy k u (1 A st.re
k M on = A f'c
st
g
ec ti sin
Ch irec φM = Ø ted u
u
D
L 1 Check φM u lcula
eck ca
Ch ck k u
e
Ch

Spreadsheet 8.1 can be used to calculate the critical tensile reinforcement, especially at low bearing
n
tio
ec
Dir
L2

reinforcement requirements for a concentrically loaded pressures.

reinforced rectangular pad footing in flexure and It is common practice to use N12 bars in footings up
shear in accordance with the Flowchart 8.1. It uses to 1000 mm wide, N16 bars for those up to 2000 mm
a reduced bearing pressure (which is less than the

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 8.5

wide, N20 bars for those up to, say, 4 m wide and N24
bars for those more than 4 m wide. It has been shown
B
in practice that these sizes provide bars at reasonable
spacing. Spacing should not exceed about 300 mm.
Mesh reinforcement is not normally used for pad
footings, as the minimum reinforcement would usually L
require at least two layers of mesh, unless the footing
is very small or has been designed as unreinforced
Y
concrete.
Refer to AS 3600 Section 4 and Chapter 3 of this
Handbook for minimum concrete cover requirements.

8.3 Strip footings

The determination of force resultants in strip footings B
generally falls into two cases:
n Rigid footings Z
n Flexible footings. X

Strip footings are used to support line loads, which

are applied to the footings from a continuous wall or L
from closely spaced columns. Stiff footings, or strips
supporting stiff superstructure elements that will not
allow significant differential settlement to occur along
the line of the footing, may be designed using rigid
body theory with linear distribution of soil pressure. An
assessment must be made of the relative stiffness of
the combined foundation and superstructure system
(including the soil). This will determine the type of L
design method to be used. Designers should consult
relevant texts, or the method proposed by Meyerhof 8.7
may be appropriate.
The strength design of a strip footing will follow the
same principles as for the spread footing, after the
determination of the design forces. Strip footings L
carrying a stiff longitudinal load, eg a concrete wall,
may require only a design check for transverse
Figure 8.6 Some simple pile cap layouts
bending and shear forces.
The designer must ensure that the design of the
elements containing stiff and strong superstructure piling contractors, ground conditions and other factors.
components does not result in specific forces that When two or more piles support a column, then a
cannot be tolerated by the supporting strip footing. An pile cap is normally required to transfer the load from
example of this would be a shear wall with moments the column to the piles. As for all footings, specialist
parallel to the wall resulting in tension or high bearing geotechnical advice should be sought on choice of
pressures under the footing. pile, pile design and pile testing.
The action of simple small pile caps can be treated in
8.4 Pile Caps a similar manner to a beam or slab as described in
Soils that provide insufficient strength to economically AS 3600 Clause 8.1. A pile cap transfers the column
support spread or strip footings often require the loads to discrete points on the underside of the footing,
installation of piles (or piers) to transfer the applied instead of the continuous contact area of the footing
loads to a stiffer stronger stratum, or by skin friction supported directly by the soil. Figure 8.6.
over the length of the pile, or a combination of both. The size of the pile cap (footing) is determined by
There are many types of piles and the selection of the the number of piles required to carry the vertical and
type of pile will depend on experience, availability of horizontal load and moments with the minimum

8.6 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 Flowchart 8.1 Design of spread footings

Determine allowable soil pressure,

f 'c and cover, taking into account
durability requirements

Calculate depth of footing

based on development length
of column starter bars
AS 3600 Clause 13.1.5

Calculate plan area of footing

based on allowable soil pressure
and applied loads
AS 1170.0  and Table 1.1

Increase footing depth Increase footing depth

and/or concrete strength and/or concrete strength

One-way (beam) shear

no
Does footing satisfy requirements
Flowchart 4.2?

yes

yes
Is there a base moment?

no

Slab Slab
no punching shear (M v*> 0) punching shear (M v*= 0) no
Is V *< φVuo? Is V *< φVuo?
AS 3600 Clause 9.2.4 AS 3600 Clause 9.2.3

yes yes

Calculate reinforcement for flexural action

Check minimum reinforcement requirements for flexure

AS 3600 Clause 16.3.1

stop

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 8.7

 chart 8.1 Minimum reinforcement in pad footings with 50 mm cover

3000

f 'c (MPa) = 100

2500
f 'c (MPa) = 80

f 'c (MPa) = 65

2000

f 'c (MPa) = 50

f 'c (MPa) = 40

f 'c (MPa) = 32
1500

f 'c (MPa) = 25

1000

Note: Chart assumes

50 mm cover with
Area of reinforcement (mm2/m) fsy = 500 MPa

2 layers of N20 bars

bottom
b
500

d D
Reinforcement

0
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
Overall depth of footing (mm)

8.8 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 chart 8.2 Minimum reinforcement in pad footings with 75 mm cover

3000

f 'c (MPa) = 100

2500 f 'c (MPa) = 80

f 'c (MPa) = 65

2000
f 'c (MPa) = 50

f 'c (MPa) = 40

f 'c (MPa) = 32
1500

f 'c (MPa) = 25

1000

Note: Chart assumes

75 mm cover with
Area of reinforcement (mm2/m) fsy = 500 MPa

2 layers of N20 bars

bottom
b
500

d D
Reinforcement

0
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
Overall depth of footing (mm)

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 8.9

practical spacing between the piles. This depends
on driving conditions, the driving tolerances and load
performance of the pile as specified by the designer or
supplier. Typically, the pile spacing is 2½−3 times the
pile diameter, but the spacing must be confirmed prior
to design. It should be noted that the settlement of a
group of piles is greater than a single pile for a similar
axial load. Settlement generally increases as the pile
spacing decreases. When a single large diameter pile
is used, a pile cap may not be required.
Design of piles for buildings, including load testing is
covered by AS 2159 8.8. Designers can also refer to
texts such as Pile Design and Construction Practice 8.9
for the design of piles and pile caps.
Piles are typically cast to about 75−150 mm above
the bottom of the pile cap and then cut back to about
25 mm above the bottom of the pile cap with the
reinforcement projecting into the pile cap as required.
The initial pile cap depth, subject to final design, can
be taken as the horizontal distance from the centre
of the column to the centre of the outermost pile. Pile
caps should extend at least 150 mm beyond the face
of any pile. The pile cap depth will need to be checked
against any required development lengths for wall or
column starter bars and for shear.
Bending moments and shear (punching and beam)
forces are determined as above except for the
following:
n Any pile located do / 2 or less from the face of the
column is not considered to be adding external
shear forces to the cap.
n The pile cap must be checked for the punching
shear applied by the piles from the underside of
the pile cap as well as the punching shear applied
from the top of the pile cap by the column.
Pile caps can also be designed by the strut-and-tie
method as set out in Chapter 9 Strut-and-tie modelling.
A minimum cover of 75−100 mm should generally be
used for piles and the bottom and sides of pile caps
for practical reasons, unless larger covers are required,
eg by AS 3600 for durability reasons, as discussed in
Chapter 3 Durability and fire resistance.
Flexural reinforcement is provided in the top and
bottom of the pile cap and the bars usually have
cogged ends. Generally, the bars are in two orthogonal
directions for rectangular pile caps, although for a pile
cap for two piles, fitments are usually used in the short
direction. For non-rectangular pile caps there can
be three or more layers of flexural reinforcement, top
and bottom. Horizontal reinforcement should also be
provided to the vertical faces of the pile cap at about
200-mm centres vertically and lapped as required.
8.10 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook
For very deep and/or large pile caps, consideration may
need to be given to heat of hydration of the concrete
and the control of thermal cracking, especially if the
pile cap is over, say, 1200 mm deep.
8.5 Detailing
For all reinforced concrete footings, details of the
footings and any special detailing must be shown on
the drawings.
AS 3600 Clause 9.1.3.1 sets out the detailing of flexural
reinforcement for slabs which is used for footings. This
requires that where the bending moment envelope
has been calculated, the termination and anchorage
of flexural reinforcement is based on a hypothetical
bending-moment diagram formed by displacing the
calculated positive and negative bending-moment
envelopes a distance D along the footing from each
side of the relevant sections of maximum moment and
to which the development length must be added. This
development length in pad footings is usually achieved
with cogs (or hooks) to the footing bars as shown in
Figure 8.2 and discussed above. Designers should
also refer to Chapter 11 of the Reinforcement Detailing
Handbook 8.10 for further guidance.
Areas needing consideration in the documentation of
footings include:
n A plan of the footing (including pile caps) should
be shown on the footing drawings, which may be
combined with other schedules.
n The footing sizes (including pile caps) should be
shown on the drawings, which are sometimes
combined with the column schedule. It is usual
to size pad footings and pile caps in plan
dimensions in 100-mm increments and in depth in
50-mm increments, eg 2.0 m x 600 mm deep, or
2.1 m x 3.4 m x 850 mm deep, etc.
n Footing beams should be shown on a plan or a
beam schedule or similar.
n Details of footings and pile caps should include (as
a minimum) the founding level or stratum, the size
of the footing or pile cap and the RL to the bottom
or top of the footing/pile cap, the reinforcement
including starter bars, the concrete strength, the
cover and any construction joints. The details
should also show if the columns are concentric to
the footing or pile cap and if not, offsets should be
dimensioned.
n It is suggested that the minimum concrete strength
for reinforced pad and strip footings be 25 MPa
unless higher strengths are required by AS 3600,
eg for durability reasons as discussed in Chapter 3.
n The allowable covers in AS 3600 do not often
reflect the actual conditions on site when
 excavating in ground, which can be variable. Groove formed by DPM
It is recommended that the minimum cover to seepage of concrete
(overpour) beneath Salt attack or damp
reinforcement to the bottom of pad and strip edge of form boards and efflorescence
footings be 50 mm when a layer of blinding Absorbent compacted appears here
concrete is used or where the ground is firm, sand/rubble fill
unless larger covers are required by AS 3600,
Paving
eg for durability reasons as discussed in Chapter 3.
Where the ground conditions are difficult, 75 mm or
greater cover may be appropriate. Natural soil and
vapour barrier
n AS 3600 Clause 4.10.3.5 specifies that where extension, sloping
footings are cast against ground the cover is towards footing Vapour barrier

to be increased by 10 mm when a damp proof

membrane (DPM) is provided, otherwise by 20 mm.
It is not usual to provide a DPM to pad footings and Figure 8.7 Slab edge dampness
generally not possible to pile caps.
n Top reinforcement is generally not needed in pad
footings unless the footing has to carry uplift forces 8.6 general guidance
(such as in cyclonic conditions), or if it is part of a
On any particular project, other matters that may need
combined or tied footing system, or is a pile cap.
consideration include:
n Footing beams that intersect with footings may
n Advice in the geotechnical investigation whether
have different effective depths because of the bars
the footing will be likely to be cast in aggressive
being in layers.
soils as defined in AS 3600 Clause 4.8.
n The same size bar in flexure should be used in
n Tie beams or similar in both horizontal directions
both directions in square pad footings and each
may be needed for earthquake design for pad
direction in rectangular footings, to avoid fixing
footings or pile caps that are located in or on soils
errors on site.
with a maximum vertical ultimate bearing capacity
n Side face reinforcement is not normally provided
of less than 250 kPa. This is to limit differential
for footings but is usually provided in pile caps or
horizontal movement during an earthquake as
deep strip footings.
required by AS 1170.4 Clause 5.2.
n Footing beams and strip footings will usually have
n Will blinding concrete be required to the base of
top and bottom reinforcement with fitments.
the footing or pile cap?
n Fitments in footing beams and strip footings may
n Specify who is to confirm the bearing stratum
have to be designed for shear along the member.
and bearing pressure (assumed for design) in the
For footings, the fitments may also act as the
excavated ground, before placing the blinding
flexural reinforcement perpendicular to the span of
concrete or fixing of the reinforcement.
the footing for the outstand of the footing beyond
n Will the ground conditions allow vertical sides of
the wall.
excavations to stand for sufficient time to permit
n Reinforcement at the junction of strip footings,
placement of reinforcement and concrete without
footing beams and spread footings with columns
danger to those carrying out the work? If not,
should be reviewed to ensure that it all fits.
batters may have to be provided and the vertical
n If footing beams and strip beams are shown on a faces of the footings formed and the excavation
schedule on the drawings, the schedule should later backfilled. This may require advice from the
be checked to ensure that all details fit within the geotechnical engineer.
constructed shape.
n Generally, excavations deeper than 1.5 m will
n Complicated or unusual footings, footing beams require shoring or battering of the excavated sides,
and pile caps should be shown in plan and in accordance with the various state and territory
elevation. Worksafe safety regulations.
n Construction joints in strip footings and footing n For strip footings and footings associated with a
beams should be properly considered and detailed. slab-on-ground with a habitable area above, a
n If earthquake design is a consideration, 200‑µm DPM must be provided under the entire
compliance with AS 1170.48.11 and AS 3600 slab and footing and be returned up the edges of
Appendix C should be checked. the slab/footing beam.

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 8.11

n For strip footings in non-habitable areas 8.10 Reinforcement Detailing Handbook (Z06), 2nd
consideration should be given to providing Ed, Concrete Institute of Australia (CIA), 2010.
a 200‑μm DPM under the footing to assist in 8.11 AS 1170.4 Minimum design loads on structures
preventing any rising damp. Part 4: Earthquake loads Standards Australia,
n For footings and footing beams, projecting 2007.
concrete outside the theoretical formed face due 8.12 Slab Edge Dampness and Moisture Ingress
to poor construction procedures can allow slab Data Sheet, Cement Concrete & Aggregates
edge dampness to occur as shown in Figure 8.7. Australia, 2005.
Slab edge dampness can be a problem in arid
8.13 Slab Edge Dampness (CPN 30) Concrete
and saline type soils and designers should seek
Institute of Australia, 1998.
specific advice from the geotechnical engineer
on this matter as required. Refer to CCAA Data
Sheet 8.12 and CPN 30 8.13 for more information.
n Footing faces and footing beams on property
boundaries should be formed or constructed so
that the concrete does not encroach on adjoining
properties.
n Excavations of footings and pile caps must
not undermine adjacent footings or structure,
especially on adjacent sites.
n Provide any rebates or set downs for walls over as
required.

References
8.1 Craig R F Craig's Soil Mechanics 7th Ed,
Spon Press, 2004.
8.2 Curtin WG, Shaw G, Parkinson G and Golding
J (revised by Seward NJ) Structural Foundation
Designers' Manual, 2nd Ed, Blackwell
Publishing, 2006.
8.3 AS 2870 Residential slabs and footings –
Construction Standards Australia, 2011.
8.4 Building Code Requirements for Structural
Concrete (ACI 318-08) ACI Manual of Concrete
Practice, 2010.
8.5 Beletich AS and Uno PJ Design Handbook
for Reinforced Concrete Elements, 2nd Ed,
UNSW Press, 2003.
8.6 Reynolds CE, Steedman JC and Threlfall AJ
Reynolds Reinforced Concrete Designer's
Handbook, 11th Ed, 2008.
8.7 Meyerhof GG 'Some recent foundation research
and its application to design' The Structural
Engineer (London) Vol. 31, No. 6, June 1953,
pp 151–167.
8.8 AS 2159 Piling – Design and installation
Standards Australia, 2009.
8.9 Tomlinson M and Woodward J Pile Design
and Construction Practice, 5th Ed, Taylor and
Francis, 2008.

8.12 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

Chapter 9 Strut-and-tie
modelling
9.1 Introduction
Strut-and-tie modelling is covered in Section 7 of
AS 36009.1, with formal design rules for three types of
models. This section should be read in conjunction
with Section 12 which also covers the design of
non-flexural members, end zones, concrete nibs,
corbels, stepped joints and bearing surfaces. AS 3600
Clause 2.2.4 sets out the strength check to be used
when using strut-and-tie analysis.
Strut-and-tie modelling has been around for many
years, has attracted quite a deal of research and is
now an established design method allowed by most
concrete codes, including the ACI 9.2, since 2002.
Chapter 7 of the Precast Concrete Handbook 9.3 has a
section on strut-and-tie design based on the ACI which
is similar to AS 3600, with two worked examples.
This design method is used for non-flexural members
such as deep beams, pile caps, corbels and nibs and
the like. It can also be used for non-flexural portions
of other structural members such as dapped ends
of beams, holes in beams, etc. The strut-and-tie
approach is based on the designer selecting the load
paths and designing according to the chosen design
model. This requires the designer to choose realistic
load paths within a member in the form of an idealised
or notional truss. See Figure 9.1 for a typical example
of a simple strut-and-tie model (STM).
P While the method is a useful design tool, to achieve
Nodal zone Bottle-shaped struts
Tie Idealised
prismatic
R1 struts R2
Figure 9.1 A simple strut-and-tie model
Non-flexural members are defined as members where
the ratio of the clear span or projection to the overall
depth is small. The ratios must not exceed those set
out in AS 3600 Clause 12.1.1:
n Cantilevers 1.5
n Simply-supported members 3
n Continuous members 4.
The geometry of the notional truss is determined by
following the flow of forces from the support reaction
into the body of the supported element to the points of
the applied load(s). The intersection of compressive
struts with tension ties or support reactions defines
the nodal zones. The axes of the struts and ties are
chosen to coincide approximately with the axes of the
compression and tension fields in the real element.
Struts should be generally parallel to the axes of
cracking. The struts, ties, and nodal zones making
up the STM all have finite dimensions that must be
calculated and must be taken into account in selecting
the dimensions of the truss and the member.
Some of the key assumptions for strut-and-tie analysis
are:
n Ties must yield before failure of the struts for
ductility.
n Forces in the ties and struts are axial only.
n Tension in the concrete is ignored.
n External forces are applied at nodes.
n The ties are fully developed before the node, which
requires anchorage outside the node.
Traditionally, STMs are developed using the elastic
stress distribution and load path methods. These
methods involve a trial-and-error process based on the
designer's intuition and experience. The STM obtained
by such methods is not unique and can vary with the
designer's understanding of this method of analysis.
the assumed load path, significant redistribution of the
internal forces may be required which the structure
may not be capable of accommodating due to
limitations of the concrete and steel. Care is therefore
needed to ensure that the member is capable of
accommodating the redistributions required without
undue distress to itself or adjacent components. As
a general rule, designers should choose an STM that
allows the structure to behave as they would expect it
to behave and then to design as close to possible to
that model, to minimise the demands on the structure.
The strut-and-tie method is therefore in many cases a
design tool for the experienced engineer and is not a
simple standard analysis procedure. Even where the
design of an STM is simple, such as for a corbel, the
design by inexperienced engineers must be checked
Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 9.1
by others to ensure they have fully understood
the design issues involved because of the usual
critical nature of the element. STM design involves a
trial‑and‑error approach with hand calculations and
hand-drawn sketches to scale, etc and usually cannot
be undertaken totally on the computer.
For further information on the design of STMs refer to C-C-C node C-c-t node C-T-T node
Foster et al 9.4, PCA9.5, 9.6 and others9.7. Figure 9.2 Various nodes (dashed line indicates
compression struts and full lines indicate ties)
9.2 Truss geometry
9.2.1 General
AS 3600 Section 7 requires the following: Force discontinuity Geometric discontinuity

(a) Loads shall be applied at nodes, and the struts B-regions B-regions
D-regions D-regions
and ties shall be subjected only to axial force.
(b) The model shall provide load paths to carry the h1 h2
loads and other actions to the supports or into
adjacent regions.
(c) The model shall be in equilibrium with the applied
h1 h1 h1 h1 h2 h2
loads and the reactions.
(d) In determining the geometry of the model, the Figure 9.3 Examples of B- and D-regions in a horizontal
dimensions of the struts, ties, and nodal zones shall member
be taken into account.
(e) Ties shall be permitted to cross struts.
C
(f) Struts shall cross or intersect only at nodes.
(g) For reinforced concrete members, at a node point
the angle between the axes of any strut and any tie Strut
shall be not less than 30°. Extended
nodal zone T
Once the geometry of the truss is chosen, the forces in
Nodal zone θ θ ≥ 25°
the struts and ties are determined by statics, with the
applied loads and the reactions being in equilibrium.
For equilibrium, at least three forces should act on a
node. Nodes are classified according to the signs of C
these forces as C-C-C (all compression, ie only struts One layer of steel
entering the node), C-C-T (when there are two or more
C
compression struts and a tension tie) and C-T-T (when
there are two or more tension ties entering the node
with a compression strut). See Figure 9.2.
Strut
9.2.2 B- and D-regions
Extended T
The B-regions (B for Bernoulli or Beam) are flexural
nodal zone
areas within a member where the assumption that
θ
plane sections remain plane can be applied.
Nodal zone
The D-regions (D for Disturbance) are the areas of
discontinuity. For design purposes, D-regions can be
idealised as an STM. See Figure 9.3. C
Multiple layers of steel
9.2.3 Nodes and nodal zones
A node is a point in an STM where the axes of the Figure 9.4 Extended nodal zone
struts, ties, and any applied concentrated forces, if
applicable, acting on the joint, all intersect. Around this
area is the nodal zone, which is the volume of concrete
surrounding the node, and which is the element that
transfers the compression and tension through the node.

9.2 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

The greater the number of truss members meeting at
a node, the less efficient the nodal zone is and this is
recognised by the βn factor which varies from 1.0 to
0.6 as set out in AS 3600 Clause 7.4.2. The principal
compressive force on any nodal face must not be
greater than φst βn 0.9 f 'c.
A nodal zone is called a 'hydrostatic' node when its
loaded faces are perpendicular to the axis of the
struts and ties acting on it, and the loaded faces have
equal stresses. The nodal zone often needs to be
extended because of the number of ties required. It
is then sometimes referred to as an extended nodal
zone Figure 9.4. In a hydrostatic C-C-C nodal zone, the
ratios of the lengths of the sides of the node are in the
same proportion as the forces acting on it.
A C-C-T nodal zone at the end of a member can be
represented as a hydrostatic node if the tie is assumed
to extend through the node and is anchored by a
'notional plate' on the far side of the node as shown in
Figure 9.4. The notional plate has bearing stresses that
are equal to the stresses in the incoming struts. If the
tie is to be anchored beyond the nodal zone, then at
least 50% of the anchorage must be made beyond the
zone. The use of threaded bar may be appropriate for
such ties.
Nodes can also be non-hydrostatic as shown in
Figure 9.5 but the modelling becomes more complex.
Foster et al9.4 provide further information on this type
of node.
9.2.5 Ties
A tie usually consists of either bar reinforcement
(sometimes threaded), a prestressing bar or strand. It
is usual to include a small portion of the surrounding
concrete that is concentric with the axis of the tie to
define the zone in which the forces in the struts and
ties are to be anchored. However, the concrete in the
tie is not used to resist the axial tension in the tie.
The effective thickness in elevation of a tie for design
can vary with the distribution of reinforcement in it. If
the bars are in one layer, the effective thickness can be
taken as the diameter of the bars in the tie plus twice
the cover to the surface of the bars. Multiple-layers
of reinforcement should be distributed approximately
uniformly over the thickness and width of the tie.
The reinforcement in ties can be anchored by hooks or
cogs, or straight bar development beyond the node, or
by anchorage plates. Statics must be satisfied at each
node. At least 50% of the development length must
extend beyond the nodal zone as set out in AS 3600
Clause 7.3.3. Mechanical anchorage, including
welding, can also be used outside the node.

9.2.4 Struts
Struts are normally concrete members idealised as
either prismatic or uniformly tapered although they
Hydrostatic node Non-hydrostatic node
can be fan-shaped as shown in Figure 9.6. They can
also be thicker at mid-length where the compressed Figure 9.5 Hydrostatic and non-hydrostatic nodes
concrete can spread laterally into the adjacent (after Foster et al)
concrete to form a bottle-shaped strut. Prismatic struts
can be used only when the stress field cannot diverge.
Without proper transverse reinforcement, a
bottle‑shaped strut cannot maintain equilibrium
after significant cracking. Reinforcement is therefore
Bursting forces
needed, usually in two orthogonal directions, to
maintain the strength of a bottle-shaped strut as well
as reduce crack widths under service load.
Longitudinal reinforcement may be used, located
within the strut to increase its strength. Such
reinforcement should be parallel to the axis of the strut Figure 9.6 Prismatic, bottle and fan-shaped struts
and enclosed by ties satisfying AS 3600 Clause 10.7. (after AS 3600)
The longitudinal reinforcement should be properly
anchored beyond the nodal zone. The strength of a
longitudinally reinforced strut may be calculated as
for a prismatic, pin-ended short column of similar
geometry.

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 9.3

9.3 Analysis of strut-and-tie models
AS 3600 requires that the analysis of an STM to
determine the internal forces in the struts and ties,
has to meet the requirements of Clauses 6.1.1 and
6.1.2 and also compliance with Clause 6.8. This may
require several STMs to be considered and analysed
to compare results and from which a chosen model is
then adopted and fully analysed and detailed.
AS 3600 Clause 2.2.4 stipulates the following procedure
for the strength check for strut-and-tie analysis:
(a) The strut-and-tie model shall satisfy the
requirements of Section 7 of AS 3600.
(b) The forces acting on all struts and ties and nodes
shall be determined for the critical combination of
factored actions as specified in AS/NZS 1170.0
and Clause 2.4 by an analysis of the strut-and-tie
model in accordance with Section 7.
(c) The compressive force in any concrete strut
shall not exceed the design strength of that strut
determined in accordance with Clause 7.2.3.
The strength reduction factor (φst ) to be used
in determining the design strength shall be in
accordance with Table 2.2.4.
(d) The tensile force in any tie shall not exceed
the design strength of the tie determined in
accordance with Clause 7.3.2 where the strength
reduction factor (φst) is given in Table 2.2.4.
(e) The reinforcement and/or tendons in the ties shall
be anchored in accordance with Clause 7.3.3.
(f) The design strength of nodes shall be calculated
in accordance with Clause 7.4.2 and shall not be
exceeded. The strength reduction factor (φst) shall
be in accordance with Table 2.2.4.
The strength reduction factor, φst, for concrete in
compression is taken as 0.6 and for steel in tension is
taken as 0.8, reflecting that the tie should yield first.
AS 3600 Section 12 defines three types of design
models for non-flexural members. Type I is where
the load is carried to the supports directly by major
struts and ties. It will cover many simple STMs.
Type II is when the load is taken to the supports by
a combination of primary (major) and secondary
(minor) struts. Hanger reinforcement is required to
return the vertical components of forces developed
in the secondary struts to the top of the member.
Type III is similar to a conventional truss, where the
load is carried to the supports via a series of minor
struts with hanger reinforcement used to return the
vertical components of the strut forces to the top of
the member. The use of Type II and III models will
require careful consideration by the designer. These
are discussed in more detail in the paper by Foster
and Gilbert 9.8.
9.4 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook
For the best results, it is recommended that a
preliminary design be carried out before finalising the
design of the chosen strut-and-tie model. The design
of a strut-and-tie member will therefore involve the
following steps:
1 Check that the member or section of member to
be designed complies with the requirements of
AS 3600 and define which areas of the member
are areas of discontinuity, ie D regions, and which
areas are flexural areas, ie B regions.
2 Determine the external actions and where the
member is a mixture of B and D regions, determine
the boundary actions, including any concentrated
and distributed actions such as moments, shear
and axial actions that will act on the STM being
designed.
3 Sketch to scale one or more suitable strut-and‑tie
models to suit the member being designed,
including any boundary forces and choose the STM
that will best reflect the internal actions and will not
cause significant redistribution of internal actions.
4 Analyse the chosen STM to obtain the actions in
each of the individual strut-and-tie members of the
model.
5 Check the dimensions of the struts, ties and
nodes required, including the necessary concrete
strength and amend the STM as required.
6 Choose the material for the tie member which is often
reinforcement and ensure that the tie capacity and
the anchorages beyond the nodes are adequate.
If insufficient, then amend the STM as required.
7 Design the struts, including any compression
reinforcement, fitments and bursting reinforcement.
8 Complete the design and drafting, including the
detailing as set out below.
Figures 9.7 to 9.10 illustrate some examples of STMs
(including Type I and III models).
9.4 Detailing
All strut-and-tie element details must be shown on
the drawings. This is a very important aspect for this
design procedure. Designers can refer to Chapter 16
of the Reinforcement Detailing Handbook 9.9 for typical
detailing of nibs and corbels.
Designers should note that:
n Sufficient details including plans, elevations with
large scale sections and details of the strut-and-tie
elements should be provided.
n Struts must be properly detailed and with
transverse reinforcement to the member in two
orthogonal directions as required, so that splitting
cannot occur.
 F1 = F2 Node A

B C2
C1
T1
C

C3

C4
T2 T3 C5 C6 C1
C1 2
C8 C9 0

C7

T5
T4

T6
T7 T8 C1 T9 1 T10
D A
Ax
R1 Node B Node C R2

Figure 9.10 A truss model for a deep beam with an

opening (Type I and III)
Ay

Figure 9.7 An STM for a corbel on a column (Type I)

Bearing pad Main column reinforcement

(fitments not shown)

Figure 9.11 Double corbels on precast concrete

columns

Figure 9.8 An STM for a corbel on a column showing

the proposed reinforcement

Vf

A
Nf
C θ
Figure 9.12 A reinforcing cage for a precast concrete
column showing the reinforcement for a corbel
B

Figure 9.9 STM for corbel on side of beam

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 9.5

n Ties need to be properly anchored beyond the This detail is suitable when using 16-mm size bar or smaller
node as set out in AS 3600 Clause 7.3.3. This for main tensile reinforcement
Distance between edge
often requires development with hooks, cogs
of bearing and inside of
or anchorage by mechanical anchors such as Two column fitments bar to be a minimum of
should be placed the bar size or cover
welding, plates, etc.
close to corbel top whichever is greater
n Hooks and cogs have real dimensions and can
take up a considerable space in strut-and-tie
7 7
members. Smaller bars allow tighter cogs and
A 2 A
bends and require smaller development lengths.

6 Main tensile
9.5 General Guidance 3 reinforcement
large radius of

Tension lap
The following will assist in both the design and the 4 bend as required
inspection of a strut-and-tie member for a particular
5
project.
1
n Draw the truss model to scale to see it all fits within Secondary horizontal
2 4
the overall member dimensions and is logical. The reinforcement. Total area
1 of this should not be less
dimensions of STM elements should allow the strut 0.5 times area of main
2
reinforcement (if required), the bursting reinforce- tensile reinforcement
7 7
ment (as required), the tie reinforcement and any
other associated reinforcement all to fit together
Compression anchorage
and within the overall dimensions of the member
and to develop the tie anchorages. Strut‑and-tie
Outer compression bars
elements will generally not fit within thin sections. offset or angled to pass
n The actual design of the nodes and nodal zones 1 7 inside fitments
needs to be considered carefully and can involve a 7 3
considerable amount of hand calculations. 6 4 5 6
345
n Always inspect the reinforcement in place prior to
7
concreting to ensure that the design model used
and what was detailed on the drawings is what is 1 7 2
being constructed, as reinforcement fixing may not Sectional plan on A-A
be simple and the reinforcement fixers may have
changed the detail to facilitate their task. Figure 9.13 Detailing of a corbel to a column
n With stepped joints, corbels, dapped ends and (after IStructE Standard method of detailing structural
the like, do not ignore horizontal forces at the joints concrete)
even if they are not evident, as shrinkage, thermal
movement, etc may induce horizontal forces due to
friction. AS 3600 Clause 12.4 requires a minimum Roughen side of beam Overall depth
of 20% of the vertical force to be used as a nominal
Structural screed
horizontal design force. The actual horizontal
design force may be greater than this minimum and
this needs to be assessed for each design case.
n Because of the dimensions of bends to ties and
the cover, do not load corbels, nibs, dapped ends
and the like, too close to the vertical edge of the Slab depth
concrete as the reinforcement may be inadequate Neoprene bearing strip
and the edges will spall and may fail. AS 3600 Reinforced and prestressed
Clause 12.3(a) requires the bearing to be located Beam rebates
over the straight portion of the bar where looped Precast beam depth
(or cogged) bars are used. Always ensure such
Figure 9.14 Concrete corbel or nib on a precast beam
elements are loaded over the reinforcement and
supporting a precast concrete floor
the actual bearing is back from the edge as shown
in Figure 9.13.

9.6 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

n Always be careful with concrete (and steel)
members bearing on the concrete surface in
corbels, dapped ends, slip joints and the like, as
invariably spalling and cracking will occur if they
are not correctly detailed. This can result in both
unsightly and sometimes dangerous conditions
if the concrete can fall. It is preferable to use a
neoprene bearing strip or a slip-type bearing
as appropriate, between the two surfaces. As
a minimum, provide a chamfer on the corners
and set the bearing area back from the edge as
discussed above. See Figure 9.14.

References
9.1 AS 3600 Concrete structures, Standards
Australia, 2009.
9.2 Building Code Requirements for Reinforced
Concrete ACI 318–08, American Concrete
Institute, 2010.
9.3 Precast Concrete Handbook 2nd Ed, National
Precast Concrete Association Australia and
Concrete Institute of Australia, 2009.
9.4 Foster SJ, Kilpatrick AE and Warner RF
Reinforced Concrete Basics 2E 2nd Ed,
Pearson, 2010.
9.5 Strut-and-Tie Model for Structural Concrete
Design Professional Development Series, PCA,
October 2007.
9.6 Notes on ACI318-08 Building Code –
Requirements for Concrete PCA, 2008.
9.7 National Seminar Series on AS 3600—2009,
Lecture 2, Engineers Australia, 2009.
9.8 Foster, SJ and Gilbert, RI 'Strut and Tie
Modelling of Non-flexural Members', Australian
Civil Engineering Transactions Vol. 39, No. 2/3,
1997.
9.9 Reinforcement Detailing Handbook (Z06),
2nd Ed, Concrete Institute of Australia, 2010.

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 9.7

blank page

9.8 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

Chapter 10 Design examples The following pages provide examples of
the design of the various types of reinforced
concrete members in a hypothetical structure,
demonstrating the use of the relevant
preceding chapters using the design charts,
Excel spreadsheets and tables presented
in this Handbook and in accordance with
AS 3600—2009.

Design notes on structural design

and computations
pages 10.2–10.3
Design philosophy
pages 10.4–10.6
Durability, fire and materials considerations
pages 10.7–10.12
Design of typical floor
pages 10.13–10.25
Spandrel beams – typical internal span
pages 10.26–10.30
Beam Level 1 supporting entry facade
pages 10.31–10.35
Column and wall design
pages 10.36–10.45
Footing design
pages 10.46–10.49

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 10.1

Design Notes on Structural Design
and Computations
The structural solutions presented in this Chapter
have been chosen for the purposes of illustrating
the analysis, design and reinforcement detailing of
concrete members to AS 3600 and in the use of this
Handbook. No lateral analysis has been undertaken
and only selected members of the structure of the
building have been chosen for design. Considerably
more computations would be required for the
complete design of this project. Where possible these
computations are based on AS 3600—2009 with
limited use of design aids such as spreadsheets, to
illustrate concrete design from first principles. While
some basic analysis has been carried out using a 2D
analysis program and some of these results used for
the design computations following, some input values
have been chosen to illustrate specific design issues
and cannot be validated by an analysis using the load
data provided.
A typical concrete structure for a building may account
for only 25% of the project cost, but the design
affects the whole building, including the architecture
and services. The choice and details of a building's
structure should reflect both buildability and overall
building cost. The aim in any design is to provide
a functional and economical structure, on time and
on budget. A functional structure is one that has
sufficient strength to carry the applied actions (loads)
and has adequate stiffness to limit deflection and
vibrations. It must also be durable against corrosion
and deterioration and have adequate resistance
against fire, must be aesthetic and sustainable and
meet the expectation of those involved in the project.
A structure must not be over-designed nor must it be
under-designed. Unfortunately, when professional fees
are limited, design and detailing is often minimised,
resulting in an under designed structure with excess
material. For a sustainable structure, a comprehensive
design of all structural elements can be one of the
most cost-effective of all of the sustainable measures
adopted for any building.
An economical structure is one that has an optimisation
of material and labour costs and contributes to the
overall economics of the project. Minimum weight does
not always result in minimum cost. A structure that
requires a longer time to construct, even though it may
result in a lower construction cost, may nevertheless
cost more money. Similarly, rationalisation and
simplification of reinforcement will normally speed
construction, reduce overall construction costs and
construction time. However, excessive curtailment
and tailoring of reinforcement to save material at the
expense of rationalisation can be counter-productive.
10.2 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook
Structures, particularly those exposed to view, should
be designed and detailed to be attractive and suitably
proportioned and, although the appearance of the
structure is often determined by the architect, the
structural engineer must be aware of aesthetics and
can significantly contribute to this area.
The amount of time spent in analysing a structure or
member should be related to the value to be gained
from the analysis. Rigorous analysis is justified and
necessary for a member when the member occurs
many times in the structure, as refinement can result in
a significant cost saving, whereas the use of simplified
methods of design in AS 3600 can be used where the
problem is a simple and basic one.
The accuracy of structural behaviour theories and
analyses, applied loads and material properties
is such that determining actions to a high degree
of accuracy is meaningless. For example, action
assessment to 1% accuracy is all that is justified,
eg 260 kN not 259.67 kN.
When designing structures, avoid being bogged down
in numbers, computer output and paper. Mistakes
can be avoided by applying simple checks such as
replacing a complicated load pattern by equivalent
distributed or concentrated loads. Frequently check
your computations and design assumptions to avoid
duplication of errors. A few minutes spent checking
your work on a regular basis can save hours of
corrective work on design and drafting later on.
Do not design members in isolation. Recognise that
structures and especially reinforced concrete, will want
to act structurally how it has been built and reinforced,
not necessarily in the manner assumed in the design,
including the computer analysis. The structure as a
whole may behave differently from individual members.
Remember also that when concrete slabs sit on beams
or run into beams and beams frame into concrete
columns and walls, the reinforcement must pass
through these areas and it must all fit together. Aim for
a general uniformity of members and details, and do
not have a multitude of slab, beam and column sizes,
bar sizes, fitment spacing, etc.
The drawings and specifications for a building are the
means of communicating the structural design to the
builder/contractor, for construction. The drawings and
specification usually form part of the Building Contract
and are therefore important legal documents.
Computations are a means of verification of structural
behaviour. While they have no legal status in the formal
building contract, they still are an important part of the
design of the structure of a building. They are the main
method of verification used for the design of buildings
by structural engineers, to demonstrate compliance
with relevant requirements of the BCA. Computations CW Column and Wall actions (rundowns)
are also the basis of the structural drawings. Therefore, CD Columns
they should be treated with care, respect, and attention
RT Retaining walls
to detail. They should be neat, legible, arranged in a
W Loadbearing Walls including core walls
suitable order and properly referenced. Always put
your conclusions at the end of each section, usually BF Basement Floors
on the right hand side to allow easy identification and MF Mezzanine Floors
checking. 1F First Floor
Standardisation in approaching the documentation of a TF Typical Floors
project, neat setting out and the order of computations
PF Plant room Floor
is essential to allow for effective checking and avoiding
LM Lift Motor room
costly mistakes.
PR Plant room Roof
It is recommended you use a pencil (HB or softer)
for hand computations as that allows easy alterations PC Precast Cladding
when changes need to be made (and they usually will R Roof (including lift motor room floor and
be) and use squared paper. roof where applicable)
Make use of sketches in your computations and ST Stairs
prepare free-hand drawings of sections and details CP Construction Procedures
to illustrate your design, as a picture is much easier M Miscellaneous
to visualise than many lines of computations. A4
The design notes scattered through this Chapter
photocopies of architectural or structural details can
discuss various design matters and would not be
also be used. At all times, sketch neatly and to scale to
normally included in any computations. They are
assist your feel for the structure.
provided for background and information for the users
Always set out at the beginning of any computations, of this Handbook.
your design philosophy and assumptions to allow the
checkers and others who may have to access your
computations, to understand how you have designed
the structure. After establishing the design philosophy,
actions, lateral analysis etc, consider designing
the structure from the top down, even if the final
computation may show a different order.
All significant design computations should be
sub‑divided into a number of design sections. These
sub-divisions will form the basis for page numbering,
list of contents, referencing, etc. The particular letter(s)
allocated in the list below for a multi-storey building is
an example of a lettering system that can be used, but
other logical systems can be used. The numbering
or lettering system to be used should be set up at the
beginning of the computations and the example below
is the sort of order in which computations might be
made. For small projects, numerical numbering with a
suitable index may be sufficient.
DP Design Philosophy
AC Actions (loads)
SK Sketches
DFM Durability, Fire and Materials
UT Underpinning and Temporary walls
WA Wind Analysis
EQ Earthquake analysis
FT Footings

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 10.3

DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
CLIENT A B Consolidated Pty Ltd
ADDRESS 25 Print Street, Coogee, NSW 2034
USE Office building
LOCALITY Light industrial area
No polluting industry nearby
Approximately 1 km to coast.
FOUNDATION Dense sands with underlying clays in some local areas.
Allowable bearing pressure 300 kPa in dense cemented sands at 1.2 m below NGL
with sulfate and saline soil as advised by the geotechnical investigation.
GENERAL The project consists of a new office block to an existing factory complex based
on an overall master plan for the site. The new office block has been submitted for
Development Approval (DA) and has received Council approval. Final structural
drawings are being prepared based on the current architectural drawings. The
computations along with the structural drawings will be submitted for structural
approval by the private certifier or certifying authority. The following computations are
part of what would be expected be submitted for review and approval.
STRUCTURAL FORM OF The building will have a reinforced concrete structure with a suspended concrete roof
THE NEW BUILDING at level 4 for a future floor extension, suspended concrete floors at first, second and
third floors and a slab-on-ground at the ground floor. The concrete roof slab will have
metal deck roofing over it initially for waterproofing, which will be removed, when the
fourth floor is constructed in the future.
The future roof and structure over at level 4 will be of lightweight construction with
a metal deck roof with a braced steel frame supported on steel columns onto the
concrete columns and concrete walls at level 4 and with lightweight walls externally.
The floors and roof will be supported on square concrete columns internally,
rectangular columns externally or loadbearing concrete walls with all the vertical
elements supported on pad footings or strip footings founded on dense cemented
sands.
The suspended floors will consist of band beams in the east-west direction with
one-way slabs in the other direction. A 700 deep x 400 wide edge beam is provided
externally around each floor level where there are no concrete walls to support the
glass facade and lightweight spandrel walls at each level. Concrete shear walls are
provided on the south, west and north elevations. These will carry all lateral loads. In
the southwest corner will be a stair and lift core, which will be part of the lateral-load-
resisting system.
Part of the external columns, footings, the bottom of the slab-on-ground and external
faces of the external concrete shear walls are exposed to the environment but the
remaining structure is internal except for a brief period during construction.
Concrete stairs will be provided to both the core area and internally in a lightweight,
fire-rated shaft to access and egress the building and to meet the egress
requirements of the BCA as advised by the architect.
BUILDING REGULATION Building Code of Australia (BCA).
Assume an Importance Level 2 for the building in accordance with Table B.2a,
Volume 1 of the BCA. This results in a Deemed-to-Satisfy Provision with an annual
probability of exceedence of 500 years for wind and earthquake design.

10.4 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

DESIGN ACTIONS (loads) Design actions (loads) will be generally in accordance with the following Standards:
AS/NZS 1170.1 Structural design actions: Permanent, imposed and other actions
AS/NZS 1170.2 Structural design actions: Wind actions
AS 1170.4 Structural design actions: Earthquake actions in Australia
Permanent actions (dead loads) will include the structure self weight, permanent
loads, ceilings and services, partitions and the like.
Imposed actions (live loads) of 3.0 kPa for the office areas generally, 5.0 kPa to
public areas and 7.5 kPa for storage areas will be adopted at the south-west corner
between grids C and D and 1 and 2.
All combinations of actions for design will be factored to provide limit state actions as
required by AS/NZS 1170.0 and respective design standards.
WIND ACTIONS The wind actions applied to the building are determined using a basic regional wind
velocity of V500 = 45 m/sec for an A2 region. The site is assumed to be in Terrain
Category 3.
The lateral actions will be determined from a wind analysis. Although wind actions are
likely to be the governing design case for lateral actions on the building as a whole,
consideration will be given to earthquake actions on the building and individual
elements such as walls, etc. Typically lateral actions are designed using some form
of frame program, sometimes three-dimensional.
EARTHQUAKE ACTIONS From a consideration of the acceleration coefficient and site factors a lateral analysis
for EQ Forces using a static analysis will be required. Also in accordance with the
Standard, structural design of parts and detailing is required.
FOOTINGS The columns and walls will be supported on pad or strip footings based on the
previous satisfactory performance of this type of footing for similar buildings at this
industrial complex. The geotechnical investigation has provided the necessary
background to decide on the appropriate footing system founded at about 1200 mm
below NGL as about 100 mm of top soil is to be removed. The site is known to be
variable with moderately reactive soils underlying the dense sands.
The site investigation reports prepared by the geotechnical consultant set out the
necessary design parameters for footings, slabs-on-ground, any retaining walls,
pavements, etc for the project.
The slab-on-ground is to be constructed directly on natural ground or engineered
fill with appropriate allowance for movement. This approach is based on previous
experience on the site. However, detailing will need further consideration.
CURTAIN WALLS, To be designed by others to a performance specification prepared by the architect
WINDOWS & CLADDING with input from the structural engineer. Separate computations will need to be
supplied by the curtain wall designer to the Checking Authority.
Standards AS/NZS 1170 Series, Structural design actions
AS 3600—2009 Concrete structures

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 10.5

 sketches
2.0
N

Covered access Office block

Existing factory
13.5
Stair and lift core

SITE PLAN

175 thick walls (typical) 700 x 400 edge beam (typical)

1 2 3 4 5 6

450 x 450 columns 190 slab (typical)

7.2
internally (typical)
B
Edge
2400 x 350 band L1 only 700 x 500

23.6
8.4
beams (typical)

C
Heavy
load
7.2

400 overlap
area
D
7.2 8.4 8.4 8.4 7.2 800 x 450 columns externally (typical)
40.4

TYPICAL FLOOR PLAN (stair and lift not shown)

Future extension
3.5

L4
3.5

L3
3.5

L2
3.5

L1 Void
4.8

CROSS SECTION

Glass facade and Future extension Future extension 175 insitu concrete
spandrel panels Glass wall – off form

CS CS

CS CS
175 insitu concrete wall – off form
CS CS
200 insitu concrete wall – off form Beam

Strip footing Combined footing Glass entry

SOUTH ELEVATION (North elevation similar) EAST ELEVATION

10.6 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

DURABILITY, FIRE AND MATERIALS CONSIDERATIONS

Durability considerations

Reinforced Concrete Determine f 'c and cover options for evaluation with durability before starting
Design Handbook (RCDH) structural design. (Follow Flowchart 3.1)
AS 3600
Table 4.6 Abrasion resistance – not applicable
Clause 4.7 Freezing and thawing – not applicable
Clause 4.8 Aggressive soils (as advised by Geotechnical Report)
Sulfate soils with 8,000 ppm in soil (Table 4.8.1)
Saline soils with a soil electrical conductivity (ECe) = 10
Table 4.3 External exposure classification B2, internal exposure classification A2 and surface in
contact with the ground as per Table 4.8.1 and Table 4.8.2 for saline soils both with a
B1 exposure classification
Table 4.10.3.2 Corrosion protection
Exposure classification, f 'c and cover
Table 4.10.3.2 Cover (assume standard formwork and compaction)
Exposure f 'c Cover
Member class (MPa) (mm)

Table 4.8.2 and Footings against ground (no dpm) B1 32 40 + 20 = 60 1

Clause 4.10.3.5 (min. cover from Table 4.8.2 is 50 mm \OK)
Table 4.8.2 and Ground slab-on-ground
Clause 4.10.3.5 Bottom of slab cast on dpm B1 32 50 + 10 = 60
Table 4.10.3.2 Top of floor surface A2 25 30
Table 4.10.3.2 Suspended floors A2 25 30
Roof (protected by roof A 25 30
until extension)
Table 4.10.3.2 Beams generally A2 25 30
Table 4.10.3.2 Columns internally A2 25 30
Columns externally B2 40 45 + 15 = 60 2
Walls internal A2 25 30 mm
Walls exterior B2 40 45 + 15 = 60 2

Note 1 Footing cast in ground without DPM. Add 20 mm to cover (Cl 4.10.3.5).
Note that Table 4.8.2 requires a minimum cover of 50 mm also \OK
Note 2 Both the insitu external columns and walls are to have a 15-mm rebate at
the construction joints externally as shown following, so increase the external cover
to 60 mm to allow for rebate at a construction joint.
15 mm

Second pour
Joint is Construction joint
concealed
in the shadow
of the rebate
First pour

CONSTRUCTION JOINT

Details of wall joint showing rebate in external face

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 10.7

Fire resistance considerations

Design Note: For the structure and each type of member, normally the architect
or designer will determine the required FRL from the BCA and then the structural
engineer from this information will determine the design requirements (minimum
dimensions, axis distance to main reinforcement, etc) to achieve the specified
FRPs from AS 3600 Section 5, assuming the deemed-to-comply approach is used.
In order to compare axis distance with covers, a notional cover will need to be
determined using an estimated fitment size for the column or beam plus an estimate
of bar diameter. Generally, covers for durability will be greater than the notional
cover determined for fire.

BCA reference Determine FRLs

Clause A 3.2 Building Classification (office) = Class 5
Clause C1.2 Number of storeys =4
Clause C1.1 Table C1.1 Type of construction =A
Spec. C1.1 Required FRL
Table 3 Member FRL

Floors ignoring concession 120/120/120

Spec. C1.1 CC3.3
Roof ignoring concession 120/60/30
Spec. C1.1 CC3.3
Columns 120/ - / -
External walls (loadbearing)
North and South 1-2 120/120/120
North and South 2-6 120/60/30
West 120/120/120
East 120/60/30
Internal walls (lift and stair) 120/120/120

Design Note: The BCA also contains a number of other requirements regarding
compartmentation, distance to egress, separation, etc, which will all have to be
complied with. Normally the architect or designer for the project will determine all of
these requirements prior to final design and confirm these to the design team.

Reinforced Concrete Determine requirements to achieve specified FRPs in accordance with

Design Handbook Section 5 AS 3600

AS 3600 FLOORS AND ROOF FRL 120/120/120

SLABS (assume continuous, one way)
Table 5.5.1 Insulation min. effective thickness = 120 mm
Table 5.5.2 (A) Structural adequacy axis distance = 20 mm
ie approximate notional cover = 20–6 = 15 mm
Integrity deemed OK if complies with structural adequacy and insulation
(AS 3600 Cl 5.3.1)

BEAMS (assume continuous) FRL 120/120/120

Figure 5.4.1(B) Structural adequacy
bw (mm) Axis distance (mm) (notional cover)
400 35 (15)
(Note the notional cover 15 mm assuming with L10 fitment and 20-mm bar)

10.8 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 COLUMNS FRL 120/ - / -
Insulation and integrity for columns only required if part of wall
Structural adequacy columns for fire resistance (AS 3600 Cl 5.6.3)
Table 5.6.3 b (mm) Axis distance (mm) (notional cover)
450 40 (16)
(Note the value of axis distance is based N *f / Nu = 0.5 and the notional cover of
16 mm has been calculated assuming N12 fitment and 24-mm column bars. These
assumptions will need to be checked, but it is likely that cover for durability will
control the design.)

WALLS FRL 120/120/120 or

FRL 120/ 60/ 30
AS 3600 Clause 5.7.2 Check the structural adequacy of the wall using AS 3600 Cl 5.7.2
Minimum effective thickness for insulation for N *f / Nu = 0.7 is 160 mm and an axis
distance 35 mm, assuming wall is exposed to fire on one side only.

Design Note: In the design example, the wall is on the boundary of a fire
compartment and therefore is subject to fire on one face only. If the wall was not part
of the boundary of a fire compartment and could be subjected to fire on both sides,
then it would need to be 220 mm thick and have a minimum axis distance of 35 mm.

AS 3600 Clause 5.7.3 Limited Hwe / tw ≤ 30 Check if more critical

Calculate Hwe from AS 3600 Cl 11.4 using k = 1.0 or 0.75 as noted below

Design Note: Clause 5.7.3 of AS 3600 limits the ratio of effective height to
thickness to 40. However, as the wall is to be designed in accordance with
Clause 11.5 of AS 3600 using the Simplified Design Method, this limits the ratio of
effective height to thickness to 30 and that is what has been used in the table below.

Wall Hwe = k x Hw Hwe tw = Hwe / 30

Grnd – L1 1.0 x 4800 = 4800 160

L1 – L2 0.75 x 3500 = 2625 88
L2 – L3 0.75 x 3500 = 2625 88
L3 – Roof 1.0 x 3500 = 3500 88

Design Note: Designers can either use one or two layers of reinforcement in walls
of say 10- or 12-mm bars (normal ductility) or reinforcing mesh say RF 82 or RF 92.
For two layers of reinforcement both ways in each face, this will requires about
80–100 mm between the bars or mesh to place and compact the concrete when
placed in vertical formwork.
Therefore, the minimum thickness of an insitu reinforced concrete wall using
bar reinforcement in two layers, assuming the covers above = 60 + 12 + 12 +
80 + 12 +12 + 30 = 218 mm, say 225 mm minimum thickness. However, if the
wall is precast or tilt- up and is poured on flat, then a minimum thickness of only
150 to 180 mm is usually required with two layers of reinforcement, as it is much
easier to cast a wall on flat than in a vertical position. AS 3600 requires that walls
over 200 thick have two layers of reinforcement.

\ Adopt one layer of reinforcement of Ductility Class N bars placed centrally as

 ductility is important for this wall.
\ adopt Grnd – L1 t w = 200 mm > 160 mm \OK
L1 – Roof t w = 175 mm > 160 mm \OK

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 10.9

Table 5.7.2 Required axis distance to vertical reinforcement = 35 mm
By inspection, these thicknesses with the reinforcement in the middle of a wall, the
axis distance will be adequate for both insulation and integrity and the minimum
covers for durability will also be achieved.

Design note: Actual axis distance = 95 mm or 80 mm and covers = 85 mm or

75 mm and therefore satisfactory.

CHOICE OF CONCRETE STRENGTH

From a consideration of durability and fire-resistance requirements adopt the
following concrete strengths:
— for footings f 'c = 32 MPa
— for slab-on-ground f 'c = 32 MPa
— for suspended slabs including roof f 'c = 25 MPa
— for columns f 'c = 40 MPa (SB)
— for walls f 'c = 40 MPa (SB)
— rest of the concrete structure f 'c = 25 MPa
(SB denotes special class concrete for exposure classification B2)

COVER
Note the requirements on cover for concrete placement in AS 3600 Clause 4.10.2
— for footings cover = adopt 75 mm 1
— for slab-on-ground cover = 30 mm (top)
(assuming reinforcement mesh in top only)
— for suspended slabs including roof cover = 30 mm
(cover > axis distance top and bottom)
— for columns cover = 60 mm
(cover > axis distance and use the same
covers both internally and externally to
avoid any errors on site)
— for walls externally cover = 60 mm
(cover > axis distance)
— for walls internally cover = 30 mm
(cover > axis distance)
Note 1 Although only 60 mm cover is required by the Standard, a decision was
made to adopt 75 mm because of the fact that the footings are likely to be poured
during the winter time. If this was also difficult ground, the cover might be increased
to say 90 mm. This increased cover of 75 mm is also consistent with the discussion
in Chapter 8 of this Handbook.

Design Note: A good rule of thumb:

n Internally, cover should be the greater of 30 mm (minimum A2 Exposure
classification with 25-MPa concrete is required for all non-residential
construction), d b and the maximum nominal size of aggregate
n Externally, cover should be the greater of 40 mm, 1.5 d b and twice the maximum
nominal size of aggregate.)

Design Note: To finalise the design of band beams and beams, the effective
depths for design for flexure must be determined. These effective depths in
turn will depend on which direction the primary reinforcement in slabs will be
placed, ie which way the top layer and bottom layers of the slab reinforcement are
constructed. As the slabs essentially span one-way, then adopt the primary direction
of slab reinforcement as running north/south, ie upper layer of top bars to run N/S
and bottom layer of bottom bars to run N/S.

10.10 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 \ Adopt the following minimum covers:
Top Bottom External faces Internal faces

Footings 75 75 75 –
Slab-on-ground 30 60 60 –
Suspended slabs incl roof 30 30 – –
Band beams east/west 1
40  30 – 30
External beams east/west 40 1 30 – 30
External beams north/south 50 2 30 – 30
Columns – – 60 60
Walls – – 60 30
Note 1 Top cover to band beams and beams running east west must allow for the
cover to slab plus an assumed 16-mm slab top bar, rounded up to nearest 5 mm
less 12-mm fitment as slab bars will sit between fitments ie 30 + 16 – 12 = 34 round
up to nearest 5 mm. Therefore, adopt 40 mm cover to the fitment of the band beams
and beams running east west.
Note 2 Top cover to external beams running north south must allow for cover
for slab plus 16-mm bar plus 12-mm bar rounded up minus 12-mm fitment =
30 + 16 + 12 – 12 = 46 mm round up to nearest 5 mm say 50 mm to fitment of
the beam.

LOADS
General
Reinforced concrete 25.0 kN/m3

Design Note: Some designers use 24.5 kN/m3 for the density of reinforced
concrete, but 25.0 kN/m3 is within the required order of accuracy and is slightly
conservative.
175 thick walls = 4.375 kN/m2
200 thick walls = 5.0 kN/m2
350 deep band beams = 2.4 x 0.35 x 25 = 21.0 kN/m
Weight of concrete in band beams below soffit
of slab = 2.4 x (0.35 – 0.19) x 25 = 9.6 kN/m
700 x 400 deep beams = 0.7 x 0.4 x 25 = 7.0 kN/m
190 slabs = 0.19 x 25.0 = 4.75 kN/m
Lightweight walls 3.5 m high allow = 1.00 kN/m
450 x 450 cols = 0.45 x 0.45 x 25 = 5.1 kN/m
800 x 450 cols = 0.8 x 0.45 x 25 = 9.0 kN/m

Future Roof (L5)

Permanent actions (dead loads)
Sheeting 0.05 kPa
Purlins 0.05 kPa
Steel beams 0.15 kPa
Ceilings and services 0.25 kPa
Total 0.50 kPa
Imposed actions (live loads)
AS/NZS 1170.1 (1.8 / A + 0.12) but not less than 0.25 kPa

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 10.11

 Roof Slab L4 (Future office)
Permanent actions (dead loads)
190 slab 4.75 kPa
Fixed partitions, finishes 1.00 kPa
Ceilings and services 0.25 kPa
Total 6.00 kPa
Imposed floor actions (live loads) Generally
Office including allowance for moveable partitions, etc 3.0 kPa
Imposed floor actions (live loads) Heavy load area
Heavy load area including compactus etc 7.5 kPa

Floor Slab L1–3

Permanent actions (dead loads)
190 slab 4.75 kPa
Fixed partitions, finishes 1.00 kPa
Ceilings and services 0.25 kPa
Total 6.00 kPa
Imposed floor actions (live loads) Generally
Office including allowance for moveable partitions, etc 3.0 kPa
Imposed floor actions (live loads) Heavy load areas
Heavy load area including compactus etc 7.5 kPa

Wind actions to walls and facades

The wind actions applied to the building have been determined using
AS/NZS 1170, Structural design actions Part 2: Wind Actions.
Design wind speeds to AS/NZS 1170 Part 2: Wind Actions
Region A2
Regional wind speed V500 = 45 m/s
Wind direction multiplier Md = 1.0
Terrain category 3
Height = 18.8 m
Mz.cat = 0.94 Ms =1.0 Mt = 1.0
Vsit Beta = Vr Md (Mzcat Ms Mt) = 42.3 m/sec
Cfig = Cp.e + Cp.i = 0.7 + 0.2 = 0.9
p = Qz = 0.5 x 1.2 x Vr2 /1000 x Cfig = 0.6 x 42.3 x 42.3 x 0.9/1000 = 0.97 kPa (ultimate)

10.12 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

DESIGN OF TYPICAL FLOOR

Analysis of Structure
Use Linear Elastic Analysis (AS 3600 Cl 6.2)
Use a computer program to analyse and to determine bending moments and shears
as shown on the following calculations.

Assumptions
1 Model of idealised frame – bent on Grid B Level 2 (Level 3 similar)
Clause 6.9 of AS 3600

1 2 3 4 5 6

–2000
mm 0
2000
0 7200 15000 24000 32400 39600
PLAN VIEW

1 2 3 4 5 6

2000
mm 0
–2000
0 7200 15000 24000 32400 39600
FULL ELEVATION VIEW

2 Section properties
190
350

2400 2400 3000

7800

General details of bent

For band beam, assume T section in middle of span.

bef = bw + 0.2a where a = 0.7 L (Clause 8.8.2 of AS 3600)
= 2,400 + 0.2 x 0.7 x 7,200
= 3,408 mm
3408 I = 10.15 x 10-3 m4
A = 1.032 m2
190
350

2400

Band beam assume section following at a support

I = 8.575 x 10-3 m
350

A = 0.84 m2

2400

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 10.13

 Internal column assume
I = 3.42 x 10-3 m4
A = 0 .203 m2

450
450

External column assume

I = 19.2 x 10-3 m4
A = 0 .36 m2

800

450

3 Material properties (RCDH Table 2.1)

f 
'c (MPa) Ec (MPa)

Band beam 25 26,700

Column and walls 40 32,800

4 Load on band beam

Permanent action (dead load)
Band beam plus slab = 46.65 kN/m
Fixed partitions = 7.80 kN/m
Ceilings and services etc = 1.95 kN/m
Total = 56.4 kN/m
Imposed actions (live load) = 23.4 kN/m
Note: Live load ≤ 0.75 x dead load
\ Consider live load on all spans (AS 3600 Cl 2.4.4 (c) iii))

Typical Computer Output for Band Beam Grid C

Design note: The bent below has been analysed using a computer program;
the output from such a program would look something like what is shown following.
The output will depend on the model as analysed, which in this case has used the
idealised frame method of analysis as set out in Clause 6.9 of AS 3600. Note that
this program has calculated the moments and shears at the critical sections, rather
than the peak moments and shears at the centre line of supports. Designers are
responsible for ensuring that any software used for analysis is appropriate for the
analysis being undertaken, as set out Clause 6.1.2 of AS 3600.

10.14 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 1 2 3 4 5 6
–800
–600 –446 –496 –541 –532 –541 –532 –446 –496
–400 –267 –267
–200
kNm 0 220
200 220 303 289 303
400
0 7200 15600 24000 32400 39600
Moment mm

1 2 3 4 5 6
600
273 366 371 377 331
400
200
kN 0
–200
–400
–331 –377 –371 –366 –273
–600
0 7200 15600 24000 32400 39600
Shear mm
ULTIMATE FLEXURE

Design band beam at column C4 between spans 4–5

Band beam properties AS 3600 Cl 8.8.2

3408
190
350

2400

dtop = 350 – 30 – 16 – 14 = 290 mm (depth – cover – dia slab bar – ½ dia of band
beam reinforcement assuming N24 top bars)
Adopt dtop = 285 mm as actual bar sizes are nominally larger than actual sizes

dbot = 350 – 30– 14 = 306 mm (depth – cover – ½ dia of band beam reinforcement
assuming N24 as bottom reinforcement)
Adopt dbot = 300 mm as actual bar sizes are nominally larger than actual sizes.

Flexure
Negative BM @ critical section at column C4
AS 3600 Cl 6.9.2
CL
Critical section for neg. moment
0.7asup

asup Column face asup = 225 mm

Design note: The calculations below are for the critical section for negative
moment. The bending moment at the centre line of the support is 564.6 kN.m where
the shear is equal to 429 kN. These values are not shown above in the results of the
computer analysis, but are generally are available in the output data. Normally the
analysis program will calculate this figure for the designer at the critical sections,
but calculations below by simple statics illustrate the process from first principles.

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 10.15

 429 0.7 asup
M*  = 564.6 – x [ ] 2
asup 2

= 564.6 – 23.6
= 541 kN.m
D = 350 mm
d = 285 mm
bef = 2,400 and assumes no T beam action over the supports
f 'c = 25 MPa
fsy = 500 MPa

Calculation of reinforcement required for M *

Use RCDH Excel Spreadsheet 4.1 for rectangular beams to calculate reinforcement
Ast nominal = 5,583 mm2 (initial estimate)
Try 12 – N24 = 5,424 mm2 (spacing = 209 mm nom)
Minimum Ast = 5,234 mm2 < 5,424 mm2 \ OK
ku = 0.24 < 0.36 \ Well OK
f Mu = 561 kN.m > 541 kN.m \ OK
f Muo = 859 kN.m > 541 kN.m \ Well OK
Ast min = 1,238 mm2 < 5,424 \ Well OK
\ Adopt 12 N24 as top reinforcement

Positive BM @ mid-span
M* = 303 kN.m
D = 350 mm
d = 300 mm
t = 190 mm
bef = 3,408 and assumes T beam action at the midspan
f 'c = 25 MPa
fsy = 500 MPa

Use RCDH Excel Spreadsheet 4.2 for T beams with the stress block within flange
Ast nominal = 2,971 mm2 (initial estimate)
Provide Ast = 3,140 mm2 = 10 N20 or 7 N24 (spacing = 240 or 342 mm nom)
Note: Clause 8.6.1(b) requires a maximum spacing between bars in tension
to be 300 mm.
\ Adopt 10 N20 bottom reinforcement

Minimum Ast for flexure = 2,620 mm2 < 3,100 mm2 \ OK

ku = 0.17 < 0.36 \ Well OK
f Muo = 952 kN.m > 303 kN.m \ Well OK
f Mu = 363 kN.m > 303 kN.m \ OK
Ast.min = 1,176 mm2 < 3,140 \ Well OK

10.16 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

Crack Control
AS 3600 Clause 8.6.1 Band Beam is fully enclosed within building except for brief period during
construction \ only need to satisfy Item (a) and (b) of Cl 8.6.1 ie minimum
reinforcement must comply with Cl 8.1.6.1 of AS 3600
See above reinforcement > minimum ie cover to centre of bars ≤ 100 mm and
bar spacing ≤ 300 mm. See above. \ OK

Bottom reinforcement
cover = 30 mm ≤ 100 mm \ OK
spacing use 10 N20
9 x 300 = 2,700 mm
\ OK Bottom reinforcement 10 N20

Top reinforcement
cover = 40 mm \ OK
spacing use 12 N24
11 x 300 = 3,300 > 2,400
\ OK Top reinforcement 12 N24

Shear
AS 3600 Clause 9.2.2 (a) Shear Design (treat as shallow beam Clause 8.2)
(a) Beam shear (follow Flowchart 4.2)

CL
Column
377 kN
429 kN
CL
Clear span

Asup + Do = 225 + 285 = 510 3690

4200

Clause 8.2.4 (b) At the critical section for shear

V* = 429 x 3,690/4,200 = 377 kN

Design note: The calculations above are for the critical section for shear. The
bending moment at the centre line of the support is 564.6 kN.m and the shear is
equal to 429 kN. These values are not shown above in the results of the computer
analysis, but are generally are available in the output data. Normally the analysis
program will calculate this figure for the designer at the critical sections, but
calculations above by simple statics illustrates the process from first principles.

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 10.17

Beam Properties
Ast = 12 – N24

bv = 2400

Ast = 12 N24 = 5,424 mm2

bv = 2,400 mm
f 'c = 25 MPa
do = 285 mm
D = 350 mm
V * = 377 kN

Clause 8.2.6 Determine f Vu.max = f 0.2 f 'c bvdo

= 0.7 x 0.2 x 25 x 2,400 x 285 x 10–3
= 2,394 kN > 377 kN \ well OK

RCDH Excel Spreadsheet 4.3

Refer Excel Spreadsheet for beams, which will determine all the following values
β1 = 1.447
For members where the cross-sectional area of shear reinforcement provided (Asv)
is not equal to or greater than the minimum area specified in Clause 8.2.8
β2 = 1.0
β3 = 1.0
Where fcv = f 'c 1/3 ≤ 4 MPa = 2.92 MPa
Vuc = 577 kN

Clause 8.2.7 Shear strength of a beam excluding shear reinforcement

Determine f Vuc
\ f Vuc = 0.7 x 577 = 404 kN
\ 0.5 f Vuc = 202 kN

Clause 8.2.9 Shear strength of a beam with minimum shear reinforcement

Determine f Vu.min = f (Vuc + 0.10 √f 'c bv do) ≥ f Vuc + f 0.6 bv do
f Vuc + f 0.6 bv do = 692 kN
f (Vuc + 0.10 √f 'c bv d ) = 644 kN
f Vu.min = 0.7 x 853 = 692 kN
0.5 f Vuc = 346 kN
\ 0.5 f Vuc < V * ≤ f Vu.min

Normally A sv.min is required in accordance with Cl 8.2.5(b) but as V * ≤ f Vuc and
D < bv / 2 , no shear reinforcement is required in accordance with Cl 8.2.5(1).

Design Note: Generally, designers should try to avoid shear reinforcement in

band beams as it results in fitments at close centres and multiple fitments which
are difficult to fix and are expensive. This is because the transverse spacing of
fitments is limited to the lesser of 600 mm or D (Clause 8.2.12.2) and this spacing
has to be reconciled with the maximum spacing of bars in tension of 300 mm. It is
recommended that the depth or concrete strength of the band beam be increased
or width decreased as required, to avoid the need for shear reinforcement where
possible. However, designers should always provide nominal fitments to hold the

10.18 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 bottom bars in place for fixing the reinforcement on site, for crack control to the soffit
and sides and to lap with the bottom bars of the adjacent slabs.
The sections on page 10.21 clearly illustrate the differences between a band beam
with nominal fitments to support the reinforcement and one with the required shear
reinforcement (which is significant).
\ Provide N12 fitments at 200 cts through the length of the band beam.

N12 fitments @ 200

Punching Shear (as a slab)

AS 3600 Cl 9.2.2 (b) Case 1 Punching shear at column C3

AS 3600 Cl 9.2.3 (a) Refer to bending moments and shear forces above.
V * = 377 + 371 = 748 kN
M *v = 541 – 532 = 9 kN.m
treat as M *v = 0

Assumed Punching cone

failure planes

d/2 450 d/2 = 145

Beam width = 2,400 > 450 + 285

\ OK to use Chart 5.13

RCDH Chart 5.13 c1 = 450 mm

c2 = 450 mm
d = 285 mm
f 'c = 25 MPa

Calculate c1/c2 = 1
c1 + c2 = 900 mm

Read for V *= 748 kN

Minimum depth = 240 mm < 350 mm \ OK

AS 3600 Cl 9.2.2 (b) Case 2 Punching shear at column C1

AS 3600 Cl 9.2.4
1 V * = 273 kN
M *v = 267 kN.m

dom/2 dom = 285 mm

2400

800 x 450 column

Edge beam

AS 3600 Cl 9.2.4 (a) ie no closed fitments

f Vu = f Vuo / [1.0 + (u M *v / 8 V *a dom)]
u = [450 + 285 + 2 x (400 + 285/2)] = 1,820 mm

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 10.19

 Design Note: The calculation of u is conservative as dom is assumed the same
for band beam and edge beam.

f 'c = 25 MPa
a = 450 + 285 = 735 mm
β h = X / Y = 450/400 = 1.125
fcv = 0.17 (1 + 2 /β h ) √f 'c ≤ 0.34 √f 'c

= 0.472 √f 'c > 0.34 √f 'c

\ fcv = 0.34 √f 'c = 1.7 MPa
Vuo = u dom fcv

= 1,820 x 285 x 1.7/1,000 = 881.8 kN

f Vu = f Vuo / [1.0 + (u M *v / 8 V *a dom)]
(1,820 x 267 x 106 )
\ f Vu = f 882 / [1.0 + ]
(8 x 273 x 1,000 x 735 x 285)

= 0.7 x 882 (1.0 + 1.06)
= 1,273 kN > 273 kN \ Well OK

Check depth using Deemed to Comply Span-to-Depth Ratios

AS3600 Clause 8.5.4 Determine maximum value of Lef /d

Clause 2.3.2 Total deflection limit for
∆/Lef = 1/250 (ie no masonry)
f 'c = 25 MPa
\ Use RCDH Excel Spreadsheet 4.5

RCDH Spreadsheet 4.5 Determine input values

b = 2,400 mm
bef  = 3,408 mm
D = 350 mm
c = 30 mm (cover)
do = 300 mm
Ast = 10 N20 = 3,140 mm2
Asc = 12 N16 = 3,140 mm2 (to lap with 12 N24)
g = 56.4 kN/m
q = 23.4 kN/m
ys = 0.7
y l = 0.4
Lef = 8,400 – 400 + 350 = 8,350 mm (interior span)
k1 = 0.0792 (calculated by the program)
k2 = 0.00625
Ec = 26,700 MPa
Actual Lef /d = 8,350/300 = 27.8
Calculated allowable Lef /d = 31.8 for total deflection and is > 27.8 so the band
beam as designed complies.
However, if this band beam was supporting a masonry partition it would not comply.

Design Note: As discussed in Chapter 4, the depth of the beam determined by

the deemed-to-comply method can be conservative, especially for shallow beams.
Deflection calculations by the simplified calculations may result in thinner and more

10.20 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 economical sections. The deemed-to-comply method suggests a deflection of about
25 mm by interpolation. Carrying out a more refined calculation, using a computer
analysis program, results in the deflections as shown below. For span/250 long‑term
deflection 8,350/250 = 33.4 mm and the results below show a long‑term deflection of
21.9 mm < 33.4 mm so again a 350 band beam is OK using this method of analysis.

1 2 3 4 5 6
mm 0
–20 –8.72 –8.72
–21.9 –16.9 –21.9
–40
–60
794 378 490 378 794
0 7200 15600 24000 32400 39600
mm
TOTAL LONG TERM DEFLECTION
Long term deflection as determined by computer analysis for a 350-deep band beam.

The following is the proposed reinforcing layout to be shown on the drawings using
a beam elevation.

12N20 12N24 12N24 12N24 12N24 12N20

12N16 12N16 12N16 12N16 12N16

600 typical
N12 fitments @ 200
600 typical

10N16 10N20 10N20 10N20 10N16

x 7.000 m x 9.000m x 9.000 m x 9.000m x 8.000 m
1 2 3 4 5 6
ELEVATION

Slab reinforcement Use N16 slab reinforcement to Dummy bar for support
support top bars in band beam of top bars (bar chair)
500 12N16 or 12N24 350 190
typical

10N20 or 10N16 N12 fitments at 200 cts ≤ 300 mm when in tension

Clause 8.6.1 (b)
SECTION Where only norminal shear reinforcement is required
Note: For fixing on site N16 dummy bars at about 1 m centres are used under to support the
top reinforcement until the slab reinforcement is placed

Slab reinforcement L8 fitments at 250 cts

500 12N24 Dummy bars
typical

N12 at 250 cts

10N20 ≤ 350 mm ≤ 300 mm when in tension
Clause 8.2.12.2 Clause 8.6.1 (b)
SECTION This section illustrates the extent of detailing if shear reinforcement is required
REINFORCEMENT LAYOUT

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 10.21

Flexural Design of Slab in Transverse Direction, eg Grid 4

The following is the design model that was input into the computer using the loads
previously calculated.

1 2 3 4
0
mm –200
–400
–600
0 7200 15600 22800
ELEVATION VIEW mm

1 2 3 4
–4000
–2000
mm 0
2000
2000
0 7200 15600 22800
PLAN VIEW mm

1 2 3 4

2000
mm 0
–2000
0 7200 15600 22800
FULL ELEVATION VIEW mm

BMs and shears from computer analysis

1 2 3 4
–800
–600 –622 –632 –632 –622
–400
–200 –197 –197
kNm 0 169 177 169
200
0 7200 15600 22800
Moment mm

1 2 3 4
600
400 240 383 379
200
kN 0
–200
–400 –240
–600 –379 –383
0 7200 15600 22800
Shear mm

ULTIMATE FLEXURE

10.22 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

Design for flexure
Interior span
AS 3600 Clause 6.9.2 (a) Negative BM @ critical section near centre line of the column
M * = 632 kN.m
M * per metre strip = 632 / 8.4
M * = 75.2 kN.m/m
b = 1,000 mm
d = 350 – 30 – 10 = 310 mm
f 'c = 25 MPa
fsy = 500 MPa

RCDH Chart 5.1 Try Chart 5.1

M * = 75 kN.m/m
Outside the range \ use RCDH Excel Spreadsheet

Spreadsheet
Clause 9.4 AS 3600 \ Ast nominal required = 713 mm2/m
Maximum spacing of bars = 300 mm or 2.0 D = 380 mm

Provide Ast = 670 mm2/m (N16 @ 300)

Minimum Ast for flexure = 622 mm2
\ Use = N16 @ 300 (670 mm2/m > 622)
or = N12 @ 175 (646 mm2/m > 622)
ku = 0.06 < 0.36 \ Well OK
f Muo = 423 kN.m > 73 kN.m \ Well OK
f Mu = 81 kN.m > 73 kN.m \ OK
Ast min = 569 mm2 < 670 mm2 \ OK

(b) Negative BM @ edge of band beam (from computer analysis)

M * = 283 / 8.4 = 33.7 kN.m/m
b = 1,000 mm
d = 190 – 30 – 10= 150 mm
f 'c = 25 MPa
fsy = 500 MPa

RCDH Chart 5.1 \ Ast nominal required = 661 mm2/m

Try Ast = 670 mm2/m
= N16 @ 300 (670 mm2/m > 593)
or = N12 @ 175 (646 mm2/m > 593)
Minimum Ast for flexure = 593 mm2 < 670 mm2 \ OK
ku = 0.12 < 0.36 \ Well OK
f Muo = 99.1 kN.m > 33.7 kN.m \ Well OK
f Mu = 38.1 kN.m > 33.7 kN.m \ OK
Ast min = 347 mm2 < 670 mm2 \ OK
Adopt N12 @175 top reinforcement

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 10.23

 (c) Positive BM @ midspan (from computer analysis)
M * = 177/8.4 = 21.1 kN.m/m
b = 1,000 mm
d = 190 – 30 – 10 = 150 mm
f 'c = 25 MPa
fsy = 500 MPa

RCDH Chart 5.1 Ast = 370 mm2/m

\ use = N12 @ 250 (411 mm2/m > 370)
Adopt N12 @ 250 bottom reinforcement

Crack Control
AS 3600 Clause 9.4.1 Slab is fully enclosed within building except for brief period during construction
\ need only to satisfy Items (a) and (b)
Item (a) Ast.min = 0.20 (D/d )2 f 'ct.f / fsy bw d = 150
Ast.min = 289 mm2/m < 411 mm2/m \ OK

Item (b) Centre to centre spacing

≤ the smaller of
2.0 x 190 = 380 or = 300
\ max spacing 300 mm
\ N12 @ 250 mm from above for flexure meets both these requirements. How
provide N12 at 500 as top reinforcement in centres of spans for robustness and
crack control in the top of the slab.
Adopt N12 @ 500 top reinforcement in centre of spans

Crack control for shrinkage and temperature in the secondary direction

AS 3600 Clause 9.4.3 Slab fully enclosed within building
Check area for crack control for shrinkage and temperature effects
Where a moderate degree of control over cracking is required in exposure
classification in A1 and A2 then
As ≤ 3.5 x 1,000 x D x 10–3 mm2/m
3.5 x 190 = 665 mm2/m
Where a strong degree of control over cracking is required is required for
appearance and for exposure classifications A1, A2, B1, B2, C1 and C2, then
As ≤ 6.0 x 100 x D x 10–3 mm2/m = 1,140 mm2/m
\ Adopt moderate degree of control over cracking, as concrete is within an enclosed
building and carpet will be used as floor coverings, which will hide any cracking.
\ use N16 @ 250 mm (801 mm2/m > 665)
or use N12 @ 150 mm (673 mm2/m > 665)
Adopt N12 @ 300 as top and bottom reinforcement in the transverse direction
ie equivalent to one layer of N12 @150.

Design note: This transverse reinforcement will serve two purposes as it will be
used to support the main reinforcement in the direction of the span of the slab as
well as providing crack control.

10.24 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

Check depth using Span-to-Depth Ratios
RCDH Use RCDH Excel Spreadsheet 5.1
Ast = 411 mm2/m
Asc = 205 mm2/m
g = 5.75 kN/m
q = 3.0 kN/m
ys = 0.7
y1 = 0.4
Lef = 6,000 mm
Ec = 26,700 MPa
Calculate Asc / Ast = 0.5 (at mid-span)
Calculate kcs = 1.4
Calculate Fd.ef = (1 + kcs) g + (ys + kcs y l)q
= 2.4 x 5.75 + 1.26 x 3.0 = 17.58 kPa

AS 3600 Clause 9.3.4.1 (b) k3 k3 = 1.0 (one-way slab)

Clause 9.3.4.1 (c) k4 k4 = 2.1 (interior span)
Clause 2.4.2 (d) D/Lef D/Lef = 1/250 (total deflection)
(e) f 'c f 'c = 25 MPa

RCDH Calculated from spreadsheet Lef /d for total deflection = 38.31

Calculate actual Lef /d = 6,000 /150 = 40 > 38.31 \ Not OK

Design Note: As discussed in Chapter 5, the depths of members determined

using the deemed-to-comply method can be conservative, especially for shallow
slabs and the deflection calculations by the simplified method will result in thinner and
more economical sections. Carrying out a more refined calculation using the chosen
analysis program gives the deflections shown below.
For span/250 long term > 6,000/250 = 24 mm and the calculation below show a
long‑term deflection of 13.4 mm < 24 mm so a 190 slab is well OK. Note: To get the
maximum deflection one has to add the deflection of the slab to that of the bonded
beam, ie 13.4 + 21.9 = 35.3 mm which is about the maximum visual limit for deflection.

1 2 3 4
mm 0
–12.4 –13.4 –12.4
-10
-20
-30
-40 552 618 552
0 7200 15600 22800
TOTAL LONG TERM mm

The following shows the details of the reinforcement for slabs.

N12-250 N12-175 N12-500 N12-175 N12-250

600 typical 500 typical

Edge
N12-250 N12-250 N12-250 beam
N12-300 N12-200 N12-200 Band beam
top and bottom
1 outside band beams 2 3 4

REINFORCEMENT LAYOUT

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 10.25

SPANDREL BEAMS – TYPICAL INTERNAL SPAN
Details of bent to be analysed

1 2 3 4 5

3000
2000
1000
mm 0
0 7200 15600 24000 31200
PLAN VIEW mm

1 2 3 4 5

2000
mm 0
-2000
0 7200 15600 24000 31200
FULL ELEVATION VIEW mm

bef = 990

50 190

30 30
700

30

bw = 400

Beam properties
f 'c = 25 MPa
fsy = 500 MPa
cover c = 30 mm to fitments side and bottom
cover c = 50 mm top (see page 10.11)
d = 700 – 50 – 12 – 12
= 626 say 620 mm top and
= 700 – 30 – 12 – 12
= 646 say 640 mm bottom
AS 3600 Clause 8.8.2 bef = bw + 0.1 x 0.7L
= 400 + 0.1 x 0.7 x 8,400
= 988 say 990 mm in the middle of the span

10.26 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

Loads
Permanent actions. See pages 10.11 and 10.12 (dead loads)
Beam = 7.0 kN/m
Lightweight walls = 1.0 kN/m
190 slab = 2.9 x 4.75 = 13.8 kN/m
Partitions, ceilings and services = 2.9 x 1.25 = 5.1 kN/m
Total = 26.9 kN/m
Imposed actions. See page 10.12 (live loads)
Floor = 3.8 x 3.0 = 11.4 kN/m
Total = 11.4 kN/m

Typical Computer Output for Beams along Grid D

1 2 3 4 5
–350
–280 –202 –224 –258 –257 –228 –210
–210 –191 –128
–140
–70
kNm 0 93.1 99.1
70 141 139
140
210
0 7200 15600 24000 31200
mm
Moment

1 2 3 4 5
280
210
140 137 155 163 141
70
kN 0
–70
–140
–210 –137 –164 –156 –114
–280
0 7200 15600 24000 31200
Shear mm

ULTIMATE FLEXURE

Design moments Max –ve M * = 258 kN.m

Max +ve M * = 141 kN.m

At Column 3 M * = 258 kN.m

D = 700 mm
d = 620 mm
bef = 400 and assume no L beam action over support
f 'c = 25 MPa
fsy = 500 MPa

From RCDH Excel Spreadsheet \ Ast nominal required = 1,244 mm2

Provide Ast = 1,232 mm2
\ use = 2 N28 (1,232 mm2 > 1105)
use = 3 N24 (1,356 mm2 > 1105)
Minimum Ast for flexure = 1,105 mm2 < 1,356 mm2 \ Well OK
ku = 0.14 < 0.36 \ Well OK
f Muo = 677 kN.m > 258 kN.m \ Well OK
f Mu = 288 kN.m > 258 kN.m \ OK
Ast min = 379 mm2 < 1,356 mm2 \ OK
\ Top reinforcement 3N24

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 10.27

At midspan M * = 141 kN.m
D = 700 mm
d = 640 mm
t = 190 mm
bef = 990 and assume T-beam action in middle of span
f 'c = 25 MPa
fsy = 500 MPa

From RCDH Excel Spreadsheet 4.2

As a L-beam with the stress block within the flange \ Ast nominal required = 648 mm2
Provide Ast = 628 mm2 (2 N20)
Minimum Ast for flexure = 557 mm2 < 628 mm2 \ OK
\ use = 2N20 (628 mm2 > 557 mm2 )
ku = 0.03 < 0.36 \ Well OK
f Muo = 722 kN.m > 141 kN.m \ Well OK
f Mu = 159 kN.m > 141 kN.m \ OK
Ast min = 368 mm2 < 628 mm2 \ OK
\ Bottom reinforcement 2 N20

Check crack control Beam not exposed to the weather on external surface
Therefore need to satisfy Items (a) and (b) only as appropriate of AS 3600 Cl 8.6.1

AS 3600 Clause 8.6.1 (a) As noted above meets the minimum requirements of Cl 8.1.6.1 \ OK
(c) Bars less than 100 mm from side and soffit of beam and less than 300 mm
spacing \ OK.
AS 3600 Clause 8.6.3 Check crack control in side faces of beam. As overall depth < 750 mm it is not
required. However, provide 1 N12 each face (EF) at the centre of the beam for
crack control, as side face reinforcement (SFR).
SFR 1 N12 EF

Shear Design
AS 3600 Clause 8.2.4 At critical section
V * = 164 kN
D = 700 mm
d = 620 mm
bv = 400
f 'c = 25 MPa
fsy = 500 MPa
Ast = 1,232 mm2 (3 N24)

Using Spreadsheet 4.3

AS 3600 Clause 8.2.6 Determine f Vu.max = f 0.2 f 'c bvdo
= 0.7 x 0.2 x 25 x 400 x 620 x 10–3
= 868 kN
V * < f Vu.max \ OK

10.28 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

Refer RCDH Excel Spreadsheet 4.3 for beams, which will determine all the following values
β1= 1.1
For members where the cross-sectional area of shear reinforcement provided (Asv)
is equal to or greater than the minimum area specified in Clause 8.2.8
β2 = 1.0
β3 = 1.0
Where fcv = f 'c 1/3 ≤ 4 MPa = 2.92 MPa

Clause 8.2.7 Shear strength of a beam excluding shear reinforcement

Determine f Vuc
Ast 1/3
Vuc = β1 β2 β3 bv do fcv  
bv do

\ f Vuc = 0.7 x 136.1 = 98.4 kN

\ 0.5 f Vuc = 49.2 kN

Clause 8.2.9 Shear strength of a beam with minimum shear reinforcement

Determine f Vu.min = f (Vuc + 0.10 √f 'c bv do) ≥ f Vuc + f 0.6 bv do
f Vuc + f 0.6 bv do = 202.5 kN
f (Vuc + 0.10 √f 'c bv d ) = 185.2 kN
f Vu.min = 202.5 kN
\ 0.5 f Vuc < V* < f Vu.min
\ shear reinforcement is required in accordance with Clause 8.2.5.
Determine required shear reinforcement
RCDH Excel Spreadsheet 4.3
Asv.min = 140 mm2 at 500 spacing
\ Adopt fitments L10 @ 300 cts throughout

Check Depth using Deemed-to-Comply Span-to-Depth Ratios

AS 3600 Clause 8.5.4 Determine maximum value of Lef /d
Clause 2.3.2 Total deflection limit for
∆ /Lef = 1/250
f 'c = 25 MPa
\ use RCDH Excel Spreadsheet 4.5

RCDH Spreadsheet 4.5 Determine input values

b = 400 mm
bef = 990 mm
D = 700 mm
c = 30 mm
do = 640
Ast = 2 N20 = 628 mm2
Asc = 2 N20 = 628 mm2
g = 26.9 kN/m
q = 11.4 kN/m
ys = 0.7
y l = 0.4
Lef = 8,400 mm

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 10.29

 k1 = 0.0383 (calculated by the program)
k2 = 0.00391 (internal span)
Ec = 26,700 MPa
Actual Lef /d = 8,400/640 = 13.1

Calculated allowable Lef /d = 25.8 for total deflection > 13.1 so the beam
as designed complies.

Design Note: More refined computations suggest the long-term deflection is

about 5 mm compared to about 17 mm suggested by the deemed-to-comply
approach, again indicating the deemed-to-comply solution can be conservative.

2N24 2N24 2N20 3N24 2N20 2N24 2N24

900

W10-300 W10-300 W10-300 W10-300

750

1 2 3 4 5
2N20 2N20 2N20 2N20
(1N12 SFR each face)
REINFORCEMENT LAYOUT

10.30 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

BEAM LEVEL 1 SUPPORTING ENTRY FACADE
Beam properties
1000

100
84
N32 spacer

588

700
616
56
112

500

84
f 'c = 25 MPa
fsy = 500 MPa
cover to main reo = 50 + 10 = 60 mm top and bottom
AS 3600 Clause 8.8.2 bef = bw + 0.1 x 0.7L
= 500 + 0.1 x 0.7 x 8,400 = 1,088 mm say 1,000 mm
\ assume bef = 1,000 mm

Design actions at critical section

Max –ve M * = 380 kN.m
Max +ve M * = 960 kN.m
V * = 360 kN
T * = 50 kN.m

At column at the critical section for flexure

M * = 380 kN.m
D = 700 mm
d = 615 mm (rationalised from 616 mm above)
bef  = 500 mm and assume no L beam action over support
f 'c = 25 MPa
fsy = 500 MPa

From RCDH Excel Spreadsheet 4.2

\ Ast nominal required = 1,817 mm2
Provide Ast = 1,808 mm2 (4N24)
Minimum Ast for flexure = 1,660 mm2 < 1,808 mm2 \ OK
ku = 0.16 < 0.36 \ Well OK
f Muo = 833 kN.m > 380 kN.m \ Well OK
f Mu = 414 kN.m > 380 kN.m \ OK
\ use = 4 N24 (1,808 mm2)

4 N24 top reinforcement

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 10.31

At centre of span
Check if stress block extends into web of beam
M * = 960 kN.m
D = 700 mm
d = 585 mm (rationalised from 588 mm above)
t = 100 mm
bw = 500 mm
bef  = 1,000 mm and assume L beam action in middle
f 'c = 25 MPa
fsy = 500 MPa

From RCDH Excel Spreadsheet \ Ast nominal required = 4,827 mm2

t = 116 mm > 100 mm \ stress block extends into web and the compression block
is in both the flange and web
Provide Ast = 4,928 mm2 (8 N28)
Minimum Ast for flexure = 4,563 mm2 < 4,928 mm2 \ OK
ku = 0.27 < 0.36 \ OK
f Mu = 1,036 kN.m > 960 kN.m \ OK
\ use = 8N28 (4,928 mm2)

8 N28 bottom reinforcement

Design for Shear and Torsion at critical section near column (follow Flowchart 4.3)
Note the results of the calculations for torsion is combined with the shear and flexural design. The calculations
below are by hand and validated by the spreadsheets.
M * = 380 kN.m
V * = 360 kN
T * = 50 kN.m

Shear Design
AS 3600 Cl 8.2.4 At critical section
V * = 360 kN
D = 700 mm
d o = 615 mm
bv = 500
f 'c = 25 MPa
fsy.t = 500 MPa
Ast= 1,808 mm2 (4 – N24)

Using the RCDH Excel Spreadsheet 4.3

AS 3600 Clause 8.2.6 Determine f Vu.max = f 0.2 f 'c bv do
= 0.7 x 0.2 x 25 x 500 x 615 x 10–3 = 1,076 kN

Refer RCDH Excel Spreadsheet 4.3 for beams, which will determine all the following values
β1 = 1.11
For members where the cross-sectional area of shear reinforcement provided (Asv)
is equal to or greater than the minimum area specified in Clause 8.2.8
β2 = 1.0
β3 = 1.0
Where fcv = f 'c 1/3 ≤ 4 MPa = 2.92 MPa

10.32 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

Clause 8.2.7 Shear strength of a beam excluding shear reinforcement
Determine f Vuc
Ast 1/3
f Vuc = f β1 β2 β3 bv do fcv  
bv do

= 0.7 x 1.11 x 1 x 1 x 500 x 615 x 2.92 (1,808/500/615)1/3/1,000

\ f Vuc = 126 kN
\ 0.5 f Vuc = 63 kN

Clause 8.2.9 Shear strength of a beam with minimum shear reinforcement

Determine f Vu.min = f (Vuc + 0.10 √f 'c bv do ) ≥ f Vuc + f 0.6 bv do
f Vuc + f 0.6 bv do = 254 kN
f (Vuc + 0.10 √f 'c bv d ) = 233 kN
\ f Vu.min = 254 kN
\ V * < f Vu.max \ OK
> f Vuc
\ shear reinforcement is required.

RCDH Excel Spreadsheet 4.3

Determine required shear reinforcement
Calculate Vus = 335.8 kN
If Vus < Vus.min then Vus = Vus.min ie Vus = 336 kN
Asv = Vus / [(fsy.f do /s) cot θv]
= 229 mm2 and a maximum spacing of 300 mm
and where θv = 45 deg for vertical fitments
Consider N12 fitments where area of fitment (two legs) = 226 mm2
Maximum spacing of N 12 fitment by interpolation = 300 x 226 / 328 = 296 mm

\ Fitments N12 @ 225 cts throughout

Design note: It is normal for fitment spacing to be a multiple of 25 mm. Do not

use spacings such as 296 mm calculated above as it is just not realistic on site.

Torsion Design
Design using RCDH Excel Spreadsheet 4.4.
T *= 50 kN.m
Calculate torsion modulus Jt and ignore the flange as it only contributes a very small
part to the overall torsional strength.
Ast = 1,808 mm2
J t = J web

Table 4.1 for x = 500 mm

y = 700 mm
J web = 57.7 x 106 mm3

AS 3600 Clause 8.3.3 Determine f Tu.max = f 0.2 f 'c Jt

= 0.7 x 0.2 x 25 x 57.7 x 106 x 10-6 = 202 kN.m

Clause 8.2.6 Determine f Vu.max = f 0.2 f 'c bv do

= 0.7 x 0.2 x 25 x 500 x 615 x 10–3 = 1,076 kN

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 10.33

Clause 8.3.3 Check torsional strength not limited by web crushing
T */f Tu.max + V */f Vu.max = 50/202 + 360/1,024
= 0.25 + 0.33 = 0.58
< 1 \ OK

Clause 8.3.5 Check if torsional reinforcement is required.

Calculate torsional strength of a beam

Clause 8.3.5 (a) Calculate f Tuc = f 0.3 Jt √f 'c

= 0.7 x 0.3 x 57.7 x 106 mm3 x √25 /1,000 = 60.6 kN.m

Clause 8.3.5 (b) Calculate f Tus = f fsy.f (Asw /s) 2 A t cot θv

Where A t = area of a polygon with vertices at the centre of longitudinal bars at the
corners of the cross-section
= (500 – 40 – 40 –12 –12 – 24/2) x (700 – 40 – 40 –12 –12 – 24/2)
= 224,256 mm2
ut = perimeter of the polygon defined for A t
= 2 [(500 – 40 – 40 –12 –12 – 24/2) + (700 – 40 – 40 –12 –12 – 24/2)]
= 1,936 mm

Clause 8.2.10 (b) (1) Where θv = angle between the axis of the concrete compression strut and the
longitudinal axis of the member and shall be taken as 45°
f = 0.7
Asw = 113 mm2 (assumes N12 fitment)
fsy.f = 500 MPa (yield strength of fitment)
s = 200 mm (spacing of fitments)

f Tus = f Asw fsy.f 2 At cot θv /s

= 0.7 x 113 x 500 x 2 x 224,256 x 1 / 200 x 106
= 88.7 kN.m

Clause 8.2.7 Calculate shear strength of a beam without shear reinforcement

Ast 1/3
Vuc = β1 β2 β3 bv do fcv  
bv do

Refer RCDH Excel Spreadsheet 4.3 for beams, which will determine all the following values
β1= 1.11
For members where the cross-sectional area of shear reinforcement provided (Asv)
is equal to or greater than the minimum area specified in Clause 8.2.8
β2 = 1.0
β3 = 1.0
Where fcv = f 'c 1/3 ≤ 4 MPa = 2.92 MPa
\ f Vuc = 125.0 kN

Clause 8.3.4 (a) (i) Check if T * ≤ 0.25 φ Tuc = 15.2 kN.m and as T * = 50 kN.m > 15.2 kN.m
\ torsional reo is required

Clause 8.3.4 (a) (ii) Check if T */ φ Tuc + V */ φVuc ≤ 0.5 = 50/60.6 + 360/125.0 = 3.7 >> 0.5
\ torsional reo is required

Clause 8.3.4 (a) (iii) T */ φ Tuc + V */ φVuc > 1.0

\ torsional reo is required

10.34 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

Clause 8.3.4 (b) Check requirements for torsional reinforcing ie T */ φ Tus ≤ 1.0
= 50/88.7 = 0.56 < 1.0 \ ok
Clause 8.3.6(a) Requirements for additional longitudinal tensile reinforcement
A lt = (0.5 fsy.f / fsy) (Asw / s)(ut cot2θv )
= 0.5 x 500 / 500 X 113/200 x 1,936 x 1
= 547 mm2
\ provide 2 additional N24 top bars ie 6 total

Clause 8.3.6(b) Requirements for additional longitudinal compressive reinforcing

A lt = (0.5 fsy.f / fsy) (Asw / s)(ut cot2θv )
= 0.5 x 500 / 500 X 113/200 x 1,936 x 1
= 547 mm 2
\ provide 2 additional N28 bottom bars ie 10 total

Requirements for additional torsional fitments

= N12 at 225 mm max centres

\ reinforcement to spandrel beam is

4 + 2 = 6 N24 top, 8 + 2 = 10 N28 bottom

Fitments N12 @ 175 (shear) + N12 @ 175 (torsion)

\ say = N12 @ 175 in pairs for extent of torsion
and then N12 @ 250 as single fitments for the
remainder of the beam.

Design note: In the above design example, the extent of shear and torsion along
the length of beam has not been fully defined, which would usually be provided
by the analysis of the beam. This then would allow the extent of design for shear
and torsion to be calculated along the length of the beam and define the extent
of fitments for both shear and torsion. In the above example, the N12 @ 175 could
possibly be reduced to N12 @ 300 towards the centre of the beam, if the torsion is
not along the full length of the beam.

AS 3600 Clause 8.3.8 (a) Note all fitments are to be closed.

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 10.35

column and wall design
VERTICAL ACTIONS (LOADS) AND BENDING MOMENTS (COLUMN RUNDOWNS)

Design Note: In order to design the columns, both the vertical actions (loads) at
each floor and the bending moments need to be determined.
As discussed in Chapter 6, assessing the vertical actions (loads) carried by
columns and walls requires a full understanding of the building, the behaviour of
the structure and all actions (loads) carried by the structure. These vertical actions
(loads) are usually calculated by assessing the actions (loads) supported by each
column or walls on a floor-by-floor basis based on the tributary areas to each
column or wall. This can be calculated by using a spreadsheet or appropriate
structural analysis software.
Column rundowns calculated by spreadsheet are typically based on a simple area
or length basis, with proportioning of the actions (loads) to each vertical element
by taking half the distance in each direction to the adjacent vertical element.
These rundowns may not include all the actions (loads) to the columns (and walls)
because of continuity and frame action. These additional actions (loads) are
sometimes known as 'moment shears' or similar and can be up to 15% of the floor
actions (loads). For example, an edge column will generally have fewer actions
(loads) on it when using an area basis, while the first column in from the edge of a
building will have more actions (loads) on it. It is usual not to deduct moment shears
from external columns.
Usually, actions (loads) at each level are calculated just above the floor below. The
heading 'on Level 3' as shown in the spreadsheet on the column rundown means
the actions (loads) from the floors above, just above the third floor and would be
used to design the column from Level 3 to Level 4.
Clause 3.4.2 of AS/NZS 1170.1 also allows a reduction of uniformly distributed
imposed actions. However, as slabs are essentially one-way, no reduction
is allowed.

Column Rundown C4
Design note: The following rundown is for column C4. The column moments have
been determined from the 2D analysis of the bents in both directions.

Permanent Permanent Permanent Imposed Imposed Imposed

Unit Permanent Imposed axial bending bending axial bending bending
area actions actions actions moments moments actions moments moments
Load element length (DL) (LL) (DL) E/W N/S (LL) E/W N/S

On Level 4
1 Roof 65.5 0.5 0.25 32.8     16.4    
2 Column 3.5 1   3.5     0.0    
3 Moment shears 7.8 0.5 0.25 3.9     2.0    

Total this level       40.2 0 0 18.3 0 0

Total on Level 4   PA (DL) 40.2 
    IA (LL) 18.3 

(continues)

10.36 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

Column Rundown C4 (continued)

Permanent Permanent Permanent Imposed Imposed Imposed

Unit Permanent Imposed axial bending bending axial bending bending
area actions actions actions moments moments actions moments moments
Load element length (DL) (LL) (DL) E/W N/S (LL) E/W N/S

On Level 3
1 Floor 65.5 4.75 3 311.1 3 42 196.5 1 21
2 Band beam 8.4 9.6 0 80.6     0.0    
3 Other permanent loads 65.5 1.25 0 81.9     0.0    
4 Column 3 3.15   9.5     0.0    
5 Moment shears 7.8 6.15 3 48.0     23.4    
6 Live load reduction 65.5 0 0 0.0     0.0    

Total this level   531.1 3.0 42.0 219.9 1.0 21.0

Total on Level 3   PA (DL) 571.2            
    IA (LL) 238.2            

On Level 2
1 Floor 65.5 4.75 3 311.1 3 42 196.5 1 21
2 Band beam 8.4 9.6 0 80.6     0.0
3 Other permanent loads 65.5 1.25 0 81.9     0.0
4 Column 3 3.15   9.5     0.0    
5 Moment shears 7.8 6.15 3 48.0     23.4    
6 Live load reduction 65.5 0 0 0.0     0.0    

Total this level   531.1 3.0 42.0 219.9 1.0 21.0

Total on Level 2   PA (DL) 1,102.3            
    IA (LL) 458.1            

On Level 1
1 Floor 65.5 4.75 3 311.1 3 42 196.5 1 21
2 Band beam 8.4 9.6 0 80.6     0.0    
3 Other permanent loads 65.5 1.25 0 81.9     0.0    
4 Column 3 3.15   9.5     0.0    
5 Moment shears 7.8 6.15 3 48.0     23.4    
6 Live load reduction 65.5 0 0 0.0     0.0    

Total this level   531.1 3.0 42.0 219.9 1.0 21.0

Total on Level 1   PA (DL) 1,633.3            
    IA (LL) 678.0            

On footing
1 Floor 65.5 4.75 3 311.1 3 42 196.5 1 21
2 Band beam 8.4 9.6 0 80.6     0.0    
3 Other permanent loads 65.5 1.25 0 81.9     0.0    
4 Column 3 4.8   14.4     0.0    
5 Moment shears 7.8 6.15 3 48.0     23.4    
6 Live load reduction 65.5 0 0 0.0     0.0    

Total this level   536.0 3.0 42.0 219.9 1.0 21.0

Total on Footing   PA (DL) 2,169.3            
    IA (LL) 897.9            

  Total PA (DL) 2,169.3 kN          

  Total IA (LL) 897.9 kN        

Notes:
— Actions (loads) are in kN or kPa. All loads are unfactored.
— Moments are in kN.m.

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 10.37

INTERNAL COLUMN C4, LEVEL L1 TO L2
Column properties
D500L10

350
L1

88
60

274
450

3500
3150
88
88 274 88
L2
450

f 'c = 40 MPa
fsy = 500 MPa
Cover = 60 mm to fitment

AS 3600 Clause 10.1.3 Braced column, ie lateral loads resisted by shear walls
Design actions (from computer analysis)
N * = 1,633 x 1.2 + 678 x 1.5 = 2,977 kN
M *nsmax = 42 x 1.2 + 21 x 1.5 = 82 kN.m
M *ewmax = 3 x 1.2 + 1 x 1.5 = 5 kN.m

Check if column short

Calculate Le / r

Clause 10.3.1 Assume Le = Lu = 3,150 mm

r = 0.3 D = 0.3 x 450 = 135 mm
\ Le / r = 3,150/135 = 23.5

Clause 10.3.1(a) < 25 \ column short

\ moment magnifiers are not required.
Assume column reinforced on four faces
f 'c = 40 MPa

Design Note: Because of the design decision to use 40 MPa minimum for all
columns with 60 cover to the fitment say 70 mm to the main bar or an axis distance
of about 85 mm, then the columns in the upper levels are likely to be not heavily
reinforced. Therefore try 1% reo as a minimum, ie 4 N28 at 1.2% and see how the
column details fit the interaction diagram following. From various design checks, the
concrete strength could be reduced to 32 MPa. However, the volume of concrete
for all the internal columns is about 5 m3 total per floor (ie a truck load of concrete
and all columns on the floor are likely to be cast at the one time) so the saving in
changing to a lower strength concrete is minimal and will only result in confusion on
site and possibly add cost because of smaller batches of concrete.

However, the designer will need to check the transmission of axial forces through
the slab because of the column's concrete strength. Refer to Clause 10.8. An
alternative is to design the column with 32-MPa concrete but use 40-MPa concrete
for practical reasons.

10.38 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

Input data into columns design software

The following interaction diagram has been calculated using an excel spreadsheet
for a short column in accordance with AS 3600. As can be seen below the design
actions are under the design line for 4 N28 and 40 MPa so well ok.
Area of reo = 1.22% < 4% \ OK

9000

Strength line
8000 Design line
Minimum moment
X Design actions
7000

6000

5000

4000

3000 X
82,2977
Compresive force (kN)

2000

1000

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Moment (kN.m)

\ Adopt 4 N28

Determine size and spacing of fitments

AS 3600 Clause 10.7.4.3 Size use L10 Table 10.7.4.3
Spacing smaller of 15 d b or D
15 d b = 15 x 28 = 420 mm
D = 450 mm
However, 420 mm too large \adopt 300 mm

Fitments L10 @ 300

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 10.39

INTERNAL COLUMN C4, FOOTING LEVEL TO LEVEL L1
Column properties
8N32 bars
L10

350
L1

88
60

274
450

4800
4450
88
88 274 88
Footing
450

f 'c = 40 MPa
fsy = 500 MPa

AS 3600 Clause 10.1.3 Braced column, ie lateral loads resisted by shear walls
Design actions (from computer analysis)
N * = 2,169 x 1.2 + 898 x 1.5 = 3,950 kN
M *nsmax = 42 x 1.2 + 21 x 1.5 = 82 kN.m
M *ewmax = 3 x 1.2 + 1 x 1.5 = 5 kN.m

Check if column short

Calculate Le / r
Clause 10.5.3 Assume Le = 0.85 Lu = 0.85 x 4,450 = 3,783 mm

Design Note: Calculate Le from Clause 10.5.3 rather than Clause 10.5.4 as
restraint at footing uncertain.

Clause 10.5.2 r = 0.3 D = 0.3 x 450 = 135 mm

\ Le / r = 3,783/135 = 28

Determine limit for Le / r for the column to be classed as short

AS 3600 Clause 10.3.1(a) = 25; or
≤ α c (38 – f 'c /15) (1+ M *1/M *2)
whichever is greater

Nuo = g 1 f 'c Ac fsy As = 10,257 kN

N */0.60 Nuo = 3,950 / 0.6 x 10,257
= 0.64 > 0.15
\αc = √ (2.25 – 2.5 N */ 0.6 Nuo)
= √ ( 2.25 -2.5 x 0.64) = 0.81

Check if M *2 > 0.05 D N *

0.05 D N * = 0.05 x 0.45 x 3,950
= 88.9 kN.m > M *2 (82 kN.m)
As less than the minimum value and column in single curvature
take M *1 /M *2 = –1
\ limit = 25
Le / r = 28
> 25 \ column is slender

10.40 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 Determine moment magnifier
Clause 10.4.2 d b = km/(1.0 – N */Nc) ≥ 1.0
Calculate km = (0.6 – 0.4 M *1 /M *2)
as above M *1 /M *2 = –1
\ km = 1.0
N * = 3,950 kN
Clause 10.4.4 Determine Nc = (π 2/Le2) [182 do(f Mub)/(1 + bd)]
Determine bd = G/(G + Q)
= 2,169/ (2,169 + 898) = 0.707
Assume column reinforced on 4 faces with 9 N32, ie 3 bars in each face
= 3.57% < 4% \ OK
f 'c = 40 MPa

From a program for the design of columns Mub = 614 kN.m

\ f Mub = 0.6 x 614 = 368.4 kN.m
Le = 3,783 mm
do = 362 mm
\ Nc = (π 2/ 3.7832) x [182 x 0.362 x 368/(1 + 0.71)] = 9,778 kN
\d b = 1.0/(1.0 – 3,950 / 9,778) = 1.68
\M * = 1.68 x 82 = 138.1 kN.m

See interaction diagram below for bending in one direction so minimum moments
in the other direction will need to be considered. By inspection should be OK for
bending in the other direction.

Design Note: Column software will probably give marginally more accurate
results and will probably cover biaxial bending)

12000

Strength line
Design line
10000 Minimum moment
X Design actions

8000

6000

4000 X
138,3950
Compresive force (kN)

2000

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Moment (kN.m)
\ Adopt 9 – N32, 3 in each face

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 10.41

 Determine size and spacing of fitments
Clause 10.7.4.3 Use N12
Spacing = 15 d b
= 15 x 32 = 480 > D
D = 450 mm
But adopt closer spacing for fitments better confinement, eg 300 mm.

Provide fitments N12 @ 300 restraint to middle bars as per Cl 10.7.4.1 of AS 3600
Note: adopt Option 2 as better arrangement to place concrete into the column.

N12 internal fitment

at 200 cts alternate

N12 at 300

N12 at 300

OPTION 1 OPTION 2

Design Note: For external columns, provide lateral shear reinforcement through
the joint as required by Clause 10.7.4.5.

WALL D1 – D2
Wall properties Floor loads
3.5

175th
3.5

Wu
15.3

3.5

200th
4.8

7.6

f 
'c = 40 MPa
fsy = 500 MPa

Clause 11.3 Wall is braced

Design loads. Refer to following rundown of actions for this wall
G = 1.20 x 1,958 = 2,350 kN
Q = 1.5 x 935 = 1,403 kN
Ultimate load = 3,752 kN = 493.7 kN/m
Check compression stress in wall at bottom of the wall
= 3,752 / 0.2 x 7.6 / 1,000 = 2.47 MPa \ wall is not heavily loaded
Also Clause C5.3 compression stress < 0.15 f 'c = 6 MPa
\ no boundary elements are needed

Wind load Wu (from other computations) = 248 kN

Table 1.1 RCDH Check stability for overturning parallel to the wall
Wu x 15.3 / 2 = 248 x 15.3 / 2 = 1,897 kN.m
0.9 G x 7.6 / 2 = 0.9 x 1,958 x 7.6 / 2 = 6,696 kN.m
>1,897 kN.m \ no overturning, ie stable

10.42 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

 Check if any tension in the wall. Tensile stress = M / Z
M * = 1,897 kN.m
Z = bd2/6
\ ft = 1,897 x 106/200 x 7,6002/6 = 0.98 MPa < 2.47 MPa \ wall is not in tension

Clause 11.2.1(a) Wall subject to in plane vertical and horizontal forces. Design for vertical and
horizontal forces independently. Use Cl 11.5 for axial forces and Cl 11.6 for shear.

Design for vertical forces at change of section from 175 mm to 200 mm thickness
at Level 1. Refer to the wall rundown following.

Determine load eccentricity, e at level 1

175 wall over

87.5 N*2+3+4+roof

CS Level 1
Expressed joint

133 N*1

190
CS
Slab

d N*total

200 wall under

e
100
Note: Reinforcement not shown

e = (d – 100) mm
d = (N *2+3+4+ roof  x 87.5 + N *1 x 133.3) / N *total
= [(14.27 x 1.2 + 790 x 1.5) x 87.5 + (532 x 1.2 + 145 x 1.5) x 133.5] / 3,228 = 98.0 mm
\ e = 98.0 – 100 = – 2 mm
Clause 11.5.2 < 0.05 t w
= 0.05 x 200 = 10 mm
\ use e = 10 mm

Clause 11.5.1 Calculate the design axial strength of the wall using the simplified design method
for walls subject to vertical compression forces
Calculate Hwe = 1.0 x 4.8 = 4.8 m
ea = Hwe2/ 2,500 t w
= 4.8 x 4.8 x 106/ (2,500 x 200) = 46.08 mm
f 'c = 40 MPa
t w = 200 mm
f N u = f (t w – 1.2 e – 2ea) 0.6 f 'c
= 0.6 x (200 – 1.2 x 10 – 2 x 46.08) x 0.6 x 40 = 1,381 kN/m
> 494 kN/m \ well OK

Design note: The RCDH Excel Spreadsheet 7.2 for the design of walls for axial
loads using the simplified method can be used for the above calculations.

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 10.43

Wall actions and bending moments (wall rundown) D1 – D2

Permanent Permanent Permanent Imposed Imposed Imposed

Unit Permanent Imposed axial bending bending axial bending bending
area actions actions actions moments moments actions moments moments
Load element length (DL) (LL) (DL) E/W N/S (LL) E/W N/S

On Level 4
1 Roof 25.9 0.5 0.25 13.0     6.5    
2 Wall LW 7.6 1.0   7.6     0.0    
3 Moment shears 0 0 0 0.0     0.0     

Total this level       20.6 0 0 6.5 0 0

Total on Level 4   DL 20.6            
    LL 6.5            

On Level 3
1 Floor 25.9 6.0 7.5 155.4 3 42 194.3 1 21
2 Wall 175 thick 27.36 4.4 0.0 119.7     0.0    
3 Edge beam 7.2 26.9 9.3 193.7     67.0    
4 Moment shears 0 0.0 0.0 0.0     0.0    
5 Live load reduction 25.9 0.0 0.0 0.0     0.0     

Total this level   468.8 3.0 42.0 261.2 1.0 21.0

Total on Level 3   DL 489.3            
    LL 267.7            

On Level 2
1 Floor t25.9 6.0 7.5 155.4 3 42 194.3 1 21
2 Wall 175 thick 27.36 4.4 0.0 119.7     0.0    
3 Edge beam 7.2 26.9 9.3 193.7     67.0    
4 Moment shears 0 0.0 0.0 0.0     0.0    
5 Live load reduction 25.9 0.0 0.0 0.0     0.0    

Total this level   468.8 3.0 42.0 261.2 1.0 21.0

Total on Level 2   DL 958.1            
    LL 528.9            

On Level 1
1 Floor 25.9 6.0 7.5 155.4 3 42 194.3 1 21
2 Wall 175 thick 27.36 4.4 0.0 119.7     0.0    
3 Edge beam 7.2 26.9 9.3 193.7     67.0    
4 Moment shears 0 0.0 0.0 0.0     0.0    
5 Live load reduction 25.9 0.0 0.0 0.0     0.0  

Total this level   468.8 3.0 42.0 261.2 1.0 21.0

Total on Level 1   DL 1,426.9            
    LL 790.1            

On footing
1 Floor 25.9 6.0 3.0 155.4 3 42 77.7 1 21
2 Wall 200 thick 36.48 5.0 0.0 182.4     0.0    
3 Edge beam 7.2 26.9 9.3 193.7     67.0    
4 Moment shears 0 0.0 0.0 0.0     0.0    
5 Live load reduction 25.9 0.0 0.0 0.0     0.0    

Total this level   531.5 3.0 42.0 144.7 1.0 21.0

Total on Footing   DL 1,958.4            
    LL 934.8            

  Total DL 1,958 kN          
  Total LL 935 kN        

Notes: — Actions (loads) are in kN or kPa. All loads are unfactored.

— Moments are in kN.m.

10.44 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

Design wall for in-plane horizontal shear forces
Clause 11.6 V * = 248 kN
f 'c = 40 MPa

Calculate Hw / Lw = 4.8 / 7.6 = 0.63

Calculate Hwe / tw = 4.8 / 0.2 = 24 ≤ 50 \ OK
Calculate f Vu.max = 0.2 f 'c (0.8 Lw tw )
= f x 0.2 x 40 x 0.8 x 7,600 x 200/1,000 = 6,810 kN >> 248 kN

Clause 11.6.3 Calculate shear strength of a wall without shear reinforcement

Hw / Lw = 0.63 ≤ 1 therefore use Clause 11.6.3 (a)

Clause 11.6.3 (a) f Vuc = f (0.66 √f 'c – 0.21 Hw / Lw √f 'c ) 0.8 Lw tw
= 0.7 x (0.66 x √40 – 0.21 x 0.63 x √40) x 0.8 x 7,600 x 200/1,000
= 2,840 kN >> 248 kN without the contribution of the shear reinforcement
which is f Vus = 1192 kN \ shear capacity of wall is well OK

Design note: The RCDH Excel Spreadsheet 7.3 can be used for the design of
walls for shear for the above calculations.

\ As no reinforcement required for shear use minimum reinforcement from Cl 11.7.1.

As wall thickness is 200 mm only need to have only 1 layer of reinforcement.

Check bending to wall under lateral wind loads

Clause 11.1 (b) Note the stress in the wall in the middle is ≈ 2.06 MPa which is about 3% over the
2 MPa limit and as no reduction for moment shears taken, so OK and design as
a slab.
M* ≈ w l2 /10 = 0.97 x 4.82 /10 = 2.23 kN.m/m

For N12 @ 300 Ast = 377 mm2 and f Mu = 14.7 kN.m > 2.23 kN.m \ well OK
Design note: Designers do not need to do sophisticated analysis for such simple
load cases. They should try to use simple design methods, where possible, as they
are in many cases quicker than running a computer program. Clause 6.10.2.3 using
the simplified method of analysis was used for the above calculation which would
have given a moment of w l2 /11 but was rounded down to w l2 /10 which is slightly
conservative. As shown above it does not make a significant difference.

AS 3600 Clause 11.7.1 Reinforcement

(a) Vertical A s.v = 0.0015 x 200 x 1,000 = 300 mm2/m
Adopt N12 @ 200 mm = 565 mm2/m > 300 mm2/m
Vertically N12 @ 200

Design note: While the minimum vertical reinforcement is nominally required only
for cracking with N12 @ 300, both for crack control and robustness N12 @ 200 has
been adopted as vertical reinforcement.

(b) Horizontal As.h = 0.0025 x 200 x 1,000 = 500 mm2/m

Table 2.3 RCDH N12 @ 200 mm = 565 mm2/m

AS 3600 Clause 11.7.2 Check horizontal reinforcement for crack control

Exposure classification B2
\ p = 0.006
\ As.h = 0.006 x 200 x 1,000 = 1,200 mm2/m
Table 2.3 RCDH N12 @ 90 mm or
N16 @ 160 mm
Horizontally N16 @150

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 10.45

footing Design
FOOTING COLUMN C4
Design data
Allow bearing pressure (from geotechnical report) qu = 300 kPa

Design loads
g = 2,169 kN
q = 898 kN
N * = 3,950 kN
M * = 0 kN.m

Column dimensions and details

c1 = 450 mm
c2 = 450 mm
longitudinal reo to column = 9 N32

Concrete strength footing f 'c = 32 MPa

Concrete cover = 75 mm

Estimate footing size. Assume a square footing side length = b initial

\ b initial = √[(2,169 + 898) / 300] = 3.2 m

Check footing depth for column bar development length in compression

Cl 13.1.5 and Table 2.11 of RCDH, the development length for 32 mm bar = 700 mm

Initial depth of footing = cover + two layers of 32 mm bar + basic development length.

\ Initial depth of footing = 75 + 64 + 700 = 839 say 900 mm
\ Effective depth do = 900 – 75 – 32 – 16 = 775 mm

Calculate footing weight and confirm initial estimates of sizes

wf  initial = 3.2 x 3.2 x 0.9 x 25 = 230 kN
\ Approx total working load = 2,169 + 898 + 230
= 3,067 + 230
= 3,297 kN
Check b final = √3,297/300 = 3.32 m OK
\ Adopt footing 3.35 x 3.35 x 0.9m deep
wf final = 3.35 x 3.35 x 0.9 x 25 = 252 kN

\ Total working load = 2,169 + 898 + 252 = 3,319 kN

Actual bearing pressure = 3,319 / 3.35 / 3.35
= 296 kPa < 300 kPa \ OK

Actual design bearing pressure on concrete = (3,319 – 252) / 3.35 / 3.35 = 273 kPa

Calculate total load

\ Total actions Nf * = (2,169 + 252) x 1.2 + 898 x 1.5 =4,252 kN
\ Load factor = 4,252 / (2,169 + 252 + 898) = 1.28

Check BM capacity as cantilever about face of column

Calculate BM total
M * = quL2/2
= 1.28 x 273 x 3.35 x [(3.35 – 0.45) / 2]2 / 2 = 1,230 kN.m

10.46 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

Use RCDH Excel Spreadsheet 4.1
Calculate Ast = 4,710 mm2 (15 N20)
and f Mu = 1,435 kN.m > 1,230 kN.m \ OK

AS 3600 Clause 16.3.1 and Table 8.2 of RCDH Min. reo ≈ 1,400 x 3.35 mm2 = 4,690 < 4,710 \ OK

Clause 8.2.4 Check one-way beam shear

x = [(L1 – c1 ) / 2] – do
= [(3,350 – 450) / 2] – 775 = 675 mm
\ V * = 0.675 x 3.35 x 273 x 1.28 = 790 kN

Use RCDH Excel Spreadsheet 4.1

β1 = 0.91 (no shear reinforcement)
β2 = β3 = 1.0

From AS 3600 Clause 8.2,5 (ii)

f Vuc = 639 kN < 790 kN, NG
\ Increase depth to 1,050 mm and dom to 925 mm
f Vuc = 719 kN > 615 kN \ OK
\ by inspection one-way shear OK both ways

Clause 9.2.3 Check punching shear with M * = 0 with dom = 935
dom = 785 mm

Use RCDH Excel Spreadsheet 8.1

V * punching = 3,255 kN
f Vu = 6,974 kN > 3,255 kN \OK
As depth has increased, so has the minimum reinforcement to = 5,150 mm2, ie 17 N20

Check development length of column bars = 1,050 – 75 – 20 – 20 = 935 > 700 \OK

Therefore footing C4 3.35 x 3.35 x 1.05 m deep

with 17 N20 both ways bottom with 75 mm cover
to bottom and sides

FOOTING WALL D1 – D2
Design Data
Allow bearing pressure (from geotechnical report) q u = 300 kPa

Design loads (see previous wall rundown for actions)

g = 1,958 kN
q = 935 kN
N * = 3,752 kN
M * = 0 kN.m

Wall dimensions and details

c1 = 7,600 mm
c2 = 200 mm
Longitudinal reo to wall = N12 @ 300 cts

Concrete strength footing f 'c = 32 MPa

Concrete cover = 75 mm

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 10.47

 Estimate footing size. Area of footing = (1,958 + 935) / 300 = 9.6 m2
Adopt a footing say 8,000 x 1,300 = 10.4 m2 > 9.6 m2

Check footing depth for column bar development length in compression

Cl 13.1.5 and Table 2.11 of the RCDH development length for 12 mm bar = 300 mm

Depth of footing = 75 + 40 + 300 = 415 say 500 mm

\ Effective depth do = 500 – 75 – 20 – 10 = 395 mm

Calculate footing weight and confirm initial estimates

wf initial = 8 x 1.3 x 0.5 x 25 = 130 kN
\ Approx total working load = 1,958 + 935 + 130 = 3,023 kN
Check area = 3,023 / 300 = 10.07 m2 > 9.6 m2
\ Adopt footing 8.0 x 1.3 x 0.5 m deep

\ Total working load = 1,958 + 935 + 130 = 3,023 kN

Actual bearing pressure = 3,023 / 8 / 1.3 = 291 kPa < 300 kPa \ OK

Actual design bearing pressure on concrete = (3,023 – 130) / 8 / 1.3 = 278 kPa

Calculate total load

\ Total load N *f = (1,958 + 130) x 1.2 + 935 x 1.5 = 3,908 kN
\ Load factor = 3,908 / (1,958 + 935 + 130) = 1.29

Check BM capacity as cantilever about face of wall

Calculate BM total
M * = quL2 / 2
= 1.29 x 278 x 8 x [(1.3 – 0.2)/2]2 / 2 = 434 kN.m

Use RCDH Excel Spreadsheet 4.1

Calculate Ast = 3,232 mm2
Use N12 at 200 cts nominal = 4,520 mm2

Design note: To calculate the number of fitments take the total length of
the footing minus the cover each end and divide by 200 and rationalise up
ie (8,000 – 140) divided by 200 = 40 bars.

and f M uo = 6,876 kN.m > 434 kN.m \ well OK

and f M u = 705 kN.m > 434 kN.m \ well OK

AS 3600 Clause 16.3.1 and Table 8.2

Min. reo ≈ 700 x 8 = 5,600 mm2 > 3,232 mm2
\ Number of bars = 5,600 / 113 = 50
\ adopt = say 53 N12 @150 cts = 5,989 mm2 > 5,600 mm2

\ 53 N12 @ 150 mm nom cts as fitments

Minimum reo along footing = 1,061 x 1.3 = 1,379 mm2

Provide 7 N16 top and bottom, ie 2,800 mm2 > 1,379 mm2 \ OK.

10.48 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

Clause 8.2.4 Check one-way beam shear
x = (L1 – c1 – 2do) / 2
= (1,300 – 200 – 2 x 395) / 2 = 155 mm
\ V * = 0.155 x 8 x 278 x 1.29 (area x bearing pressure x load factor) = 445 kN

Use RCDH Excel Spreadsheet 4.1

β1 = 1.32
β2 = β3=1.0

From AS 3600 Clause 8.2,5 (ii)

f Vuc = 1,095 kN > 445 kN \ no shear reinforcing required.
\ by inspection one-way shear OK both ways

Clause 9.2.3 Check punching shear with M * =0. By inspection well OK.

Footing D1 4 8.9 x 1.3 x 0.5 deep with 7 N16

long way top and bottom with N12 fitments as
closed fitments @ 150 cts and 75 mm cover to top,
bottom and sides. See Section below.

200 wall
500 N12 starter bars @ 200 cts
CS

7N16 top and bottom

N12 fitments @ 150 cts
SECTION

Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook 10.49

blank page

10.50 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

Appendix A The design
process
Purpose
This Appendix is to assist the designer in appreciating
and understanding some of the issues involved with
designing a concrete structure. It should be read in
conjunction with Section 1.2 of this Handbook.
Conceptual design
The conceptual design phase will involve considering
some or more of the following general issues:
n The broad principles of the structure (which may
include structural sketch plans) to suit the sketches
and layout the architect or designer has proposed
and to meet the client's needs
n Basic design information such as site plan,
geotechnical information, site constraints, survey, etc
n The likely structural form(s)
n How the services and structure may be integrated
n How it is likely to be constructed
n The likely time frames for design and construction
n
Environmental considerations
n Preliminary budget estimate to confirm that the
project appears economically viable
n The client's approval for the project to proceed to
the next phase.
Designers need to carry out sufficient structural design
to ensure that concepts are feasible and to avoid
subsequently finding that final design does not work.
Preliminary design
Following the acceptance of the conceptual design,
further development of it, in more detail, in this phase
will include:
n n Coordination of the structural design with
Evaluation of different structural options as
required, taking into consideration:
— Lateral load-resisting systems in two orthogonal
directions including shear and core walls
— Vertical load-resisting systems, ie walls and
columns
— Robustness
n Design information such as site plan, site
constraints, survey, etc
n Detailed geotechnical and environmental
information if possible
n Structural framing and, for floors, indicative sizes
based on span-to-depth ratios, some simple
design, experience, etc. Designers should refer to
Guide to Long-Span Concrete Floors A.1 for initial
sizing of concrete floors)
n Likely sizes of structural members including footings,
columns and walls including sizing of any precast
elements to be used, etc (designers should refer
to this Handbook for preliminary sizes for footings,
columns, walls and Precast Concrete Handbook for
preliminary sizes for precast members)
n Coordination with building services
n Movement and construction joints
n Construction sequence and temporary stability if it
is an unusual or complicated structure
n Approximate member sizes for alternative designs
so that options can be costed to get the optimum
solutions.
If necessary, a further budget costing is carried out to
confirm the project is on budget.
Final design
The final design stage is where the chosen optimum
preliminary design is designed and detailed. This
will include the preparation of project documentation
and specifications. It is important that the designer
remember that the documentation is the means of
communicating the design intentions to the contractor/
builder and subcontractors, the documentation should
be reviewed from this viewpoint before being issued.
This stage will include:
n A review of all design data to ensure its validity
n Full analysis of the chosen design for all
combinations of lateral and vertical actions. The
effect of loads, forces and deformations on the
structure and the behaviour of the total structure
under the various design load cases are evaluated.
Design for durability, fire resistance, deflection
and other relevant design loadings should also be
carefully considered
the design of other aspects of the building,
eg hydraulic services and external cladding,
including liaising with other members of the project
team (the architect, services engineers, etc)
n Full design and detailing of the project. The
project must be adequately documented including
drawings, conditions of contract and specifications
as incomplete documents may delay the project
and result in extra costs
Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook A.1
n The provision of guidance on how the structure is
stabilised during erection of complex or unusual
elements such as precast elements. Until lateral
stability is achieved by the completed structure, it
may be necessary to nominate the sequence for
construction to ensure the design concept is not
compromised and the structure remains stable
during erection
n Independent design checks and Quality Assurance
(QA) procedures.

Documentation
It is important to detail and document the project
sufficiently so that it can be built without undue
reference to the designer and to avoid problems with
construction. It is well known within the building and
construction industry in Australia that poor
documentation has led to an inefficient, non‑competitive
industry, cost overruns, rework, extensions of time,
high stress levels, loss of morale, reduced personal
output and adversarial behaviour, and with diminished
reputations (see Getting it Right the First Time A.2).

References
A.1 Guide to Long-Span Concrete Floors (T36)
2nd Ed, Cement Concrete & Aggregates
Australia, 2003.
A.2 Getting it Right the First Time, Engineers
Australia Queensland Division Industry-wide
Taskforce on Documentation within the building
and construction industry, 2005
(www.qld.engineersaustralia.org.au).

A.2 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

Appendix B Development
and use of the spreadsheets
General
The spreadsheets in this Handbook have been
developed to illustrate design to AS 3600—2009
and the formulae used in the Handbook. They are
not intended to be all embracing or to replace
commercially available or purpose-written software.
Some of the following discussion on spreadsheets
has been based on the Reinforced Concrete Council's
project Spreadsheets for concrete design to BS 8110
and EC2 B.1 and that source is acknowledged.
The design of concrete structures has been described
as time-consuming and costly. Computer programs are
now used extensively but experienced designers are
often reluctant to rely on 'black box' technology over
which they have little control. Computer spreadsheets,
on the other hand, are usually user-friendly, generally
transparent, powerful, and are popular in structural
engineering. They have good graphical presentation
facilities and established links with other software,
notably word processing. They are an ideal medium to
deal with the intricacies of concrete design in that they
can carry out a series of mathematical calculations
and, as in manual design, can check whether certain
conditions are met.
The spreadsheets presented in this Handbook will
help students and inexperienced engineers gain an
understanding of reinforced concrete design. For
the experienced engineer, the spreadsheets will also
help in the production of clear and accurate design
calculations.
In producing the spreadsheets, Microsoft Excel 2003
was adopted as being the de facto standard and the
most widely available spreadsheet used.
Designers can also refer to texts such as
The Engineers Tables  B.2 and Engineering with the
Spreadsheet  B.3 for guidance when preparing such
spreadsheets for engineering calculation.
Advantages
For the design engineer, these spreadsheets will
assist in the preparation of clear and accurate design
calculations for individual reinforced concrete elements.
Spreadsheets allow users to gain experience by
studying their own 'what if' scenarios. Should they
have queries, users should be able to answer their
own questions by chasing through the cells to give
them an understanding of the logic used. Cells within
each spreadsheet can be interrogated, formulae
checked and values traced. Engineers are sometimes
criticised for not thoroughly costing their designs. With
spreadsheets, it is a very simple matter to multiply the
quantities of reinforcement, concrete and formwork
required by current rates to give an idea of material
costs.
Use
Spreadsheets are a very powerful tool. Their use is
increasingly common in the preparation of design
calculations. They can save time, money and effort.
They provide the facility to optimise designs and can
help gain experience. However, these benefits have to
be weighed against the risks involved which must be
recognised and managed. In other words, appropriate
levels of supervision and checking, including
self‑checking must, as always, be exercised when
using spreadsheets.
In its deliberations, the Standing Committee on
Structural Safety (SCOSS) B.4 noted the increasingly
widespread availability of computer programs and
circumstances in which their misuse could lead to
unsafe structures. These circumstances include:
n People without adequate structural engineering
knowledge or training may carry out the structural
analysis.
n There may be communication gaps between the
design initiator, the computer program developer
and the user.
n A program may be used out of context.
n The checking process may not be sufficiently
fundamental.
n The limitations of the program may not be
sufficiently apparent to the user.
n For unusual structures, even experienced
engineers may not have the ability to spot
weaknesses in programs for analysis and detailing.
The committee's report continued: Spreadsheets are,
in principle, no different from other software …
Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook B.1
Liability
A fundamental condition of the use of the
spreadsheets in this publication is that the user
accepts responsibility for the input data and output
of the program / spreadsheet, its interpretation and
how they are used.
As with all software, users must be satisfied with the
answers these spreadsheets give and be confident
in their use. These spreadsheets can never be fully
validated for every situation but have been through
some testing, both formally and informally. However,
users must satisfy themselves that the uses to which
the spreadsheets are put are appropriate.
Control
Users and managers should be aware that
spreadsheets can be changed and must address
change control and versions for use. The flexibility
and ease of use of spreadsheets, which account for
their widespread popularity, also facilitate ad-hoc
and unstructured approaches to their subsequent
development.
Quality Assurance procedures may dictate that
spreadsheets are treated as controlled documents
and subject to comparison and checks with previous
methods prior to adoption. Users' Quality Assurance
schemes should address the issue of changes. The
possibilities of introducing a company's own password
to the spreadsheets and/or extending the revision
history contained within the sheet entitled Notes might
be considered.
It is up to the user what use is made of the output.
The spreadsheets have been produced to cater for
both first-time designers and the more experienced
designers without putting off first-time designers.
Summary
With spreadsheets, long-term advantages and savings
come from repeated use but there are risks that need
to be managed. Spreadsheets demand an initial
investment in time and effort – but the rewards are
there for those who make this investment. Good design
requires sound judgement based on competence
derived from adequate training and experience – not
just computer programs.
References
B.1 Spreadsheets for concrete design to BS 8110
and EC2, Reinforced Concrete Council,
Department of Trade and Industry, UK, 2000.
B.2 Mote Dr R The Engineer's Tables, Trafford
Publishing, 2009.
B.3 Christy CT Engineering with the Spreadsheet,
ASCE Press, 2006.
B.4 SCOSS – the Standing Committee on Structural
Safety http://www.scoss.org.uk/.

Application
The spreadsheets have been developed with the goal
of producing calculations to show compliance with
AS 3600—2009. Whilst this is the primary goal, there
is a school of thought that designers are primarily
responsible for producing specifications and drawings
which work on site and are approved by clients and/
or checking authorities. Producing calculations
happens to be a secondary exercise, regarded by
many experienced engineers as a hurdle on the way
to getting the project approved and completed. From
a business process point of view, the emphasis of the
spreadsheets might, in future, change to establishing
compliance once members, loads and details are
known. Certainly, this may be the preferred method of
use by experienced engineers.
The spreadsheets have been developed with the ability
for users to input and use their own preferred material
properties, bar sizes, etc. However, user preferences
should recognise efficiency through standardisation.

B.2 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook

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Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook B.3

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B.4 Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook