Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Institute of Engineering
Pulchowk Campus
Department of Civil Engineering
Prepared by:
Dr. Padma Bahadur Shahi
March, 2011
Contents
1. Airport Engineering ............................................................................................................................................ 3
2. Role of Air transportation: ................................................................................................................................... 3
3. Air Transport in Nepal ......................................................................................................................................... 3
3.1. Aviation Chronicles..................................................................................................................................... 3
4. Some organizations related to the civil aviation: .................................................................................................. 11
5. Classification of Airports:................................................................................................................................... 12
5.1. Based on take-off and landing ................................................................................................................... 12
5.2. Based on the Geometric design (ICAO)...................................................................................................... 12
5.3. Based on function: ................................................................................................................................... 13
5.4. Military aviation airports ............................................................................................................................ 13
6. Airlines frequency at different airports of Nepal: .................................................................................................. 14
7. Aircraft Component parts .................................................................................................................................. 14
8.1 Engine .................................................................................................................................................... 21
8.2 Fuselage: ................................................................................................................................................ 22
8.3 Wings: .................................................................................................................................................... 22
8.4 Three controls: ......................................................................................................................................... 22
8.5 Tricycle under-carriage: ............................................................................................................................ 23
9. Aircraft Characteristics: ..................................................................................................................................... 24
9.1 Size: ....................................................................................................................................................... 24
9.2 Make a figure of Minimum turning radius: ................................................................................................... 27
9.3 Minimum Circling Radius in Space: ............................................................................................................ 27
9.4 Capacity of aircraft: .................................................................................................................................. 27
9.5 Takeoff and landing distance: .................................................................................................................... 27
9.6 Speed of aircraft:...................................................................................................................................... 28
9.7 Weight of air craft and wheel configuration:................................................................................................. 28
9.8 Jet Blast: ................................................................................................................................................. 28
9.9 Fuel Spillage............................................................................................................................................ 28
9.10 Noise: ..................................................................................................................................................... 28
10. Aviation System Planning ................................................................................................................................. 28
10.1 Data base for airport system Planning: ....................................................................................................... 29
10.2 Comprehensive Airport system analysis ..................................................................................................... 31
10.3 Airport Master Plan................................................................................................................................... 32
10.4 Elements of Master Plan: .......................................................................................................................... 32
10.5 Steps of Master Plan ICAO: ...................................................................................................................... 33
11. Airport Site Selection ........................................................................................................................................ 33
12. Predicting air travel demand .............................................................................................................................. 33
12.1 Conventional methods of forecasting ......................................................................................................... 35
12.2 Analytical methods of air travel demand forecasting .................................................................................... 37
12.3 Air trip generation models ......................................................................................................................... 39
12.4 Air trip distribution models ......................................................................................................................... 39
12.5 Modal choice models ................................................................................................................................ 42
13. Airport Capacity ............................................................................................................................................... 43
13.1 Capacity, Demand and Delay ................................................................................................................ 43
13.2 Runway capacity ................................................................................................................................... 44
Airport Engineering/Dr. Padma Shahi 2
13.3 Determination of runway capacities and delay .................................................................................... 45
1. Airport Engineering
Airport engineers design and construct airports. Airport engineers must account for the impacts and demands of aircraft in
their design of airport facilities. These engineers must use the analysis of predominant wind direction to determine runway
orientation, determine the size of runway border and safety areas, different wing tip to wing tip clearances for all gates and
must designate the clear zones in the entire port.
Nepal has so far reached air service agreement and MoUs with more than 35 countries. Austria, Bahrain, Bangladesh,
Bhutan, Brunei, China, Croatia, Egypt, France, Germany, Hong Kong, India, Israel, Italy, Japan, Jordan, Kuwait,
Luxembourg, Macau, Malaysia, Maldives, Myanmar, Oman, Pakistan, Philippines, Qatar, Republic of Korea, Russian
federation, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, The Netherlands, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom.
In domestic service the airlines in the table are mainly functioning in different airports of Nepal. Civil Aviation Authority of
Nepal has granted Air Operation Certificates more than thirty airline companies for scheduled/chartered operation, helicopter
services and paragliding.
7.2. Propeller
7.3. Fuselage
1. Piston engine: It is powered by gasoline fed reciprocating engine and is driven by propeller or airscrew. Engine
rotates a shaft with a considerable amount of torque. Propeller is mounted on the shaft to absorb the torque.
Rotating propeller attains its rated speed, huge masses of air is hurled rearwards thereby pulling the aircraft forward
and creating lift on the wing. They are suitable to operate at low altitudes and moderate speed. They have cooling
problem also.
c. No radiators required
e. No carburetors
i) Turbo Jet: to start the machine, the compressor is rotated with motor. As the compressor gains its rated speed,
it sucks in air through the air intake and compresses it in the compression chamber. The air is ignited here by
fuel. The expanding gasses pass through the fan like blades of turbine. The hot gasses escape through the tail
pipe which becomes smaller in diameter and this hot gas having velocity, give a forward thrust to the engine.
ii) Turbo Prop: It is similar to the turbo jet engine except that propeller is provided in it. Turbine extracts enough
power to drive both the compressor and propeller.
3. Rocket engine: It produces thrust in the same way as the ram jet engine except it does not depen upon the
atmospheric oxygen. There is no limit on altitude.
An airplane can be single engine or multi engined. Single engine usually mounted at the nose of the fuselage. In two or four
engined aircraft they usually housed in the leading edge of the aircraft.
8.2 Fuselage:
It is main body of the aircraft and provides space for the power plant, fuel, cockpit, passenger, cargo etc.
8.3 Wings:
Wings are required to support the machine in the air, when the engine has given forward speed.
PCosα
PSinα
ii) Rudder: It consists of a flap hinged to a vertical line provided at the tail end of fuselage. It is utilized for turning
(or yawing) movement of the aircraft. It works just a boat is steered in water.
iii) Aileron: it is hinged flap in the trailing edge of the wing. It is for rolling movement control.
Types:
• Single wheel assembly
• Dual wheel assembly
• Dual wheel assembly in Tandem
2. Size of aircraft
5. Speed of aircraft
8. Jet Blast
9. Fuel spillage
10. Noise
9.1 Size:
Air bus 300 44.8 53.8 152000 9.6 18.6 16.6 900
Grossweight of aircraft
PL = Where, PL is power loading
Total HP of engine
9.10 Noise:
Noise affects to the surrounding communities.
1. Provide effective graphic representation of the future development of airport and future lan-use in the
vicinity of the airport.
2. Establish a realistic schedule for the implementation of the development proposed in the plan,
particularly for short term capital implement program.
4. Justifying the plan technically and procedurally through a thorough investigation of concepts and
options of a technical, economic, or environmental nature.
5. Presenting for public consideration in a convincing candid manner, a plan which adequately addresses
the issues and satisfies local and national regulations.
6. Documenting policies and future aeronautical demand and reference in municipal deliberations on
spending, debt incurrence and land –use controls.
7. Setting the stage and establishing the framework for a continuing planning process. Such process
would monitor key conditions and adjust plan recommendations if required by changed circumstances.
a) To assist manufacturers in industry to anticipate levels of aircraft orders and to develop new aircraft.
b) To aid airlines in their long-run planning for both equipment and personnel.
c) To assist governments to facilitate the orderly development of the national and international airways system, and to
aid all levels of government in the planning o f infrastructure facilities, runways, taxiways, aprons and technical air
traffic control.
Accurate forecast of air passenger and freight demand proved to be extraordinary difficult in the past, when over an extended
period rapid advances in technology continued to lower the real costs of air transport to consumer. During the period 1972-
1987, as shown in the figure, the overall world growth of scheduled passenger kilometer was at an average rate of 7.6%.
Asia and the Pacific demonstrate higher than average rates, and Africa lower than average rate.
Judgment: under the conditions of very limited growth, a crude but effective method of forecasting is the judgment estimate
by a forecaster who is close to the problem and is able to integrate and balance the factors involved in the specific situations.
The chances of success diminish as the complexity of the situation increases and need for long term a forecast
predominates. Use of judgment can easily result in forecasting by feeling, a procedure that is abhorrent to analytical
planners.
Trend forecasting: extensive use has been made of trend forecasting, in which the planner simply extrapolates, basing
judgment on past growth figures. In short term, this technique is reasonably reliable, especially when the extrapolation
procedure is carried out with modified growth rates to account for short term disturbances in secular trends. In long term, this
type of extrapolation is likely to be most unreliable and is theoretically difficult to substantiate. Early trends forecasts were
straight line extrapolations that were almost always too low in the rapid growth years of 1950s and early 1960s. Forecasts
over the next 10 years, that is, 1960-1970 were of an exponential nature, but opinion is now more conservative, reflecting an
industry consensus that curve of growth is more likely to be logistic as in the figure below.
Base forecasts on ratios of National forecasts: In USA, a technique for air traffic forecasting widely used at the local level is
the base forecast method, which assumes that a city's percentage of annual national passenger volumes remain relatively
constant over time. Airport forecasts are obtained by step down percentages of national forecasts. However, it has serious
limitations:
Airport Engineering/Dr. Padma Shahi 36
• Percentages of national growth does not remain constant;
Method A:
1) Determine the percentage of national enplaned passenger that the airport has attracted in the past.
3) Obtain data for national passenger volume for the design year
4) Calculate step down design figure as the product of the percentage of step 2 and the national figure from step 3.
Method B
1) Obtain the number of passenger per 1000 population that the airport has experienced in the past.
2) Compare the figure computed in step 1 with the number of passengers nationally per 1000 population.
4) Obtain the national forecast of air passenger volumes per 1000 population for the design year.
5) From the ratio computed in step 3 and the national forecasts of step 4, calculate the local passenger volume per
1000 population.
Modal choice models split the interchanges into those specific to individual modes; choice normally is a function of structure
and nature of the transport system and the socioeconomic status of the trip maker. Assignment models indicate which route
is taken by the individual traveler from a choice of all available routes.
In case of air transport, the model chain has frequently been simplified to a mode specific chain of the following from:
This simplified chain is inadequate insofar as it assumes that air traffic generations are peculiar to the mode itself and are not
subject to modal choice dependent on the nature of the competing modes.
Travel can be recognized as the product of four basic factors that must be accounted for in any realistic analysis that
attempting to predict demand over time. These basic factors are as follows:
• A supply of people
• A motivation to travel
• Resources available for expenditure on travel in terms of time and money
• A transport infrastructure capable of supporting travel demand
The procedure should consist the following steps for complete demand analysis:
1) Observation of past trends
2) Identification of exogenous variables that act as surrogate for basic factors causing changes in level of air transport
demand.
3) A base survey collecting the socioeconomic data that describe the status of the population, nature of the area, and
the technological status of the system.
4) Establishment of relationships between the predictive variables and both levels and changes in levels of air
transport demand.
5) Prediction of the anticipated level of the exogenous variables in the design year
6) Prediction from the design year levels of the exogenous variables and predictive relationships of the future demand
levels.
The simplistic methods of prediction, such as trend forecasting, take explicit account of the first step only, and steps 2 and 6
are mixed with subjective judgment, with varying degrees of success.
5) Fare levels
10) Various other imponderables (not able to be estimated) such as socio-cultural changes in the leisure and work
pattern etc
Market analysis: it assumes that an areas share of the total market remains constant over time. National demands total are
estimated for the design date usually by using straight forward trend forecasting or cross classification.
Regression analysis: statistical models for the demand analysis have been widely used for many years in the prediction of
urban passenger transport.
kPi Pj
Tij =
d ijx
Where, Tij - is travel by air passenger between cities I and j
k – a constant of proportionality
x – a calibrated constant
Using as the measure of the impedance, it was found that the value of x appeared to vary from 1.3 to 1.8. using the travel
cost, the following model was calibrated:
kTiT j
Tij =
Cijx
Where, Ti – Total air trips generated in city i
K – a constant of proportionality
X - a calibrated proportionality
In US studies airline interaction traffic, it was found that this model could be used for cities less than 800 miles apart. For
greater air trip degenerated air trip distances, the form of the model can be simplified:
Tij = k (TiT j ) p
A modified gravity model was used in Canada:
The generalized cost of any mode is the total of direct and indirect costs incurred in traveling. If there are only two alternative
modes p and q then above equation is reduced as:
• Measure objectively the capacity of various components of an airport system for handling projected
passenger and aircraft flows.
The capacity analyses make it possible for the airport planner to determine the number of runways, to identify
potential configurations, and to compare alternative design.
Capacity should not be confused with demand. Capacity refers to the physical capability of an airfield and its
components. It is measure of supply, and it is independent of both the magnitude and fluctuation of demand
and the amount of delay to aircraft. Delay, however is dependent on capacity and the magnitude and
fluctuation in demand. One can reduce aircraft delays by increasing capacity and providing a more uniform
pattern of demand.
1) Air traffic control: FAA specifies minimum vertical, horizontal, and lateral separations for aircraft in the
interests of air safety. Since no two airplanes are allowed on the runway at the same time, the runway
occupancy time may also influence the capacity.
Example: A runway serves aircraft that land a speed at 165 mph while maintaining the minimum
separation of 3 nautical miles as specified by FAA. The average runway occupancy time for landing
aircraft is 25 seconds. Determine maximum arrival rate pf the airport. The minimum spacing is (3X6076
= 18228 ft.) in terms of time the minimum arrival spacing is 18228 /(165X5280/3600)= 75 sec. The
maximum rate of arrival that can be served by the runway is no more than (3600/75) = 48 arrivals per
hour.
2) Characteristics of demand: capacity of runway depends on aircraft size, speed, maneuverability, and
braking capability, as well as pilot technique.
3) Environmental conditions: the most important environmental factors influencing capacity are visibility,
runway surface conditions, winds, and noise abatement requirements.
4) The layout and design of runway system: for the airport planner, layout and design features comprise
the most important class of factors that affect runway capacity. Principal factors in this class include:
b) Queuing models
c) Analytical approaches
d) Computer simulation
1. Runways
2. Taxiways
3. Passenger terminal and aprons
4. Cargo terminal and apron
5. Rescue and firefighting services
6. Air traffic control tower
7. Aircraft maintenance
8. Long-term and short-term parking
9. Access roads
10. Public transport access
11. Airport maintenance and engineering base
12. Navaids
13. Lighting
14. Flight kitchens
15. Fuel farm
16. General aviation terminal and apron
17. Sewage treatment and pumping station
18. Electric sub-station
19. Security fence and control gates
20. Hotels
21. Industrial uses
2. Runway Orientation:
Because of obvious advantages of landing and taking off into the wind, runways are oriented in the direction of prevailing wind. Aircraft
may not maneuver safely on a runway when wind contains large component at right angle to the direction of travel. The point at which this
component (cross wind component) becomes excessive will depend upon the size and operating characteristics of the aircraft.
Factors affecting the determination of the siting, orientation and number of runways:
• weather, in particular the runway/aerodrome usability factor, as determined by wind distribution, and the occurrence of localized
fogs;
• topography of the aerodrome site and its surroundings;
• type and amount of air traffic to be served, including air traffic control aspects;
• aeroplane performance considerations; and
• environmental considerations, particularly noise.
The primary runway, to the extent other factors permit, should be oriented in the direction of the prevailing wind. All runways should be
oriented so that approach and departure areas are free of obstacles and, preferably, so that aircraft are not directed over populated
areas.
Head wind: direction of wind opposite to the direction of landing and takeoff
• Takeoff: head wind provides greater lift on the wings, thus shorter length of runway is enough
• Landing: Headway provides a braking effect and aircraft comes to stop in a smaller length of runway.
Airport Engineering/Dr. Padma Shahi 48
If landing and takeoff are done along the wind direction, it may require longer runway length.
Cross wind Component: it is not always possible to obtain the direction of wind along the direction of the center line of
runway, this Normal wind component is called cross wind component. And it may interrupt the safe landing and takeoff of
the aircraft. VSinθ is the Cross wind Component.
Wind Coverage: The percentage of time in a year during which the CWC remains within the limit is called Wind Coverage.
• FAA standards for mixed air traffic wind coverage should be 95 % with the limit of 25 kmph. CWC.
• For busy airport, WC may be 98 -100 %
Wind Rose type I: It is the graphical representation of wind data: direction and intensity. Data should be collected for the
period of 5 to 10 years. Wind data average of 8 years period
Total % = 86.5
(100 - 86.5 ) = 13.5 % of time wind intensity is less than 6.4 kmph. This period is called Calm Period.
In this method a transparent template is prepared for determining the runway orientation.
The wind data shown in the table are plotted on a wind rose by replacing the percentage in the appropriate segment of
graph. On the wind rose, the circles represent wind velocity in miles per hour and the radial lines indicate wind direction.
The wind rose procedure makes use of a transparent template on which three parallel lines have been plotted. The middle
line represents the runway center line, and the distance between it and each of the outside lines is equal to the cross wind
component.
Following steps are necessary to determine the best runway orientation and to determine the percentage of time that
orientation conforms to the cross wind standards.
a) Place the template on the rose so that the middle line passes through the center of the wind rose.
b) Using the center of wind rose as a pivot, rotate the template until the sum of the percentage between the outside
lines is a maximum.
c) Read the true bearing for the runway on the outer scale of the wind rose beneath the centre line of the template.
d) The sum of percentage between the outside lines indicates the percentage of time that a runway with the proposed
orientation will conform to crosswind standards.
1. Runway
2. Taxiway
3. Apron
1. Runway
i) Length
ii) Width
iii) Sight distance
iv) Gradient & Change in Gradient
v) Transverse Gradient Runway Intersection
vi) Runway Clearance
Selecting design runway length is one of the most important decisions an airport designer. The runway length determines the
size and cost of the airport, and controls the types of air craft it will serve. Furthermore, it may limit the payload of the critical
aircraft and length of journey it can fly. The runway must be long enough to allow safe landing and takeoff by current
equipment and by future aircraft expected to use the airport. It must accommodate differences in pilot skill and variety of
aircraft types and operational requirements.
Note:
Primary runways:
Except where a runway is associated with a stopway and/or clearway, the actual runway length to be provided for primary
runway should be adequate to meet the operational requirements of the aeroplanes for which the runway is intended and
Airport Engineering/Dr. Padma Shahi 54
should be less than the longest determined by applying the corrections for local conditions to the operations and performance
characteristics of the relevant aeroplanes.
Both takeoff and landing requirements need to be considered when determining the length of runway to be provided and
need for operations to be conducted in both directions of runway. Local conditions that may need to be considered include
elevation, temperature, runway slope, and the runway surface characteristics.
Secondary runways:
The length of secondary runway should be determined similarly to primary runways except that it needs only to be adequate
for those aeroplanes which require using that secondary runway in addition to the other runway or runways in order to obtain
a usability factor of at least 95 percent.
When runway is associated with a stoway or clearway, an actual runway length less than that resulting from application of
(primary and secondary runways) as appropriate, may be considered satisfactory, but in such a case any combination of
runway, stopways or clearway provided.
Declared distances
The introduction of stopways and clearways and the use of displaced thresholds on runways has created a need for accurate
information regarding the various physical distances available and suitable for the landing and takeoff of airplanes.
a) Take-off run available (TORA): the length of runway declared available and suitable for the ground run off an aero
plane taking off.
c) Accelerate stop distance available (ASDA): the length of the take-off run available plus the length of the stopway,
if provided.
1. When a runway is not provided with stopway or clearway and threshold is located at the extremity of the runway, the
four declared distances should be equal to the length of the runway as in figure A.
2. Where runway is provided with clearway, then the TODA will include the length of clearway as in figure B.
3. When runway is provided with a stopway, then the ASDA will include the length of stopway as in figure C.
4. Where a runway has a displaced threshold, then the LDA will be reduced by the distance the threshold is displaced
as in figure D.
The rise in airport reference temperature has the same effect as that of the increase in elevation. Airport reference
temperature (Tr) is defined as the monthly mean of average daily temperature (Ta) for the hottest month of the year plus one
third the difference of this temperature (Ta) and monthly mean of the maximum daily temperature (Tm) for the same month of
the year.
ICAO recommends that the basic length of the runway after having been corrected for elevation should be further increased
at the rate of 1 % for every 1o rise of airport reference temperature above the standard atmospheric temperature (Ts) at the
elevation. The temperature gradient of the standard atmospheric from the mean sea level to the altitude at which temperature
becomes 15 o C is -0.0065 o C per meter.
It the total correction (elevation and temperature) exceeds 35% the basic runway length, these corrections should then be
checked up by conducting specific studies.
ICAO does not recommend on this correction. FAA recommends that the runway length after having been corrected for
elevation and temperature should be further increased at the rate of 20% for every 1% of effective gradient.
Effective gradient is defined as the maximum difference in elevation between the highest and lowest points of runway divided
by the total length of runway.
The width of a runway should not be less than the approximate dimension specified in the table below. The factors affecting
the width of runway are:
The slopes computed by dividing the differences between the maximum and minimum elevation along the runway centerline
by the runway length should not exceed:
• 1.25% where the code number is 4, except that for the first and last quarter of the length of the runway the
longitudinal slope should not exceed 0.8%.
• 1.5 % where the code number is 3, except that the first and last quarter of the length of a precision approach runway
II or III the longitudinal slope should not exceed 0.8%.
• 2 % where the code number is 1 or 2.
Longitudinal slope changes
Where slope changes cannot be avoided, a slope change between two consecutive slopes should not exceed:
Sight distance
Where slope changes cannot be avoided, they should be such that there will be an unobstructed line of sight from:
• Any three m above a runway to all other points 3 m above the runway within a distance of atleast half the length of
the runway where the code letter is C, D or E;
• Any point 2 m above a runway to all other points 2 m above the runway within a distance at least half the length of
runway where code letter is B; and
• Any point 1.5 m above a runway to all other points 1.5 m above the runway within a distance of at least half the
length of runway where the code letter is A.
Distance between slope changes
Undulation or appreciable change in slopes located together along the runway should be avoided. The distance between the
points of intersection of two successive curves should not be less than:
a) The sum of the absolute numerical values of the corresponding slope changes multiplied by the appropriate values
as below:
• 30 000 m where the code number is 4
• 15 000 m where the code number is 3 and
• 5 000 m where the code number is 1 or 2
b) 45 m;
Whichever is greater?
Airport Engineering/Dr. Padma Shahi 60
Figure 8 Runway visibility zone
Transverse slope
To promote the rapid drainage of water, the runway surface should, if practicable, be cambered except where a single cross
fall from high to low in the direction of the wind most frequently associated with rain would ensure rapid drainage. The
transverse slope should ideally be:
Runway shoulder
Runway shoulder must be provided to ensure a transition from the full strength pavement to the unpaved strip of runway. The
paved shoulder protects the edge of the runway pavement, contribute to the prevention of soil erosion by jet blast and
The runway shoulders should extend symmetrically on each side of the runway so that the overall width of the runway and its
shoulders is not less than 60 m for letter E and 75 m fir code letter F.
Slopes:
The surface of the shoulder that abuts the runway should be flush with the surface of the runway and its transverse
downward slope should not exceed 2.5 %.
Runway strip:
A runway strip extends laterally to a specified distance from the runway center line, longitudinally, before the threshold, and
beyond the runway end. It provides an area clear of objects which may endanger aeroplanes. The strip includes a graded
portion which should be so prepared as to not cause the collapse of the nose gear if an aircraft should leave the runway.
There are certain limitations on the slopes permissible on graded portion of the strip.
A strip should before the threshold and before the end of the runway or stopway for a distance of at least:
A strip including a precision approach runway shall, wherever practicable, extend laterally for a distance of at least:
A strip including a non-instrument runway should extend, on each side of the centre line of the runway and its extended centre line
throughout the length of the strip, for a distance of at least:
Objects
An object, other than equipment or installation required for air navigation purposes, situated on a runway strip which may endanger
aeroplanes should be regarded as an obstacle and should, as far as practicable, be removed. Any equipment or installation required for
air navigation purposes which must be
No fixed object, other than visual aids required for air navigation purposes, shall be permitted on a runway strip:
• within 77.5 m of the runway centre line of a precision approach runway category I, II or III where the code number is 3 or 4 and
the code letter is F; or
• within 60 m of the runway centre line of a precision approach runway category I, II or III where the code number is 3 or 4; or
• within 45 m of the runway centre line of a precision approach runway category I where the code number is 1 or 2.
The taxiway system should be designed to minimize the restriction of aircraft movement to and from the runways and apron
areas. A properly designed system should be capable of maintaining a smooth, continuous flow of aircraft ground traffic at
the maximum practical speed with a minimum of acceleration or deceleration. This requirement ensures that the taxiway
system will operate at the highest levels of both safety and efficiency.
a) taxiway routes should connect the various aerodrome elements by the shortest distances, thus minimizing both taxiing
time and cost;
b) taxiway routes should be as simple as possible in order to avoid pilot confusion and the need for complicated instructions;
c) straight runs of pavement should be used wherever possible. Where changes in direction are necessary, curves of
adequate radii, as well as fillets or extra taxiway width, should be provided to permit taxiing at the maximum practical speed
(see Section 1.4 and Appendix 1);
d) taxiway crossings of runways and other taxiways should be avoided whenever possible in the interests of safety and to
reduce the potential for significant taxiing delays;
e) taxiway routings should have as many one-way segments as possible to minimize aircraft conflicts and delay. Taxiway
segment flows should be analysed for each configuration under which runway(s) will be used;
f) the taxiway system should be planned to maximize the useful life of each component so that future
Taxiway Curve:
Changes in direction of taxiways should be as few and small as possible. The design of the curve should be such that when
the cockpit of the aeroplane remains over the taxiway centre line markings, the clearance distance between the outer main
wheels of the aeroplane and the edge of the taxiway should not be less than those specified in the table below:
A decision to design and construct a rapid exit taxiway is based upon analyses of existing and contemplated traffic. The main
purpose of these taxiways is to minimize aircraft runway occupancy and thus increase aerodrome capacity. When the design
peak hour traffic density is approximately less than 25 operations (landings and take-offs), the right angle exit taxiway may
suffice. The construction of this right angle exit taxiway is less expensive, and when properly located along the runway,
achieves an efficient flow of traffic.
a) Holding bays: A defined area where aircraft can be held or bypassed. Figure 2-1 shows some examples of holding bay
configurations and Figure 2-2 gives
Figure 11 by-pass
8. Apron
An apron is a defined area intended to accommodate aircraft for purposes of loading and unloading passengers, mail or
cargo, fuelling and parking or maintenance. The apron is generally paved but may occasionally be unpaved; for example, in
some instances, a turf parking apron may be adequate for small aircraft
1. Passenger apron: The passenger terminal apron is an area designed for aircraft manoeuvring and parking that is
adjacent or readily accessible to passenger terminal facilities. This area is where passengers board the aircraft from
the passenger terminal. In addition to facilitating passenger movement, the passenger terminal apron is used for
aircraft fuelling and maintenance as well as loading and unloading cargo, mail and baggage. Individual aircraft
parking positions on the passenger terminal apron are referred to as aircraft stands.
2. Cargo terminal apron: Aircraft that carry only freight and mail may be provided a separate cargo terminal apron
adjacent to a cargo terminal building. The separation of cargo and passenger aircraft is desirable because of the
different types of facilities each requires both on the apron and at the terminal
3. Remote parking apron: In addition to the terminal apron, airports may require a separate parking apron where
aircraft can park for extended periods.
4. Service hanger apron: A service apron is an uncovered area adjacent to an aircraft hangar on which aircraft
maintenance can be performed, while a hangar apron is an area on which aircraft move into and out of a storage
hangar.
5. General aviation aircraft, used for business or personal flying, require several categories of aprons to support
different general aviation activities.
The amount of area required for a particular apron layout depends upon the following factors:
• the size and manoeuvrability characteristics of the aircraft using the apron;
• the volume of traffic using the apron;
• clearance requirements;
• type of ingress and egress to the aircraft stand;
• basic terminal layout or other airport use (see 3.3);
• aircraft ground activity requirements; and
• taxiways and service roads.
Airport terminal constituents one of the principle elements of infrastructure cost at the airport. The passenger terminal
performs mainly three functions:
a) Change of mode: few air trips are made direct from origin to destination. By their nature, air trips are mixed
mode trips, with surface access trips linked at either end to the line haul air trips. These movement
patterns are accommodated by passenger circulation areas.
b) Processing: the terminal is a convenient point to carry out certain processes associated with air trip. These
may include ticketing and checking in the passengers. This function of the terminal requires passenger
processing space.
c) Change of movement type: although aircraft move passengers in discrete groups in what is termed "batch
movements", the same passengers access the airport on an almost continuous basis, arriving and
departing in small groups mainly by bus, auto, taxi and etc. the terminal therefore functions on the
Airport Engineering/Dr. Padma Shahi 77
departure side as a reservoir that collects passengers continuously and processes them in batches. On
the arrivals side, the pattern is reverse. To perform this function, the terminal must provide passenger
holding apace.
The terminal acts as the transfer point between the land and air side portions of the mixed mode 'air trip' made by air
passenger. The facilities can be categorized as follows:
• Passenger lounges
• Passenger service areas: wash rooms, public telephone, post office, information desk, first aid, valet service, barber
beauty parlours etc.
• Concessions: bars, restaurants,
• Observation desk and visitors lobbies: including VIP facilities
An adequately designed airport terminal is the work of a designer who understands the various flows of passengers and
baggage at a terminal. The figure below shows the typical flow of passenger and baggage.
The design of terminal depends upon the nature of the sir traffic to be handled at an airport. The design concepts chosen is a
function of a number of factors, including the size and nature of traffic demand, number of participating airlines, the traffic
split between international and domestic, scheduled, and charter flights, access modes etc.
The most fundamental choice is that of centralized or decentralized processing. There are different terminal configurations.
The general objective of ATM is to enable aircraft operators to meet their planned times of departure and arrival and adhere
to their preferred flight profiles with minimum constraints and without compromising agreed levels of safety.
The ATM comprises the functions of air traffic services (ATS), airspace management (ASM) and air traffic flow management
(ATFM). The air traffic services are the primary components of ATM.
Control of air traffic was almost unknown in 1944. Today, air traffic control, flight information and alerting services, which
together comprise air traffic services, rank high among the indispensable ground support facilities which ensure the safety
and efficient operation of air traffic throughout the world.
The world's airspace is divided into a series of contiguous flight information regions (FIRs) within which air traffic services are
provided.
In some cases, the flight information regions cover large oceanic areas with relatively low air traffic density, within which only
flight information service and alerting service are provided.
In other flight information regions, large portions of the airspace are controlled airspace within which air traffic control service
is provided in addition to flight information and alerting services.
Air travel must be safe and efficient; this requires, among other things, a set of internationally agreed rules of the air.
The rules which consist of general rules, visual flight rules and instrument flight rules apply without exception over the high
seas and over national territories to the extent that they do not conflict with the rules of the State being overflown. The pilot-in
command of an aircraft is responsible for compliance with the rules of the air.
All aircraft fly in accordance with either instrument flight rules (IFR) or visual flight rules (VFR). Under IFR, the aircraft fly from
one radio aid to the next or by reference to self-contained airborne navigation equipment from which the pilot can determine
the aircraft's position at all times. Aircraft flying under VFR must remain clear of cloud and operate in visibility conditions
which will permit the pilot to see and avoid other aircraft.
When operating under air traffic control the aircraft must maintain precisely the route and altitude that have been assigned to
it and keep air traffic control informed about its position.
A flight plan must be filed with air traffic services units for all flights that will cross international borders, and for most other
flights that are engaged in commercial operations. The flight plan provides information on the aircraft's identity and
equipment, the point and time of departure, the route and altitude to be flown, the destination and estimated time of arrival,
and the alternate airport to be used should landing at destination be impossible. The flight plan must also specify whether the
flight will be carried out under visual or instrument flight rules.
Air traffic control service consists of clearances and information issued by air traffic control units to achieve longitudinal,
vertical or lateral separation between aircraft, in accordance with the provisions set out in the Annex 11.
Contingency planning is an important responsibility of all States that provide air navigation services. In the event of
disruptions of air traffic services and related supporting services, States has to develop contingency planning to providing for
the safe and orderly flow of international air traffic.
Safety is the overriding concern of international civil aviation and air traffic management contributes substantially to safety in
aviation. Annex 11 contains an important requirement for States to implement systematic and appropriate air traffic services
(ATS) safety management programmes to ensure that safety is maintained in the provision of ATS within airspaces and at
aerodromes. So effective coordination between ANS providers and Aerodrome plays important role to implement and
maintain SMS in ATS and aerodrome.
The Area Chart — ICAO provides pilots with information to facilitate the transition from en-route phase to final approach
phase, as well as from take-off to en-route phases of the flight. The charts are designed to enable pilots to comply with
departure and arrival procedures and holding pattern procedures, all of which are coordinated with the information on the
instrument approach charts.
The Instrument Approach Chart — ICAO provides the pilot with a graphic presentation of instrument approach procedures,
and missed approach procedures to be followed should the crew be unable to carry out a landing. This chart type contains a
plan and profile view of the approach with full details of associated radio navigation aids and necessary aerodrome and
topographical information.
Aerodrome control towers shall issue information and clearances to aircraft under their control to achieve a safe, orderly and
expeditious flow of air traffic on and in the vicinity of an aerodrome with the object of preventing collisions between:
ATC will nominate that runway for landing or take off which appears to be most suitable.
ATC may specific circuit direction or turn for traffic separation requirement.
ATC, whenever practicable, advise the aircraft about the wake turbulence and its hazard.
an aircraft which anticipates being compelled to land because of factors affecting the safe operation of the aircraft (
engine failure, shortage of fuel, etc.)
hospital aircraft or aircraft carrying any sick or seriously injured persons requiring urgent medical attention;
aircraft engaged in search and rescue operations; and
Other aircraft as may be determined by the appropriate authority.
The sky m ay be lim itless but not for air traffic. A s m ore aircraft fill the crow ded air routes, air traffic
control concepts, procedures, equipment and rules w ill continue to evolve.
The process of getting an air craft safely and efficiently to its destination has been classified by ICAO into three functions :
Communication:- is the exchange of voice and data information between the aircraft and air traffic controllers or flight
information centers.
• Contd….
Navigation:- Navigation pinpoints the location of aircraft for the crew.
- ATIS
V) Others:
B) Navigation:-
a) Approach lightings
b) PAPI
C) Surveillance :-
• 10th Air Navigation Conference in September 1994 accepted the recommendation of FANS committee.
• The annual DGCA conference of Asia/Pacific Region endorsed the plan and encouraged early implementation.
What are the Main Features of CNS/ATM System ?
Benefits in Navigation:
i) Air crafts can obtain highly precise position information on a global basis.
ii) Four dimensional navigation is possible.
iii) Investment on ground-based navigation equipment and maintenance cost will not be necessary.
i) Air traffic control is improved in the airspace where radar surveillance has not been possible.
ii) Air craft separation is reduced in the airspace without radar coverage.
iii) The freedom in selecting optimum flight route is enhanced.
iv) More efficient surveillance of aircraft and airspace will be possible.
v) Globally unified surveillance service becomes possible allowing more effective aircraft operation.
ATM Benefits:
12. References
1. Norman Ashford, Paul H. Wright; Airport Engineering Third edition, John Wiley & Sons inc. 1992
2. Aerodrome Design Manual. Part 1 Runways; third edition 2006, International Civil Aviation Organization
3. Aerodrome Design Manual. Part 2 Taxiways, Aprons and Holding Bays; fourth edition 2005, International Civil
Aviation Organization
4. International Standards and Recommended Practices, Annex 14 to the convention on International Civil Aviation;
Volume I Aerodrome Design and Operation fifth edition 2009.
5. S. K Khanna, M. G. Arora, S. S. Jain, Airport Planning and Design. Sixth edition 1999. New Chand & Bros,
Roorkee.
6. Civil Aviation Report, 2009-2011, Civil Aviation Authority Nepal Dec. 2010.
7. Presentation slide by Dr. Punya raj Shakya