I.E.S.

Pedro de Luna

BIOLOGY AND GEOLOGY

4º ESO
Unit 3: Genetic
Information and nucleic
acids.
Teacher: Carlos Ruiz Díez
Academic Year: 2018/19
1. MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
2. NUCLEIC ACIDS
3. GENETIC MESSAGES. THE CENTRAL TENET OF
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
4. DNA REPLICATION
5. EXPRESSION OF GENETIC INFORMATION
6. GENETIC CODE
7. MUTATIONS
8. GENETIC ENGINEERING
9. BIOTECHNOLOGY
10. BIOETHICS
 A bit of history
• 1869 → Friedrich Miescher isolates
“nuclein”.
• Taking away the proteins,
an acid substance was
left → nucleic acids.
 A bit of history
Meet
Rosalind Franklin
 A bit of history
In the 1950’s, Franklin was investigating at
King's College, London.

Using X-rays to figure

out the structure of
DNA.
 A bit of history
Watson and
Crick’s model
 1. MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
→ Science that studies the structure, function
and other aspects of nucleic acids and other
macromolecules in cells.
• Related to biochemistry and genetics.
 2. NUCLEIC ACIDS
2.1. Composition and types
Nucleotides are made up of:
• A phosphate group.
• A carbohydrate.
• A nitrogenous base.
 2. NUCLEIC ACIDS
2.1. Composition and types
• Phosphate group: H3PO4
 2. NUCLEIC ACIDS
2.1. Composition and types
• Carbohydrate: a 5-carbon pentose
monosaccharide → ribose or deoxyribose.
 2. NUCLEIC ACIDS
2.1. Composition and types
A nitrogenous base:
• adenine (A)
• guanine (G)
• cytosine (C)
• thymine (T)
• uracil (U)
 2. NUCLEIC ACIDS
2.1. Composition and types
 2. NUCLEIC ACIDS
2.1. Composition and types
 2. NUCLEIC ACIDS
Two types of nucleic acids.
Nucleic acid RNA DNA

Carbohydrate Ribose Deoxyribose

Adenine Adenine
Guanine Guanine
Nitrogen bases
Cytosine Cytosine
Uracil Thymine
 2. NUCLEIC ACIDS
2.2. Nucleic acid structure and function
Nucleic acids have:
primary structure. secondary structure.
 2. NUCLEIC ACIDS
2.2. Nucleic acid structure and function
• Secondary structure
The two chains are:
➢Complimentary
➢Antiparallel.
 2. NUCLEIC ACIDS
2.2. Nucleic acid structure and function
3 main types of RNA:
• messenger RNA (mRNA)
• transfer RNA (tRNA)
• ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2BwWavExcFI
3. GENETIC MESSAGES. THE CENTRAL
TENET OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

• Genetic information flows from the DNA to

the mRNA in the transcription process.

• mRNA, with ribosomes and tRNA, builds

proteins in the translation process.

• DNA copies it’s own information in the

replication process (during cell cycle’s S phase).
3. GENETIC MESSAGES. THE CENTRAL
TENET OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
Now, do some research on: retroviruses
 4. DNA REPLICATION
→Process by which DNA builds a
complementary copy of itself.

It takes place in the S phase of the cell cycle:

• In the nucleus of eukaryotic cells, or
• In the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells.
• Enzymes ensure that molecules that are
going to bond are facing the right way and
close enough together.
 4. DNA REPLICATION
A) The replication process
3 phases:
• Unwinding and separating the double helix.
• Building new chains.
• Correcting errors.
 4. DNA REPLICATION
B) Characteristics of DNA replication
• Semi-conservative
• Bidirectional
 4. DNA REPLICATION
C) Biological importance of DNA replication
→Ensures the daughter cells conserve the
parent cell's genetic information.
→Occasional errors in the copying process,
result in mutations which make evolution
possible.
 4. DNA REPLICATION
4.1. Genes: the basis of life
Gene → a biologically significant segment of
DNA.
• It is the basic unit of genetic information.
• Each gene has a specific number of
nucleotides.
 4. DNA REPLICATION
4.1. Genes: the basis of life

Gene → unit of information containing an

order or a specific command from the
“instructions manual” (DNA).
 4. DNA REPLICATION
4.1. Genes: the basis of life

• Genes do not perform biological functions

on their own, but they indicate what a trait
should be.
• Proteins make that trait a reality.
 5. EXPRESSION OF GENETIC
INFORMATION
Genetic information expressed → converted:

Coded instructions in DNA

Proteins, which can

build cells and
help them perform their functions
 5. EXPRESSION OF GENETIC
INFORMATION
2 processes for expression of genetic
information:

• Transcription.
• Translation.
 5. EXPRESSION OF GENETIC
INFORMATION
5.1. Genetic transcription
→ A chain of mRNA is built from a fragment
of DNA.
• It takes place in the nucleus.
• 3 phases:
• Initiation
• Elongation of the mRNA chain
• Termination
 5. EXPRESSION OF GENETIC
INFORMATION
5.2. Genetic translation
• Proteins are built from mRNA with the help
of tRNA and ribosomes.
• It takes place in cell cytoplasm.
• 3 phases:
• Initiation
• Elongation of the peptide chain
• Termination
 Amino acids are monomers that make up
proteins.

Only 20 of all the possible amino acids make

proteins.
 6. GENETIC CODE
• The Genetic code is the 'dictionary' that
translates the language of nucleotides in the
mRNA to the language of amino acids in
proteins.
 6. GENETIC CODE
6.1. Organisation and properties of genetic
code
A) Base triplets
• Groups of three nitrogenous bases: triplets
or codons.
• Each one determines a particular amino acid.
• 4 mRNA nitrogenous bases, A, G, C, U →
64 possible triplets.

• Each of the 20 amino acids that make up

proteins is determined by a triplet.
• AUG triplet determines an amino acid and
also marks the beginning of translation.

• Three of the triplets mark the end of

translation instead of an amino acid.
 6. GENETIC CODE
B) Properties of genetic code
It is:
• Degenerate, or redundant.
• Unambiguous.
• Universal.
• Unidirectional.
 6. GENETIC CODE
B) Properties of genetic code
Degenerate (redundant)
• 64 possible triplets for 20 amino acids.
• → several triplets code the same amino
acids→ “synonymous triplets”.
 6. GENETIC CODE
B) Properties of genetic code
Unambiguous
• Each triplet or codon always codes the same
amino acid, and not any other.
 6. GENETIC CODE
B) Properties of genetic code
Universal
• All known organisms use it.
 6. GENETIC CODE
B) Properties of genetic code
Unidirectional
• In translation, mRNA is always read in the
same direction (5’ → 3’)
• Translated from beginning to end, without
interruptions or gaps.
 6. GENETIC CODE
C) Reading and interpreting genetic code
Inside the ribosome
• Each codon in the mRNA is complemented
by the corresponding anticodon in a tRNA
that adds the specific amino acid.
 6. GENETIC CODE
C) Reading and interpreting genetic code
The ribosome reads the whole mRNA chain,
but not all the regions are translated.
https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/basics/trans
cribe/
 6. GENETIC CODE
6.2. Alterations in reading genetic code

• Sometimes: triplet misinterpreted → tRNA

provides the wrong amino acid.

• Sequence of amino acids changed → protein

function changed.
7. MUTATIONS
 7. MUTATIONS

Mutation → a change in DNA which usually

has effects on the expression of genetic
information.
 7. MUTATIONS
• They occur randomly
• as replication errors, or
• caused by mutagens (ultraviolet radiation, chemical
substances, some in tobacco, or certain viruses).

• They can be passed on by heredity

• If they occur in the gametes
• In organisms with asexual reproduction.
 7. MUTATIONS
• Some are 'silent‘: not expressed in the
phenotype.

• They are one of the sources of genetic

variability.
 7. MUTATIONS
7.1. Types of mutations
Type of Affects Mechanisms which produce it
mutation
Genetic Sequence of free Substitution (one nucleotide exchanged
nucleotides for another), addition (a nucleotide is
added) and deletion (a nucleotide is
deleted).
Chromosom Fragments of Addition, deletion, inversion (the
al chromosomes fragment is backwards), duplication
and translocation (the fragment is
moved to another chromosome).
Genomic Number of Errors in meiosis which may cause
chromosomes in a polyploidy and haploidy (individual
genome chromosomes are
gained or lost),
 7. MUTATIONS
7.2. Mutations and genetic variability

• Mutations always cause variations in the

affected organism's genetic material →
genetic variability.
 7. MUTATIONS
7.3. Mutations and evolution
• Mutations are essential to biodiversity, and
one of the greatest biological tools for
evolution.
 7. MUTATIONS
7.3. Mutations and evolution
8. GENETIC ENGINEERING
 8. GENETIC ENGINEERING

Genetic engineering (GM) → a set of

techniques used to manipulate an organism's
DNA.
 8. GENETIC ENGINEERING
• Used to produce genetically modified
organisms (GMOs).
• I.e.: transgenic organisms, introducing genes
from another species into their genome.
 8. GENETIC ENGINEERING
8.1. Genetic engineering techniques
• A) Recombinant DNA technique
• B) Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
• C) Cloning
 8. GENETIC ENGINEERING
8.1. Genetic engineering techniques
A) Recombinant DNA technique
• Artificially adds fragments of other:
organisms' DNA to an organism, the same or
different species.
Recombinant DNA Applications
• Medicine: producing more effective antibiotics
and greater quantities of specific proteins, such
as insulin.
• Agriculture: improving yields with crops that
are resistant to herbicides or pests, or that have
greater nutritional value.
• Livestock: producing animals that grow better,
have higher resistance to adverse conditions
and can produce useful substances (hormones).
• Waste and pollutant disposal: turning refuse
and organic waste into compost and humus,
clearing up oil spills and removing heavy metals.
• Fuel: producing fuels from living organisms or
organic waste, such as biodiesel.
TO SEND
 8. GENETIC ENGINEERING
8.1. Genetic engineering techniques
B) Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
• Replicates small fragments of DNA in vitro in
short periods of time.
PCR Applications
• Medicine: forensic medicine and prenatal
screening for congenital conditions.
• Scientific research: getting DNA copies
quickly for use in research, such as the
Human Genome Project,

TO SEND
 8. GENETIC ENGINEERING
8.1. Genetic engineering techniques
C) Cloning
• Make identical copies of the original
organism, cell or DNA molecule.
 9. BIOTECHNOLOGY

Biotechnology → the set of techniques that

use living organisms or their substances to
create products for human use.
 9. BIOTECHNOLOGY
9.1. Biotechnology, past and present
• Past: use of microorganisms to produce
products through fermentation: bread, beer,
wine, cheese and yoghurt
• Present: understanding these reactions and
manipulating the DNA of the organisms
involved to increase efficiency → modern
biotechnology.
TO SEND
 10. BIOETHICS
• Modern biotechnology offers diverse
benefits.
• It also poses some risks to human health and
the environment.
• Pros and cons are part of an important public
debate.
• People are demanding more information and
control over the possible consequences of
applying these new technologies.
TO SEND
 10. BIOETHICS

These scientific advances are at the centre of a

widespread controversy over ethical issues, so
they are regulated by international legislative
bodies.

TO SEND
 Benefits
Medicine Prevention of genetic diseases
Production of new medicines
Applications in forensic medicine and
paternity tests
Substitution of faulty genes for healthy
ones in cells (gene therapy)
Agriculture Creation of foods with higher nutritional
and food value
Production of more resistant and more
profitable plants and animals
Production of more durable crops
Environment Production of biodegradable plastics and
bacteria that degrade waste products or
recover polluted soil
Human Increased knowledge of human genome
genetics and related diseases
Risks
Side effects in animals and humans of
consuming transgenic foods
Creation of new organisms which cause
new diseases
Food market controlled by biotechnology
multinationals
Displacement of natural species by more
resistant transgenic organisms
Genetic pollution: uncontrolled transfer of
modified genes from transgenic organisms
to natural species-
Creation of genetically modified humans,
or even clones
Violation of people's right to privacy
through use of their genetic information