Lecture 2

American Association of the State Highway and

Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
Cross section
A vertical section of the ground and roadway
at right angles to the centerline of the roadway,
including all elements of a highway or street from
right-of-way line to right-of-way line.

Lecture 2
American Association of the State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO)

Roadway
The portion of a highway, including
shoulders, for vehicular use. A divided highway has
two or more roadways

Lecture 2
American Association of the State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
Traveled way
The portion of the roadway for the
movement of vehicles, exclusive of shoulders and
bicycle lanes

Lecture 2
 PAVEMENT
SURFACE TYPES | CROSS SLOPE | SKID
RESISTANCE | HYDROPLANING

Lecture 2
 A. SURFACE TYPE

Traffic Volume and Performance of

Composition Pavement in the Area

Climate Availability of
Materials

Soil Characteristics Over-all annual

maintenance and
service-life cost
 Types of Surfaces
Are slightly less in cost and
somewhat less in strength than
customary high type pavements.
HIGH
LOW Low type surfaces range
from surface treated earth,
such as earth, shell and
INTERMEDIATE
gravel.
Justified for high volume traffic,
which requires that the road
surface be smooth, possess non-
skid qualities, and could
adequately support the expected
volume and weights of vehicles
without fatigue.
 B. CROSS SLOPE or CROSS FALL

Cross slope or crossfall is the slope of the surface of a pavement

measured at right angles to the horizontal alignment.
 SURFACE TYPE RANGE IN RATE OF CROSS SLOPE

HIGH 0.01-0.02

INTERMEDIATE 0.015-0.03

LOW 0.02-0.04

Rate of Cross Slope Range for Surface Types

 C. SKID RESISTANCE

The roadway should provide a level of skid resistance that will

accommodate the braking and steering maneuvers that can
reasonably be expected for the particular site.
Main Cause of Poor Skid Resistance on Wet Pavements
It causes water accumulation in the
Rutting wheel trucks

Reduces the pavement surface.

Polishing
Bleeding happen when asphalt binder fills the
Bleeding aggregates voids during hot weather and then expands
onto the pavement surface.

Pavement surfaces will lose their skid resistance when Dirty

contaminated by oil drippings, layers of
dust, or organic matter. Pavements
 D. HYDROPLANING

Hydroplaning happens when the drainage capacity of the tire

tread pattern and the pavement surface is exceeded, and water
begins to build up in front of the tire.
How to Reduce the Potential of Hydroplaning?
Designers should consider pavement transverse
1
slopes

2 Utilize pavement roughness characteristics

3 Avoid potential ponding areas during the

pavement design phase of the project

4 Avoid potential ponding areas during the

establishment of horizontal and vertical
5 alignments
Drivers should be expected to exercise caution in wet
conditions
 E. LANE WIDTH

The width of pavement is determined by the lane width, which

depends on the width and size of vehicles, speed of travel, the
annual average daily traffic and the width of shoulders.
 LANE WIDTH

• The desirable lane width is 3.65 m which allows large

vehicles to pass without either vehicle having to move
sideways toward the edge of the pavement.

• On grounds of economy, lane widths as low as 2.75 m may be

used in low-volume rural and residential areas.

• Roads with pavement widths less than 5.50 m should be

regarded as single lane roads.
 F. SHOULDERS
The ‘graded’ width of shoulder is measured from the edge of the
through traffic lane to the intersection of shoulder slope and the
side slope planes.
The ‘usable’ width of shoulder is the actual width that can be
used when a driver makes an emergency or parking stop.
 ADVANTAGES OF SHOULDER

1 Structural support to the pavement.

Space for pedestrian and bicycle use, for bus stops, for
2 mail delivery vehicles, and for the detouring of traffic
during construction.
Space away from the travelled way for vehicles to
3 stop because of mechanical difficulties, flat tires, or
other emergencies.
 ADVANTAGES OF SHOULDER

4 Space for motorists to stop occasionally to consult

road maps or for other reasons.

Space for evasive maneuvers to avoid potential

5 crashes or reduce their severity.

Improved sight distance in cut sections, thereby

6
improving safety.
 ADVANTAGES OF SHOULDER

7 Stormwater discharge further from the travelled way.

Space for temporary maintenance operations such as

8 repair work and storage.

9 Some types of shoulders enhance highway aesthetics.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR SHOULDER
All shoulders should have a minimum width of 1.0 m, but
1
preferably should be wider.
Paving of shoulders with a minimum width of 1.5 m
2 shall be considered when AADT is greater than 1,250
vehicles.
Surfacing of shoulder shall be either 230 mm
3 thick concrete or 75 mm thick asphalt for
arterial national roads
4
Surfacing of shoulder shall be 150 mm thick concrete
or 50 mm thick asphalt for secondary national roads;
5
There must be no difference in level between the surface of
the shoulder and the surface of the adjoining travel lane
G. HORIZONTAL CLEARANCE TO OBSTRUCTION

Right-of-way should be of sufficient width to include all the

cross section elements with good balance throughout.
CONSIDERATION OF THE LATERAL OFFSET OBSTRUCTIONS

1 Improve driveway and horizontal sight distances.

2 Improve travel lane capacity.

Minimize contact between obstructions and vehicle

3 mirrors, car doors, and trucks that overhang the edge
when turning.
 H. CURBS
A curb, by definition, incorporates some raised or vertical element.
Configurations include both vertical and sloping curbs, designed as a separate
unit or integral with the pavement. Vertical and sloping curb designs may
include a gutter, forming a combination curb and gutter section.
 PURPOSE OF CURBS

1 Drainage control

2 Roadway edge delineation

3 Right-of-way reduction
 PURPOSE OF CURBS

4 Aesthetics

5 Delineation of pedestrian walkways

 I. SIDEWALKS
In general, wherever roadside and land development
conditions affect regular pedestrian movement along a highway, a
sidewalk or path suitable to the conditions should be provided.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR SIDEWALKS
Sidewalk widths in lower speed residential areas may vary
1
from 1.2 to 2.4 m.

A good minimum width for a sidewalk that allows

2
two people to pass is 1.8m.

Sidewalks used for pedestrian access to schools,

3 parks, shopping areas, and transit stops, and
sidewalks in commercial areas should be provided
along both sides of the street.
4 Sidewalks should have all weather surfaces to serve
their intended use and discourage pedestrians from
5 walking on the traveled way.
Cross slope should not exceed 2%, and they must be designed
to accommodate persons with disabilities.
 J. DRAINAGE CHANNELS

Drainage channels perform the important function of collecting

and conveying surface water from the highway right-of-way.
 K. TRAFFIC BARRIERS

Traffic barriers are used to prevent vehicles that leave the

traveled way from colliding with objects that have greater crash
severity potential and the barrier itself.
 TREATMENT OF ROADSIDE OBSTACLE

Remove or redesign the obstacle so it can be safely

1
traversed.

Relocate the obstacle to a point where it is less likely

2 to be struck.

Reduce impact severity by using an appropriate

3
breakaway device
 TREATMENT OF ROADSIDE OBSTACLE

Redirect a vehicle by shielding the obstacle with a

4
traffic barrier.

Delineate the obstacle if the above alternatives are

5 not appropriate.

6 Take no action.
 Safety Barrier Types

Rigid Barrier – Prevention of vehicles crossing over into incoming

traffic
Semi-Rigid Barrier – Protection for vehicle traffic from large drop
or from embankment along split level street
and provide barrier for vehicle reversing
from properties on high side of street.
Flexible Barrier – Restraint and redirection of errant vehicles.
 L. PEDESTRIAN CROSSING
Marked pedestrian crosswalk is one approach to get
pedestrians safely across the street.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR PEDESTRIAN CROSSING
Marked crossings alone should not be installed within an
1 uncontrolled environment when speeds are greater than 60
kph.

2 The width for marked crosswalks in the

Philippines is 4 m.

3 Pedestrian crossings are regularly marked in

urban areas but are less common on rural
highways.
Types of Pedestrian Crossing

Pedestrian Zebra Crossing - Zebra crossings are a type of crossing

with the distinguishing feature of alternating dark and light stripes
on the road surface, from which it derives its name.
Types of Pedestrian Crossing
Pedestrian Actuated Traffic Signal Crossing - Where pedestrians
cross roadways at signalized intersections, adequate time should
be provided to cross the entire roadway during the pedestrian
phase.
Types of Pedestrian Crossing
Pedestrian Subway or Bridge Crossing - Grade-separated
pedestrian facilities provide pedestrians with a safe refuge for
crossing roadways without vehicle interference or conflict.
 M. BICYCLE FACILITIES
Most of the facilities needed for bicycle travel are provided by
the street and highway system.
IMPROVEMENTS THAT PROVIDE FOR BICYCLE TRAFFIC

1 Paved shoulders.

Wider 4.2 m minimum outside traffic lanes if no

2 shoulders exist

3 Bicycle compatible drainage grates.

IMPROVEMENTS THAT PROVIDE FOR BICYCLE TRAFFIC

4 Manhole covers that have been adjusted to grade.

5 Maintaining a smooth, clean riding surface.

6 Take no action.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR BICYCLE FACILITIES
The minimum width of one lane bikeway is 1.22 m. This
1 allows 0.60 m for the bike width and 0.31 m for weaving
space on each side.
One way bicycle lane with an effective width of 1.22
2 m. has a capacity of approximately 1275 bikes per
hour.

3 Bikes travel within a range of 11 to 24 kph

with an average of 16-18 kph.

4 Grade that exceeds 5%, the length should not be not

more than 90 m and preferably not less than 30 m.
5 AASHTO recommends a maximum grade of 10%.
The cross-slope of the bicycle lane is the same as the slope of
the adjoining carriage way or a minimum slope of 2%.
 N. PARK-AND-RIDE FACILITIES
Park-and-ride facilities should be located adjacent to the street
or highway and be visible enough to attract use by commuters.
They should be located as close to residential areas as practical
to minimize travel by vehicles with only one
occupant.