International Journal of Hospitality Management 76 (2019) 25–37

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International Journal of Hospitality Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijhm

Experienscape: expanding the concept of servicescape with a multi- T

stakeholder and multi-disciplinary approach (invited paper for ‘luminaries’
special issue of International Journal of Hospitality Management)
⁎
Abraham Pizam , Asli D.A. Tasci
Department of Tourism, Events & Attractions, Rosen College of Hospitality Management, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida, U.S.A.

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Since Bitner’s (1992) introduction of the servicescape concept, many conceptual and empirical studies have been
Servicescape conducted. Even though a relatively solid theoretical base has been established, the nature of the concept has not
Experience been updated with contemporary views on theories explaining behavior of consumers, employees and other
Atmospherics stakeholders. Hence, the current study scanned the literature on servicescape and relevant concepts in order to
Stakeholders
update servicescape. The review of literature resulted in a new term, experienscape that is enhanced with the
Multidisciplinary
organizational culture of hospitality and the inclusion of employees, as both internal customers and service
providers, as well as other stakeholders. For a comprehensive understanding of experienscape, a multi-
disciplinary approach is proposed by integrating views and theories from marketing, human resource man-
agement, organizational behavior, psychology, social psychology, communication, architecture, environmental
design, and other related fields.

1. Introduction (1992) coined an umbrella term, “servicescape,” to refer to the physical

The servicescape literature culminated over a five-decade long en-
deavor in multiple domains of research including environmental psy-
chology, services marketing, retail store environment, atmospherics,
and servicescape. Since service products are abstract in some dimen-
sions, researchers have long endeavored to have a complete under-
standing of what satisfies and brings consumers back. The importance
of the physical environment of a service product in creating an image
and positioning the product in target markets was realized in the 1970 s
(Kotler, 1973; Shostack, 1977). Attention to the influence of the en-
vironment on consumer behavior increased with Kotler’s (1973) term
“atmospherics,’’ which explains the influence of built environments,
more specifically, color, size, brightness, and shapes of stimuli in ex-
ternal architecture, interior design, and window design, as well as au-
ditory stimuli on consumers’ buying behavior. Many researchers in-
vestigated the impact of these atmospheric dimensions on human
reactions and actions (e.g., Areni and Kim, 1993; Bellizzi et al., 1983;
Bitner, 1986; Forgas, 1979; Holahan, 1982; Holbrook and Schlindler,
1989; Milliman, 1982, 1986; Russell and Ward, 1982).
Even though the atmospherics research revealed some under-
standing of consumer and employee behavior, it tends to focus on in-
dividual dimensions that influence behavior. In the 1990 s, Bitner
features of an environment where consumers and employees function.
Using Mehrabian and Russell’s (1974) stimulus-organism-response (S-
O-R) model, Bitner suggested that servicescape components affect the
internal cognitive, emotional states, and thus socialization of customers
and employees in their roles, behaviors and relationships. In her defi-
nition of servicescape, Bitner excluded natural and social stimuli, and
focused on physical surroundings, including atmospherics, design and
decor elements of a service environment. Compared to atmospherics
literature, Bitner’s servicescape concept is a more holistic or Gestalt
concept, configures configuration of all dimensions and components to
capture the holistic influence of servicescape rather than its compo-
nents or dimensions (Venkatraman and Nelson, 2008). According to
Gestalt psychology, even though consumers may perceive discrete sti-
muli coming from individual servicescape components, their responses
are determined by the holistic configuration of all stimuli in the en-
vironment (e.g., Bitner, 1992; Bell et al., 1978; Carmer and Rouzer,
1974; Holahan, 1982; Ittelson et al., 1974; Schiffman, 2001). At the
onset of the 21st century, other researchers further developed Bitner’s
work and expanded servicescape to include social and natural dimen-
sions (e.g., Rosenbaum and Massiah, 2011; Tombs and McColl-
Kennedy, 2003).
The holistic servicescape approach received attention among

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: Abraham.Pizam@ucf.edu (A. Pizam), Asli.Tasci@ucf.edu (A.D.A. Tasci).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2018.06.010

Available online 23 June 2018

0278-4319/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Pizam, A.D.A. Tasci
researchers in many different fields resulting in a line of “scape” lit-
erature which extended the concept’s use in different product and
service settings. This includes sportscape (Fernandes and Neves, 2014;
Wakefield et al., 1996), cyberscape (Williams and Dargel, 2004)
winescape (Bruwer and Gross, 2017; Patriquin, 2005) virtual servi-
cescape (Vilnai-Yavets and Rafaeli, 2006), dinescape (Ryu and Jang,
2007), shipscape (Kwortnik, 2008), performancescape (Tumbat and
Belk, 2013), consumptionscape (Venkatraman and Nelson, 2008), e-
servicescape (Hopkins et al., 2009), designscape (Hall, 2008), and fes-
tivalscape (Mason and Paggiaro, 2012). However, a review of this ex-
tant body of literature reveals missing elements from core servicescape
components.
A few literature reviews have been conducted on the servicescape
concept (Ezeh and Harris, 2007; Kearney et al., 2007a,b; Turley and
Milliman, 2000; Wakefield and Blodgett, 2016). Researchers have long
signaled the dual perspective on the role of servicescape; what con-
stitutes a servicescape from a suppliers’ point of view is deemed as “the
frozen potential of a consumptionscape” (Venkatraman and Nelson,
2008, p. 1010) where the possibilities and resources are harnessed by
consumers towards their goals (Arnould and Price, 1993; Aubert-
Gamet, 1997; Ger and Belk, 1996; Schmitt, 2003; Venkatraman and
Nelson, 2008). Venkatraman and Nelson (2008) state that consumers
use resources in a servicescape to construct meaningful experiences that
fit their life and connect with their culture, thus “transforming it into a
consumptionscape” (p. 1010). However, a common approach to servi-
cescape is Mehrabian and Russell’s (1974) stimulus-organism-response
(S-O-R) model, which perceives consumers as passive and affected by
the environment. Researchers with modern views of experiential con-
sumption, consumer co-creation, and service-dominant logic called for
a more active role of consumer to conceptualize servicescape
(Edvardsson et al., 2005, 2010; Gronroos and Ravald, 2011; Nilsson and
Ballantyne, 2014; Pareigis et al., 2011, 2012; Prahalad and
Ramaswamy, 2004; Ramırez, 1999; Ryu et al., 2012; Tumbat and Belk,
2013; Vargo and Lusch, 2004).
Experience comprises everything that a consumer senses, feels, and
experiences within a service environment. Just as the Gestalt approach
is needed for a holistic configuration of servicescape, an experiential
approach is required to capture the holistic meaning of servicescape for
the consumers. Additionally, a servicescape serves the needs and wants
of consumers, employees as well as other stakeholders, hence, must be
defined with a multi-stakeholder approach. The purpose of this critical
literature review is to propose a stakeholder-centric concept, experi-
enscape, with all pertinent components. Since the ultimate goal of ser-
vicescape research is to assure satisfaction and loyalty, a stakeholder-
centric conceptualization, with customers, employees, and other sta-
keholders in mind, is needed for a more salient measurement of what
customers, employees, and other stakeholders expect from a service
environment. Experienscape is the sensory, functional, social, natural,
and cultural stimuli in a product or service environment, surmounted
with a culture of hospitality, all of which accrue to an experience for
different stakeholders and result in positive or negative cognitive, af-
fective, and behavioral reactions toward products, services, brands, and
firms. This inclusive concept of experienscape surrounded with hospi-
tality culture can be widely applied to commercial, governmental, and
non-profit organizations, which expands attention beyond commercial
service organizations highlighted in previous research. Fig. 1 displays
the experienscape model and Fig. 2 details the variables included in the
model. The following section discusses the rationale for the experi-
enscape model, followed by suggested scales for measuring experi-
enscape in future research.
2. Definitions of servicescape
As can be seen in Table 1, Kotler’s (1973) definition of atmospherics
is focused on the design of purchase environments with a focus on
sensory elements in order to induce positive affect and behavior.
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International Journal of Hospitality Management 76 (2019) 25–37
Fig. 1. The components of Experienscape.
However, Bitner’s (1992) servicescape definition focused on the built
physical environment with ambient conditions, spatial layout, and
signs, symbols, and artifacts. It excludes the natural, social, and cultural
components of service environments. While using Bitner’s servicescape
concept in studying a wilderness setting, Arnould et al. (1998) implied
the social component in communicative staging of servicescape. How-
ever, it was Tombs and McColl-Kennedy (2002, 2003) who specifically
included the social component including dimensions of social density
and displayed emotions. Even though Hightower’s (2003) definition
sounds inclusive of all potential components in a service environment,
he only includes ambient, design, and social factors.
In an effort to create a consumer-centric definition, Edvardsson
et al. (2005, 2010) replaced servicescape with a new term, “experience
room,” which includes six dimensions: intangible artefacts, physical
artefacts, technology, customer involvement, customer placement, and
customer-employees interactions. Following this school of thought,
Pareigis et al. (2012) used a microethnographic research approach with
observations, interviews and think-aloud protocols captured on high-
definition digital video while studying servicescape construction in
public transportation environments. They identified users’ actions of
identifying, sense-making, and using, which formed two main customer
practices: navigating and ticketing. In another study, Ardley et al.
(2012) coined the term “experiential servicescape” to describe issues
visitors experienced in visiting the Lincoln Magna Carta exhibition.
Experiential issues included “guidance signage, the small, dark in-
auspicious surroundings of the exhibition itself and the level of visitor
interactivity present” (p. 653). However, researchers did not clarify
how these dimensions of the servicescape are experiential.
Consumers seek meaningful and memorable experiences rather than
consumption of or satisfaction with tangible or intangible attributes
(Gilmore and Pine, 2002; Pine and Gilmore, 1999; Schmitt, 1999,
2000). Within the framework of experiential consumption, servicescape
offers tangible and intangible resources for consumers to develop
meaningful and memorable experiences that match their life purposes
and sociocultural contexts. Hence, if servicescape is conceptualized
with a multi-stakeholder perspective – as opposed to solely a providers’
perspective –it is appropriate to rename it as experienscape.
Later, Rosenbaum (2005) implied the cultural component in the
symbolic servicescape resulting in different interpretations of signs,
symbols and artifacts by different ethnic groups. Rosenbaum and
Massiah (2011) provided a more inclusive definition reflecting also the
natural component. Nonetheless, none of these definitions captured all
components affecting consumer or employee behavior in a service en-
vironment.
A. Pizam, A.D.A. Tasci
Fig. 2. The variables included in the Experienscape model.
2.1. Potential confusion of servicescape with other concepts
Servicescape conceptualizations resemble some other concepts.
Reimer and Kuehn (2005) acknowledged the resemblance of the ser-
vicescape construct to the SERVQUAL construct and thus credited the
founding researchers (Parasuraman et al., 1985, 1988). They drew at-
tention to similarity between servicescape and the “tangibles” dimen-
sion of SERVQUAL, which comprises equipment, facilities, personnel
and material for communication, without the ambiance dimensions.
Hence, in testing the servicescape’s influence on service quality, they
used servicescape to complement the tangibles dimensions.
Additionally, when servicescape is discussed in large destination
contexts, such as cities and towns, it resembles destination image, thus,
creating conceptual confusion. For example, Sheng et al. (2016) mea-
sured servicescape dimensions of the Rio Grande Valley (RGV) of South
Texas, USA. Servicescape dimensions included in this study are very
similar to those included in destination image studies. Destination
image research has a long history, which preceded servicescape (Tasci
and Gartner, 2007). Therefore, studies measuring servicescape in des-
tination contexts must justify the use of servicescape rather than des-
tination image. Such justification is missing in the current literature,
which ignores a 5-decade long theory of destination image.
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International Journal of Hospitality Management 76 (2019) 25–37
3. Components of servicescape: readjusting for experienscape
Servicescape components that reflect sensory and functional quali-
ties are the most commonly accepted components. Their inclusion in
servicescape and influence on consumer behavior are well documented
thus far. Even though the social component gained acceptance about a
decade later, its relevance and significance in the service environment
is also well established in the literature. Therefore, these components
will be summarized and a more detailed discussion will be provided to
highlight natural and cultural dimensions that warrant more attention.
3.1. Sensory component
Sensory component includes Kotler’s (1973) sensory (olfactory,
tactile, aural, and visual) dimensions and Bitner’s (1992) ambiance
factor. Dimensions of atmosphere, or the stimuli, affecting the five
human senses such as lighting, noise, temperature, air quality, and
music are part of the sensory component. This component is included as
ambience or aesthetics factors, or as individual dimensions in both
qualitative (e.g., Cockrill et al., 2008; Venkatraman and Nelson, 2008)
and quantitative studies (e.g., Hopkins et al., 2009; Lucas, 2003; Reimer
and Kuehn, 2005). Since ambience and aesthetics elements are about
the sensory qualities of a space, they can be grouped as the sensory
A. Pizam, A.D.A. Tasci International Journal of Hospitality Management 76 (2019) 25–37

Table 1
Definitions and components of servicescape in different product contexts.
Author Product Context Servicescape Definition Servicescape Component(s)

Kotler (1973) Conceptual-Services in (atmospherics) “the effort to design buying environments to produce specific Olfactory
general emotional effects in the buyer that enhance his purchase probability” (p. 50). Tactile
Aural
Visual
Bitner (1992) Conceptual-Services in “the built environment (i.e., the manmade, physical surroundings as opposed to Ambient conditions
general the natural or social environment)” (p. 58). Spatial layout and functionality Signs,
symbols, and artifacts
Arnould et al. (1998) Wilderness “nested products of managerial strategies and customer inputs… produced Substantive staging Communicative
through substantive and communicative staging, and can have high or low levels staging
of substantive staging combined with either high or low levels of communicative
staging” (p. 90).
Tombs and McColl- Conceptual-services in “a service setting where the human aspects of the environment impact on the Social density
Kennedy (2002) general behavior of customers as a result of direct and indirect interactions with other Displayed emotions of others
persons present” (p. 1462).
Hightower (2003) Conceptual-services in “everything that is physically present about an individual at a given moment” (p. Ambient factors
general 87). Design factors
Social interaction factors
Tombs and McColl- Conceptual-services in “the Socialservicescape is comprised of five key elements: (1) purchase occasion Purchase occasion
Kennedy (2003) general (context); (2) social density (physical elements); (3) displayed emotion of others Social density
(social elements); (4) customer’s affective responses (internal responses); and (5) Displayed emotions of others
customer’s cognitive responses (either as intention of behavior or actual
behaviors)” (p. 458).
Rosenbaum (2005) Jewish and gay/ symbolic servicescape: “signs, symbols, objects and artefacts contained within a Symbolic servicescape
lesbian consumption setting that possess a common interpretation among consumers
commercial belonging to a specific ethnic group” (p. 258).
establishments
Rosenbaum and Massiah Conceptual-services in “the physical, social, socially symbolic, and natural stimuli that may be contained Physical dimension
(2011) general in a servicescape and that may enhance or constrain employee and customer Social dimension
approach/avoidance decisions and social interaction behaviors” (p.473). Socially symbolic dimension
Natural dimension

component. A detailed list of sensory dimensions in qualitative and
quantitative studies is included in the measurement section.
3.2. Functional component
Bitner’s (1992) spatial layout and functionality includes the size,
shape, and arrangement of furniture equipment and other items in a
service setting. This factor is included as design, layout, space, signage,
and functionality in many qualitative (e.g., Chua et al., 2010; Ellway,
2014) and quantitative studies (e.g., Ellen and Zhang, 2014; Hooper
et al., 2013). Since the design, layout, space, signage are about overall
functionality of a space, these elements can be grouped as the func-
tional component. A detailed list of functional dimensions in qualitative
and quantitative studies is included in the measurement section.
Even though Bitner’s (1992) servicescape model also included signs,
symbols and artefacts explicitly or implicitly communicating about the
product, company and brand to its consumers, only a few researchers
adopted this component in its totality (e.g., Ellen and Zhang, 2014;
Hopkins et al., 2009; Medabesh and Upadhyaya, 2012; Simpeh et al.,
2011; Jen et al., 2013). Others used either only sign, or signs and
symbols (Dedeoğlu et al., 2015; Lee and Li, 2014), signboard design
(Kwon et al., 2015), signage (Campbell and DiPietro, 2014). In essence,
signs and symbols serve either a functional or a cultural role in the
servicescape environment; therefore, a separate component of signs,
symbols, and artifacts may be considered redundant.
3.3. Social component
Bitner’s exclusion of natural and social stimuli from the environ-
ment was based on Bennett and Bennett’s (1970) contention that the
physical environment affects the social interaction. However, many
researchers with a social psychology perspective also acknowledged the
influence of human and social factors of the physical environment on
human behavior (Baker, 1987; Belk, 1975; Cassidy, 1997; Forgas, 1979;
Geen and Bushman, 1989; Lovelock, 1996; Platania and Moran, 2001;
Zajonc, 1965). Thus, a decade after Bitner’s (1992) servicescape con-
ceptualization, Tombs and McColl-Kennedy (2002) introduced the so-
cial servicescape by including within Bitner’s (1992) servicescape “a
unique sub-classification of services where other customers within the
servicescape play an integral role in successful delivery of the service”
(p. 1465). A year later, they refined their model and posited that the
social component of servicescape includes social density, context, and
displayed emotions of people in the servicescape (Tombs and McColl-
Kennedy, 2003). They proposed that consumer gestures, mimics and
verbal responses during the service encounter are part of the servi-
cescape that influences others approach/ avoidance behaviors. They
also called for future research to investigate the transfer of emotions
between customers and employees, how it influences the perception of
servicescape, and the potential it provides for management to manip-
ulate and control the atmospherics in the servicescape. However, this
was not an extension of Bitner’s servicescape since it was not integrated
into Bitner’s model, but proposed as a separate dimension. Additionally,
they included a moderator variable, purchase occasion, as the main
defining factor of the social density and displayed emotions. Later,
Hightower and Shariat (2009) and Rosenbaum and Massiah (2011)
included in the social component dress code and behavior of customers,
as well as appearance, accessibility, and behavior of employees pro-
viding the service.
Many researchers accepted the social component as a significant aspect
of servicescape and measured its dimensions and influence on affective
and behavioral responses in many different service settings using quali-
tative (e.g., Ardley et al., 2012; Chua et al., 2010; Johnstone, 2012; Tombs
and McColl-Kennedy, 2010; Venkatraman and Nelson, 2008) and quan-
titative methods (e.g. Daunt and Harris, 2012; Hightower, 2013; Jang
et al., 2015; Jeon and Kim, 2012; Line et al., 2015; Loureiro, 2017; Vilnai-
Yavets and Rafaeli, 2006). The social component was operationalized in
diverse forms and shapes including social interactions among and between
customers and employees (Venkatraman and Nelson, 2008), social inter-
actions (Chua et al., 2010), the level of visitor interactivity (Ardley et al.,
2012), socialization (Lee and Li, 2014), employees, other customers, social

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A. Pizam, A.D.A. Tasci
crowding, rapport (Jang et al., 2015), perceived similarity, physical ap-
pearance, and suitable behavior (Hanks and Line, 2018 in press; Hanks
and Line, 2018; Hanks and Line, 2018).
3.4. Natural component
Although Bitner (1992) excluded the natural dimension from ser-
vicescape, a group of researchers acknowledged the role of the natural
dimensions of servicescape (e.g., Arnould et al., 1998; Clarke and
Schmidt, 1995; Schmidt and Sapsford, 1995). Clarke and Schmidt
(1995), for example, investigated the “servuction system” or the service
system of an invisible organization managing service in a blend of
natural and artificial product with a service interface involving service
providers and consumers. Results revealed consumer expectations of
minimum interference of service providers while they are experiencing
the history or the environment itself. Thus they concluded: “Environ-
mental encounters may, by contrast, have spatial, natural, historical
and social dimensions, with meaning to the ‘recipients’ being more
organic and shared…And because there are multiple stakeholders and
multiple customers, the encounter that is constructed is multi-faceted,
with meanings that are, in many cases, relevant only to individuals or
small groups” (p. 161).
Along the same lines, Schmidt and Sapsford (1995) recommended
pubs to portray a female-friendly image by designing servicescape to
induce approach behaviors by creating pockets of space with plants,
gardens and seating areas, where staff act as mediators between dif-
ferent types of customers (female, male regulars, new etc.). In a more
dramatic example, Arnould et al. (1998) discussed the dimensions of
servicescape in a wilderness environment, where the natural setting of a
whitewater rafting experience with nature, which was commu-
nicatively staged in presentation and interpretation of tour guides, was
the front and center of the product rather than a background element.
About two decades after servicescape was introduced, and a decade
after the inclusion of the social component in servicescape, Rosenbaum
and Massiah (2011) included physical, social, socially symbolic, and
restorative or natural dimensions in their conceptual servicescape
model. They emphasized the importance of the natural dimension by
stating its potential for physical, mental health, and well-being by re-
lieving consumers from fatigue, stress, burnout, depression and other
mental issues. They further stated, “government institutions (e.g.,
schools, hospitals) can improve people’s lives by creating natural ser-
vicescapes that have restorative potential” (p. 471). However,
Rosenbaum and Massiah (2011) reserved the benefits of the natural
component to those services targeted for individuals with physical or
psychological issues. Considering that the main purpose of leisure ser-
vices is to recover from the negative effects of work, one can appreciate
how the restorative effect of natural dimensions amplify the positive
outcomes of leisure experiences as well. In the recreation context, for
example, Arnould et al. (1998) noted that “servicescape” in a wild-
erness setting involves life-enhancing, and restorative qualities.
The natural dimension is of particular significance in destination
contexts, including geographic areas such as cities and towns and large
area firms such as resorts and wineries. The significance of natural di-
mensions is acknowledged by winescape researchers (e.g., Bruwer and
Lesschaeve, 2012; Bruwer and Gross, 2017; Bruwer et al., 2016).
Bruwer and Gross (2017) acknowledged the significance of the natural
element of a winescape where nature blends and develops a symbiotic
relationship with other elements of the servicescape, thus providing
“the opportunity for wineries to use the tangible cues of their physical
design and the interior and exterior attributes of the physical en-
vironment for visitors to assess perceived levels of satisfaction” (p.
500). Despite the inherent involvement of nature in many experience
environments, its existence and significance in servicescape has not
received enough empirical attention.
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International Journal of Hospitality Management 76 (2019) 25–37
3.5. Cultural component
Culture is an overarching dimension that affects human behavior; it
defines humans’ cognitive, affective and behavioral responses to the
stimuli in the environment (Hofstede, 2003; Rokeach, 1973). However,
despite occasional hints and implications, culture has been a clear void
in servicescape literature. For example, Arnould et al. (1998) discuss
culture’s influence in defining the meanings of nature, or “the cultural
invention of ‘wilderness’” (p. 99). They contend that “[w]ilderness is a
complex and elusive concept freighted with changing personal and
symbolic meanings. Wilderness is not really a geographically or biolo-
gically recognized place as one might imagine. Instead, it is an idea, a
cultural invention that most often is celebrated by 'city folks'… North
American attitudes toward wilderness are deep-seated and complex,
with contradictory understandings vying for expression” (p. 99). The
results of their qualitative study, based on interviews with tour guides,
consumers, and participant observations, led them to conclude that
complex service products such as a wilderness environment or a des-
tination “may evoke cultural scripts and meanings that transcend the
bounds of the commercial service encounter, but nonetheless impact on
customer evaluations of the encounter” (p. 111).
Later, several researchers drew attention to some cultural dimen-
sions of the servicescape including multilingual signage, information
materials, and staff as well as the ethnicity of staff and customers
(Dailey et al., 2005; Holmqvist, 2011; Touchstone et al., 1999;
Touchstone, Koslow, Shamdasani, and D'Alessandro, 2017). For ex-
ample, in an experimental design in the context of a hypothetical bank,
Touchstone et al. (2017) studied Hispanic immigrants’ perception and
attitude in relation to the bank’s use of linguistics, namely “the use of
language in and around a service encounter including signage and
promotional materials as well as bilingual personnel” (p.147). They
found that “the linguistic servicescape” affects their perception of the
bank’s cultural sensitivity, discrimination, as well as their level of
confusion. They, thus concluded that “[i]n multilingual areas…where
the use of a minority language is politically charged, effective encoding
of symbolic language by the service provider is crucial for the success of
a service encounter” (p. 147). Hightower et al. (2006) identified cul-
tural differences in color component of a servicescape in the funeral
home service setting.
Cultural dimension may be more significant for groups that feel
marginalized for ethnic, physical, sexual, religious, or other differences
from the majority. Researchers agree that servicescape cues reflecting a
welcoming and inclusive identity are particularly important for min-
ority groups such as disabled and gay consumers (Baker et al., 2007;
Rosenbaum, 2005). Servicescape is critical in reflecting a welcoming
environment for perceivers to feel a sense of belonging (Hall, 2008;
Touchstone et al., 2017). Rosenbaum (2005) demonstrated how signs,
objects, artefacts, and symbols in a servicescape incite similar approach
or avoidance behaviors across the members of different subcultures,
Jewish and homosexual in this context. He discussed how symbolic
environmental stimuli may “evoke similar sensations of history or
utopia, danger or security, identity or memory among ethnic group
members, and either encourage or hinder their desire to approach a
consumption setting” (p. 258). Dong and Siu’s (2013) servicescape in-
cluded substantive and communicative staging, and communicating
staging was a combination of social and cultural dimensions (employee
behavior, employee image, and cultural atmospherics). Upon finding
the importance of cultural aspects for theme park visitors, they re-
commended including theme songs, cultural symbols and amusement
shows for unique positioning. Hanks and Line (in press) included per-
ceived similarity, physical appearance, and suitable behavior in
studying attitudes and loyalty towards restaurants; however, they
named the component as customer and employee servicescape. Even
though Rosenbaum and Massiah (2011) included ethnic signs/ symbols
and ethnic objects / artifacts in their extended servicescape model, they
named this dimension as “sociallysymbolic” rather than cultural
A. Pizam, A.D.A. Tasci
dimension.
Recently, Bruwer and Gross (2017) included culture in their wine-
scape conceptualization; however, they combined culture with nature.
Despite this oversight of nature and culture as distinct components of
service environments, their conceptualization of servicescape is the
closest to its complete profile inclusive of infrastructure and socio-
economic environment, natural and cultural resources, atmosphere and
social setting, layout and signage, and people in a destination context.
The sociocultural context of the servicescape is crucial for realisti-
cally grounding the construct on meaning, thoughts, beliefs, and actions
surrounding the world of consumers, employees and other stakeholders.
Based on the social identity theory (Hogg et al., 1995), different sta-
keholders may be positively predisposed towards places with signs and
artifacts similar to their sociocultural identity as well as people that
look and act similar to them. Therefore, culture’s existence as a distinct
component and its influence on experience environments need atten-
tion in future research.
3.6. Hospitality culture component
The culturescape of a service environment includes not only the
symbolic meanings rooted in national, ethnic, and subgroup identities
but also an organization’s culture of hospitality. Organizational culture
is defined as “the commonly-held and relatively stable beliefs, attitudes
and values that exist within the organisation” (Williams et al., 1993,
p.35). It is accepted as an indicator of firm productivity and staff per-
formance, an important ingredient of excellence, and a source of sus-
tainable competitive advantage through employee and consumer be-
havioral indicators such as commitment, satisfaction, and loyalty
(Barney, 1986; Deal and Kennedy, 1988; Denison, 1990; O’Reilly, 1989;
Porter, 1990; Schein, 1990; Tepeci and Bartlett, 2002). Pizam (2018, in
print) defines hospitality culture as “a system of shared norms, values,
beliefs, traditions and expectations whose ultimate goal is to provide
exceptional service and memorable experiences to all the organization’s
stakeholders.” He further differentiates between hospitality culture and
other cultural orientations (e.g., customer-centric and service-centric
cultures) by highlighting the focus on interrelations among the internal
and external stakeholders in hospitality culture, which would require
an interdisciplinary approach for a thorough comprehension of all di-
mensions.
It is important to determine whether such a culture can be practiced
effectively in non-hospitality service organizations. To answer this
question, Pizam (2018) analyzed a long list of best practices of top rated
hospitality-industry organizations like Disney, Ritz Carlton, and Four
Seasons to determine whether such characteristics are present in non-
hospitality organizations, as well. His list included attributes of an or-
ganization related to its management philosophy, its hiring practices,
its employees’ characteristics, and its overall culture, with an ultimate
aim of meeting the needs of all stakeholders. His conclusion was that
these characteristics are prevalent in numerous non-hospitality orga-
nizations, and therefore, organizations of different ownership (public or
private), different mission (for profit or not-for profit), or product types
(hedonic or utilitarian) can adopt and practice hospitality culture.
4. Multi-stakeholder approach
The addition of hospitality culture to experienscape would readjust
the focus on employees as well as all the other organizational stake-
holders such as vendors, suppliers, subcontractors, governmental reg-
ulators, etc. Additionally, it would shift the focus of discussion of the
concept servicescape as a subject within the domain of marketing to
experiencescape, which is a subject that combines the disciplines of
marketing with human resources management and organizational be-
havior, besides psychology, social psychology, communication, archi-
tecture, environmental design, and other related fields. To give proper
credit to its creator, Bitner (1992) originally designed servicescape to
30
International Journal of Hospitality Management 76 (2019) 25–37
be inclusive of its potential impact on employees. However, as can be
seen in Tables 2 and 3, servicescape research resulted in only a few
studies solely focused on employees (e.g., Parish et al., 2008), or along
with customers (e.g., Arnould et al., 1998; Chang, 2016; Clarke and
Schmidt, 1995; Lin, 2009). Furthermore, none of the published research
focused on any other stakeholders such as vendors, suppliers or busi-
ness associates. Refocusing on employees and other stakeholders along
with consumers requires more interdisciplinary research with colla-
borations of researchers from related disciplines.
5. Measurement of servicescape
Servicescape received ample attention from diverse fields resulting
in its measurement in many different contexts, with different methods,
dimensions and scales. As seen in Table 2, a few studies conducted in
the UK, USA, Chine, Thailand, and Sweden utilized qualitative techni-
ques (interview, focus group, photo elicitation) in identifying the nature
and effect of servicescape in destination, bar, restaurant, café, exhibi-
tion, and various other settings. Much of the early studies were quali-
tative in order to determine the detailed dimensions that physical en-
vironment entails for consumers of different service products (e.g.,
Clarke and Schmidt, 1995; Cunnell and Prentice, 2000; Schmidt and
Sapsford, 1995).
As listed in Tables 3 and 4, a majority of empirical attention to
servicescape was with a quantitative approach (experiments and sur-
veys). Similar to the qualitative studies, quantitative studies also cap-
tured servicescape in different product contexts, including theme parks,
restaurants, buffets, wilderness, hotels, travel agencies, sports, casinos,
airports, movie theaters, wine tasting, retail stores, shopping malls, tax
services, banks, hospitals, fitness centers, and even websites. As was
also noted by Ezeh and Harris (2007) classification and grouping of
servicescape dimensions differs in different industry, as well as product
contexts. Despite variations, the overall conclusion driven from the past
literature is that essential components comprising experiences of con-
sumers or customers in a servicescape comprises dimensions of am-
bience, design, layout, cleanliness, signage, the amount and behavior of
people.
Quantitative servicescape research used different levels of measures
including: 1) one-item scale measuring overall servicescape as an ob-
served variable; 2) multi-item scales measuring multidimensional ser-
vicescape as a latent factor; 3) multi-item scales measuring multiple
dimensions of servicescape as latent factors forming servicescape.
However, Hightower (2010) criticized using single-item measures in
capturing servicescape dimensions; he proposed a scale that he renders
as “the most parsimonious and complete international servicescape
assessment instrument in the marketing literature” (p. 84) even though
he overlooked cultural and natural components. Nonetheless, research
comparing multiple service brands may require single-item scales in
order to avoid respondent fatigue and non-response.
6. Significance of servicescape
The importance of servicescape is rendered higher for service or-
ganizations due to simultaneous production and consumption (Bitner,
1992). The difficulty or impossibility of trial for services amplifies the
importance of the experiential component of services as the quality
indicator; thus, the service environment is believed to serve as a
package, a differentiator, an image-maker, a quality indicator, a facil-
itator, and a socializing agent (Hightower et al., 2002; Wakefield and
Blodgett, 1994). Essentially, servicescape tangibilizes the intangible
products and services. Thus, servicescape components reflect resources
to inform, attract, and evoke positive action in consumers. Based on
Mehrabian and Russell’s (1974) SOR model, Bitner’s (1992) original
model suggested that servicescape evokes internal reactions in con-
sumers and employees; thus, leading to behavioral approach/avoidance
reactions, which is also moderated by some personal or situational
 A. Pizam, A.D.A. Tasci

Table 2
Qualitative studies measuring servicescape.
Author Methods Study Context Study Population Observed Servicescape Component(s)

Clarke and Schmidt Interviews North Wales - Penrhyn Castle and the Visitors and staff, UK –
(1995) Focus groups natural environment of Snowdonia
National Park
Schmidt and Sapsford Focus group Public house (pub) Female pub customers, UK –
(1995) Interviews
Cunnell and Prentice Critical incident technique with interviews Museums and heritage attractions in North American and Southern English –
(2000) Scotland visitors to Edinburgh
Rosenbaum (2005) Ethnographic participant observation with Jewish stores and gay/ lesbian bars and Jewish and homosexual consumers, USA Symbolic servicescape
photo-elicitation methodology gift shops
Cockrill et al. (2008) Interviews UK betting shops Ambience, layout, and functionality
Observation
Venkatraman and Nelson Photo-elicitation Starbucks in Beijing Young, urban Chinese Ambient conditions (e.g., lighting and
(2008) consumers temperature), design factors (e.g., layout and decor),

31
and social interactions among and between customers
and employees
Chua et al. (2010) Critical incident technique with interviews Food services Malay, Chinese and Indian consumers Cleanliness, design, social interaction, functionality
Tombs and McColl- Observation Cafes Customers in observations Social dimension (customers)
Kennedy (2010) Focus groups General consumers in focus groups in
Australia
Ardley et al. (2012) Interview Lincoln Magna Carta Visitors, UK Experiential servicescape: guidance signage, the small, dark
exhibition inauspicious surroundings of the exhibition and the level of visitor
interactivity
Johnstone (2012) Interview and photo-elicitation Various services Female consumers, NZ Social dimension, physical dimensions, temporal dimensions
Pareigis et al. (2012) Microethnographic approach-observations, Public transportation (bus, Customers, Sweden Servicescape was constructed by the users’ actions of identifying,
interviews, think-aloud protocols via videos boat or tram) sense-making and using which formed two main customer practices:
navigating and ticketing
Batra (2014) Interviews Suvarnbhumi International Airport’s Passengers, Thailand –
(Bangkok) lounge, Thailand
Ellway (2014) In-depth interpretive field study A UK call center for voice-to-technology Callers, UK Spatial layout and signs
(V2T) encounter
Kauppinen-Räisänen Photo-elicitation technique A supermarket and an organic food store Consumers of organic and ordinary food Environmentally sustainable signs and products
et al. (2014) Interviews pictures products regularly and shopped at both types
of grocery stores.
International Journal of Hospitality Management 76 (2019) 25–37
 Table 3
Quantitative studies measuring servicescape.
Author Methods Study Context Study Population Observed Servicescape Component(s)

Wakefield and Blodgett Quasi-experimental Major League Baseball (videotapes of two different MLB College students in the US Crowd level
(1994) stadiums)
A. Pizam, A.D.A. Tasci

Wakefield and Blodgett Survey Major college football, minor league American consumers layout accessibility, facility aesthetics, electronic equipment, seating
(1996) baseball, and casinos comfort, cleanliness
Arnould et al. (1998) Interview, Participant Wilderness servicescape- Yampa and Green river canyons, Tour guides, researchers themselves Substantive staging
observation, Survey US and other customers Communicative staging
Lucas (2003) Survey Casino Visitors of Las Vegas Strip hotel casino Ambient factors, casino layout navigation, cleanliness, interior décor, seating
comfort
Reimer and Kuehn (2005 Survey Retail banking for utilitarian context and restaurant for Consumers in Switzerland Ambiance
hedonic context
Nguyen (2006) Survey Hotel and travel agency Customers Ambient conditions, exterior layout, interior layout, location
Vilnai-Yavets and Rafaeli Experiment Virtual servicescape on Internet Consumers responding to a virtual Aesthetics, professionalism (social component)
(2006) service setting
Namasivayam and Mattila Experiment Restaurant Undergraduate students at a US Ambiance
(2007) university
Rosenbaum and Montoya Survey Restaurant Hispanic and homosexual members Physical environment quality, interaction quality, verbal and nonverbal
(2007) comfort, place likening outcome quality
Hilliard and Baloglu, Survey Hotels for meetings Meeting professionals Visible safety features, documentation
(2008) and staff training, general security features
Parish et al. (2008) Quasi-experiment with Hospital Nurses Pleasantness, safety, convenience
longitudinal data
Harris and Ezeh (2008) Survey UK restaurants Customers Ambient conditions (music, aroma, cleanliness), design factors (implicit
communications, furnishing), staff behavior (customer orientation,
credibility), staff image (competence, physical attractiveness)
Hopkins et al. (2009) Survey TicketAdvantage.com offering information on sport and Visitors of the website Ambient conditions, spatial layout and functionality, signs, symbols, and

32
entertainment venues and the sale of tickets to events artifacts
Lio and Rody (2009) Survey Casino in Macau Chinese gamblers Seating comfort, cleanliness, interior attractiveness, gambling facilitating
factors
Kim and Moon (2009) Survey Theme restaurants in Alberta, Canada Consumers who visited a theme Facility aesthetics, layout, electric equipment, seating comfort, ambient
restaurant in the past six months conditions
Lin (2009) Experiment Hotel bar Hotel employees, graduate, and Ambience (color and music type)
undergraduate students in the US
Harris and Goode (2010) Survey Online servicescape of websites Consumers with website experiences Aesthetic appeal, layout and functionality, financial security (perceived
security and ease of payment)
Lin and Mattila (2010) Survey A Japanese restaurant Customers Servicescape and perceived congruency (matching the restaurant theme with
food served, and matching the exterior look with the interior décor)
Vilnai-Yavetz and Gilboa Preliminary survey, Restaurants in preliminary survey General consumers and Cleanliness of a taxi
(2010) Experiment, Survey Taxis and restaurants in experiment Restaurant customers in Israel Cleanliness and neatness of a restaurant
Cleanliness of waiter’s dress
Lam et al. (2011) Survey Casinos in Macau Customers Ambience, navigation, seating comfort, interior decor, cleanliness
Simpeh et al. (2011) Survey Hotels in Ghana Customers Ambient conditions, spatial layout, signs, symbols and artifacts
Altschwager et al. (2011) Online survey Wineries from the McLaren Vale Wine Region in South Recent customers Ambient Factors
Australia Design Factors (both aesthetic and functional design elements
Social Factors (perceptions of service personnel and other customers)
Daunt and Harris (2012) Survey Bar, hotel, or restaurant in UK Consumers who misbehaved within a Physical - layout and design, atmpospherics, exterior environment
bar, hotel, or restaurant Social- fellow customers, employee service, outlet vulnerability
Jeon and Kim (2012) Survey Incheon International Airport, S. Korea Travelers at the airport Ambient factor, functional factor, esthetic factor, safety factor, social factor
Medabesh and Upadhyaya Survey Hotels in India Customers Ambient conditions, spatial layout, signs, symbols, and artifacts
(2012)
Orth et al. (2012) Survey Wine tasting environments Customers Design factors in different configuration
Lee and Jeong, (2012) Conceptual E-servicescape – ambient, design, and social factors
Lin and Worthley (2012) Experiment A hotel lobby, bar, and a hotel guest room General consumers Color and music
Miles et al. (2012) Survey Department stores, fast food” and “quick sit down” General consumers, USA Facility aesthetics, layout accessibility and cleanliness
establishments, and general electronics retailers
(continued on next page)
International Journal of Hospitality Management 76 (2019) 25–37
 Table 3 (continued)

Author Methods Study Context Study Population Observed Servicescape Component(s)

Nguyen et al. (2012) Mail survey Kitchen display showrooms and a concert Customers Social servicescape
Siu et al. (2012) Interview, Survey A convention and exhibition hall in Macao Visitors Ambient conditions, spatial layout, functionality, signs, symbols, artifacts,
and cleanliness
A. Pizam, A.D.A. Tasci

Dobre et al. (2013) Survey Dental clinics in Timişoara, Romania Patients Accessibility, facility aesthetics, waiting space comfort, electronic displays,
facility cleanliness
Hightower, (2013) Survey Full service restaurants, Movie theaters, Discount stores, Brazilian consumers Ambience, design, social dimensions
Sport stadiums
Kearney et al. (2013) Interview, Survey Retail stores in Ireland Employees and students as customers Ambience, design and color, cleanliness, layout
Hooper et al. (2013) Survey A convenience store in Dublin, Ireland Customers Equipment, design, space, ambiance, hygiene
Jen et al. (2013) Survey Taiwan Tauyuan International Airport Customers Ambient conditions, spatial layout and functionality, signs, symbols and
artifacts
Shashikala and Suresh Survey Shopping malls in Bangalore, India Customers Ambient factor, aesthetic factor, layout, variety, cleanliness, signs, symbols
(2013) and artifacts, social factor
Ariffin et al. (2013) Survey Hotels in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Foreign guests Facility aesthetics, lighting, ambience, and layout
Dong and Siu (2013) Interview, Focus group, Theme parks in Hong Kong Visitors substantive (functional and mechanical clues) and communicative (human
Survey clues) aspects of the servicescape
Campbell and DiPietro Quasi-experiment A casual buffet-style restaurant in the US Customers Décor, signage
(2014)
Dean (2014) Quasi-experiment A tax service provider’s office Students in the US Personal items (family photos, sports memorabilia), professional
objects (CPA certificate, IRS publications) in the servicescape
DiPietro and Campbell Survey An upscale buffet style restaurant Customers Interior décor, the color, interior lighting
(2014)
Ellen and Zhang (2014) Survey A company restaurant in in The Hague Customers Ambient conditions, spatial layout and functionality, signs, symbols, and
artifacts
Fernandes and Neves Survey A soccer club – Dragon Football Stadium Spectators Layout accessibility, facility aesthetics, seating comfort, electronic
(2014) equipment, facility cleanliness

33
Lee and Kim (2014) Survey Public service facilities located in Seoul, Korea Users Attractiveness, cleanliness, easy layout, comfort
Lee and Li (2014) Survey A bakery in Taiwan Customers Ambient conditions, space and functions, signs and symbols, socialization
Dedeoğlu et al. (2015) Survey 4 and 5 star hotels in Antalya, Turkey Turkish, German, and Russian Ambient conditions, layout, decor, signs and symbols
customers
Durna et al. (2015) Survey Hotels in Antalya, Turkey Multinational customers Substantive and communicative staging of servicescape
Jang et al. (2015) Survey Restaurant Young adults in Seoul, Korea Social factors (employees, other customers, social crowding, rapport)
Kwon et al. (2015) VR experiment JDC duty-free shop at Jeju International Airport in South General consumers Signboard design, showcase height, floor color, use of inner pillars
Korea
Lee et al. (2015) Survey Theme restaurants in Taichung, Taiwan Customers Aesthetics, ambient condition, space/function, seating comfort, cleanliness
Line et al. (2015) Survey Restaurant in the US Customers Facility attractiveness, ambient conditions, seating comfort, layout,
perceived demographic similarity, perceived psychographic similarity
Wang and Mattila (2015) Experiment Ethnic Chinese restaurants (photos) American and ethnic Chinese Physical setting, service providers, and other ethnic customers
consumers
Kim et al. (2016) Survey Fitness center General consumers Accessibility, facility layout, facility design, equipment condition, ambience,
facility system, signage, social factor
Lin (2016) Experiment Fictitious boutique hotel lobby and classic hotel lobby General consumers Perceived perceptual experience quality
(videos)
Chang (2016) Survey Hot spring resorts in Taiwan Customers, managerial employees, and Substantive and communicative staging of servicescape
employees of hot spring resorts
Loureiro (2017) Survey Hospitals in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal Foreign patients Ambient factors, design factors, social factor
Bruwer and Gross (2017) Interviews, Surveys McLaren Vale wine region Visitors Infrastructure and socioeconomic environment, natural and cultural
resources, atmosphere and social setting, layout and signage, people
Touchstone et al. (2017) Experiment A hypothetical bank Hispanics in Van Nuys, Los Angeles Linguistic servicescape - Lack of symbolic and informational Spanish use
Hanks et al. (2017a) Experiment Fine dining restaurant, sports bar, family casual restaurant General consumers -MTurk Human density, built density (furniture and fixtures)
(pictures) participants
Hanks et al. (2017b) Survey Restaurants in the US General consumers -MTurk Perceived similarity to other customers (social factor)
participants
Hanks and Line (in press) Survey Restaurants in the US General consumers Customer and Employee servicescape (perceived similarity, physical
appearance, and suitable behavior)
International Journal of Hospitality Management 76 (2019) 25–37
A. Pizam, A.D.A. Tasci
Table 4
Scales to measure experienscape.
EXPERIENSCAPE Scales
Holistic Experienscape Scale (one-item, measured variable)
X offers a pleasant experience (Likert Scale,
1= Strongly Disagree, 7=Strongly Agree)
X is… Very Unpleasant = 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 =
Very Pleasant (7-point Semantic Differential
Scale)
One-Factor Multidimensional Experienscape Scales (multi-item, one-factor,
latent variable) (Likert Scale, 1= Strongly Disagree, 7=Strongly Agree)
The atmosphere is appealing to my senses
The design and layout is functional
The level of crowd is comfortable
The employees are friendly
The customers are sociable
The environment reflects nature
The culture is welcoming
The organizational culture shows hospitality
to all stakeholders
Multi-Factor Multidimensional Experienscape Scales (multi-item, multi-factor,
second-order latent variable)(Likert Scale, 1= Strongly Disagree, 7=Strongly
Agree)
Sensory (hedonic) component Food and beverages are tasty
- 5 senses Smells are pleasing
Background sounds are nice
Colors are in harmony
Temperature is comfortable
The texture of materials feels good
Arts and crafts are attractive
The environment is clean
Lighting is pleasant
The environment clearly reflects X’s brand
Functional (utilitarian) The layout is user-friendly
component The furniture is comfortable
Amenities are functional
Informational signage is clear
Interpretative signage is interesting
Equipment are modern
Social component The crowd level is comfortable
People seem to be enjoying themselves
People are interacting with each other
Consumers are sociable
Employees are friendly
Natural component The landscape reflects the natural flora
Natural elements are well integrated
everywhere
Plants are used effectively in internal design
Natural elements make the environment
attractive
Natural elements make the layout functional
for different purposes
There is a good balance of nature and built
environment
Cultural component The overall culture is welcoming me
Cultural symbols are familiar to me
People dress similar to me
People act similar to me
I can speak with employees easily
I can interact with customers easily
Hospitality culture component X meets all stakeholders’ needs
X provides exceptional service
X is detail-oriented
X develops and maintains positive
relationships with all stakeholders
X’s employees go above and beyond the call
of duty
factors. Internal reactions include cognitive, emotional and physiolo-
gical variables. Cognitive responses include beliefs, categorizations, and
symbolic meanings. Emotional responses are dichotomies of pleasure-
displeasure, arousal-non-arousal, and dominance-submissiveness. Re-
searchers found that dominance does not affect behavioral intentions of
consumers in commercial environments (Donovan and Rossiter, 1982;
Russell and Pratt, 1980). Physiological responses include pain, comfort,
34
International Journal of Hospitality Management 76 (2019) 25–37
movement, and physical fit. These responses then lead to a set of ap-
proach or avoidance behaviors towards the product and service in-
cluding a desire to stay or leave, to further explore and interact or ig-
nore, to communicate with others or ignore, and feel satisfied or
disappointed with the experience (Bitner, 1992; Donovan and Rossiter,
1982; Hoffman et al., 2003; Tombs and McColl-Kennedy, 2003). Gen-
erally speaking, emotional and behavioral reactions and their re-
lationship have been widely studied and established in the past litera-
ture. The multi stakeholder and multidisciplinary approach of
experienscape requires an expanded relational network by integrating
relevant concepts for different stakeholders, which is also awaiting
future research.
7. Experienscape
Experienscape is the sensory, functional, social, natural, and cultural
stimuli in a product or service environment, surmounted with a culture
of hospitality, all of which accrue to an experience for consumers,
employees, and other stakeholders and result in positive or negative
cognitive, affective, and behavioral reactions toward products, services,
brands, and firms. With the experiential consumption framework, the
sensory component addresses to perceivers’ id and arouses sensory re-
actions (Holbrook and Hirschman, 1982) by using colors, sounds,
smells, shapes, figures, textures and tastes. These are also first im-
pression elements to create a brand image for a service product. The
functional component, the amenities, signs and furniture designed with
harmonious use of sensory components provide benefits that enable
consumers, employees, and other stakeholders to function, relax, re-
fresh, socialize, learn, relate, think, and self-actualize. The extent that
consumers, employees, and other stakeholders achieve these goals de-
pends on social, natural, and cultural components. The social compo-
nent, namely the perception of consumers, employees, and other sta-
keholders based on perceivers’ own social rules, norms, conventions,
and expectations for behavior influence the perception of the sensory
and functional component and vice versa. The cultural component,
namely the perceived culture in the environment, based on values,
norms and rules of different groups, nations and subgroups influence
the perception of the sensory, functional and social component and vice
versa. The natural component, namely the integration of built en-
vironment with the natural elements (flora, fauna, terrain) influence
the perception of the sensory, functional, social and cultural component
and vice versa. Hence, all relationships between components are bi-
directional.
For example, sensory stimuli such as lighting affects the perception
of social cultural and even the natural elements, and vice versa. The
natural component is reflected in all other components. It is reflected in
the sensory component in the way of colors, smells, textures, shapes and
even tastes where consumers can taste fruits grown in the service
product landscape. The use of natural elements, plants and even ani-
mals in external and internal design defines the utility of the space. It
allows human interactions with each other and nature, which is also
reflected in the cultural component. A nature lover entering a resort
with ample presence of plants and animals would feel more cultural
similarity than difference even if the resort were in a place with a
distinct culture. Even though the direction of relationship between the
cultural and natural component is hard to distinguish, nature may be
the defining factor of culture. The overall culture of a social setting
defines attitudes and reactions towards nature as reflected in discus-
sions of Arnould et al. (1998) about Americans’ love of nature and
wilderness. The strength of that love of nature, however, depends on
the contrast with the undeveloped natural beauty of America contrasted
to the well-developed state of the previous homes of the first settlers.
Hence, the natural component depends on the natural environment
where the service product is located. A resort in the middle of a lush
green forest area will naturally have those elements integrated into its
internal and external design while another hotel on a desert will reflect
A. Pizam, A.D.A. Tasci
the natural habitat of that ecosystem. The more conglomerate a service
product becomes, the more significant the natural component’s role is.
Even though all service products are conglomerates of tangible and
intangible aspects, places or destinations as tourism products inherit
more salience of natural component in defining cognition, affect and
behavior in tourists. Different configuration of these components then
creates positive or negative cognitive, affective, and conative reactions
in consumers, employees, and other stakeholders.
Table 4 provides a parsimonious list of semantic and Likert type
scales-as first-order, second-order, and third-order factors- for different
variables. The experienscape elements and scales are formulated in the
micro or firm level; many of these elements will be impossible to assess
in a place or destination context where destination image attributes
(infrastructure, facilities, weather, friendly locals, social opportunities,
natural attractions, excitement level, etc.) may be a better fitting con-
cept. See Tasci and Gartner (2007) and Tasci et al. (2007) for desti-
nation image attributes and a similar model of functional relationships
of destination image, which causes similar behavioral responses in
consumers.
8. Conclusion
Even though there is extensive research about servicescape, its
structure has not been thoroughly captured in previous literature. Its
ambient, functional and social components received ample attention;
however, natural and cultural components have been neglected thus
far. Furthermore, despite employee’s inclusion at the onset of the ser-
vicescape model, consumers received the most empirical attention and
other stakeholders are completely ignored. Thus, the current study
conducted a literature review and provided a comprehensive experi-
enscape definition along with a multistakeholder and multidisciplinary
approach. Finally, even though marketing focused research provided a
solid theoretical base for understanding the nature of servicescape, a
comprehensive understanding of the incorporated experienscape con-
cept requires a multidisciplinary approach by integrating views from
marketing, human resources management, and organizational beha-
vior, besides psychology, social psychology, and communication, ar-
chitecture, environmental design, and other related fields. Empirical
studies on the expanded experienscape will better explain the nature of
a service environment from diverse perspectives.
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Abraham Pizam is Dean and Linda Chapin Eminent Scholar Chair in Tourism
Management in the Rosen College of Hospitality Management, at the University of Central
Florida, Orlando, Florida, U.S.A. (H-index 56 and 15,000 citations).
Asli D.A. Tasci is an associate professor of tourism and hospitality marketing in the
Department of Tourism, Events & Attractions in the Rosen College of Hospitality
Management at the University of Central Florida. (H-index 17 and 2290 citations).