21 Special Theory of Relativity Version 1

B. Sc. Physics (H.R.
K) Chapter 21: Special Theory of Relativity
Special Theory of Relativity
Frame of Reference
A coordinate system relative to which the measurements are taken is known as frame
of reference. A coordinate system in which the law of inertial is valid is known as inertial
frame of reference, while the accelerated frame is known as non-inertial frame of reference.
Special Theory of Relativity
Postulates of Special Theory of Relativity:
In 1905, Albert Einstein formulated his special theory of relativity in terms of two postulates:
1. Principle of Relativity
The laws of Physics have the same form in all frames of reference moving with constant
velocities with respect to one another. It can also be stated as
“The laws of Physics are invariant o a transformation between all inertial frames”
2. Principle of Constancy of Speed of Light
The speed of light in free space has the same value for all observers regardless of their
state of motion. It can also be stated as:
The speed of light in free space has the same value “c” in all inertial frames of references.
Relativistic Effects:
Theory of Relativity shows the effects of relative motion on physical quantities. These
effects are observed at relativistic speed. (The speed is called relativistic speed, where c
is speed of light.)
Discussion:
The first postulate shows that laws of Physics are absolute and universal and are same
for all inertial observers. So the laws of Physics that hold for one inertial observer can’t be
violated for any other inertial observer.
To understand 2nd postulate, consider three observers A, B and C at rest in three
different inertial frames.
 A flash of light emitted by observer A is observed by him to travel at speed c.
 If the frame of B is moving away from A at a speed of then according to Galilean
Kinematics, B measure the speed of flash emitted by A: .
 If the frame C is moving towards A with a speed of then according to Galilean
Transformation, C measures the value for the speed of flash emitted by A.
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B. Sc. Physics (H.R.K) Chapter 21: Special Theory of Relativity
However according to 2nd postulate all the three observers measure the same speed of
flash of light. However ordinary objects don’t obey 2nd postulate e.g.,
( ) ( ) ( )
But velocities of waves and particles moving at speeds close to c behave in this wave.
When Einstein put forward these postulates, there was no experimental test for the
verification of these postulates. However, in 1964 a proton accelerator produced a beam of
neutral pions ( which rapidly decay into :
Now are electromagnetic waves and move with the speed of light. The speed of
moving Pions was measured equal to .
According to Galileo, the emitted in the direction of motion of Pions should have a
speed equal to But the measured speed of was equal to . This is
consistent with 2nd postulate.
Galilean Transformation
Consider two observers in two different inertial frames and . Frame is at rest
and is moving with uniform velocity along x-axis with respect to frame . Suppose at
, the origins of two frames coincide.
Both the observers observe the same event. The
position and time of event observed by is denoted by
and position and time of the event observed
by is denoted by . According to Galilean
Transformation:
{ }
Fundamental Equation of Special Theory of Relativity

Consider two observers in two different inertial frames and .
Frame is at rest and is moving with uniform velocity along
x-axis with respect to frame . Suppose at , the origins of
two frames coincide.
Both the observers observe the same event. The position
and time of event observed by is denoted by and
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position and time of the event observed by is denoted by . Consider a wave of
light starts from and at with speed . Let the wave reaches a point P after time
from and takes the time to reach at P from point . Then the distance covered by light
ray from point to point :
| |
And the distance covered by light ray from point to point P:

| |
Comparing these equations, we get:
This is the fundamental equation of special theory of relativity given by Einstein in 1905.
Galilean Transformations Doesn’t Satisfy the Fundamental Equation of Relativity

Applying the values of from Galilean Transformation in Fundamental
Equation of Relativity
This is clearly impossible until . Hence Galilean Transformation fail to satisfy

Fundamental Equation of Relativity.
Lorentz Transformations Satisfy the Fundamental Equation of Relativity

Hence we need such transformations which satisfy Fundamental Equation of Special
Theory of Relativity. Such transformations are called Lorentz Transformation. These are
given below:
( )
{ }
3
Derivation of Lorentz Transformation

Consider two inertial frames of reference and . Frame is at rest and is moving
with velocity in the direction of increasing .
As relative velocity is along . Moreover, and coincides
at , so: and . So the fundamental equation of special theory of relativity
becomes:
 As move along with relative velocity v with respect to ‘S’, so distance

covered by with respect to S after time will be .
 As O also appear to move along negative with relative velocity . So the
distance covered by with respect to after time is equal to .
These two requirements can be satisfied by putting:
and
In equation (1) and (2), if we know values of ‘ ’ and ‘ ’, then we can find the relations
between and , which satisfy equation (A).
To find ‘ ’ and ‘ ’, we put the value of from equation (1) in equation (2), we get:
[ ]
[ ]
( )
[ ( )]
Putting the values of and from equations (1) and (3) in equation (A):
[ ] [ ( )]
[ ( ) ( ) ]
4
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
[ ( ) ] [ ( )] [ ]
This relation must hold for all values of and . So the coefficients of , and
must be zero separately. So we get three equations:
( )
( )
From equation (6), we have:
( )
( )
( )
Now consider equation (5):
( )
( )
( )
5
√
√
Putting values of ‘ ’ and ‘ ’ in equation (1) and (2), we get:
Where is called Lorentz’s factor.

√
Now putting in equation (3), we get:

√
[ ( )]
[ ( { })]
√
[ ( )]
√
[ ( )]
√
( )
√
( )
√
Conclusion:
The set of transformation equations
6
( )
{ }
is called Lorentz’s Transformation. When i.e., , the Lorentz Transformations
transform into Galilean transformation. Thus the Galilean Transformations is special case of
Lorentz Transformation.
Inverse Lorentz Transformation

The Lorentz Transformation equations are as follows:
{ ( ) }
From equation (4):
Putting the value of in equation (1):
[ ( )]
( )
( )
Now consider equation (1):
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Putting value of in equation (4), we get:
[ ( )]
( )
( )
( )
Hence the Inverse Lorentz Transformations are:
( )
{ }
Important Note:
We can obtain the inverse Lorentz Transformations just by interchanging primed and
unprimed coordinates and replacing by – .
Transformation of Velocities
The equations of Lorentz Transformations can be used to get a relation between
velocity of a particle measured by an observer in frame and velocity of the same
particle measured by an observer in frame who is moving with velocity with respect to .
Suppose according to , particle moves from to and
according to , the particle moves from to .
The -component of velocity measured by will be:
By Lorentz Transformations, we have:
8
Also,
( )
( )
Putting values in equation (1):
( )
( )
( )
The -component of velocity measured by will be:
As
Putting values in equation (2), we get:
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
9
Similarly,
( )
It should be noted that and even though and . This is

another difference between Lorentz and Galilean transformations.
Inverse Velocity Transformations
We can obtain inverse velocity transformation from equations of velocity
transformation simply by changing by – replacing primed coordinates with unprimed
coordinates and vice versa. So inverse velocity transformations are:
( )
( )
Lorentz Velocity Transformations under Non-Relativistic Limit

Under non-relativistic limit (i.e., for , we put ) the equations of velocity
transformations takes the form:
This set of equation is called Galilean Velocity Transformation. So under non-relativistic

limits, the Lorentz Velocity Transformation change into Galilean Velocity Transformation.
The Lorentz Velocity Transformation and Einstein’s 2nd Postulate
We can derive the result of Einstein’s 2nd postulate from Lorentz Velocity
Transformations. According to Einstein’s 2nd postulate, the speed of light is constant for all
observers. So speed c measured by an observer must also be measured to be c by any other
observer.
Suppose the two observers observe a common event of passage of light beam along x-
axis in frame and . According to observer in , the velocity of light beam along x-axis
and . So, according to Lorentz Velocity Transformation, the velocity
measured by :
10
( ) ( )
And
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Therefore, velocities measured by are . So the observer also

measures the same speed. Hence the speed of light is same for all observers.
CONSEQUENCE OF SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY

Relativity of Time
Consider two frames of references and . is at rest and is moving with uniform
velocity with respect to . Suppose an event occurs at one and same place ‘x’ in frame .
 The duration of event measured by the observer in frame is .
 The duration of same event measured by the observer in frame is .
By using Lorentz Transformation:
( )
( )
Now
( ) ( )
( )
[ ]
Because the event occurs at the same place, therefore: . Equation (1) takes the form:
[ ]
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√ √
Since
√
So,
Hence the observer in frame will conclude that the clock in frame is slowed down i.e.,
time is dilated.
Relativity of Length (Length Contraction)
Consider a rod lying at rest along x-axis in stationary frame S. Let the coordinates of its ends
in this frame be and . Then, length of the rod is called proper length and described as:
Let the length of the rod seen in moving frame moving with velocity be . Let the
coordinates of ends of the rod in frame of reference (FOR) are and . Then the length
of the rod observed with respect to will be:
It should be noted that the measurements are made simultaneously in both frames.
By Lorentz Transformation, we have
i.
ii.
Subtracting (1) and (2), we have
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
Putting , because measurements are made simultaneously:
√ √
Therefore,
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i.e., the length of the rod appears to be reduced in moving frame . This effect is called
Length Contraction.
Relativity of Mass
The Einstein’s Energy-Mass relationship is described as:
Here E, m & c represent energy, mass and speed of light respectively.

Differentiating both sides, we have:
Let the work is done on the object by the force F which displaced it through distance dr.
As the work done on an object appears in the form of change in its energy , therefore,
we can write:
By Newton’s second law of motion, the applied force on an object is equal to time rate of
change of linear momentum p i.e., . Therefore,
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
Comparing eq. (1) and (2), we get:
( )
13
( )
Integrating both sides, we have:
∫ ∫
( )
∫ ∫
( )
| | | ( )|
| | | ( ) |
( )
( )
( )
( )
This is the expression relativistic mass that describe mass variation with respect to velocity.
Equivalence of Mass and Energy (or Proof of )
Suppose a force acts on a body and as the result of this force, the body covers a distance
in direction of force. The work done by this force is:
⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
By Work-Energy Theorem, the work done on a body result in increase of its kinetic
energy :
14
Equating (1) and (2), we have:
By Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion, the time rate of change of linear momentum of body is
equal applied force:
Equation (3) becomes:
( )
From relativistic mechanics,
( )
( )( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
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Putting values in equation (4), we get:
Integrating bother sides:
where A is constant of integration.

At , equation
Now the equation (5) becomes:
This equation shows that when , the body still possess some energy equal to ,
called rest mass energy. Here is called total energy. Equation (6) takes the
form:
This equation is called Einstein’s Energy-Mass Relationship.

Relativistic Energy
From Einstein’s Energy-Mass Relationship:
√ √
( )
( )
The linear momentum a particle having mass moving with velocity is described as:
( )
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Subtracting equation (1) and (2):
( ) ( )
( )
( )
√
This is the expression of relativistic energy.
Sample Problem 6: What is momentum of a proton moving with speed of ?
Solution:
Rest mass of proton
Speed of Proton
Momentum
As
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B. Sc. Physics (H.R.

K) Chapter 21: Special Theory of Relativity

Special Theory of Relativity

Kinematics, B measure the speed of flash emitted by A: .

 If the frame C is moving towards A with a speed of then according to Galilean

Transformation, C measures the value for the speed of flash emitted by A.

Fundamental Equation of Special Theory of Relativity

And the distance covered by light ray from point to point P:

Comparing these equations, we get:

Galilean Transformations Doesn’t Satisfy the Fundamental Equation of Relativity

This is clearly impossible until . Hence Galilean Transformation fail to satisfy

Lorentz Transformations Satisfy the Fundamental Equation of Relativity

Derivation of Lorentz Transformation

 As move along with relative velocity v with respect to ‘S’, so distance

From equation (6), we have:

Now consider equation (5):

Putting values of ‘ ’ and ‘ ’ in equation (1) and (2), we get:

Where is called Lorentz’s factor.

Now putting in equation (3), we get:

Inverse Lorentz Transformation

Putting the value of in equation (1):

Now consider equation (1):

Putting value of in equation (4), we get:

Hence the Inverse Lorentz Transformations are:

By Lorentz Transformations, we have:

Putting values in equation (1):

The -component of velocity measured by will be:

It should be noted that and even though and . This is

Lorentz Velocity Transformations under Non-Relativistic Limit

transformations takes the form:

This set of equation is called Galilean Velocity Transformation. So under non-relativistic

Therefore, velocities measured by are . So the observer also

CONSEQUENCE OF SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY

Putting , because measurements are made simultaneously:

Here E, m & c represent energy, mass and speed of light respectively.

change of linear momentum p i.e., . Therefore,

Comparing eq. (1) and (2), we get:

Integrating both sides, we have:

Equation (3) becomes:

From relativistic mechanics,

Integrating bother sides:

where A is constant of integration.

This equation is called Einstein’s Energy-Mass Relationship.

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