1.

INTRODUCTION

Welding is a permanent joining process used to join different materials like metals, alloys or
plastics, together at their contacting surfaces by application of heat and or pressure. During
welding, the work-pieces to be joined are melted at the interface and after solidification a
permanent joint can be achieved. Sometimes a filler material is added to form a weld pool of
molten material which after solidification gives a strong bond between the materials.

1.1Plasma arc welding

Plasma arc welding (PAW) is an arc welding process similar to gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW) [2]. The electric arc is formed between an electrode and the work piece. The plasma
welding process was introduced to the welding industry as a method of bringing better
control to the arc welding process in lower current ranges. Today, plasma retains the original
advantages it brought to industry by providing an advanced level of control and accuracy to
produce high quality welds in miniature or precision applications and to provide long
electrode life for high production requirements.

Fig:1 Schematic Diagram of plasma arc welding setup

1.1.1Working Function of Plasma Arc

Plasma arc welding process uses plasma to transfer an electric arc to a work piece. The metal
to be welded is melted by the intense heat of the arc and fuses together. In the plasma
welding torch a Tungsten electrode is located within a copper nozzle having a small opening
at the tip

Fig: 2 working Function of Plasma Arc

1. Gas plasma, 2. Nozzle Protection,3. Shield Gas, 4. Electrode, 5. Nozzle constriction,

6. Electric Arc
1.1.2 How Plasma Formed

The plasma is generated by constricting the electric arc passing through the orifice of the
nozzle. Hot ionized gases are also forced through this opening. The plasma has a stiff
columnar form and is parallel sided so that it does not flare out in the same manner as the gas
tungsten arc. This high temperature arc, when directed toward the work, will melt the base
metal surface and the filler metal that is added to make the weld. In this way, the plasma acts
as an extremely high temperature heat source to form a molten weld puddle. This is similar to
the gas tungsten arc. The higher-temperature plasma, however, causes this to happen faster,
and is known as the melt-in mode of operation.

Fig 3: Plasma arc

The high temperature of the plasma or constricted arc and the high velocity plasma jet
provide an increased heat transfer rate over gas tungsten arc welding when using the same
current. This results in faster welding speeds and deeper weld penetration. This method of
operation is used for welding extremely thin material and for welding multi-pass groove and
welds and fillet welds.

1.2 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) or Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)

GTAW or TIG welding process is an arc welding process uses a non-consumable tungsten
electrode to produce the weld. The weld area is protected from atmosphere with a shielding
gas generally, Argon or Helium or sometimes mixture of Argon and Helium. A filler metal
may also feed manually for proper welding. GTAW most commonly called TIG welding
process was developed during Second World War. With the development of TIG welding
process, welding of difficult to weld materials e.g. Aluminium and Magnesium become
possible. The use of TIG today has spread to a variety of metals like stainless steel, mild steel
and high tensile steels, Al alloy, Titanium alloy. Like other welding system, TIG welding
power sources have also improved from basic transformer types to the highly electronic
controlled power source today.

1.2.1Basic mechanism of TIG welding

TIG welding is an arc welding process that uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode to
produce the weld. The weld area is protected from atmosphere by an inert shielding gas
(argon or helium), and a filler metal is normally used. The power is supplied from the power
source (rectifier), through a hand-piece or welding torch and is delivered to a tungsten
electrode which is fitted into the hand piece. An electric arc is then created between the
tungsten electrode and the work piece using a constant-current welding power supply that
produces energy and conducted across the arc through a column of highly ionized gas and
metal vapours. The tungsten electrode and the welding zone are protected from the
surrounding air by inert gas. The electric arc can produce temperatures of up to 20,000oC and
this heat can be focused to melt and join two different part of material. The weld pool can be
used to join the base metal with or without filler material. Schematic diagram of TIG welding
and mechanism of TIG welding are shown in fig.4 .

Fig 4: Schematic Diagram of TIG Welding System.

1.3 Plasma+TIG welding

Plasma welding is similar to TIG welding. The difference is that in plasma welding, the arc is
sharply constricted by a cooled gas nozzle through which a flow of plasma gas is directed.
The shielding gas flows through the outside gas nozzle, providing an optimum gas shield to
the weld seam. The concentrated arc results in maximum energy focus, leading to a deep
penetration effect in the work piece that can only be matched by a laser beam. What is more,
the welding speed is as much as 20% faster than in mechanized TIG welding.

Fig 5: Graph of Speed vs. Thickness plasma + TIG

1. High quality of plasma weld.

2. 30 to 50 % increase in productivity.
3. Can be adapted to varied boiler-making processes due to its great flexibility.
4. No weld-seam preparation
5. filler metal and higher availability of the wearing parts
6. In order for plasma to form, very high temperatures of up to 25,000 °C are needed. The
concentrated arc, however, the heat input is so precisely targeted that
considerably less component distortion occurs than in TIG welding.

The plasma + TIG process is specially designed for large capacity stainless steel boiler work:
length > 3 meters,- diameter > 2.2 meters, or manufacture of large stainless steel tubes
welded in one piece.

1.4 Austenitic stainless steel

Austenitic steels are non-magnetic stainless steels that contain high levels of chromium and
nickel and low levels of carbon. Known for their formability and resistance to corrosion,
austenitic steels are the most widely used grade of stainless steel.
There are many types of Austenitic Stainless Steel. They are 200 Series, 300 Series,400
Series. But nowadays 300 Series Austenitic Stainless Steel are use because these Stainless
steel alloys resist corrosion, maintain their strength at high temperatures and are easy to
maintain. They most commonly include chromium, nickel and molybdenum. Stainless steel
alloys are used predominantly in the automotive, aerospace and construction industries.
Austenitic stainless steels are used in a wide range of applications, including
Automotive trim, cookware, beverage and chemical equipment, industrial equipment,
pipeline grade
1.4.1 Nickel-based austenitic steels are classified as 300 series
304 Stainless Steel: This non-magnetic alloy is the most versatile and the most widely used
of all stainless steels.
308 Stainless Steel typically contains about 20 % chromium and an average of 11 % nickel.

316 Stainless Steel: This alloy is recommended for welding because it has a carbon content
lower than 302 to avoid carbide precipitation in welding applications. The addition of
molybdenum and a slightly higher nickel content make 316 Stainless Steel suitable for
architectural applications in severe settings, from polluted marine environments to areas with
sub-zero temperatures. Equipment in the chemical, food, paper, mining, and pharmaceutical
and petroleum industries often includes 316 Stainless Steel.

1.4.2Type of L

L" stands for 'low carbon'

∙ 304L
Alloy 304L a 300 series stainless steel austenitic, which has a minimum of 18%
chromium and 8% nickel.
∙ 308L
Grade 308L stainless steel is a low carbon version of grade 308.
∙ 316L
The main difference is the lower carbon content, 316 being 0.030, 316L being as low
as 0.016. The 316L is more ductile when annealed. It is more resistant to general corrosion
and pitting than conventional nickel chromium stainless steels such as 302-
304.
1.5. Alloy 316L

∙ Alloy 316/316L (UNSS31600/S31603) is chromium-nickel-molybdenum austenitic

stainless steel developed to provide improved corrosion resistance to Alloy 304/304L
in moderately corrosive environments. In most applications Alloy 316/316L has
superior corrosion resistance to Alloy 304/304L.Alloy 316/316L can be easily welded
and processed by standard shop fabrication practices.
∙ 316L austenitic stainless steel alloy wrought plates with mentions of 150 mm 9 150
mm 9 9 mm were selected for the welding experiments, with the average composition
of 0.025%C, 48%Si, 1.26%Mn, 10.2%Ni, 17.7%Cr, 0.032%P, 0.002%S, 0.0021%O
and the rest of Fe.
∙ A post weld heat treatment is not necessary.

Type 316L Stainless Steel is widely used in applications requiring corrosion resistance
superior to Type 304, or good elevated temperature strength. It has very low carbon &
contains Molybdenum.
Typical uses include exhaust manifolds, furnace parts, heat exchangers, jet engine parts,
pharmaceutical & photographic equipment, valve and pump trim, chemical equipment,
digesters, tanks, evaporators, pulp, paper and textile processing equipment, parts exposed to
marine atmosphere and tubing.
Austenitic stainless steels have a coefficient of expansion 50% greater than carbon
manganese steels, so distortion and generation of residual stress can be a problem. Welding
currents should therefore be kept as low as possible with high travel speeds, tacking should
be carried out and welding should be balanced and properly distributed. Preheating should
not be applied and post-weld heat treatment of this material is seldom required after welding.
The simple assumption is often made that the magnitude of the maximum tensile residual
stress in a weld in the as-welded condition is equal to the yield strength of the weld or parent
material [1].
These tensile residual stresses will be of approximately yield magnitude if two conditions are
met, namely that
• There is restraint against the free thermal contraction of the heated material (which is
a function of the geometry and stiffness of the parts being joined).
• The thermal contraction strain from the softening temperature to ambient or pre-heat
temperature is greater than the yield strain of the material (which is a function of material
properties) [2].
Leggatt et. al. [2] discussed the nature of residual stresses in welded structures such as butt
welds, circumferential butt welds and weld cladding in terms of their magnitude,
directionality, spatial distribution, range and variability.
Yield magnitude residual stresses are likely to occur where the contraction strain (thermal
strain during cooling after welding), α (Ts-T0) % is greater than the yield strain ϵY= σY/E %
, where, α is the coefficient of thermal expansion; Ts the softening temperature (defined here
[2] as the temperature at which the yield strength drops to 10% of its value at ambient
temperature); To the ambient or uniform pre-heat temperature; E the Young’s modulus; σY
the yield strength.
at ambient or pre-heat temperature. This is the case in all austenitic stainless steels, as for
example in type 316, where the thermal strain is more than ten times greater than yield strain,
and residual stress up to the 1.0% proof stress can occur [2]. Another material property that
may affect the residual stresses in welded joints is phase change, particularly where this
occurs at low temperatures during cooling after welding. The type of 316 austenitic stainless
steel has no phase changes, and the stress accumulates steadily as the material cools under
restraint from 1300OC to room temperature, Fig. 6
 Fig. 6 Effect of phase change on accumulation of stresses during cooling
The heat input, which can adversely affect corrosion resistance and lead to excessive
distortion, should be limited by using the correct electrode diameter to give the required bead
profile and properties at the maximum travel speed.[1]

M. Dadfar et al. [5] studied TIG welding of 316L stainless steels plates of 2mm thickness.
The welding process was performed without the filler metal and as a lap form due to the
small thickness of the plates. Selective parameters were gas flow (lit/min) 9, voltage (V)
11±2, travel speed (mm/min) 70, current (A) 55, heat input (J/mm) 518, basis of thickness of
plate, type of alloy and type of welding process.
Delta ferrite composition was tested using the given Cr and Ni based equivalents (though
ferrite scope can be good solution for measuring the amount of delta ferrite)
Creq =Cr + Mo + 0.7Nb
Nieq =Ni + 0.35C + 20N + 0.25Cu
As the heat input increased, the induction time decreased rapidly. This was attributed to the
fact that the higher heat input would result in coarser δ-ferrite grains and that the passive film
on the surface of coarse-grained δ-ferrite possesses low stability.
Moreover the corrosion test results revealed that the weld metal in the as-welded sample is
the cathodic part. Welding process has a detrimental effect on corrosion behavior and
biocompatibility of 316L SS. Solution heat treatment could improve the corrosion behavior
of as-welded 316L SS. [5]
Hot cracking which is a predominant phenomenon in austenitic stainless steels is closely
studied by RatiSaluja et. al. [6] on type 304L and type 316L ASS welds. In general, 304L
and 316Lsteels are readily weldable with common arc processes and other techniques, but
very hard to keep flat, as the coefficient of linear expansion is 1.7 times that of mild steel.
308L may use as filler for 304L, as 304L being low carbon versions suffer from weld decay.
For arc welding processes, the hot cracking tendency can be predicted by considering the
relative amounts of the ferrite stabilizers to the amount of austenite stabilizers. While for
fusion welding processes with either very high cooling rates or very low cooling rates the
weld nugget morphology becomes more important than the primary mode of weld pool
solidification. The beam processes are best suited to applications that favor very high aspect
ratio weld nuggets (high depth to width ratio). The best gas for MIG welding for 304L and
316L is 97.5% Argon +2.5% CO2. Virtually all standard specifications in current use for the
procurement of 304L and 316L allow for the possibility of receiving material overly rich in
austenite stabilizers such that weld solidification as primary austenite could occur and lead to
hot cracking in a production weld. [7]
It has been concluded that Quantification of HAS for various specifications of types 304L
and 316L can be done with the help of following equation. But it is advisable to have
S<0.035%, Ni<1.0%, Mn>0.8%, C<0.15% and Mn/S>35 [8].
1.5.1 Hot cracking susceptibility (HCS)

A review of hot cracking in both steel welds shows that the problem is more prevalent in
316L steels. The propensity for hot cracking is determined primarily by detailed effects of
impurity elements S, P and Si and alloying elements Cr, Ni, Mn and Mo for various
compositions of 304L and 316L. The result presented here reveals HCS for the typical
SA240- 304L is found least and maximum for SA 312 (pipe)-316L. The value of HCS was
quite high for SA 312 (pipe)-316 L and SA 240(plate)- 316L steels in compare to type 304L
steel. Hence filler metals should over-alloy with Cr, Mo, Si, Ni, C, N and Mn in most cases
for controlling formation of delta ferrite. Variations within the composition limits of these
alloys can affect both the mechanical properties and welding characteristics of the alloy.
Solidification mode was found major determinant of HCS, ensuring an FA or F mode ensures
the best resistance to hot cracking. The final weld metal structure should contain a few per
cent delta ferrite, which is a sign of a sound weld.

Fig 7 Representation of an FA or F mode in welding according to Ni Cr equivalents

[6]
 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
K.S. Prasad et.al.[4] studied the weld quality characteristics of various austenitic stainless
steels, thin sheets(0.25mm thickness) namely AISI 304L, AISI 316L, AISI 316Ti, AISI 321
which are commonly used for manufacturing of metal bellows using Micro Plasma Arc
Welding (MPAW).
Pulse current MPAW was carried out successfully on various austenitic stainless steels like
AISI 304L, AISI 316L, AISI 316Ti, and AISI 321for same welding conditions and same
thickness. Peak current, background current, pulse rate and pulse width are chosen as the
important welding parameters in the study and welding was carried out based on the
optimal values of welding parameters obtained for AISI 304L from earlier studies. For same
thickness and uniform welding conditions, it is observed that AISI 304L has better weld bead
geometry, higher hardness and tensile properties compare to other stainless steels selected.
The high hardness and tensile strength may be because of martensite transformation taking
place during welding. Moreover some dynamic properties like Creep and Fatigue is not
considered which can be a good area of research.
L.S.Kumaret. al [9] considered die penetration test on TIG and MIG welded joints of 304
ASS and found that Hardness of the austenitic stainless steel when welded with TIG process
is obtained as BHN is 185 HBW, whereas for the MIG welding the BHN is 349 HBW. From
this we can conclude that hardness of MIG welding is greater than the hardness
of TIG welding. Therefore MIG welding is suitable where the hardness is the main criterion.
From the tension test conducted on the specimen we can conclude that the ultimate load of
TIG welded specimen is 57600 N where as for the MIG welded specimen is 56160N.
Therefore we can say that TIG welded specimen can bear higher loads than MIG welded
specimen. The ultimate tensile strength of TIG welded specimen is 675.22 MPa whereas for
the MIG welded specimen is 652.029 N/mm square. Therefore we can say that TIG welded
specimen has higher tensile strength. Percentage elongation of TIG welded specimen is
40.500% where as for the MIG welded specimen is 47.8%. Therefore we can conclude that
the ductility is higher in MIG welded specimen.
According to the standards the percentage of reduction in area should be 40%. But they got
more than the standard. So, that the weld joint is more strength. The yield stress of the TIG
welded specimen is 400.238 N/mm square whereas for the MIG welded specimen is 353.419
N/mm squared. Therefore we can conclude that TIG welded specimen can bear high yield
stress.
E. Ahmadi and A.R. Ebrahimi et al. describes the use of activating flux in TIG welding
process is one of the most notable techniques which are developed recently. This technique,
known as A-TIG welding, increases the penetration depth and improves the productivity of
the TIG welding. In the present study, four oxide fluxes (SiO2,TiO2,Cr2O3, and CaO) were
used to investigate the effect of activating flux on the depth/width ratio and mechanical
property of 316L austenitic stainless steel. When using a certain coating density of activating
fluxes, the weld penetration and D/W ratio increased while the weld metal width decreased.
Among the fluxes, the SiO2 flux had a significant effect on enhancing the weld penetration in
A-TIG.
YueqiaoFeng et al. [3] describes Keyhole gas tungsten arc welding (K-TIG) used to weld
AISI 316L stainless steel of mid-thickness (thickness ranging 6–13 mm) without filler
material. The weld mainly consists of austenite and δ-ferrite and has a dendritic structure. The
base-metal grains near the fusion line do not grow appreciably, and the HAZ is very narrow
(fig 8).
Fig 8: Joint microstructure: (a) transverse cross-section; (b) weld metal; (e) fusion line
zone
Emel Taban et al. describes the Experimental investigation 1.4462 duplex stainless steel (DSS)
with a thickness of 6.8 mm was joined by plasma arc, Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG), and plasma
arc + TIG welding processes. Concerning the plasma arc, TIG, and plasma arc + TIG welding
of DSS study have on WM root of Weld 2.been drawn: Defect-free joining of 6.8 mm thick
1.4462 stainless steel is possible by PAW, TIG, and plasma + TIG welding without filler
metal for plasma weld and with filler metal for TIG and for TIG cap pass of plasma + TIG
weld. Hardness at the HAZs, for all types of welds studied can be limited to 315 HV1.
WEISS and R. STICKLER et al. describes 316 austenitic stainless steel is widely used in
steam generating plants and nuclear reactors the knowledge about aging reactions, nature of
precipitates, and precipitation kinetics during high temperature exposure is limited. Time
temperature-precipitation (TTP) diagrams were determined between 400 ~ and 900~ for up to
3000 hr as a function of carbon content, solution treatment temperature, and cold work. The
results of the aging studies of Type 316 stainless steels allow a detailed characterization of
the phase instabilities which occurs in the solution-treated austenitic matrices during exposure
to elevated temperatures.
G. Lothongkum et al. describes the Experimental investigation The TIG pulse welding
parameters of AISI 316L stainless steel plate of 3 mm thickness at the welding positions of
6±12 h. The weld bead profiles corresponded to DIN 8563 class BS. The studied parameters
were welding speed, pulse/base currents, pulse frequency, and % on time. Pure argon and
argon with nitrogen contents of 1±4 vol.% were used as shielding gas with a flow rate of 8
l/min at both the top and the back sides of welds. The welding parameters for TIG pulse
welding of AISI 316L stainless steel plate of 3 mm thickness at 6, 8, 9,10 and 12 h welding
positions are experimented. The investigated parameters are base current, pulse current, pulse
frequency, % on time, Ar + N2 (0±4 vol.%) as shielding gas and welding speed.
Paulo J. Modenesi et al. decribes Gas tungsten arc welding is fundamental in those
applications where it is important to control the weld bead shape and the metallurgical
characteristics. This process is, however, of low productivity, particularly in the welding of
large components. The activated flux TIG (ATIG) welding process, developed by the Paton
Welding Institute in the 1960s, is now considered as a feasible alternative to increase the
process productivity. The results of this work have shown that the use of a flux, even of
extremely simple formulation, can greatly increase (up to around 300%) the weld penetration
in TIG welding.
C.S. wu et al. describes A mathematical model has been developed to describe the heat
transfer and fluid flow in the TIG welding arc. Calculations are carried out to represent100
and 200 A arcs with arc lengths of 6.3 mm and 10 mm. Based on the results of this analysis,
the following conclusions may be drawn:
(a) Plasma velocity is highest near the cathode tip where there exists a steep gradient of
electrical potential, high current density, and strong magnetic field. The model predicts a
maximum velocity of 184m/s for the 100 A arc and 235 m/s for the 200 A arc at an arc length
of 10 mm.
(b) The predicted temperature profiles in arc regions agree well with spectroscopically
measured values.
(c) The predicted axial current densities and heat flux at the anode are found to be in good
agreement with experimental data. The spatial distributions of current density and heat flux at
the anode computed by the model may be introduced into the calculations of weld pool
behaviour.
Liu Liming et al. describes experimental investigate Welding of AZ31B magnesium alloy
was carried out using hybrid laser–TIG (LATIG) welding, laser beam welding (LBW) and
gas tungsten arc (TIG) welding. The weld ability and microstructure of magnesium AZ31B
alloy welded using LATIG, LBW and TIG. Penetration of LATIG is double that of TIG, four
times that of LBW.
In LATIG welding process, the stability is evident compared with using TIG only weld
process, especially at high speed and under low TIG current levels. The size of grains by LBW
is the smallest, while the size by TIG is the largest. The size of grains by LATIG is
intermediate.

3. Experiment

316L austenitic stainless steel annealed plates of 300x75x5 mm dimensions were welded
using Gas Metal Arc and Plasma Arc welding techniques. PAW was carried out without the
application of any filler material whereas the GMA welding was carried out under the
application of 308L filler wire. On laboratory testing, the materials revealed the chemical
composition as given in table 1.

Composition %C %Cr %Ni %Mo %Mn %Si %Cu

316L (BM) 0.03 17.42 10.42 2.08 0.76 0.89 -
308L (FM) 0.06 19.52 8.48 Trace 0.57 0.93 0.22
Table 1. Chemical composition of 316L and 308L used in study
The setup used for GMAW and PAW is shown in fig. 1 (a) & (b) respectively. The Plasma
gas used is a mixture of Argon+H2.Welding were carried out at CoE welding Technology
Lab, CVRCE. The welding parameters are listed in table 2.

Fig 1. Welding Set up (a) GMAW (b) PAW

Welding Current Voltage Wire feed Welding Gas flow rate Gas composition
Parameters (I) (V) speed (WF) speed (Ws) (GR)
(mm/min) (mm/min) (lit/min)
GMAW 150 20 1.3 98% Ar + 2% CO2
PAW 105 27 - 1.3 98% Ar + 2% CO2

After welding cross sectional metallographic and tensile samples were prepared as shown in
the schematic fig 2.