cAr

Short History
of the

United States
Robert V Remini

0
An Imprint of HarperCollinsPublishers
 Who hz.s.
A SHORT HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. Copyright © 2008 by Robert V. Remini. All
rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this book may be
used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission except in
the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. For information,
address HarperCollins Publishers, ro East 53rd Street, New York, NY
10022.

Designed by Level C

ISBN: 978-0-06-083144-8

Book Club Edition

 •

Manifest Destiny,
Progressivism, War, and the
Roaring Twenties

A S THE UNITED States experienced the rapid growth of business

and the accumulation of wealth, it recognized that it had come a
way in a relatively short period of time. Prior to the Civil War e
were few great fortunes. Most industries were small, although e was
growth throughout the antebellum period. Indeed, a few
made enough money so that a new word had to be devised to de-
e them. "Millionaire" was the word, and it applied to such men as
Jacob Astor, for example, who built his fortune from fur trading.
But the great business boom resulting from the Civil War revolution-
the size, methods, and marketing of industrial enterprises. The rise
- big business in the United States produced giant companies in the
g of steel and the refining of oil and sugar. Even farming became
anized with the invention of the McCormick reaper. Such inven-
as the telephone by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876, the electric
ulb by Thomas Edison in 1879, the linotype machine by Ottmar
4131111

31ergentheber in 1886, and many others created entirely new companies. Ai

mentioned earlier, railroads, which had first appeared in the 18zos, icw
stretched across the continent. By 1900 there were several hundred itetisand
miles of railroad track connecting urban centers with remote mm--ns and
villages. And, as the economic historian Alfred D. Chandler
188 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Manifest Destiny, Progre

Jr., has shown, this expanded railroad system required professional man- expansion with the purchase o
agers, engineers, and other specialists to provide for its construction and by the acquisition of Florida it
maintenance, as well as the billing, collection, the preparation of timeta- the seizure of territories fron
bles, and other services. Consequently, a new class of managerial profes- 1848, including the Gadsden
sionals had arisen, enabling railroad companies to expand rapidly in size paid "conscience money" of Sic
and productivity. River in Arizona and New AI
What happened with railroading—that is, the appearance of mana- Her. Then, in 1867, William S
gerial professionals—soon spread to other industries. The robber bar- Lincoln and Johnson, negotia
ons, obsessed with maximizing their profits, set about converting to a was acquired for $7.2 million.
managerial form of capitalism by which they could better dominate opposition: Federalists denou
their industry and form monopolies to maintain control. Branches of a tutional, Jackson was denounc
particular company would be established in various sections of the nated against war with Mexic
country, directed by professional managers who supervised thousands the outrageous cost of Alas]
of workers and salesmen. Some of these robber barons, such as John D. -Seward's Folly." But the dis
Rockefeller and Andrew Carnegie, earned so much money that they than justified the purchase of
set up foundations to give it away. Without an income tax, many of The physical expansion of
them became billionaires. of the Hawaiian Islands in
Because of the enormous wealth generated by the expansion of big chants, and planters had est
business, the United States became more conscious of its increased power the islands starting in the if
in the world—not that it wished to involve itself with the problems of deposed the reigning monarc
foreign nations or exert any influence in world affairs. Isolationism a government that lasted unt
seemed to provide many people with a sense of security by simply follow- istration in 1898, passed a 3
ing a policy of neutrality first enunciated by President George Washing- spite the strong opposition c
ton. Still, there lurked the pride of knowing that Americans' "experiment and the Democratic parties.
in freedom," resulting from a republican form of government, could be these islands, aside from the
attractive to other nations and imitated. If other countries wished to exotic fruits, such as the pin
achieve what the United States had acquired in terms of wealth and fueling bases and naval facili
power they need only convert from monarchy to democracy. Americans was continuing to reach act
had a desire to see their "experiment" take root across the globe and. lightened system of governn
when necessary, to assist it themselves by direct or indirect action. later Congress granted Haw
By the end of the ninetec
congratulatory sense of its
THE PROGRESS OF the United States seemed miraculous. Its steady, committed to individual free,
unrelenting development began with the arrival of Europeans searching genuine humanitarian regan
for land and with their conquest of a wilderness teeming with native poverished conditions and
tribes. After the Revolution and the establishment of a unified govern- lief in its mission to spread
ment under the Constitution, the United States continued its westward This was Manifest Destiny
-

Manifest Destiny, Progressivism, War, and the Roaring Twenties 189

pansion with the purchase of the Louisiana Territory in 1803, followed

the acquisition of Florida in 1821, the acquisition of Texas in 1845, and
- seizure of territories from Mexico following the Mexican War in
including the Gadsden Purchase in 1853, when the United States
- _21 "conscience money" of $10 million for a strip of land south of the Gila
__--er in Arizona and New Mexico that had been seized four years ear-
Then, in 1867, William Seward, secretary of state under Presidents
and Johnson, negotiated a treaty with Russia by which Alaska was
acquired for $7.2 million. To all these acquisitions there was spirited
opposition: Federalists denounced the Louisiana Purchase as unconsti-
-_:kmal, Jackson was denounced for his seizure of Florida, Whigs fulmi-
- _-_ed against war with Mexico, and Seward suffered personal abuse for
outrageous cost of Alaska. The acquisition of Alaska was called
:ward's Folly." But the discovery of gold and later oil and gas more
justified the purchase of Alaska as far as cost was concerned.
The physical expansion of the nation continued with the annexation of
the Hawaiian Islands in July 1898. American missionaries, mer-
:Hants, and planters had established economic and cultural ties with lie
islands starting in the 1830s. But in a successful revolt Americans :eposed
the reigning monarch, Queen Liliuokalani, in 1893 and erected a
government that lasted until Congress, during the McKinley admin-
istration in 1898, passed a joint resolution annexing the islands, de-
spite the strong opposition of anti-imperialists in both the Republican and
the Democratic parties. One of the great attractions in possessing these
islands, aside from their being a lucrative market and a source of exotic
fruits, such as the pineapple, was the fact that they provided re-
:-deling bases and naval facilities for the United States at a time when it was
continuing to reach across the seas and bring its supposedly en-
2ghtened system of government to a needy and eager world. Two years 4

_ ater Congress granted Hawaii territorial status.

By the end of the nineteenth century the United States had such a
congratulatory sense of its success in developing an industrial society
committed to individual freedom and democratic rule, combined with its
genuine humanitarian regard for the suffering of those living under im-
poverished conditions and dictatorial rule, that it slowly renewed its be-
lief in its mission to spread freedom and democracy around the globe. This
was Manifest Destiny revisited. The idea was first enunciated in
190 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Manifest Destiny, Progre-_-_-:

1845 by John L. O'Sullivan, editor of the Democratic Review, who sa=t -.ugh proof of Spain's guilt a
that "Providence" had chosen this country "by the right of our manifes on the floor of the House
destiny" to spearhead a drive throughout the entire North American s tood in Spain and it ough.
continent for "the development of the great experiment of liberty an,: globe, that while this great
federative self government entrusted to us." What had begun as an argu- r Is prepared for war, if war be
ment "to overspread and possess" the continent had now become a globa_ A reply from Spain about t
mission, at least with regard to disseminating the blessings of liberty an,: 1898 Congress passed an
democracy. The nation forgot the warning of John Quincy Adams, wh z-,endence and demanding t
had declared that the United States should be "the well-wisher to the sithority from Cuba. The Pr(
freedom and independence of all" nations but that it must not go "abroac: in lr-ze to implement this resolu
search of monsters to destroy." To do so would inaugurate America::: emt to the resolution stated tl
search for "dominion and power" in the world and would ultimately re- annexing Cuba but would "It
sult in the loss of its own "freedom and independence." d to its own people" once
Disregarding this sage advice, the United States at the tail end i McKinley signed the resolution
the nineteenth century, spotted its first "monster to destroy": Spain. diplomatic relations with tl
Rebelsin Cuba had initiated an insurrection against Spanish rule c' war, whereupon Congre
the island in an effort to obtain their independence. This revolution :c April 25.
had resulted in part because of a failed economy brought on by the tar- Most Americans felt a sense
iff policies of the United States, which had imposed heavy duties or a desire to share the blessings of
raw sugar, the island's principal export. Spain's brutal response I- n -re---1Y engaged in what came to
crushing the rebellion evoked sympathetic outcries of protest from the Sc-anish-American War provide
United States. The horror stories of the treatment of Cuban civilian= and land victories in Cuba as
by Spanish officials involving rape, assault, and torture were just tle possession. In May, Cc
sort of juicy material some American journalists loved to feed to a Bay in the Philippines and c
lurid-hungry reading public in the United States. Such "yellow jour- :;z7v was present to guard the is
nalistic" newspapers (so called because of a cartoon titled the "Yellcra -:-_:.Dps descended on the island,
Kid" that appeared in them) such as William Randolph Hearst's known as the Rough
York Journal and Joseph Pulitzer's New York World published detaile,± Wood and Lieutenant Colc
accounts of alleged Spanish depredations committed against Cuban _:1:.ed as assistant secretary of ti
nationals. These made for irresistible reading. As though responding :- Spain suffered one humiliati
the public mood, Congress passed a concurrent resolution in Febru2:- an army and its fleet. A you
1896 favoring recognition of Cuban belligerency. The situation heatt 2s1Ai provoked a poor, weak, deer
up when, on February 15, 1898, the USS Maine, on a visit to Havan:- `min sued for peace in July, al
was sunk by an explosion in which 26o officers and sailors perishes Washington on August 12. The
The finger of guilt was pointed directly at Spanish officials. Jingois-a ?iris on December to, 1898. Sl
had a field day trumpeting what the nation would do in retaliation—as ceded Puerto Rico and Gu
 Manifest Destiny, Progressivism, War, and the Roaring Twenties 191

71 :ugh proof of Spain's guilt already existed. Growled one Congress-

= on the floor of the House of Representatives, "It ought to be un-
Ltrstood in Spain and it ought to be understood in every country on
-_-_,: globe, that while this great country sincerely desires to be at peace,
- prepared for war, if war becomes necessary."
A reply from Spain about the sinking was eagerly awaited, but in
ril 1898 Congress passed another resolution recognizing Cuban in-
=t-Dendence and demanding the immediate withdrawal of Spanish
_-:hority from Cuba. The President was authorized to use military
:7ce to implement this resolution if necessary. The Teller Amend-
1-__ent to the resolution stated that the United States had no intention
annexing Cuba but would "leave the government and control of the
_-land to its own people" once peace had been established. President
McKinley signed the resolution on April 20. Immediately, Spain broke off
diplomatic relations with the United States, and on April 24 de-
clared war, whereupon Congress responded with its own declaration :+n
April 25.
Most Americans felt a sense of honor and national pride, along with a
desire to share the blessings of liberty and democracy, and so they ea-
zerly engaged in what came to be called "a splendid little war." The
Spanish-American War provided the United States with a series of na-
val and land victories in Cuba as well as the Philippine Islands, another
Spanish possession. In May, Commodore George Dewey entered Ma-
nila Bay in the Philippines and completely destroyed what little Spanish
navy was present to guard the islands. In Cuba some 17,000 American
troops descended on the island, the most prominent of which was one
regiment, known as the Rough Riders, commanded by Colonel Leon-
ard Wood and Lieutenant Colonel Theodore Roosevelt, who had re-
signed as assistant secretary of the navy to participate in the invasion.
Spain suffered one humiliating military disaster after another and lost
an army and its fleet. A young, wealthy, powerful, emerging giant had
provoked a poor, weak, decrepit ancient and brought it to its knees. Spain
sued for peace in July, and a preliminary treaty was signed in
Washington on August 12. The final peace treaty was negotiated in
Paris on December ro, 1898. Spain recognized Cuba's independence and
ceded Puerto Rico and Guam to the United States as a war in-
192 A SHORT HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES Manifest Destiny, Progress:

demnity. It also surrendered the Philippine Islands in return for S:: .1_,:vernment for the islands an
million. -rick several more decades befo
President McKinley claimed that he had been troubled over what z. :917 the United States purci x
do about the Philippines and had prayed for divine guidance. "I walke rS25 million.
the floor of the White House night after night until midnight," he re-
membered. "I went down on my knees and prayed Almighty God Lx
light and guidance." The answer came in the middle of the night: "thr: - E TWENTIETH CENTUR`
we could not give them back to Spain—that would be cowardly ari on March 14, the Cum
dishonorable . . that we could not leave them to themselves—thew only gold—becarn
were unfit for self-government . . . that there was nothing left for us aged, thus marking the end (
do but to take them all, and to educate the Filipinos, and uplift arm gal to gold. Then the folk
civilize and Christianize them, and by God's grace do the very best wr. ILKinley as President, along 1
could by them." a selection that Marcus I-
Uplift and civilize them! Even Christianize them, despite the fair: Lpaign, strongly opposed by
that most "Filipinos" were Roman Catholics. Bring them the blessings amernor of New York. The D
of Americanized freedom and democracy so that some day Filipino* Arran and Adlai E. Stevenson
would become wealthy and powerful. Any number of Americans actu- m t, and free silver. A Sociali
ally believed it was their moral duty to bring an "enlightened society' aajiana and Job Harriman of
to the benighted Filipinos, while certain business interests lusted after maple's Party also put forward
expanding trade with Asian countries as they looked westward to de- Less than a year later, on S
velop new markets. shot by Leon Czolgosz, an
In demanding the Philippine Islands the United States had foolish} won in Buffalo, New York, an
and needlessly embarked on an imperialistic course that not only new President, Theodore
vided the nation politically but set into motion forces that would la • zromising to "continue, abso
provoke a bloody war. By thrusting itself into Asian affairs, where had McKinley," but he was known I
little real interest or concern, the country courted catastrophe—a:-, it labor laws, food and drul
came on December 7, 1941, at Pearl Harbor. irm, and trust busting. A nurr
The decision of the United States to purchase the Philippines cars iciDut what he might do as ct
as quite a shock to the people of the islands, and they rose up in rebe:- M_Lrcus Hanna, "that damnec
lion. They had expected independence and now, under the leadersh- ivcres."
of Emilio Aguinaldo, they were prepared to fight to achieve it. Amen- Indeed, these leaders had goc
can troops put down the insurrection, an action that contradicted ev- manner of social reformers f
erything this nation professed about liberty and democracy. Preside= under the banner of what
McKinley appointed a commission—headed by William Howard r rmed to further popular go`
a federal circuit court judge—to establish a government in the Philip- ney insisted that the nation ne
pines. It would take almost fifty years before the Philippine peope cif.-= 1(iren, legislation regulating
would achieve their freedom. In 1916 the Jones Act provided sew mined safety and health condi
 Manifest Destiny, Progressivism, War, and the Roaring Twenties 193

zovernment for the islands and promised early independence. But it wok
several more decades before that independence was granted. And W 1917
the United States purchased the Virgin Islands from Denmark for $25
million.

THE TWENTIETH CENTURY began with several momentous events.

First, on March 14, the Currency or Gold Standard Act, by which
;old—and only gold—became the standard unit of currency, was
passed, thus marking the end of a two-decade struggle to make silver
equal to gold. Then the following November the nation reelected
McKinley as President, along with Theodore Roosevelt as Vice Presi-
dent, a selection that Marcus Hanna, the skillful manager of the 1896
.ampaign, strongly opposed because of Roosevelt's reform record as
zovernor of New York. The Democrats nominated William Jennings
Bryan and Adlai E. Stevenson on a platform of anti-imperialism, anti-
:rust, and free silver. A Socialist Party nominated Eugene V. Debs of
Indiana and Job Harriman of California. A Prohibition Party and a
People's Party also put forward candidates for the presidential office.
Less than a year later, on September 6, 1901, President McKinley was
shot by Leon Czolgosz, an anarchist, at the Pan-American Expo-
sition in Buffalo, New York, and he died a week later, on September 14. The
new President, Theodore Roosevelt, tried to reassure the nation by
promising to "continue, absolutely unbroken the policy of President
McKinley," but he was known to champion such progressive causes as
child labor laws, food and drug regulation, conservation, railroad re-
form, and trust busting. A number of party leaders expressed concern
about what he might do as chief executive. "Now look," exclaimed
Marcus Hanna, "that damned cowboy is President of the United
States."
Indeed, these leaders had good reason to feel concern. Populists and all
manner of social reformers from the East and West joined Roose-
velt under the banner of what was called Progressivism, a movement
formed to further popular government and progressive legislation.
They insisted that the nation needed labor laws regarding women and
children, legislation regulating wages and hours, and statutes that
defined safety and health conditions in factories. Trusts and railroads