Write descriptive essays on each of the following.

1. Application of 4-quadrant DC drives in two selected systems.

Four Quadrant Operation of Motor Drive

For consideration of Four Quadrant Operation of Motor Drive, it is useful to establish suitable
conventions about the signs of torque and speed. Motor speed is considered positive when
rotating in the forward direction. For drives which operate only in one direction, forward speed
will be their normal speed. In loads involving up-and-down motions, the speed of motor which
causes upward motion is considered forward motion. For reversible drives, forward speed is
chosen arbitrarily. Then the rotation in opposite direction gives reverse speed which is assigned
the negative sign. Positive motor torque is defined as the torque which produces acceleration or
the positive rate of change of speed in forward direction. According to Eq. (1), positive load torque
is opposite in direction to the Positive motor torque. Motor torque is considered negative if it
produces deceleration.

(1)

A motor operates in two modes motoring and braking. In motoring, it converts electrical energy
to mechanical energy, which supports its motion. In braking, it works as a generator converting
mechanical energy to electrical energy, and thus, opposes the motion. Motor can provide
motoring and braking operations for both forward and reverse directions.

 Dc motor drives are widely used to control the speed for acceleration and deceleration. In Class E
chopper appications,4-quadrant DC drives are used. In this application the load is active (ie,
Motor load). The motor's direction of rotation can be reversed without reversing the polarity of
its excitation.

Figure 1: Typical operating regions

 Figure 2: Class E-chopper Circuit Diagram

From Figure 2, for the load to operate in first quadrant (forward motoring), the switches T1 and
T4 are operated. Here, the switch T1 is switched whereas switch T4 is kept on. Therefore, both
the voltage and current across and through the load are positive rotating the motor in forward
direction. Now, the speed of the motor can be varied by varying the duty cycle of the switch T1.
As the duty cycle varies, the voltage across the armature of motor varies proportionally thereby
varying the motor speed as the N is proportion to armature voltage.

Now to apply brake to the motor electrically, the chopper is to be operated in second quadrant.
This can be done by operating switch T2. When the switch T2 is on, the inertial energy of the
motor is stored in the armature inductance, the voltage across the inductor increases. Once the
switch is turned off, the voltage across inductor adds with the back EMF of the motor feeding the
inertial energy back to the source through freewheeling diodes D1 and D4. For the energy to be
fed back to the source, the combined voltage of inductor and back EMF should be more than
source voltage (Vs). If the inertial energy of the motor is feedback to source, it is called
regenerative braking and if dissipated in a resistor, it is called electrical braking. In the quadrant,
the motor is in forward regenerative mode.

To operate the chopper in the third quadrant, switches T3 and T2 are to be operated. Here, switch
T3 is switched and switch T2 is kept on. Now the voltage and current across and through the load
are negative driving the motor in reverse direction. Also the speed of the motor can be varied by
varying the duty cycle (D) of the switch T3. In this quadrant, the motor is in reverse motoring
mode.

Now to operate the motor in fourth quadrant, only switch T4 is operated. With the switch T4
turned on, the voltage across the armature inductance increases. When the switch T4 is turned
off, voltage across the inductor adds to the back EMF. If the combined voltage is more than source
voltage, the inertial energy is fed back to the supply.

http://www.eeeguide.com/four-quadrant-operation-of-motor-drive/

https://www.ijser.in/archives/v4i12/IJSER151144.pdf
 In crane,hoist and elevator applications,when the load is descending, the motor turn into a
generator of electrical energy.With regenerative drive,this energy is fed back to the power
source.

let us consider operation of a hoist in Four Quadrant Operation of Motor Drive as shown in Fig. 1.
Directions of motor and load torques, and direction of speed are marked by arrows.

Figure 01: 4-quadrant operation of a motor driving a hoist load.

A hoist consists of a rope wound on a drum coupled to the motor shaft. One end of the rope is
tied to a cage which is used to transport man or material form one level to another level. Other
end of the rope has a counter weight. Weight of the counter weight is chosen to be higher than
the weight of an empty cage but lower than of a fully loaded cage.

Forward direction of motor speed will be one which gives upward motion of the cage. Speed-
torque characteristics of the hoist load are also shown in Fig.01. Though the positive load torque
is opposite in sign to the positive motor torque, according to Eq. (01), it is convenient to plot it
on the same axes. Load-torque curve drawn in this manner is, in fact, negative of the actual.

Load torque has been shown to be constant and independent of speed. This is nearly true with a
low speed hoist where forces due to friction and windage can be considered to be negligible
compared to those due to gravity. Gravitational torque does not change its sign even when the
direction of driving motor is reversed. Load torque line Tl1 in quadrants I and IV represents speed-
torque characteristic for the loaded hoist. This torque is the difference of torques due to loaded
hoist and counter weight. The load torque line Tl2 in quadrants II and III is the speed-torque
characteristic for an empty hoist. This torque is the difference of torques due to counter weight
and the empty hoist. Its sign is negative because the weight of a counter weight is always higher
than that of an empty cage.

The quadrant I operation of a hoist requires the movement of the cage upward, which
corresponds to the positive motor speed which is in anticlockwise direction here. This motion will
be obtained if the motor produces positive torque in anticlockwise direction equal to the
magnitude of load torque Tl1. Since developed motor power is positive, this is forward motoring
operation.

Quadrant IV operation is obtained when a loaded cage is lowered. Since the weight of a loaded
cage is higher than that of a counter weight, it is able to come down due to the gravity itself. In
order to limit the speed of cage within a safe value, motor must produce a positive torque T
equal to Tl2 in anticlockwise direction. As both power and speed are negative, drive is operating
in reverse braking.
Operation in quadrant II is obtained when an empty cage is moved up. Since a counter weight is
heavier than an empty cage, it is able to pull it up. In order to limit the speed within a safe value,
motor must produce a braking torque equal to Tl2 in clockwise (negative) direction. Since speed
is positive and developed power negative, it is forward braking operation.

Operation in quadrant III is obtained when an empty cage is lowered. Since an empty cage has a
lesser weight than a counter weight, the motor should produce a torque in clockwise direction.
Since speed is negative and developed power positive, this is reverse motoring operation.

http://www.eeeguide.com/four-quadrant-operation-of-motor-drive/
2. Use of brushless DC motor drives in Electric vehicles.

A brushless direct current (BLDC) motor is a synchronous motor powered by direct current with
an electronically controlled commutation system rather than a brush based mechanical
commutation system. In such motors, current and torque, voltage and speed are linearly related.
In a BLDC motor, the electromagnet does not move, but the permanent magnet rotates and the
armature remains stationary. This solves the problem of how to transfer current to the moving
armature. In order to do this, the brush systems assembly is replaced by an electronic controller.

BLDC motors offer several advantages over brushed DC motors, including higher efficiency and
reliability, lower noise, longer life (no brush and commutator corrosion), eliminating ionization
from commutators Sparks, more power and overall reduced electromagnetic interference (EMI),
Able to respond faster and at higher operating speeds, Lighter, Simpler to control in regard to
speed control and reversing.

All of today’s hybrid vehicles use a BLDC motor. Green car manufacturers often prefer BLDC
motors over the alternatives because the peak point efficiency is higher and rotor cooling is
simpler. The motors can also operate at “unity power factor,” meaning the drive can operate at
its maximum efficiency levels.

One of the most important components of the BLDC motor drive system is the batteries. In
addition to supplying energy to the engine, they allow the electrical receivers to function.
Therefore, it’s important that the batteries in green cars be as efficient as possible.

Whenever a battery gets used, an irreversible change in the chemical structure occurs. As a result,
a rechargeable battery is most efficient when maintained close to full charge. Thanks to the
permanent magnets in the brushless DC motor and the ability for the external torque to work as
a generator, a person operating a green car can pulse-charge the battery by applying the brakes.
It’s important to note, however, that braking alone won’t fully charge an electric car’s battery.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/241182744_Electric_drive_system_with_BLDC_moto
r

https://www.ijareeie.com › upload › april › 20_EEE8

http://buildipedia.com/aec-pros/design-news/the-brushless-dc-motor-and-its-use-in-electric-
cars
3. Scalar VSI and CSI type induction motor drives, each in selected industrial applications.

Application of Scalar VSI type induction motor drives

Induction motors have higher power densities and are mechanically more robust, which make
them the ideal motor in many applications. Squirrel-cage induction motors fed VSI is standard
in traction applications. Scalar control technique controls the parameter of amplitude of
voltage. Output torque of IM is dependent on the square of terminal voltage. To increase torque
an increase in voltage is done in voltage control technique. The most widely used IM is squirrel
cage motor because of its advantages such as mechanical robustness, simple construction and
less maintenance. But the problem is that terminal voltage has a limit which is crossed will
lead to a negative effect on insulation and operation of motor. Scalar control is a cheap, but stable
control technique, easy to implement, low performance, simple control technique.

Use of scalar control is limited to applications where the performance requirements in terms
of dynamic behavior of the system are less stringent, such as pumps, fans, centrifuges,
conveyors, mixers, and some types of machine tools. The speed of the motor cannot be
controlled precisely, because the rotor speed will be slightly less than the synchronous speed
and that in this scheme the stator frequency and hence the synchronous speed is the only
control variable.

Rotor resistance method in which resistance is connected in rotor side externally such that when
value of this resistance is altered it will change speed of motor. The main drawback of this method
is its poor efficiency due to additional losses because of added resistance. Another method of
speed control is EMF Injection Method which is most popular for slip ring type IM. In this method,
speed is controlled by supplying emf to the rotor circuit from external circuit. The main
drawback of this technique is that the frequency of supply is equal to the speed of rotor, and rotor
speed is dependent on slip. Hence is very difficult to supply EMF to the rotor and circuit is very
complex.

Voltage Source Inverter is generally used for speed control by varying frequency and voltage.
Scalar control techniques were found to give poor dynamic responses for inverter-fed induction
motor speed control. PWM inverters are quite popular in industrial applications. PWM
techniques are characterized by constant amplitude pulses. The width of these pulses is
however modulated to obtain inverter output voltage control and to reduce its harmonic
content. To improve speed control performance of the scalar control method, an encoder or
speed tachometer is required to feedback the rotor angle or rotor speed signal and
compensate the slip frequency. However, it is expensive and destroys the mechanical robustness
of the induction motor. So these are the limitation of scalar control which is overcome by
Field orientated control for induction motor drive.

https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/a42b/c408dcef94155bb99510605747d8b29f20ae.pdf.
 Application of CSI type induction motor drives

CSI is used in many applications due to its flexibility, reliability and commutation. CSI operates
on closed loop and capable of generation, by using CSI variable frequency is obtained.

The variable frequency control of an induction motor can also be obtained using CSI. The
inductor is connected in series with the input.

 By varying the thyristors conduction periods and Inverter, the DC current is converted into a
three phase current source.

 The stator current is a function of rotor frequency, by keeping flux constant the magnitude of
stator is controlled by the rotor frequency.

 When supply is AC the controlled rectifier converts it into variable DC, if the supply is DC the
chopper manages the circuit.

 From the circuit diagram for commutation of six thyristors the circuit is provided with six
diodes and six capacitors.

 The six thyristors are triggered with a phase difference of 180°. The diodes are used for
preventing discharge of capacitors through load.

Now a day’s mostly the voltage source inverter fed induction motors are used in many
applications. For medium voltage applications like underground mines, electrical submergible
pumps and ventilating pumps. The electrical submersible pump, typically called an ESP, is an
efficient and reliable artificial-lift method for lifting moderate to high volumes of fluids from
wellbores. These volumes range from a low of 24 to as much as 24,600 m3/d(cubic meter per day).
The ESP’s main components include:

 Multistage centrifugal pump

 Three-phase induction motor
 Seal-chamber section
 Power cable
 Surface controls

the components are normally tubing hung from the wellhead with the pump on top and the
motor attached below.

Below figure shows a tubing-hung unit with the downhole components comprising of:

 A multistage centrifugal pump with either an integral intake or separate, bolt-on intake
 A seal-chamber section
 A three-phase induction motor, with or without a sensor package

The rest of the system includes a surface control package and a three-phase power cable running
downhole to the motor. Because of the ESP’s unique application requirement in deep, relatively
small-bore casings, the equipment designer and manufacturer are required to maximize the lift
of the pump and the power output of the motor as a function of the diameter and length of the
unit. Therefore, the equipment is typically long and slender. The components are manufactured
in varying lengths up to approximately 30 ft, and for certain applications, either the pump, seal,
or motor can be multiple components connected in series.
https://petrowiki.org/Electrical_submersible_pumps