IAF Airman Group X Exam Preparation Ebook SSBCrack PDF

CONTENTS
S. No Topic Page No
1. Indian Airforce an Introduction 1-2
2. Indian Airforce Airmen (Career Progression) 2-5
3. Eligibility Criteria for Airmen Group X and Y 5-9
4. Airmen Group X and Y Syllabus 9-12
ENGLISH
1. Parts of Speech: (Noun, Pronoun, Adjective, Adverb, Preposition,
Conjunction, Interjection) 14-23
Practice Questions with Explanation
Exercise with Answer Key
2. Articles: (Definite Articles, Indefinite Articles) 24-26
Practice Questions with Explanation
3. Tenses: (Simple Present, present continuous, Present perfect, Present
perfect Continuous, Part Simple, Past Continuous, Part Perpect, Past 27-32
Perfect Continuous, Future Simple, Future Continuous, Future perfect)
Practice Question with Explanations
4. Voices
Practice Question with Explanations 33-40
5. Idioms and Pharases
6. Vocabulary 57-65
7. Synonyms/Antonyms
8. Classification and Analogy 89-91
9. Spotting the Errors 92-100
10. Comprehension
11. Filling the Blanks & Cloze Test
119-122
12. Jumbled Sentences/Words:
123-144
S. No Topic Page No
PHYSICS
1. Physical Properties and States of Matter 146-147
2. Mass, Weight, Volume, Density and Specific Gravity 148-149
3. Principle of Archimedes and Pressure Barometer 149-151
4. Motion of Objects, Velocity and Acceleration 151-153
5. Newton’s Laws of Motion 154-156
6. Force and Momentum Parallelogram of Forces 157-159
7. Stability and Equilibrium of Bodies 159-160
8. Gravitation 161-164
9. Elementary Ideas of Work, Power and Energy 164-166
10. Effects of Heat, Measurement of Temperature and Heat 166-168
11. Change of State and Latent Heat, Modes of Transference of Heat 168-169
12. Sound Waves and Their Properties 169-171
13. Simple Musical Instruments 171-173
14. Rectilinear Propagation of Light, Reflection and Refraction 174-179
15. Spherical Mirrors, Lenses and Human Eye 179-181
16. Natural and Artificial Magnets, Properties of A Magnet, Earth as a Magnet 181
17. Static and Current Electricity, Conductors and Non-Conductors Ohm’s Law,
182-183
Simple Electrical Circuits
18. Heating, Lighting and Magnetic Effects of Current 183-186
19. Umeasurement of Electrical Power 186-187
20. Primary and Secondary Cells 187-188
21. Use of X-Rays 188-191
22 General Principles in The Working of The Following: Simple Pendulum,
Simple Pulleys, Siphon, Levers, Balloon, Pumps, Hydrometer, Pressure
191-200
Cooker, Thermos Flask, Gramophone, Telegraphs, Telephone, Periscope,
Telescope, Microscope, Mariner’s Compass)
23. Lightning Conductors and Safety Fuses 201-203
Exercise with Answer Key 210-217
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S. No Topic Page No
MATHEMATICS
1. Algebra: (Sets, Venn Diagrams, De Morgan Laws, Cartesian Product,
Relation, Equivalence Relation, Representation of Real Number on a Line,
Complex Numbers – Basic Properties, Modulus, Argument, Cube Roots of
Unity, Binary System of Numbers, Conversion of a Number in Decimal
System to Binary System and Vice-Versa Arithmetic, Geometric and
219-254
Harmonic Progressions, Quadratic Equations With Real Coefficients,
Solution of Linear Inequations of Two Variables by Graphs, Permutation and
Combimation, Binomial Theorem and its Applications, Logarithms)
2. Matrices and Determinants (Types of Matrices, The Determinant of a
Matrix, Adjoint of Matrix, Using Matrices to Solve a System of Equations)
255-279
3. Trigonometry (Angles and Their Measures in Degrees and in Radians,
Trignometric Ratios, Trignometric Identities, Multiple and Sub-Multiple
Angles, Inverse Trigonometric Functions, Applications - Height and
280-307
Distance, Properties of Triangles)
4. Analytical Geometry of Two and Three Dimensions (Rectangular
Cartesian Coordinate System, Distance Formula, Equations of a Line in
Various Forms, Angle Between Two Lines, Distance of a Point From a Line,
Equation of a Circle in Standard and in General Form, Standard Forms if
Parabola, Ellipse And Hyperbola, Eccentricity and Axis if an Axis, Direction 308-349
Cosines And Direction Ratios, Equation if a Plane and a Line in Various
Forms, Angle Between Two Lines and Angle Between Two Planes)
5. Differential Calculus: (Concept Of A Real-Valued Function-Domain, Range
And Graph Of A Function, Composite Function, One To One, Onto And
Inverse Functions, Notion Of Limit, Standard Limits- Example, Continuity Of
Functions—Examples, Derivative Of Function At A Point, Differentiation
Rules, Derivates Of Composite Function, Second Order Derivatives, 350-380
Increasing And Decreasing Functions, First Derivative Test For Local
Maxima And Minima)
6. Integral Calculus and Differential Equations: (Integration as Inverse of
Differentiation, Integration by Substitution and By Parts, Standard Integrals
Involving Algebraic Expressions, Trigonometric, Exponential and Hyperbolic
Functions, Evaluation of Definite Integrals, Definition of Order and Degree of
381-398
a Differential Equation, Solution of a Differential Equation, Applications on
Growth and Decay)

7. Vector Algebra: (Vector in Two Dimensions, Magnitude And Direction of a
Vector, Unit And Null Vectors, Addition of Vectors, Scalar Multiplication of a
Vector, Scalar Product or Dot Product of Two Vectors, Vector Product or
399-419
Cross Product)
8. Statistics And Probability- (Classification Of Data, Graphical
Representation, Histogram, Measures Of Central Tendency, Variance And
Standard Deviation, Correlation And Regression , Random Experiment,
Mutually Exclusive Events, Impossible Event, Union And Intersection Of
420-457
Events, Complementary Events, Definition Of Probability, Elementary
Theorems On Probability, Conditional Probability, Binomial Distribution,
INDIAN AIR FORCE AIRMEN GROUP X (TECHNICAL TRADES) EXAM 2019-20
INDIAN AIRFORCE AN INTRODUCTION

The Indian Air Force was officially established on 8 October 1932. Its first ac flight came into
being on 01 Apr 1933. It possessed strength of six RAF-trained officers and 19 Havai Sepoys
(literally, air soldiers). The aircraft inventory comprised of four Westland Wapiti IIA army co-
operation biplanes at Drigh Road as the "A" Flight nucleus of the planned No.1 (Army Co-
operation) Squadron.
ORGANISATION SET UP
Indian Air Force is headquartered in New Delhi. For effective command and control, the IAF has
seven commands, under which there are different stations and units located at various places
throughout the country. The organization's chart shows the establishment of the Indian Air
Force at a glance.
➢ Western Air Command
➢ Eastern Air Command
➢ Central Air Command
➢ South Western Air Command
➢ Southern Air Command
➢ Training Command
➢ Maintenance Command
INDIAN AIRFORCE: AIRMEN

CAREER PROGRESSION
The initial period of engagement in the IAF is 20 years, which can be extended up to the age of
57 years. Promotion prospects up to the rank of Master Warrant Officer exist to the deserving
airmen. Opportunities to become a Commissioned Officer also exist for those airmen who
qualify the prescribed examination, later in their service career.
1. Service Entry Commission

Airmen of the rank of Sergeant & above with 10 years of minimum service and within the
age limit of 34 to 42 years get the opportunity to become a Commissioned Officer in the IAF.
2. Honorary Commission
Selected MWOs/WOs are granted Honorary Commission in the last year of their service
before superannuating on Republic Day and Independence Day each year. On grant of
Honorary Commission, they are eligible for higher scales of pay and allowances.
PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
Well stocked libraries, a variety of sports facilities as well as adventure and cultural activities
available at all the Air Force Establishments provide an opportunity for all round personality
development.
POST-RETIREMENT BENEFITS
Post-Retirement benefits include pension, Ex-Servicemen Contributory Health Scheme (ECHS),
gratuity and canteen facilities. Specialized pre-release courses (PRC) are also arranged to
enable airmento take up post retirement careers. In addition, airmen get relaxation in age and
reservation in Govt services as ex-servicemen.
INDIAN AIR FORCE AIRMEN TRADES

On the basis of the performance in the Joint Basic Phase Training (JBPT) at Basic Training
Institute, Belgaum specific trades are allotted to the successful candidates. Basic combatant
training is imparted to all the recruits, which includes basic discipline and manners, educational
training, weapon training etc. After successful completion of basic training, you will be trained in
specific trades. PT, Parade and games are integral part of the training and service life. Here is
the list of Groups/Trades of Airmen:-
Group X
• Technical Trades
➢ Automobile Fitter:
➢ Electronics Fitter:
➢ Electrical Fitter:
➢ Mechanical System Fitter:
➢ Structures Fitter:
➢ Propulsion Fitter:
➢ Workshop Fitter(Smith):
➢ Workshop Fitter (Mechanical):
➢ Weapon Fitter:
• Non Technical Trades
➢ Education Instructor:
Group Y
• Technical Trades
➢ Communication Technician:
➢ Automobile Technician:
• Non Techical Trades
➢ Admin Assistant:
➢ Accts Assistant:
➢ Medical Assistant:
➢ Logistics Assistant:
➢ Environment Support Services Assistant (ESSA):
➢ Ops Assistant:
➢ Meteorological Assistant:
➢ Ground Training Assistant:
➢ Indian Air Force (Police):
➢ Indian Air Force (Security):
➢ Musician
INDIAN AIR FORCE AIRMEN RANKS

➢ Air Craftsman (AC)
➢ Leading Air Craftsman (LAC)
➢ Corporal (CPL)
➢ Sergeant (SGT)
➢ Junior Warrabt Officer (JWO)
➢ Warrant Officer (WO)
➢ Master Warrant Officer (MWO)
PAY
During training, a stipend of Rs. 14,600/- per month will be paid. On completion of training the
starting gross emoluments at the minimum of scale of pay including Military Service Pay (MSP)
and Group ‘X’ Pay {applicable for Group ‘X’ (Technical) Trades only} plus Dearness Allowance
(DA) will be as follows:
1. Group ‘X’ (Technical) Trade
Rs. 33,100/- per month (approximately) plus DA (as applicable) which, in subsequent
years, may rise as per the career progression of the individual.
2. Group ‘Y’ (Non-Technical) Trades

3. Education Instructor Trade (Sgt)
PERKS
1. Allowances
Allowances such as Transport allowance, Composite personal maintenance allowance
(CPMA), Leave Ration allowance (LRA), Children Education Allowance, HRA etc. are
also admissible as applicable from time to time.
2. Perquisites
Perks such as Ration, Clothing, Medical facilities, Accommodation, CSD (Canteen)
facilities, Leave (60 days Annual and 30 days Casual in a Calendar year as a privilege,
subject to service exigencies), Recreational facilities, Transport for school going children
and Leave Travel Concession (LTC) are also provided as per the existing rules. Group
Insurance Cover of Rs. 37.5 Lakhs at a premium of Rs. 2300/- per month for all airmen
and facility of Group Housing Scheme are also extended. Other facilities by Air Force
Wives Welfare Association (AFWWA) are also extended to the families of airmen.
ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA
EDUCATION QUALIFICATION
GROUP ‘X’ Trades (Except Education Instructor)
Note: The upper age limit on date of enrolment is 21 years.
Age: 17- 21 Years
Education Qualification: Passed Intermediate / 10+2 / equivalent examination

with Mathematics, Physics and English with minimum 50% marks in aggregate
and 50% marks in English.
OR
Passed 3 years Diploma Course in Engineering in any stream, as shown below, from
a Government recognized Polytechnic Institute with 50% marks in aggregate, and 50%
marks in English in Diploma or in Intermediate/Matriculation, if English is not a
subject in Diploma Course.
Mechanical Stream
➢ Mechanical Engineering
➢ Mechanical Engineering (Design & Drafting)
➢ Mechanical Engineering (Foundry Technology)
➢ Mechanical Engineering (Machine Tool Maintenance and repairs)
➢ Mechanical Engineering (Refrigeration & Air Conditioning)
➢ Mechanical Engineering (Tool & Die)
➢ Mechanical Engineering (Production)
➢ Mechanical Engineering (Fabrication Tech)
➢ Mechanical Engineering (CAD/CAM Design & Robotics)
➢ Mechanical (Advance Manufacturing Technology)
➢ Manufacturing Engineering/Technology
➢ Production Engineering
➢ Automobile Engineering
➢ Advanced Diploma in Refrigeration & Air-conditioning
➢ Mechatronics
Electrical/Electronics/IT Stream
➢ Electronics
➢ Applied Electronics
➢ Electronics & Communication Engineering
➢ Electronics (Microprocessor)
➢ Electronics and Avionics
➢ Electronics (Fibre Optics)
➢ Electronics (Robotics)
➢ Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering
➢ Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
➢ Industrial Electronics
➢ Electrical Engineering
➢ Electrical & Electronics Engineering

➢ Instrumentation Engineering / Technology
➢ Instrumentation and Control Engineering
➢ Telecommunication Engineering/Technology
➢ Information Technology
➢ Computer Engineering
➢ Computer Science & Engineering
➢ Computer Science & Technology
GROUP ‘X’: Education Instructor Trade

Age: 20 - 25 Years
Education Qualification:
(i) BA with English as one the subjects or B.Sc with Physics/ Psychology/ Chemistry/
Mathematics/ IT / Computer Science/ Statistics as one of the subjects or BCA with
minimum 50% marks.
(ii) B.Ed degree with minimum of 50% marks from a Government recognized institute.
(iii) Graduation and B.Ed programmes should be recognized by UGC/ NCTE/ Competent
accreditation authority.
Age: 20 - 28 Years
(i) MA in English/ Psychology or M.Sc in Mathematics/ Physics/ Statistics/ Computer
Science/ IT or MCA with 50% marks.
(ii) B.Ed degree with minimum of 50% marks from a government recognized institute.
(iii) Graduation, Post-Graduation and B.Ed programmes should be recognized by UGC/
NCTE/ Competent accreditation authority.
GROUP ‘Y’Trades (Except Med Asst and Musician)

Age: 17- 21 Years
Should have passed Class 10 + 2/Intermediate/Equivalent exam from an education
board / Institute listed in Council of Boards for School Education (COBSE) website as
members, in any stream/subjects with minimum 50% marks in aggregate and 50% marks
in English as per the mark sheet of Class 10 + 2 / Intermediate /Equivalent exam.
GROUP ‘Y: Med Asst Trade

Age : 17- 21 Years
Education Qualification :
Passed 10+2 / Intermediate / equivalent exam with Physics, Chemistry, Biology and
English with a minimum of 50% marks in aggregate, and 50% marks in English.
GROUP ‘Y’: Musician Trade

Age: 17 - 25 Years
Passed Matriculation /10th class or equivalent with minimum pass marks from any Government
recognised School/Boards and should be proficient in playing at least one of the following
musical instruments: Trumpet / Bass / Violin / Saxophone / Clarinet / Euphonium / Jazz-Drum /

Piccolo / Bass Trombone / Key Board / Guitar / Sarod / Viola / Cello / Contra Bass (String
Bass).
PHYSICAL/MEDICAL STANDARDS
To get selected as an Airman, the candidate must be physically and mentally FIT to
perform duties in any part of the world, climate and terrain. Physical/Medical Standards
to become an Airman are as follows:-
Visual Standards As per the table given below.

and Height
Weight Weight should be proportionate to height and age.
Chest Minimum range of expansion : 5 cm
Hearing Should have normal hearing i.e. able to hear forced whisper from a
distance of 6 meters by each ear separately.
Dental Should have healthy gums, good set of teeth and minimum 14 dental
points.
Health Candidates should be of normal anatomy without loss of any

appendages. He should be free from all communicable diseases & skin
ailments. Candidate must be physically and mentally FIT to perform duty
in any part of the world, in any climate and terrain.
Body Tattoo Permanent body tattoos are not permitted, however tattoos only on inner
face of the fore arms (inside of elbow to the wrist), back (dorsal) part of
the hand/reverse side of the palm and Tribals with tattoos which are as
per custom Traditions of their tribes may be considered. However, right
to decide on acceptability /unacceptability of the individual rests with the
Selection Centre. Candidates with permanent body tattoos are to submit
two photographs(close up and distinct view) with details of size and type
of the Tattoo.
Note:-
(a) Minimum height acceptable for recruitment will be 152.5 cms. For the following trades the
minimum required height (determined at training centres) would be as indicated:-
Sl No. Trade Candidates from
NE & Hill States Other States
(a) Auto Tech 162.5cm 165cm
(b) GTI and PJI 162.5cm 167cm
(c) IAF(P) 175cm 175cm
(d) Musician 162cm 162cm
(b) Candidates from NE and Hill states includes Gorkhas, Kumaonis, Garhwalis, Assamese and
those belonging to the States of Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh,
Tripura, Sikkim and hilly areas of Uttaranchal.
VISUAL STANDARDS
GROUP ‘X’
Visual Colour Leg
Trade Acuity Maximum limits of Ref Error Vision Height Length
Workshop 6/12 each Hypermetropia +2.0DMyopia1D CP-II 152.5 Minimum

Fitter eye including +/- 0.50 astigmatism cm leg length
(Mechanical), correctable required
Workshop to 6/6 each for
Fitter (Smith), eye Mechanic
Structure al System
Fitter, Fitter and
Propulsion Automobil
Fitter, e Fitter
Electronic is 99 cm.
Fitter,
Electrical
Fitter,
Weapon
Fitter,
*Automobile
Fitter,
*Mechanical
System Fitter
Education 6/36 each Not exceeding +/- CP-III 152.5 NA

Instructor eye 3.50Dincluding astigmatism cm
correctable
to 6/9 each
eye.
GROUP ‘Y
Trade Visual Acuity Maximum limits of Ref Colour Height Leg

Error Vision Length
Ops Assistant 6/12 each eye Hypermetropia +2.0D CP-II 152.5 cm NA

correctable Myopia1D including +/-
to 6/6 each eye 0.50astigmatism
Admin Assistant, 6/36 each eye Not exceeding +/- CP-III 152.5 cm NA
Accounts correctable 3.50Dincluding
Assistant, to 6/9 each eye. astigmatism
Medical
Assistant,
Logistics
Assistant
Environmental 6/36 each eye Not exceeding +/- CP-II 152.5 cm NA
Trade Visual Acuity Maximum limits of Ref Colour Height Leg

Error Vision Length
Support correctable 3.50Dincluding

ServicesAssistant to 6/9 each eye astigmatism
(ESSA),
Cryptographer,
Met Assistant,
Communication
Technician
Auto Technician 6/12 each eye Hypermetropia +2.0DMy CP-II 165 cm (162.5 NA
correctable opia1D including +/- cm for North
to 6/6 each eye 0.50astigmatism East & Hill
states)
Ground Training 6/12 each eye Hypermetropia +2.0DMy CP-II 167 cm (162.5 NA
Instructor (GTI) correctable opia1D including +/- cm for North
to 6/6 each eye 0.50astigmatism East & Hill
states)
Indian Air Force Unaided Visual Not Applicable CP-II 175 cm NA

(Police)[IAF(P)] acuity of 6/6
Indian Air Force Unaided Visual Not Applicablem CP-II 152.5 cm NA

(Security)[IAF(S)] acuity of 6/6
Musician 6/36 each eye Not exceeding +/- CP-III 162 cm NA

correctable 3.50Dincluding
to 6/9 each eye. astigmatism
NA: Not Applicable
PHYSICAL FITNESS ABILITY (GROUP X AND Y)

➢ 1.6 Km run to be completed in 6.5 minutes
➢ 10 Pushups
➢ 10 Sit-ups
➢ 20 Squats
AIRMEN GROUP X AND Y: SYLLABUS

The syllabus for the Airmen Group X and Group Y Exam is the same as that of the syllabus of
the 10+2 of CBSE. So, the candidates are advised to study as per the CBSE 10+2 syllabus.
Here is the detailed syllabus of the Group X and Y of IAF:
Airmen Group X and Y Syllabus: English

• English Comprehension
• Subject Verb Agreement
• Sequence of Tenses
• Transformation of Sentences: Compound, Complex, Simple, Negative, Affirmative

Sentences
• Spelling & Word Formation
• Antonyms and Synonyms
• One Word Substitution
• Correct usage of Articles
• Parts of Speech
• Commonly Confused Words and their Usages
• Idioms and Phrases
• Direct/Indirect Narration
• Active and Passive Voice
Airmen Group X Syllabus: Physics

• Principles of Communication
• Work, Energy and Power
• Heat and Thermodynamics
• Magnetic Effect of Current and Magnetism
• Dual Nature of Matter and Radiation
• Physical Quantities and Measurement
• Motion of System of Particles & Rigid Body

• Mechanics of Solids and Fluids
• Oscillation
• Waves
• Electrostatic
• Current Electricity
• Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current
• Optics
• Atomic Nucleus
• Gravitation
• Kinematics
• Laws of Motion
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• Electromagnetic Waves
• Solids and Semiconductors Devices
Airmen Group X Syllabus: Mathematics

• Sets and Functions
• Trigonometric Functions
• Mathematical Induction
• Cartesian System of Coordinates
• Straight Line
• Circles
• Conic Sections
• Complex Numbers
• Quadratic Equations and Linear Equations
• Sequences and Series
• Permutations and Combinations
• Binomial Theorems
• Exponential and Logarithm Series
• Solutions of Triangle
• Inverse Trigonometric Functions
• Matrices and Determinants
• Function, Limit and Continuity
• Differentiation
• Applications of Derivatives
• Indefinite Integrals
• Definite Integrals
• Differential Equation
• Probability
• Logarithm
• Statistics
• Mathematical Logic
• Boolean Algebra
Airmen Group Y Syllabus: Reasoning

• Number Series
• Non-Verbal Series
• Coding-Decoding
• Direction Test
• Number Ranking
• Alphabet Series
• Arithmetical Reasoning
• Analogy
• Decision Making
• Blood Relations
• Clocks & Calendars
• Mirror Images
• Cubes and Dice
• Embedded Figures
Airmen Group Y Syllabus: Mathematics
• Ratio and Proportion
• Average
• LCM, HCF
• Profit and Loss
• Time, Distance and Speed
• Percentage
• Simplification of Numbers
• Fraction
• Area of Triangle, Square and Rectangle
• Surface Area and Volume of Cuboids, Cylinder, Cone and Sphere
• Probability
• Simple Trigonometry
Airmen Group Y Syllabus: General Awareness
• General Science (biology of human body, organic chemistry, etc.)
• Civics (polity, constitution of India, etc.)
• Geography (lakes, river, waterfalls, irrigation and agriculture, etc.)
• Current Events (days, events etc.)
• History (Indian freedom struggle, viceroys, governors, dance, music and fairs, etc.)
• Basic Computer Operations (computer and mobile technology)
1. PARTS OF SPEECH
A part of speech is a group of words that are used in a certain way. The system of classifying
words based on their function is known as the parts of speech.
For example, "run," "jump," and "be" are all used to describe actions/states.
Therefore they belong to the verb group. There are eight parts of speech in the English
language: noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection.
Nouns can be divided into proper nouns, common nouns, concrete nouns etc.
1.1 NOUN
It is not easy to describe a noun. In simple terms nouns define a person, place or thing. Nouns
can be found anywhere in a sentence, and most sentences contain several nouns.
One way to find nouns is to look for the little words a, an, and the. The naming word that comes
after them is probably a noun.
Examples: Teacher, school, book, the golden gate bridge
There are two types of nouns: countable and uncountable nouns
Examples: dog/dogs, rice, hair
• Ram is very versatile.
• Cats can be extremely cute.
• It is my birthday.
• Paul and his sister went to the zoo to see the elephants.
• Her lawyer bought an old house in Moncton last year.
• Finish your work before the big game starts on TV.
There are different types of nouns namely:
Proper Noun:
Proper nouns always start with a capital letter and refer to specific names of persons, places, or
things.
Examples: Volkswagen Beetle, Game of Thrones
Common noun:
Common nouns are the opposite of proper nouns. These are just generic names of persons,
things, or places.
Examples: doctor, library, bridge
Concrete noun:
This kind refers to nouns which you can perceive through your five senses.
Examples: folder, sand, board
Abstract noun:
Unlike concrete nouns, abstract nouns are those which you can’t perceive through your five
senses.
Examples: happiness, grudge, bravery
Count noun:
It refers to anything that is countable, and has a singular and plural form.
Examples of Counters: kilo, cup, meter
Mass noun:
This is the opposite of count nouns. Mass nouns are also called non-countable nouns, and they
need to have “counters” to quantify them.
Examples of Mass Nouns: rice, flour, garter
Collective noun:
It refers to a group of persons, animals, or things.
Example: faculty (group of teachers), class (group of students), pride (group of lions)
1.2 PRONOUN
Pronoun is a small word that takes place of a noun.
Some examples of pronouns are:
I, it, he, she, mine, his, hers, we, they, theirs, themselves, some, and each
Examples for Pronoun:
• Sita is a very stubborn child. She just stared at me when I told her to stop being stubborn.
• The largest slice is hers.
• They are number one.
1.3 ADJECTIVE
• To talk or write about a person place or thing, we use nouns like girl, house, or tree.
• To add descriptions to those nouns that give the reader a clearer picture of what you mean,
you add “detail” words in front of the noun like little, blue, rich and old.
• Words that tell more about nouns or pronouns are called adjectives.
• An adjective is a word which describes or modifies a noun or pronoun.
• A modifier is a word that limits, changes, or alters the meaning of another word.
• Therefore, an adjective limits, changes, or alters the meaning of a noun or pronoun.
• Adjectives are usually placed before the noun.
The white, puffy clouds, a happy, carefree child some tall, stately trees, a rich dark
chocolate layer cake, five huge leafy bushes
Examples for adjectives:
• The grey dog barked
• I have two hamsters.
• That pizza is huge!
1.4 VERB
• Verb is the most important part of a speech. Without a verb, a sentence would not exist.
• You can make one sentence with a verb, for example “Stop” or “Put the cake there”.
• A sentence is not a sentence without at least one verb.
• Verbs usually tell about an action. Verbs are often found in the middle of sentences. Verbs
may consist of one word.
• Verbs change their form to tell about actions taking place at different times.
For example, We walked to the store yesterday can be changed to show the action happening
in the future.
We will walk to the store tomorrow. The word walked became will walk; therefore, they are verbs .
“State of Being Verbs”:
am, is, was, are, and were
Example Sentences:
• Ram plays football.
• Anthony seems kind.
• I have finished the laundry.
• Have you written that letter?
• They had already bought her present. I have never seen anything like that before.
1.5 ADVERB
• Just like adjectives, adverbs are also used to describe words.
• Adverbs limit, change, or alter the words they modify.
• The principal job of an adverb is to modify verbs and adjectives.
• Some words can only be used as adverbs, never as adjectives.
A list of these words follows. The only way to remember these words is to memorize them, and
learn to recognize them in sentences.
Well, often, quite, surely, very, not almost, never, always, so, usually
• John speaks loudly.
• Mary lives locally.
• She never smokes.
• The train arrived early.
• A student is late.
• Penny drives fast.
The different types of adverbs are:
Adverb of Manner:
This refers to how something happens or how an action is done.
Example:
• Geetha danced gracefully.
• Walk quickly or you will miss the bus.
• Playing music loudly can damage the ears
Adverb of Time:
The state “when” something happens or “when” it is done.
Examples:
• He came yesterday.
• Are you coming tomorrow?
• Do you still work in the bank?
Adverb of Place:
This tells something about “where” something happens or “where” something is done.
Examples:
• My grandfather’s house is nearby.
• Bring the book here.
Adverb of Degree:
This states the intensity or the degree to which a specific thing happens or is done.
Example: The child is very talented.
1.6 PREPOSITION
Prepositions are joining words, sometimes called connectives, which are used to show a time,
place, or ownership relation between two nouns/pronouns or a noun and a verb.
A preposition is a word governing and usually coming in front of a noun or pronoun and
expressing a relation to another word or elements.
Here are some common prepositions
About beyond out
Above by outside
Across down over
After during past

against except since
Along for through
among from toward
at in under
before inside until
below into up
beneath of with
beside off without
between on within
Example:
• She left before breakfast.
• What did you come for?
1.7 CONJUNCTION
The conjunction is a part of a speech which joins words, phrases, or clauses together.
Examples:
And, yet, but, for, nor, or, and so
Example Sentences:
• She is kind so she helps people
• I like tea and coffee
• Ram likes ice-cream but Ajay likes coffee
1. 8 INTERJECTION
An interjection is a big name for a little word. Interjections are short exclamations like …oh! Um
or Ah!
They have no real grammatical value. But we use them quite often, usually more in speaking
than in writing.
A word added to a sentence to convey an emotion or a sentiment such as surprise, joy,
enthusiasm, disgust, excitement.
Examples of Interjections:
• Ah, that feels good.
• Oh dear! That’s a surprise.
• Eh! Really?
• Hey! What a good idea.
• Hi! What’s new?
• Hmm. I’m not so sure.
Examples for parts of speech:
1. Vishal crashed his car the day he got it. (He and his refer to Vishal; it refers to car.)
2. The paper is not Radha’s; hers is about rainforests. (Hers replaces Radha’s.)
3. They left in the morning. (The phrase in the morning modifies the verb left.)
4. Bashkar stood outside the door. (The phrase outside the door modifies stood.)
5. Karthi lifted the book and began to read. I like to think about the time I flew to Hawaii
6. Balu skis more gracefully than Peter. (How?)
7. Take out the trash now. (When?)
8. You ran upstairs. (Where?)
9. Ramesh plays the guitar very well. (To what extent?)
10. Both Niranjana and Latha were busy.

11. Neither Uma nor Yamini was mentioned.
12. When I went to Disneyland, I took a picture of Mickey. (Time relationship)
Solved Examples:
I. Directions: Identify the underlined words: noun (n), pronoun (pn), verb (v), adjective (adj),
adverb (adv), preposition (p), or conjunction (c).
1. Sangeetha _____ play the trumpet.
Answer: Sangeetha can play the trumpet. (Auxiliary verb)
2. Do you _____ dogs?
Answer: Do you like dogs? (Verb)
3. They ____ to the Music every day.
Answer: They listen to the Music every day. (Verb)
4. She is an ____ lady.
Answer: She is an old lady. (Adjective)
5. The ______ went climbing in the mountains.
Answer: The group went climbing in the mountains. (Noun)
6. This is a ______ car.
Answer: This is a fast car. (Adjective)
7. He did _____ in the test.
Answer: He did well in the test. (Adverb)
8. My father drives _________.
Answer: My father drives carefully. (Adverb)
9. Has your _______ ever been to Australia?
Answer: Has your mother ever been to Australia? (Noun)
10. The ______ was fantastic.
Answer: The play was fantastic. (Noun)
II. Read the following sentences and underline the word or words that belong to the part
of speech specified in the bracket. An example is given below.
Question: She must have reached home. (Verb)
Answer: She must have reached home.
1. She went to the market and bought some eggs. (Verb)
Answer: She went to the market and bought some eggs.
2. I want to go now. (Adverb)
Answer: I want to go now.
3. What are you doing there? (Adverb)
Answer: What are you doing there?
4. There is a mouse underneath the piano. (Preposition)
Answer: There is a mouse underneath the piano.
5. Masons build houses. (Noun)
Answer: Masons build houses.
6. The policeman didn’t run fast enough to catch the thief. (Adverb)
Answer: The policeman didn’t run fast enough to catch the thief.
7. She looked up but didn’t see anything. (Adverb)
Answer: She looked up but didn’t see anything.

8. My family lives in different parts of India. (Collective noun)
Answer: My family lives in different parts of India.
9. That was a difficult question. (Adjective)
Answer: That was a difficult question.
10. She was very impressed with her results. (Adverb)
Answer: She was very impressed with her results.
11. Although she is poor, she is happy. (Conjunction)
Answer: Although she is poor, she is happy.
12. Have we bought enough chairs? (Adjective)
Answer: Have we bought enough chairs?
Rules Table
Part of
Function or “job” Example words Example sentences
speech
(to) be, have, do, like, Garfield is a cat.
Verb Action or state
work, sing, can, must I like Garfield.
pen, dog, work, music, This is my dog.
Noun Thing or person town, London, teacher, He lives in my house.
John We live in London.
a/an, the, 23, some,
My dog is big.
Adjectives Describes a noun good,
I like big dogs.
big, red, interesting
My dog eats quickly.
Describes a verb, quickly, silently, well,
Adverb When he is very hungry,
adjective or adverb badly, very, really
He eats really quickly.
Tara is my sister; she is
Pronoun Replaces a noun I, you, he, she, some
beautiful.
Links a noun to We went to the park on
Preposition to, at, after, on, but
another word Monday.
I like dogs and cats.
Joins clauses or and, but, when, for, nor,
Conjunction I like cars, but I don’t like
sentences or words or, yet, so, since
driving.
Short exclamation, Ouch! That hurts!
Interjection sometimes inserted Oh! Ouch! Hi! Well. Hi! How are you?
into a sentence Well, I don’t know.
Practice Questions with Explanations

Directions for the Close comprehension Passage (For the 20 items which follow): Supply
suitable word in the blank of each item which is followed by four words or groups of
words.
1. In a few seconds we ran the boat into a little bay, where we tied her fast to a piece of coral,
and running up the beach, entered the ranks of the penguins armed with our sticks and spears.
We were greatly surprised to
(a) find (b) learn
(c) hear (d) understand
Solution: (a)
find; the writer and his friends are on an adventurous tour where they were surprised to see the
penguins; learn, hear or understand will not be the appropriate words to be used in this context.
2. That instead of attacking us or
(a) showing (b) giving
(c) revealing (d) conveying
Solution: (a)
showing; signs of fear are shown; not given, revealed or conveyed.
3. Signs of fear at our
(a) arrival (b)entry
(c) approach (d)alight
Solution: (a)
arrival; entry, approach or alight are not the correct words used in this context.
4. These strange birds do not move
(a) in (b) at
(c) from (d) on
Solution: (c)
from; 'these strange birds do not move from their places...; when 'places' is referred then
preposition 'from' is used with move.
5. Their places until we took hold
(a) off (b) of
(c) from (d) on
Solution: (b)
of; 'took hold of’ is a phrasal preposition means to held or catch something.
6. Them, merely
(a) opened (b) turned
(c) closed (d) showed
Solution: (b)
turned; 'turned their eyes' is a phrasal verb means to look at.
7. Their eyes on us
(a) with (b) out of
(c) in (d) on
Solution: (b)
out of 'out of wonder' is a phrasal preposition means in surprise or astonishment.
8. Wonder as we passed. There
(a) lived (b) existed
(c) was (d) persisted
Solution: (c)
was; since 'one penguin' is referred so singular past tense is used.
9. one old penguin, however that

(a) commenced (b) began
(c) continued (d) stalked
Solution: (b)
began; as the penguin started moving on that point of time so 'began' is used.
10. To walk slowly towards the sea, and Peterkin
(a) carried (b) bore
(c) took (d) thought
Solution: (d)
thought; past tense of 'think' as the event took place in past.
11. It into his head that he
(a) would (b) could
(c) should (d) won't
Solution:(b)
could; past form of auxiliary verb 'can'.
12. Try to stop it, so he
(a) interposed (b) ran
(c) arrived (d) jumped
Solution: (d)
jumped; between the penguin and the sea.
13. Between it and the sea and
(a) moved (b) pointed
(c) waved (d) watched
Solution: (b)
pointed; it is used for the object stick; as stick is generally used for pointing out something and
not for moving, waiving or watching.
14. His stick in its face. But this
(a) appeared (b) happened
(c) proved (d) seemed
Solution: (c)
proved; as it is the exact word used with 'determination'.
15. To be a determined old
(a) bird (b) animal
(c) creature (d) pet
Solution: (c)
creature; it is referred to the old penguin; as penguin here is not a pet, animal or bird, it is a
flightless bird.
16. It would not go back; in fact, it

(a) should (b) would
(c) could (d) must
Solution: (b)
would; it is the past form of 'will'; in corresponding with the previous sentence 'would' is used.
17. Not cease to advance, but
(a) battled (b) struggled
(c) contested (d) snugged
Solution: (b)
struggled; since penguin is a creature so it cannot 'battle', 'contest' or 'snug'.
18. With Peterkin bravely, and
(a) chased (b) drove
(c) moved (d) lashed
Solution: (c)
moved; the old penguin helped the writer's friend to move before him as 'chase', 'drove' or 'lash'
are nor the correct words used in this context.
19. Him before it until it
(a) touched (b) arrived at
(c) reached (d) jumped
Solution: (c)
reached; here 'reached the sea' is grammatically correct.
20. The sea. Had Peterkin used his
(a) baton (b) stick
(c) spear (d) club
Solution: (c)
Spear; here 'baton' and 'club' are never referred in the context whereas stick was used to point
out and 'spear' is left the only weapon which can be used for killing a creature.
Exercise
Each sentence given below contains an underlined word. Find out what part of speech
that word belongs to.
1. She was running a high temperature.
(a) Adjective (b) Adverb
(c) Noun (d) Preposition
2. I am the happiest woman in the world.
(a) Adverb (b) Adjective
(c) Verb (d) Conjunction
3. He has many influential friends.
(a) Noun (b) Verb
(c) Adjective (d) Preposition

4. Choose the lesser of the two evils.
(a) Adverb (b) Noun
(c) Verb (d) Conjunction
5. Hari is the most intelligent boy in the class.
(a) Conjunction (b) Preposition
(c) Adverb (d) Noun
6. A fast car goes fast.
(a) Verb (b) Adjective
(c) Adverb (d) Preposition
7. She was angry but she said nothing.
(a) Preposition (b) Pronoun
(c) Conjunction (d) Verb
8. There is something under the bed.
(a) Preposition (b) Conjunction
(c) Noun (d) Verb
9. They live in a small cottage above the lake.
(a) Verb (b) Noun
(c) Preposition (d) Conjunction
10. He cut himself while shaving.
(c) Verb (d) Preposition
11. She was angry with him.
(c) Noun (d) Conjunction
12. I have other things to attend to.
(a) Adjective (b) Adverb
(c) Noun (d) Preposition
ANSWER KEY
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (a) 9. (c) 10.(c)
11.(b) 12.(a)
2. ARTICLES
INTRODUCTION
There are three articles in English. They are a, an and the.
The word “a” is called the indefinite article because the noun it goes with is indefinite or general.
The word “the” is known as the definite article and indicates a specific thing.
The difference between the sentences “I sat on a chair” and “I sat on the chair” is that the
second sentence refers to a particular, specific chair not just any chair.
Definite and indefinite articles are parts of speech referring to the terms “the,” “a,” and “an.”
2.1 DEFINITE ARTICLES
Definition: A determiner (the) that introduces specific nouns and noun phrases. “The” is the
only definite article.
Placing “the” before a noun makes it specific. In order to say “the book,” the audience has to
know to what book you are referring.
Definite Article Examples:
• Singular - The chair, the city, the manager
• Plural - The chairs, the cities, the managers
• Countable - The boxes, the towns, the women
• non-countable - The food, the luggage, the electricity
The definite article (the) can be used for specific references to countable nouns
Rules for using the definite article (the)
1. Use ‘the’ for the second and subsequent references to an item. The item could be explicitly
referred to, or implied (e.g. The committee has approved a new policy. The policy...) (A survey
was administered to.... The results showed that ... ).
2. Use ‘the’ when you use ‘most’ as the superlative form (e.g. The most critical step is...).
3. Use ‘the’ when using ordinal forms to show
order or number (e.g. The first students to graduate were...; The last students to leave...).
4. Use ‘the’ when using words that specify a particular item (e.g. The same student, the only
essay, the principal reason).
5. Use ‘the’ for reference to an item that is understood by all speakers (the sun, the planets, the
moon, the stars).
2.2 INDEFINITE ARTICLES
Definition: A determiner (a, an) that introduces nonspecific nouns and noun phrases. “A” and
“an” are the only indefinite articles.
Placing “a” or “an” before a noun makes it nonspecific. To say “a book” refers to any book, not a
single specific book.
Indefinite Article Examples:
• singular -a chair, a city, a manager
• plural—a box, a town, a woman
• non-count able—cannot be used
When to use A: If the initial sound of the noun when pronounced is a consonant sound, “a” is used.
When to use An: If the initial sound of the noun when pronounced is a vowel sound, “an” is used.
• an apple
• an eel
• an honour
Rules for using the indefinite article (a/an)

1. The indefinite article (a, an) cannot be used with uncountable nouns or with plural nouns.
2. Use ‘an’ if the word immediately after the article begins with a, e, i, o or u, except where the
‘u’ is pronounced like a ‘y’ (e.g. an apple, an egg, an interesting result, an odd couple, an
umbrella, BUT a university).
3. Use a/an when you first mention a singular countable noun.
4. Use zero articles when you first mention a plural noun or an uncountable noun.
Some basic rules for using articles:
The first thing you need to decide is whether the noun is countable or uncountable.
Countable nouns in English are usually those that can take a plural form (e.g. lecture, lectures,
essay, essays, student, students).
Uncountable nouns in English usually do not have a plural form.
They include names for languages, subjects (biology, economics, history), solids (iron, coal),
liquids (water, oil), gases (oxygen, hydrogen), powders (sugar, flour).
However, some nouns can be both countable and uncountable, depending on the context or
meaning.
This group includes words like paper, discipline, space.
Rules for using articles (a/an, the, zero article) for classes of things
1. Use the definite article (the) to refer to an entire class of things.
2. Use the indefinite article (a/an) with a singular countable noun to refer to a representative of
the class of things.
3. Use zero article with plural countable nouns and with uncountable nouns to refer to a
representative of the class of things.
Examples for articles:
• I had a bunch of bananas for lunch.
• Red is a colour.
• Eating an apple is good for health.
• Lady Gaga is a pop star.
• Paris is a European city.
• David is a doctor.
• I had an egg for breakfast.
• 2012 is a special year for me.
• Cricket is a sport.
Rules Table
NUMBER INDEFINITE DEFINITE
Use ➢ You mention something for the first time. I have a problem.
"a"/"an" ➢ You want to say that something belongs to This is a table.
a certain group. She is a designer.
➢ You want to say that someone belongs to a I've built a strong ship.
certain group. He is a nice guy.
➢ You want to say that something is a
particular kind of thing.
➢ You want to say that someone is a
particular kind of person.
Use "the" ➢ You talk about a specific thing. The feeling I got was very
➢ It is clear which thing you are talking about. strange.
➢ There is only one such thing. I passed the test!
Look at the sun.
No article ➢ You talk about something in general. Pigs can't fly.
➢ You talk about cities, countries, streets, etc. Diving can be difficult.
We visited Italy.
Practice Questions with Explanations

Fill in: The, a, an or (leave blank)
1. I have just had ______ great idea.
Answer: I have just had a great idea.
2. Columbus was one of ______ first people to cross ______ Atlantic.
Answer: Columbus was one of the first people to cross the Atlantic.
3. ______British drinks too much tea.
Answer: The British drink too much tea.
4. We went on ______ walk in ______ forest yesterday.
Answer: We went on a walk in the forest yesterday.
5. Judith earns € 2000 ______ month.
Answer: Judith earns € 2000 a month.
6. Dancing is ______ more interesting activity than reading.
Answer: Dancing is a more interesting activity than reading.
7. As ______ captain of ______ ship I have ______ complete authority.
Answer: As captain of the ship I have complete authority.
8. ______ people we met on ______ holiday in______north of England came from______USA.
Answer: The people we met on holiday in the north of England came from the USA.
9. What’s on ______ TV today?
Answer: What’s on TV today?
10. He was doing eighty miles ______ hour on ______ motorway.
Answer: He was doing eighty miles an hour on the motorway.
11. How many hours do you work on ______ average?
Answer: How many hours do you work on an average?
12. You are ______ first to reach the top.
Answer: You are the first to reach the top.
13. The people who live in ______ Netherlands are called ______ Dutch.
Answer: The people who live in the Netherlands are called the Dutch.
14. The burglar hit me on ______ back of my neck.
Answer: The burglar hit me on the back of my neck.
15. ______ football is his whole life.
Answer: Football is his whole life.
3. TENSES
INTRODUCTION
Tense is a category that expresses time reference. Tenses are usually manifested by the use of
specific forms of verbs, particularly in their conjugation patterns. Basic tenses found in many
languages include the past, present, and future.
Simple Continuous Perfect Perfect Continuous
Present Speak / speaks Am / is / are Have / has Have been speaking
speaking spoken
Past Spoke Was / were Had spoken Had been speaking
speaking
Future Will speak / Will be speaking Will have spoken Will have been
going to speak speaking
3.1 SIMPLE PRESENT
The present simple tense in English is used to:
To express habitual action as,
• He drinks tea every morning.
• My watch keeps good time.
• I go to college by bus.
• He comes here every evening.
To express general truth
• Honesty is the best policy.
• We see with our eyes.
• Birds fly but cattle don’t.
To indicate a permanent situation
• Their house faces south.
• The path runs through the forest.
• Taj Mahal is in New Delhi.
To indicate future event of a fixed programme
• The match starts at 10 o’ clock.
• The train leaves at 6.10.
3.2 PRESENT CONTINUOUS
The present continuous tense form is
Am+ (v+ing) , Is + (v+ing) , Are + (v+ ing)
Example:
• I am doing my homework.
• They are watching tv.
The Present continuous tense is used
For an action going on at the time of speaking.
• She is singing.
• They are playing cricket.
For a temporary action that may not be happening at the time of speaking.
• I am writing a book.
• I am reading As You like It.
For an action that is planned or arranged to take place in the near future.
• I am leaving for Chennai.

• My brother is arriving tomorrow.
3.3 PRESENT PERFECT
Present perfect tense: has + past participle: have + past participle
For the actions that happened in the past at an unspecified time:
• I‘ve met several celebrities.
• He‘s been to Australia several times.
• We‘ve already taken the test.
For the actions that began in the past and continue to the present:
• I‘ve lived in this house for five years.
• Harry has worked at the same company since 1992.
For the actions that have never happened:
• I‘ve never broken a bone.
• She‘s never bought a car.
• My parents has never been to USA3
3.4 PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
Has been + (v+ing) , Have been + (v+ing)
To denote actions that began in the past and continues to the present:
• I‘ve been thinking a lot about the situation recently.
• They have been in the house since 1990.
• We‘ve been waiting for you to arrive for over an hour.
3.5 PAST SIMPLE
The simple past is used to indicate events that started and finished in the past:
• I worked as a research assistant from 2001 – 2003
• He called me ten minutes ago.
• We went to the Bahamas last summer.
3.6 PAST CONTINUOUS
The past continuous tense =was + were+ (v+ ing)
For events that were in progress in the past
• Sorry I didn’t pick up the phone – I was taking a shower when you called.
• He was sleeping on the couch when I got home.
• When I saw Tina and Sam at the park earlier today, they were arguing.
3.7 PAST PERFECT
The past perfect tense = had + past participle
For events that happened before other past events:
• By the time we arrived at the train station, the train had already left.
• When I woke up, I saw that my husband had made breakfast.
• Five minutes after leaving my house, I realized I’d forgotten to lock the front door.
3.8 PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
The past perfect continuous tense is used for past actions that continued up to another point in
the past:
• Before I lost my job, I had been working on some important projects.
• They had been hoping Pat would make a full recovery after the accident, but he died.
• She‘d already been studying English by herself for several years by the time she started
taking classes.
3.9 FUTURE SIMPLE
Use the “going to” form of the future simple tense for plans, arrangements, and predictions:
• After I graduate from college, I’m going to study for a Master’s degree.
• We’re going to move to a different city next year.
• I think the current president is going to be re-elected.
Use the “will” form of the future simple tense for promises, offers, predictions, and decisions
made in the moment of speaking:
• Promise: I‘ll call you later.
• Offer: We‘ll give you a ride home.
• Prediction: I have a feeling that this new singer will become very popular.
• Decision made in the moment: I‘ll have the spaghetti and a side order of salad.
3.10 FUTURE CONTINUOUS
The future continuous tense is used for actions that will be in progress at a time in the future:
• Don’t call me at 6, because I’ll be driving home from work.
• At 10:30 tomorrow morning, we’ll be giving a presentation in English class.
• He’ll be watching the football game tonight at 11.
3.11 FUTURE PERFECT
The future perfect tense is used for actions that will be completed before a future time:
• I will have written a book before I’m 40.
• We’re late. By the time we get to the theatre, the movie will have started already.
• We will have travelled to 12 different countries by 2015.
3.12 FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS
Use the future perfect continuous tense is used for actions that will continue up to a future time:
• By the time she graduates, she will have been studying for 7 years.
• By 7 PM, I will have been working on this project for eight hours straight.
• By this time next year, they will have been living in Japan for two decades
Rules Table
Present Simple form of am/is/are + am/is/are + past am/is/are + being +
verb or –s form simple form + - participle past participle
I study English ing English is studied English is being
every day. We are studying in many countries. studied everywhere
He studies English this year nowadays.
English every
day.
Past Past form was/were + was/were + past was/were + being +
(simple form + - simple form + - participle past participle
ed) ing English was English was being
I studied English She was studied by most studied in many
in school. studying English 20th Century classrooms that I
when the phone diplomats. visited.
rang.
Present have/has + past have/has + have/has + been +

perfect participle been + simple past participle -----
They have form + -ing English has been
studied English She has been studied since the
before. studying English Middle Ages
He has studied for ten years.
English since
1998.
Past had + past had + been + had + been + past
perfect participle simple form + - participle ------
She had studied ing English had been
English long He had been studied for
before she got a studying English centuries before
new job for two years the British Empire
before the test. existed.
Future will + simple will + be + will be + past
(will) form simple form + - participle -----
The students ing English will be
will study The students studied tomorrow.
English will be studying
tomorrow. English all day
tomorrow.
Future (be am/is/are + am/is/are going am/is/are + going
going to) going to + to + be +simple to be + past -----
simple form form + -ing participle
We are going to We are going to English is going to
study English be studying be studied
tomorrow English all day tomorrow.
tomorrow.
Future will have + past will have + been will have been +
perfect participle + simple form + past participle -----
You will have -ing English will have
You will have
studied enough been studied by
been studying
English by next English for five many more people
year. years by the by the year 2100
end of this year.
Practice Questions With Explanations

Fill in the correct form of the verb – All tenses:
1. They ______ in Chicago for 20 years. (be)
(a) being (b) is
(c) are (d) have been
Solution: (d)
They have been in Chicago for 20 years (be).
2. I ______ a wonderful film in the cinema last night. (See)

(a) saw (b) see
(c) seeing (d) seen
Solution: (a)
I saw a wonderful film in the cinema last night.
3. The sun ______ at 6:38 yesterday morning. (rise)
(a) rises (b) rise
(c) rose (d) risen
Solution: (c)
The sun rose at 6:38 yesterday morning.
4. The sun ______ when the climber reached Mount Everest. (Shine)
(a) is shining (b) was shining
(c) shines (d) were shining
Solution: (b)
The sun was shining when the climber reached Mount Everest.
5. I promise that I ______ this secret to anyone. (not tell)
(a) will not tell (b) did not tell
(c) will not told (d) not telling
Solution: (a)
I promise that I will not tell this secret to anyone.
6. Unfortunately, just as we got to the airport their plane ______ off. (take)
(a) is taking (b) was taken
(c) was taking (d) has taken
Solution: (c)
Unfortunately, just as we got to the airport their plane was taking off.
7. They ______ to the movies only once in a while. (go)
(a) go (b) gone
(c) went (d) going
Solution: (a)
They go to the movies only once in a while (go)
8. I was tired yesterday because I ______ well the night before. (not sleep)
(a) not sleeping (b) have been sleeping
(c) had not slept (d) was sleeping
Solution: (c)
I was tired yesterday because I had not slept well the night before.
9. Sh! someone ______ to our conversation. (listen)
(a) listen (b) is listening
(c) listening (d) was listening
Solution: (b)
Sh! someone is listening to our conversation. (listen)
10. When I left the house this morning, it ______ (already rain)
(a) is raining already (b) have been raining
(c) was already raining (d) already raining
Solution: (c)
When I left the house this morning, it was already raining.

11. I think Bob ______ for London this very moment.(leave)
(a) leave (b) left
(c) is leaving (d) had been left
Solution: (c)
I think Bob is leaving for London this very moment.
12. The plane ______ off in a few minutes. (Take)
(a) took (b) had taken
(c) will take (d) is taking
Solution: (c)
The plane will be taking/ will take off in a few minutes.
13. I ____ up at 7 every morning but this morning I ___ long and I _____ up until 8. (Get, sleep,
not get)
(a) get, slept, didn't get (b) getting, sleep, didn't get
(c) got, slept, didn't get (d) got, sleeping, didn't get
Solution: (a)
I get up at 7 every morning but this morning I slept long and I didn’t get up until 8.
14. I ______ my watch because it is being fixed. (not wear)
(a) not wear (b) am not wearing
(c) not wore (d) am not wore
Solution: (b)
I am not wearing my watch because it is being fixed (not wear).
15. This ______ an easy quiz so far. (be)
(a) has been (b) is
(c) was (d) are
Solution: (a)
This has been an easy quiz so far.
16. They ______ in an apartment right now because they can’t find a cheap house. (Live)
(a) are living (b) live
(c) were living (d) lived
Solution: (a)
They are living in an apartment right now because they can’t find a cheap house.
17. Everyone ______ when the earthquake hit the small town. (Sleep)
(a) were sleeping (b) are sleeping
(c) was sleeping (d) is sleeping
Solution: (c)
Everyone was sleeping when the earthquake hit the small town.
18. She ______ by herself since her divorce. (live)
(a) have been living (b) have lived
(c) has lived (d) has been living
Solution: (d)
She has been living by herself since her divorce.
4. VOICES
INTRODUCTION:
There are two special forms for verbs called:
• Active voice
• Passive voice
The active voice is the “normal” voice. This is the voice that we use most of the time. A feature
of sentences in which the subject performs the action of the verb and the direct object is the
goal of the recipient.
• The professor teaches the students.
• John washes the dishes.
The passive sentences, the thing receiving the action is the subject of the sentence and the
thing doing the action is optionally included near the end of the sentence. You can use the
passive form if you think that the thing receiving the action is more important or should be
emphasized. You can also use the passive form if you do not know who is doing the action or if
you do not want to mention who is doing the action.
• The students are taught by the professor.
• The dishes are washed by John.
Some Common Rules for Active and Passive Voice:
• Present tense: is / am / are + V3
• Present Continuous tense: is / am / are + being + v3
• Present perfect tense: has / have + been + v3
• Past tense: had been + v3
• Past perfect tense had been + v3:
• Future tense: will / shall + be + v3
• Future perfect tense: will/shall+ have been +v3
• I, we, he, she ,they are changed into: me, us, him, her, them
Active and Passive Voice Related with Tense
Action; in the passive voice, the subject receives the action.
In academic writing, it is generally preferred to choose an active verb and pair it with a subject
that names the person or thing doing or performing the action.
Active verbs are stronger and usually more emphatic than forms of the verb “be” or verbs in the
passive voice.
There two type of voice – Active and Passive.
• In Active Voice, the verb agrees the subject. It means the subject is active.
• In Passive Voice, the verb agrees the object. It means the subject is passive.
Present Tense
Active Voice – Sub + V1 + s / es + Object
Passive Voice – Object + is / am / are / V3+ by + Sub.
Examples:
• She helps the poor.
• The poor are helped by her.
Past Tense
Active Voice – Sub + V2 + Object
Passive Voice – Object + was/were + V3 + by + Sub.
Examples:
• They played football in the evening.
• Football was played by them in the evening.
Future Tense
Active Voice – Sub + will / shall + V1 + Object.
Passive Voice – Object + will / shall + be + V3+ by + Sub.
Examples:
• We will take lunch now.
• Lunch shall be taken by us now.
Present Continuous
Active Voice – Sub + is / am / are + V1 + ing + Object
Passive Voice – Object + is / am / are + being + V3 + by + Sub.
Examples:
• She is singing a beautiful song this time.
• A beautiful song is being sung by her this time.
Past Continuous Tense
Active Voice – Sub + was / were + V1 + ing + Object
Passive Voice – Object + was / were + being + V3 + by + Sub.
Examples:
• The teacher was reading newspaper.
• Newspaper was being read by the teacher.
Future Continuous
Active Voice – Sub + will / shall + be + V1 + ing + Object
Passive Voice – Object + will / shall + be + being + V3+ by + Sub.
Examples:
• They will be playing chess this time.
• Chess will be being played by them this time.
Present Perfect
Active Voice – Sub + has/have + V3 + Object
Passive Voice – Object + has/have + been + V3+ by + Sub.
Examples:
• Children have taken their breakfast.
• The breakfast has been taken by children.
Past Perfect
Active Voice – Sub + had + V3 + Object
Passive Voice – Object + had + been + V3+ by + Sub.
Examples:
• I had written a poem.
• A poem had been written by me.
Future Perfect
Active Voice – Sub + will / shall+ have + V3 + Object
Passive Voice – Object + will / shall+ have + been + V3 + by + Sub.
Examples:
• She will have completed her homework.
• The home work will have been completed by her.
Present Perfect Continuous

Active Voice – Sub + has / have + been + V1 + ing + Object + since/for +time.
Passive Voice – Object + has / have + been + being + V3+ by + Sub + since + for +time.
Examples:
• Rudra has been watching TV since Morning.
• TV has been being watched by Rudra since morning.
Past Perfect Continuous
Active Voice – Sub + had + been + V1 + ing + Object + since / for + time.
Passive Voice – Object+ had + been + being + V3+ by + Sub + since + for +time.
Examples:
She had been cooking food for two hours.
Food had been being cooked by her for two hours.
Future Perfect Continuous
Active Voice – Sub + will / shall + have + been + V1 + ing + Object + since / for +time.
Passive Voice – Object + will / shall + have + been + being + V3+ by + Sub + since+ for +
time.
Examples:
• They will have been writing a novel for two months.
• A novel will have been being written by them for two month
Rules Tables
Active Passive
Present simple: She does the Present simple: She does the homework.
homework.
Past simple: He did the homework. Was / were + past participle: The homework was
done (by him).
Present continuous: She is doing the Am / are / is + being + past participle: The
homework. homework is being done (by her).
Past continuous: He was doing the Was/were + being + past participle: The
homework homework was being done (by him).
Present perfect: She has done the Have/has + been + past participle: The homework
homework. has been done (by her).
Past perfect: He had done the Had + been + past participle: The homework had
homework. been done (by him).
Future: (will) she will do the Will + been + past participle: The homework will
homework. be done (by her).
Future: (going to) He is going to do Am/are/is going to + be + past participle: The
the homework. homework is going to be done (by him).
Infinitive: she wants to do the To be + past participle: She wants the homework
homework. to be)
Modal: He can do the homework. Modal + be + past participle: The homework can
be done (by him).
Gerund: They are building the house. Being + past participle: The house is being built.
Present Conditional: When I have time, Get +past participle: When I have time, the filing
I do the filing. gets done.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS WITH EXPLANATIONS

Complete the following sentences using appropriate active or passive verb forms.
1. The problem ______ to the children. (Explained / was explained)
Answer: The problem was explained to the children.
2. Those pyramids ______ around 400 AD. (Built / were built)
Answer: Those pyramids were built around 400 AD.
3. All the trouble ______ by your mother. (Has caused / was caused)
Answer: All the trouble was caused by your mother.
4. The visitors ______ (Were shown / have shown) a collection of old manuscripts.
Answer: The visitors were shown a collection of old manuscripts.
5. I ______ him ten thousand pounds last year. (Lend / lent / was lent)
Answer: I lent him ten thousand pounds last year.
6. She ______ of spiders. (Frightened / is frightened)
Answer: She is frightened of spiders.
7. That picture ______ by my grandmother. (Painted / was painted)
Answer: That picture was painted by my grandmother.
8. I ______ by his attitude. (Shocked / have shocked / was shocked)
Answer: I was shocked by his attitude.
9. Excuse the mess. The house ______ (is painting / is being painted / has painted)
Answer: Excuse the mess. The house is being painted.
10. I knew why I ___(Had chosen/had been chosen)
Answer: I knew why I had been chosen.
Exercise
Directions: Below are given sentence in active / passive voice. Out of the four alternative
suggested, select one which best expresses the same sentence in passive / active voice.
1. The waiter filled the glasses with water.
(a) The glasses filled with water by the (b) The glasses were filled with water by the
waiter waiter
(c) The waiter was filled the glasses with (d) The water were filled in the glasses by waiter
water
2. She took the dog for a walk.
(a) The dog was taken for a walk by her (b) The dog took her for a walk
(c) The dog was took for a walk (d) The dog took a walk by her
3. He was driving the car so fast that it skipped on the snowy road.
(a) The car was driven by him so fast that it (b) The car was being driven by him so fast that
skipped on the snowy road it skipped on the snowy road
(c) The car had been driven by him so fast (d) The car has been driven by him so fast that it
that it skipped on the snowy road skipped on the snowy road
4. They will laugh at you.

(a) You can be laughed at by them (b) You may be laughed at by them
(c) You will be laughed at by them (d) You will have been laughed at by them
5. Then her face was bowed.
(a) Then she was being bowed her face (b) Her face was bowed by then
(c) Then she bowed her face (d) Then her face has been bowed
6. The walls had not been decorated by us.
(a) We have not been decorating the walls (b) We had not been decorating the walls
(c) We have not decorated the walls (d) We had not decorated the walls
7. I shall have written the letter.
(a) The letter will be written by me (b) The letter has been written by me
(c) The letter is being written by me (d) The letter will have been written by me
8. We must endure what we cannot cure.
(a) What we cure must be endured (b) What cannot be cured must be endured
(c) What cannot cured must endured (d) What could be cure must be endured
9. A fresh batch of eggs was collected by the farmer’s wife.
(a) The farmer’s wife was collecting a fresh (b) The farmer’s wife collected a fresh batch of
batch of eggs eggs
(c) The farmer’s wife had collected a fresh (d) The farmer’s wife will be collecting a fresh
batch of eggs batch of eggs
10. They are going to build a new airport near the old one.
(a) A new airport going to be built near the (b) A new airport is being built near the old one
old one
(c) A new airport will be built near the old (d) A new airport is going to be built near the old
one one
11. Rosemary was moved to tears at the sight of the miserable beggar.
(a) The sight of the miserable beggar (b) The sight of the miserable beggar has
moved Rosemary to tears moved Rosemary to tears
(c) The sight of the miserable beggar moves (d) The sight of the miserable beggar had
Rosemary to tears moved Rosemary to tears
12. Could you pass the salt?
(a) Could the salt been passed? (b) Could the salt be passed by anyone?
(c) Could the salt be past? (d) Could the salt be passed?
13. Don’t subject the animals to cruelty.
(a) The animals are not to be subjected to (b) The animals shall not to be subjected to
cruelty cruelty
(c) The animals will not to be subjected to (d) The animals should not to be subjected to
cruelty cruelty
14. Who asked you to draft this letter?
(a) By who you are asked to draft this letter? (b) By who have you are asked to draft this
letter?
(c) By whom were you asked to draft this (d) By whom you were asked to draft this letter?
letter?
15. The lighting caused a serious forest fire and damaged many nearby houses.
(a) A serious forest fire has been caused by lighting and many nearby houses have been
damaged
(b) A serious forest fire was caused by lighting and many houses are damaged
(c) A serious forest fire had been caused by lighting and many nearby houses had been
damaged
(d) A serious forest fire was caused by lighting and many nearby houses were damaged
16. Today I accomplished my task successfully.
(a) Today my task is accomplished (b) Today my task has been accomplished
successfully successfully
(c) Today my task accomplished (d) Today my task was accomplished
successfully successfully
17. Look! They have painted the door.
(a) Look! The door’s being painted (b) Look! The door had been painted
(c) Look! The door has been painted (d) Look! The door was painted
18. She was advised 15 days rest after her surgery.
(a) The doctor was advised her 15 days’ (b) The doctor has advised her 15 days’ rest
rest after her surgery after her surgery
(c) The doctor advised her 15 days’ rest (d) The doctor had advised her 15 days’ rest
after her surgery after her surgery
19. When did he return my books?
(a) When were my books returned by him? (b) When will my books be returned by him?
(c) When has he returned my books? (d) When are my books returned by him?
20. We had to stop all other work to complete our assignment.
(a) All other work has to be stopped by us to (b) All other work had stopped by us to complete
complete our assignment our assignment
(c) All other work had to be stopped by us to (d) All other work was stopped by us to
complete our assignment complete our assignment
21. Gandhiji started the Quit India Movement in 1942.
(a) The Quit India Movement was started by (b) The Quit India Movement was been started
Gandhiji in 1942 by Gandhiji in 1942
(c) The Quit India Movement had been (d) The Quit India Movement started by Gandhiji
started by Gandhiji in 1942 in 1942
22. Gagan Narang and Vijay won bronze medals in the London Olympics.
(a) Bronze medals won by Gagan Narang (b) Bronze medals had been won by Gagan
and Vijay in the London Olympics. Narang and Vijay in the London Olympics.
(c) Bronze medals were won by Gagan (d) Bronze medals have been won by Gagan
Narang and Vijay in the London Olympics. Narang and Vijay in the London Olympics.
23. The modern means of communication have made life so much easier.
(a) Life had been made so much easier by (b) Life is being so much easier by the modern
the modern means of communication means of communication
(c) Life has been made so much easier by (d) Life was made so much easier by the
the modern means of communication modern means of communication
24. Thick clouds have overcast the sky.

(a) The sky has been overcast by thick (b) The sky overcast by thick clouds
clouds
(c) The sky is overcast by thick clouds (d) The sky is been overcast by thick clouds
25. One should not give unsolicited advice.
(a) Unsolicited advice is not to be given (b) Unsolicited advice can’t be given
(c) Unsolicited advice may not be given (d) Unsolicited advice should not to be given
26. Our task had been completed before sunset.
(a) We completed our task before sunset (b) We have completed our task before sunset
(c) We complete our task before sunset (d) We had completed our task before sunset
27. The government has launched a massive tribal welfare programme in Jharkhand
(a) A massive tribal welfare programme is (b) A massive tribal welfare programme has
launched by the government in Jharkhand been launched by the government in Jharkhand
(c) Jharkhand government has launched a (d) The government in Jharkhand has launched
massive tribal welfare programme a massive tribal welfare programme
28. The burglar destroyed several items in the room. Even the carpet has been torn
(a) Several items were destroyed in the (b) Several items in the room were destroyed by
room by the burglar. Even the carpet was the burglar. Even the carpet was torn
torn
(c) Including the carpet, Several items in the (d) The burglar, being destroyed Several items
room have been torn by the burglar in the room, also carpet has torn
29. Has anybody answered your question?
(a) Your question has been answered (b) Anybody has answered your question
(c) Has your question been answered (d) Have you answered your question
30. The shopkeeper lowered the prices.
(a) The prices lowered the shopkeeper (b) The prices were lowered by the shopkeeper
(c) Down went the prices (d) The shopkeeper got down the prices
31. One must keep one’s promises.
(a) One’s promises are kept (b) One’s promises must kept
(c) One’s promises were kept (d) One’s promises must be kept
32. They have published all the details of the invention.
(a) All the details of the invention have been (b) The publication of the details of invention
published by them was done by them
(c) All the details have been invented by the (d) All the inventions have been detailed by
publishers them
33. Please shut the door and go to sleep.
(a) The door is to be shut and you are to go (b) Let the door be shut and you be asleep
to sleep
(c) You are requested to shut the door and (d) The door is to be shut and you are requested
go to sleep to sleep
34. It is impossible to do this.
(a) Doing this is impossible (b) This is impossible to be done
(c) This must not be done (d) This can’t be done
35. We must take care of all living species on Earth.

(a) All living species on Earth are taken care (b) All living species on Earth must be taken
of by us care of by us
(c) All living species on Earth had been (d) All living species on Earth will be taken care
taken care of by us of by us
36. It is being read by us.
(a) We are reading it (b) It will be read by us
(c) We can read it (d) We have to read it
37. He had committed a mistake.
(a) A mistake had committed by him (b) A mistake was committed by him
(c) A mistake had been committed by him (d) A mistake has been committed by him
38. The most useful training of my career was given to me by my boss.
(a) My boss has been giving me the most (b) My boss gives me the most useful training of
useful training of my career my career
(c) My boss is giving me the most useful (d) My boss gave me the most useful training of
training of my career my career
39. Why did she break the garden wall?
(a) Why the garden wall was broken by her? (b) Why had the garden wall was broken by her?
(c) Why was the garden wall broken by her? (d) Why will the garden wall was broken by her?
40. The students were laughing at the old man.
(a) The old man was being laughed at by (b) The old man was laughed at by the students
the students
(c) The old man was being laughed by the (d) The old man laughing at the students
students
Answer Key for Exercise Questions

1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (d)
11.(a) 12.(d) 13. (d) 14. (c) 15. (d) 16. (d) 17. (c) 18. (c) 19. (a) 20. (c)
21.(a) 22.(c) 23. (c) 24. (a) 25. (d) 26. (d) 27. (b) 28. (b) 29. (c) 30. (b)
31.(d) 32.(a) 33. (c) 34. (a) 35. (b) 36. (a) 37. (c) 38. (d) 39. (c) 40. (a)
5. IDIOMS AND PHRASES

INTRODUCTION
An idiom can be an expression, word, or phrase that only has a meaning to the native speaker.
The meaning of an idiom is totalling different from the literal meaning of the idiom's individual
elements.
IDIOMS AND PHRASES
Idioms do not mean exactly what the words say. They have a hidden meaning.
1. Acid Test:
Meaning - Acid test proves the effectiveness of something.
Example - I practiced hard at the dance sessions but the acid test will come when the master
will assess our solo performances.
2. Cut the ground from under feet:
Meaning - When you cut the ground from under someone's feet, you do something which
weakens their position.
Example - When team India hit more than 350 runs in the ODI, they cut the ground from under
the opponent's feet.
3. Chase your tail:
Meaning - Spending a lot of time and energy doing a lot of things but actually achieving too
little.
Example - He's been chasing his tail all week collecting data but the report is still not ready.
4. Whole bag of tricks -
Meaning - Means trying all the clever means to achieve something.
Example - It was really difficult to find the information even after applying the whole bag of
tricks.
5. Deliver the goods -
Meaning - Do what is expected or promised.
Example - I have given my car to a new mechanic for repair, hope he delivers the goods.
6. Fine-tooth comb -
Meaning - Examining something carefully to not miss out any details.
Example - The boss examined my report with a fine tooth comb before submitting it to the
senior management.
7. Explore all avenues
Meaning - Trying out every possibility to get a result.
Example - It is a difficult thing to do but if we really want it done, we must explore all avenues.
8. Fast track something -
Meaning - Rating something higher on your priority list to achieve the desired result.
Example - In view of the seriousness of the crime, the civil society is pressing up on a fast track
decision from the court.
9. Get ducks in a row -
Meaning - Getting your things well organized.
Example - To ensure a successful product launch, we must get our ducks in a row.
10. Get the show on the road -
Meaning - Putting up a plan or idea into action.
Example - Now that we have completed all the legal formalities, let's get the show on the road.
11. Keep your fingers on the pulse -
Meaning - Being constantly aware of the most recent developments.
Example - An entrepreneur must keep his fingers on the pulse of the market to be successful.
12. Mean business -
Meaning - Being serious about what you announce.
Example - Now that all our policies about work are put up on intranet, we mean business.
13. Think on your feet -
Meaning - Adjusting quickly to changes and making fast decisions.
Example - A good sales man must be able to think on his feet to close the deal.
14. Sail through something -
Meaning - Being successful in doing something without difficulty.
Example - The presentation at the national conference was extremely important for the
company. We sailed through it.
15. Tricks of the trade:
Meaning - Clever or expert way of doing something.
Example - Being into the construction business for last 10 years, I know all tricks of the trade.
16. Not let grass grow under feet -
Meaning - Don't delay in getting something done.
Example - As soon as he finished all the registration formalities, he put the house on sale. He
doesn't let the grass grow under his feet.
17. Work like a charm -
Meaning - Works very well or has the desired effect.
Example - I had cloves from my sore throat and they worked like a charm.
18. Back-room boys -
Meaning - People who perform important work but have no contact with the public.
Example - Our back room boys deserve applause for the success of this advertisement.
19. Dead wood -
Meaning - People or things which are no longer useful or necessary.
Example - The Company bought in a lot of new computers. They no longer want the dead woods.
20. Get the axe -
Meaning - lose the job.
Example - The projects team was undergoing a major restructuring, recruitment executives
were the first to get the axe.
21. Plum job -
Meaning - Desirable position which is well-paid and considered relatively easy.
Example - This looks like a plum job but it has its own bunch of complications.
22. Shape up or ship out -
Meaning - This expression is used to warn someone that if they do not improve their ways, they
will have to leave their job.
Example - When Tom started neglecting the customers, he was told to shape up or ship out.
23. Golden handshake -
Meaning - Big sum of money given to a person when they leave a company or retire.
Example - The management of various PSUs wanted to cut down on the man power. They
offered a golden hand shake to many of their aged employees.
24. Separate sheep from goats -
Meaning - Examining a group of people and deciding their suitability
Example - Audition test was conducted by the director to separate sheep from goats.
25. Waiting in the wings -
Meaning - Waiting for an opportunity to take action, mostly to replace someone else in their job.
Example - The senior manager is going to retire in next 2 months. Two of his juniors who are
waiting in the wings will have a fierce competition.
29. Blood, sweat and tears -
Meaning - Something that requires a lot of effort and hard work.
Example - Being the team of Indian cricket team is not just a matter of luck for him, it is his
blood, sweat and tears which has got him here.
30. Have on the brain -
Meaning - Thinking or talking about it all day long.
Example - He has just got engaged. Now, he has his fiancé on his brain all the time.
31. Fling yourself into -
Meaning - Doing something with a lot of energy and enthusiasm.
Example - Flinging him into the exercise routine is the reason for his good physique.
32. Raring to go -
Meaning - Being very eager and enthusiastic about the idea of doing something.
Example - My kids wish to see the animals. They are raring to go to zoo.
33. Xerox subsidy -
Meaning - Using the office photocopier for personal use.
Example - The office now has a strict policy about Xerox subsidy.
34. Get a grip on yourself -
Meaning - Controlling your feelings to deal with a situation.
Example - Reema saw her jewellery and cash missing from the Almirah. After the initial shock,
she got a grip on herself and called the police.
35. Hang on by fingernails -
Meaning - Continuing to do something in a very difficult situation.
Example - The market of watches has suffered a big loss after the arrival of mobile phones.
The survivors are just hanging on by their fingernails.
36. Pull out all the stops -
Meaning - Doing everything you can to make something successful.
Example - The deadline for the project is fast arriving; we have pulled out all the stops for timely
completion.
37. Buckle down -
Meaning - Doing some hard work with determination and full attention.
Example - Getting through the exam for civil services is possible when you have buckled down
yourself.
38. First out of the gate -
Meaning - Being the first one to make a start at something.
Example - John and his friends had decided to voice their opinion against the new economic
policy. John was the first one to be out of the gate.
39. Going places -
Meaning - Exhibiting talent and ability that will lead to a successful future.
Example - Rakesh was a performer at the school sports club. It was obvious that he was going
places.
40. Have one's heart set on -
Meaning - Possessing a determination to obtain something.
Example - He has not become a renowned cardiologist just by chance. He has his heart set on
it after his father passed away with a cardiac arrest.
41. Make headway -
Meaning - Progress in what you are trying to achieve.
Example - The police have made headway with their investigation in the terror attack on the city
last Friday.
42. Punch above one's weight-
Meaning - Performing beyond your ability.
Example - He was not the best swimmer around but he could win the gold medal at the state
swimming competition by working hard and punching above his weight in the finals.
43. Sink your teeth into -
Meaning - doing something with a lot of energy and enthusiasm.
Example - Marie joined the badminton coaching classes. She sank her teeth into the practice
sessions.
44. Stand one's ground -
Meaning - Maintaining your position.
Example - He stood his ground in support of his friend in spite of several family interferences.
45. Close to home -
Meaning - A comment which is true and makes you uncomfortable is close to home.
Example - Tom's comment about his friend's unethical activities was quite close to home. He
looked quite embarrassed.
46. Carry the torch for -
Meaning - Having strong feelings for someone who cannot be yours.
Example - He has been carrying a torch for Mamta, who is now married to Nitin, since they
studied together in college.
47. Cork up something -
Meaning - Failing to express your emotions.
Example - She did not let her grief pour out when her father passed away. It’s not good for her
to cork up his feelings.
48. Cut to the quick -
Meaning - Hurting someone deeply or offending them.
Example - Joe had worked for 10 years with all his loyalty for his company. He was cut to the
quick when his boss held him responsible for the theft.
49. Fish out of water -
Meaning - Feeling uncomfortable in unfamiliar surroundings.
Example - Being French, I felt like a fish out of water in the group of Japanese
50. Bee in one's bonnet -
Meaning - Carrying an idea which constantly occupies your thoughts.
Example - She is not happy in Africa. She has a bee in the bonnet about moving to Dubai.
51. Deep down -
Meaning - Describing what a person really feels deep inside or what is he like.
Example - He appears to be indifferent to the success or failure of his children but deep down
he is highly concerned.
52. Have your heart in the right place -
Meaning - Refers to a person with good intentions; even though the results are not that
impressive.
Example - The dinner she had cooked wasn't the best but she had her heart in the right place.
53. Groan inwardly -
Meaning - Refers to a feeling where you want to express despair, disapproval or distress, but
you keep quite.
Example - She was quite disappointed at the sarcastic remark by her friend but looking at the
situation she groaned inwardly.
54. Beard the lion in his den -
Meaning - Challenge someone in his own area.
Example - If he doesn't come to see me today, I'll have to beard the lion in his den.
55. Keep a stiff upper lip -
Meaning - Refers to a person who doesn't show off his emotions.
Example - He heard the news about his father's demise but kept a stiff upper lip.
56. Go bananas -
Meaning - Refers to someone who behaves in a crazy way out of emotions.
Example - Your decision to go abroad for a year will make your family go bananas.
57. Lump in your throat -
Meaning - Refers to a tight feeling in your throat because of an emotion like sadness or
gratitude.
Example - After all the hardships, I saw my son winning a gold medal today - I had a lump in
my throat.
58. Hard as nails -
Meaning - Refers to a person without sentiments and sympathy for anyone.
Example - He has become as hard as a nail after his brother was brutally murdered.
59. Lick one's wounds -
Meaning - Trying to regain their confidence or boost up the spirits after a defeat.
Example - Raja is licking his wounds after being dropped from the Indian Cricket Team.
60. Proud as a peacock -
Meaning - Refers to an extremely proud person.
Example - His son is has finally become a doctor. He is as proud as a peacock.
61. Tongue-tied -
Meaning - Difficulty in expressing yourself because of nervousness or embarrassment.
Example - As her prospective in laws came to see her, she was completely tongue tied.
62. Look on the bright side -

Meaning - View an unpleasant situation in a positive light.
Example - You met with an accident but look on the bright side - you managed to get away just
with some bruises.
63. Swallow one's pride -
Meaning - Accepting something humiliating or embarrassing.
Example - When his son was caught cheating in the exam. He had to swallow his pride and
meet the principal.
64. Makes your flesh crawl -
Meaning - Something that makes you feel disgusted or nervous.
Example - The sight of the accident made my flesh crawl.
65. Speak volumes -
Meaning - Expresses a reaction without words.
Example - She came to pick me at the station at an odd hour. Her actions spoke volumes about
her brevity.
66. Not turn a hair -
Meaning - Refers to not exhibiting any emotion where it is expected.
Example - He didn't turn a hair even after his office was raided by the CBI.
67. Reduce to tears -
Meaning - Getting into tears because of some one's behaviour.
Example - Her best friend stopped talking to her. This reduced her to tears.
68. In the bag -
Meaning - Refers to a situation when you are sure that success is sure.
Example - The wickets of opponent team fell down very fast, victory seemed to be in the bag at
the end of 25 overs.
69. Blow up in face -
Meaning - Refers to a situation when a plan or project suddenly fails.
Example - It was difficult to get a place in the train to Mumbai. It blew up in the face when a
train de-railed and blocked the track.
70. Bottom fell out -
Meaning - Refers to a situation when a plan or project fails.
Example - When the police announced a red alert in the city, the bottom fell out of their plan to
hold a rally.
71. Cake not worth the candle -
Meaning - Refers to something in which result vs efforts are too less.
Example - He worked very hard to organize the party but very few guests walked in. The cake
wasn't worth the candle.
72. Chance one's arm -
Meaning - Deciding to do something even though the chances of success are very little.
Example - She knew there was little chance of getting through the audition test but she decided
to chance her arm.
73. Come up roses -
Meaning - Successful end results even though there may be some initial hiccups.
Example - After initial hiccups, the project seems to be coming up roses.

74. Cook someone's goose -
Meaning - Spoil other person's chances of success.
Example - When the opponent team saw Indian batsmen taking wicket after wicket, they
realised that their goose was cooked.
75. Cut one's own throat -
Meaning - Doing something that will cause your own failure.
Example - Raghav is not sincere in the class since the beginning. He is cutting his own throat.
76. Flying start -
Meaning - Something that is immediately successful.
Example - The film hit the box office with a flying start and collected the highest revenue on day 1.
77. Make a go of -
Meaning - Succeeding in your enterprise.
Example - With his hard work and dedication, he has made a go of his new venture.
78. Go to the dogs -
Meaning - Getting comparably less successful than before.
Example - With new corruption scams un-veiling every day, the country is going to dogs.
79. Go up in smoke -
Meaning - Something that ends before getting a result.
Example - With a vigilant police force around the town, the plan of antisocial elements to cause
chaos went up in smoke.
80. Live on the breadline -
Meaning - Having very little income.
Example - The partition of the country has left many people on the breadline.
81. . Make or break -
Meaning - Circumstances causing total success or total ruin.
Example - The huge investment in this big project with makes or breaks him.
82.. Landslide victory -
Meaning - Overwhelming victory received by a candidate of political party at an election.
Example - With a win of more of than 40% seats in the first two hours of counting, they are
expecting a landslide victory.
83. Let slip through fingers -
Meaning - Failing to obtain or keep up a good opportunity.
Example - This opportunity can be your breakthrough in the industry. Don't let it slip through
your fingers.
86. Rags to riches -
Meaning - Becoming very rich while starting very poor.
Example - His innovative ideas in business got him from rags to riches.
87. On the pig's back -
Meaning - Refers to a person in successful and well situation.
Example - The tourism in the state was on the pig's back before the terror attacks hit the
capital.
88. Miss the boat -
Meaning - Failing to take advantage of an opportunity because of slow actions.

Example - I managed to get a discount of 10% but could not get an early bird offer. Reaching
late made me miss the boat.
89. Smash hit -
Meaning - Refers to music, films which are very successful.
Example - His music became a smash hit in a week's time.
90. Murphy's law -
Meaning - Means that if anything can go wrong, it will.
Example - Let's be prepared for the worst but don't forget the Murphy's law.
91. Place in the sun -
Meaning - Finding a place in the sun refers to a position which provides you all the success and
happiness you want in your life.
Example - Getting married into the renowned business family in the town, she found a place in
the sun.
92. Sink or swim -
Meaning - fail or succeed.
Example - The test will decide if he sinks or swims.
93. Champagne on a beer budget -
Meaning - Wanting expensive things that you cannot afford.
Example - She always buys things out of her budget. She has developed a taste for
champagne on beer budget.
94. Top dog -
Meaning - Very successful group, company, person, country etc.
Example - The economic survey proved that they are the top dogs of the IT industry.
95. Keep up appearances -
Meaning - Maintaining an outward show of prosperity or well-being while hiding your difficulties
Example - Keeping up the appearances was important for him to secure the new big projects.
96. Wooden spoon -
Meaning - Imaginary prize for the last person in a race.
Example - We won a wooden spoon at the fashion show.
97. Have the world by its tail -
Meaning - Very successful person who can choose from a lot of opportunities.
Example - Being the pioneers in the pharmaceutical industry, they are now having the world by
its tail.
98. Live beyond means -
Meaning - Spending more money than you can afford.
Example - He has a habit of living beyond his means. Most of the times, you will find him
borrowing the money from his friends.
99. Live in an ivory tower -
Meaning - Living a lifestyle that saves you from the real world problems.
Example - Her inexperience in dealing with tough situations is because she has lived in an ivory
tower
100. Hit the road running -
Meaning - Start performing immediately.
Example - She was our old employee. She hit the road running when she joined us back.
Rules Table
You can use the following tips and tricks to memorize idioms:
➢ Do not limit yourself to meanings alone, understand contexts: Try and understand in what
context a particular idiom or phrase has been used. This will help you understand and
remember the particular idiom or phrase better.
➢ Keep a handy list for revising what you have learnt: Keep a diary to learn words on the go.
This will not make learning a chore. In fact, these days you don’t even need to carry a diary.
You can simply note down the idioms and their meanings in a notepad app on your smart-
phone and revise it on the go.
➢ Do not try to cram at once: Never try and learn too many idioms or phrase at the same time.
However, learning them by grouping them into themes is quite a good idea.
➢ Relate idioms and phrases to visual imagery: Try and relate idioms and phrases to images
and link them to stories. Trust us, you will never forget them!
➢ Try to explore the origin of idioms & phrases: Most idioms & phrases have very interesting
origin stories. You should try to explore them as these would enable you to understand the
meanings of these idioms and phrases better.
Each sentence given below contains an idiom/phrase. From the given alternatives,
choose the one that best expresses the meaning of this idiom/phrase.
1. He has the gift of the gab.
(a) He is gifted (b) He is a chatterbox
(c) He is a good conservationist (d) none of these
Answer: (c)
He is a good conservationist
2. Parental property has become a bone of contention between the siblings.
(a) Unifying factor (b) something that causes a quarrel
(c) a firm view (d) none of these
Answer: (b)
Something that causes a quarrel
3. Once in a blue moon, we meet each other.
(a) Frequently (b) hardly ever
(c) very seldom indeed (d) in the light of a blue moon
Answer: (c)
Very seldom indeed
4. He has been jobless for several months, and it is his wife who keeps the pot boiling.
(a) avoids starvation (b) keeps the fire burning
(c) is angry (d) keeps firing
Answer: (a)
Avoids starvation
5. In the end he had to eat the humble pie.

(a) Apologize humbly (b) defend himself vigorously
(c) adopt an aggressive attitude (d) none of these
Answer: (a)
Apologize humbly
6. To be a good orator, you don’t have to play to the galleries.
(a) Offend audiences (b) to be prepared
(c) appease select audience (d) to appeal to the lower taste
Answer: (d)
To appeal to the lower taste
7. The officer took him to task.
(a) Rebuked him (b) dismissed him
(c) promoted him (d) praised him
Answer: (a)
Rebuked him
8. I cannot understand why she did that, it really doesn't add up.
(a) Doesn’t calculate (b) isn't mathematics
(c) doesn't make sense (d) makes the wrong addition
Solution: (c) I cannot understand why she did that, it really doesn't make sense.
9. All the students got high marks in the test but Mary stood out.
(a) Got a lot of marks (b) got higher marks than someone
(c) got very good marks (d) got the most marks of all
Solution: (d) All the students got high marks in the test but Mary got the most marks of all.
10. He has sold his house and has no job and so now he has next to nothing.
(a) He is unemployed (b) he has almost no money
(c) he has a few things (d) he has nothing at all
Solution: (d) he has nothing at all
11. As a newspaper reporter she always wanted to get information at first hand.
(a) Quickly (b) slowly
(c) easily (d) directly
Solution: (d) As a newspaper reporter she always wanted to get information directly.
12. I think we can safely say now that we have got our money back, we are home and dry.
(a) Have not got wet (b) have got no water
(c) have been successful (d) have got home dry
Solution: (c) I think we can safely say now that we have got our money back, we are have
been successful.
13. He is the man who owns all the land and is the big fish around here.
(a) The fat man (b) the huge man
(c) the important man (d) the enormous man
Solution: (c) He is the man who owns all the land and is the important man around here.
14. She never stops talking about herself and is full of herself.
(a) Is very fat (b) is too fat
(c) is very full (d) is very conceited
Solution: (d) She never stops talking about herself and is very conceited.
15. You will not slip over because the floor is as dry as a bone.
(a) Completely hard (b) extremely flat
(c) totally dry (d) completely cracked
Solution: (c) You will not slip over because the floor is totally dry.
16. He kept saying he didn't do it but in the end he said he had done it.
(a) At the end (b) finally
(c) at last (d) by the end
Solution: (b) He kept saying he didn't do it but finally he said he had done it.
17. I know you are very sorry that you broke the pot but accidents will happen.
(a) Things will take place (b) things do occur
(c) things take place often (d) things often go wrong
Solution: (b) I know you are very sorry that you broke the pot but things do occur.
Exercise
Directions: For each of the following sentences four alternatives are given. You are required to
choose the correct meaning of the idioms given in bold in the sentences.
1. We should give a wide berth to bad characters.
(a) keep away from (b) publicly condemn
(c) give publicity to (d) not sympathise with
2. Sumit had to look high and low before he could find his scooter key.
(a) nowhere (b) always
(c) everywhere (d) somewhere
3. You may rush from pillar to post, but you stand no chance of getting what you want without
a bribe.
(a) Be very busy (b) Rush in all directions and suffer much harassment
(c) Go to all post boxes and post offices (d) Go to many offices and post letters
4. At a party, he is always in high spirits.
(a) Talkative (b) Cheerful
(c) Drunk (d) Uncontrollable
5. She rejected his proposal of marriage point blank.
(a) Directly (b) Pointedly
(c) Absurdly (d) Briefly
6. We should guard against our green-eyed friends.
(a) rich (b) jealous
(c) handsome (d) enthusiastic
7. It was clearly a case of the pot calling the kettle black when Jagjit said that Ramu was a
thief.
(a) Someone criticizing another for a fault (b) A person accusing another of being black
which he himself has
(c) A person blaming another for something, (d) Both are guilty of the same mistake
he has not done
8. The sight of the accident made my flesh creep.

(a) Worried me (b) Frightened me
(c) Confused me (d) Drew my attention
9. He is a queer fish. I have failed to understand him.
(a) funny person (b) sensitive person
(c) strange person (d) a timely sleep
10. The involvement of teachers in the scheme of education proved to be a mare’s nest.
(a) A false invention (b) A noble thing
(c) A successful (d) A timely sleep
11. Chandu used very ugly words against his kind uncle; he threw down the gauntlet before
him.
(a) abused and insulted (b) threw the challenge
(c) behaved as an important person (d) put conditions
12. The present undergraduate syllabus leaves very little elbow room for teachers to be
innovative.
(a) room for elbow (b) space
(c) freedom (d) ground
13. Komal was left high and dry by her friends when she lost all her money.
(a) Isolated (b) Rejected
(c) Wounded (d) Depressed
14. The party stalwarts have advised the prestige to take it lying down for a while
(a) To show no reaction (b) To take rest
(c) To be on the defensive (d) To be cautious
15. A movement for world unity is in the offing.
(a) At the end (b) About to start
(c) On decline (d) In the air
16. Sita is not cut out for this kind of work.
(a) Trained (b) Suitable
(c) Recommended (d) Considered
17. His most trusted friend proved to be a snake in the grass.
(a) Cowardly and brutal (b) An unreliable and deceitful person
(c) A hidden enemy (d) Low and mean
18. The politician was able to sway the mob with his gift of the gab.
(a) Fluency of speech (b) Flattering words
(c) Abundance of promises (d) Political foresight
19. The speaker gave a bird’s eye view of the political conditions in the country.
(a) A detailed presentation (b) A biased view
(c) A general view (d) A personal view
20. When he tells stories about himself, he is inspired to draw the long bow.
(a) Get excited (b)Exaggerate
(c) Get emotional (d) Underrate
21. He was a king who ruled his subjects with a high hand.
(a) Oppressively (b) Kindly
(c) Conveniently (d) Sympathetically
22. He did me a good turn by recommending me for the post of vice-president.
(a) Became suddenly good (b) Improved my prospects
(c) Did an act of kindness (d) Returned my kindness
23. Being an introvert, he will only eat his heart out.
(a) Eat too much (b) Keep brooding
(c) Invite trouble (d) Suffer silently
24. Caesar was done to death by the conspirators.
(a) Eat too much (b) Keep brooding
(c) Invite trouble (d) Suffer silently
25. His boss was always breathing down his neck.
(a) Abusing and ill-treating him (b) Watching all his actions closely
(c) Shouting loudly at him (d) Giving him strenuous work
26. He is not worth his salt if he fails at this juncture.
(a) Quite worthless (b) Very proud of himself
(c) Quite depressed (d) very strange
27. After having finished the last project, I find myself at a loose end.
(a) Happy (b) On vacation
(c) Free of troubles (d) With nothing to do
28. It was such a strange affair that I would not make head or tail of it.
(a) Face it (b) Tolerate it
(c) Remember (d) Understand it
29. She exhibited remarkable sang froid during the crisis.
(a) Temper (b) Irritation
(c) Composure (d) Anger
30. My father strained every nerve to enable me to get settled in life.
(a) Worked very hard (b) Spent a large amount
(c) Tried all tricks (d) Bribed several persons
31. Though she herself was as ugly as sin, she had the audacity to criticize the looks of her
companion.
(a) Sinfully ugly (b) Very ugly
(c) Exceptionally ugly (d) Quite ugly
32. He bids fair to be an excellent cricketer.

(a) Seems likely (b) Is ambitious
(c) Is confident (d) Is unlikely
33. He does not like to be friendly with Sarla. He always gives her a cold shoulder.
(a) Pushes her with his shoulder wherever (b) Insult her in the presence of others
they meet
(c) Tries to be unfriendly by taking no notice (d) Argues with her on any issue
of her
34. It was he who put a spoke in my wheel.
(a) Tried to cause an accident (b) Helped in the execution of the plan
(c) Thwarted the execution of the plan (d) Destroyed the plan
35. The captain played with determination because the honour of the team was at stake
(a) Very tense (b) At the top
(c) In danger (d) Appropriate
36. His promotion is on the cards.
(a) Due (b) Evident
(c) Certain (d) Probable
37. Harassed by repeated acts of injustice he decided to put his foot down.
(a) Resign (b) Not to yield
(c) Withdraw (d) Accept the proposal unconditionally
38. At Christmas, even the elderly fathers paint the town red.
(a) Indulge in rioting (b) Paint the house red
(c) Spill red wire (d) Have a lively time
39. His letters to his ward speak volumes for his forbearance and good sense.
(a) Show indications of (b) Speak ill of
(c) Are intended to impress (d) Serve as strong testimony
40. He is in the habit of chewing the cud.
(a) Accusing other (b) Crying over spilt milk
(c) Forgetting things (d) To muse on
41. I just paid him a left handed compliment.
(a) An honest (b) A well deserved
(c) An insincere (d) A flattering
42. The new C.M. stuck his neck out today and promised 10kgs free wheat a month for a rural
families.
(a) Extended help (b) Took an oath
(c) Caused embarrassment (d) Took a risk
43. He burnt his fingers by interfering in his neighbour’s affairs.
(a) Got rebuked (b) Got himself insulted
(c) Burnt himself (d) Got himself into trouble
44. The dispute regarding the emoluments of junior doctors came to a head this week.
(a) Settled amicably (b) Reached a crisis
(c) Took a turn for the better (d) Resulted in senseless violence
45. It will be wise on your part to let the bygones be bygones.
(a) Resist the past (b) Ignore the past
(c) Recollect the past (d) Revive the past
46. The boy had a hair-breadth escape from a street accident.
(a) Lucky (b) Easy
(c) Narrow (d) Quick
47. In spite of the efforts of all peace loving people. World peace is still a far cry.
(a) An abstract ideal (b) A long way off
(c) An impracticable idea (d) Out of reach
48. My friend is quite hard-hearted.
(a) emotional (b) cruel
(c) rude (d) sentimental
49. His popularity is on the wane.
(a) On the heights (b) Stand still
(c) Verge of eruption (d) Gradually declining
50. He was in doldrums after the quarrel with his brother.
(a) Jubilant (b) In low spirits
(c) Angry (d) left the house
51. He's up to his ears in work and cannot possibly see you now.
(a) Fully occupied with (b) very interested in
(c) not involved with (d) concerned with
52. If you give me a hand, then I shall be able to finish more quickly.
(a) Take my hand (b) help me
(c) take my fingers (d) pick me up
53. I prefer to talk to people face to face rather than to talk on the phone.
(a) In person (b) facing them
(c) looking at them (d) seeing them
54. The manager dismissed the new proposal out of hand and said that it was not at all
practical.
(a) Quickly (b) utterly
(c) directly (d) simply
55. As she is new to the job I would ask you to keep an eye on her for the time being.
(a) look at (b) consider
(c) check (d) observe
56. The opposition in parliament accused the government of playing games and refusing to
accept the seriousness of the situation.
(a) being light hearted (b) being heavy hearted
(c) being down hearted (d) being faint hearted
57. He accused her of talking through her hat and refused to accept a word of what she said.
(a) Talking sense (b) talking straight
(c) talking nonsense (d) talking tough
58. The police advised them to go down to the cellar in order to be out of harm's way.
(a) Away from the noise (b) inside the area
(c) into safety (d) away from danger
59. I'd give my right arm if I could get tickets for that concert.
(a) Do absolutely anything (c) Do something stupid
(b) Do something dangerous (d) Do what you want
60. You can always rely on Fred to put his foot in it and come out with a remark like that.
(a) Tread on somebody (c) Say something embarrassing
(b) Fall over (d) Put on the wrong shoe
Answer Key
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (a)
11. (b) 12. (c) 13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (d) 16. (b) 17. (c) 18. (a) 19. (c) 20. (b)
21. (a) 22. (c) 23. (d) 24. (d) 25. (b) 26. (a) 27. (d) 28. (d) 29. (c) 30. (a)
31. (b) 32. (a) 33. (c) 34. (c) 35. (c) 36. (d) 37. (b) 38. (d) 39. (d) 40. (d)
41. (c) 42. (d) 43. (d) 44. (b) 45. (b) 46. (c) 47. (b) 48. (b) 49. (d) 50. (b)
51.(a) 52.(b) 53.(a) 54.(b) 55.(d) 56.(a) 57.(c) 58.(d) 59.(a) 60.(c)
6. VOCABULARY
INTRODUCTION
A vocabulary is a set of words that refer to the words used in a language. A vocabulary, usually
developed with age, serves as a useful and fundamental tool for communication and acquiring
knowledge.
Types of Vocabulary
There are four types of vocabulary:
• Reading vocabulary
• Listening vocabulary
• Speaking vocabulary
• Writing vocabulary
Reading comprehension
A literate person's vocabulary is all the words he or she can recognize when reading.
This is generally the largest type of vocabulary simply because a reader tends to be exposed to
more words by reading than by listening.
Listening vocabulary
A person's listening vocabulary is all the words he or she can recognize when listening to
speech.
People may still understand words they were not exposed to before, by using cues such as
tone, gestures, the topic of discussion and the social context of the conversation.
Speaking vocabulary
A person's speaking vocabulary is all the words he or she uses in speech. It is likely to be a
subset of the listening vocabulary. Due to the spontaneous nature of speech, words are often
misused. This misuse - though slight and unintentional - may be compensated by facial
expressions, tone of voice.
Writing vocabulary
Words are used in various forms of writing from formal essays to social media feeds. Many
written words do not commonly appear in speech.
Writers generally use a limited set of words when communicating: for example
• If there are a number of synonyms, a writer will have his own preference as to which of them
to use.
• he is unlikely to use technical vocabulary relating to a subject in which he has no knowledge
or interest.
Vocabulary Example:
Abase Cause To Feel Shame
Aberration A State Or Condition Markedly Different From The Normal
Abject Most Unfortunate Or Miserable
Abrasive Sharply Disagreeable, Rigorous
Abundant Present In Great Quantity
Accede Yield To Another's Wish Or Opinion
Accentuate To Stress, Single Out As Important
Acclimate Get Used To A Certain Climate

Accomplice A Person Who Joins With Another In Carrying Out Some Plan
Accord Harsh Or Corrosive In Tone
Acme The Highest Stage Of Development
Acquiesce To Agree Or Express Agreement
Acquit Pronounce Not Guilty Of Criminal Charges
Adverse Contrary To Your Interests Or Welfare
Aesthete A Person Who Is Appreciative Of And Sensitive To Art And Beauty
Afflict Cause Physical Pain Or Suffering In
Allege Report Or Maintain
Allude Make A More Or Less Disguised Reference To
Ample More Than Enough In Size Or Scope Or Capacity
Anticipate Be Excited Or Anxious About
Antipathy A Feeling Of Intense Dislike
Apparent Obvious
Append Add To The Very End
Apt Naturally Disposed Toward
Banality Predictable, Obvious
Bemused filled With Bewilderment
Beseech Ask For Or Request Earnestly
Besiege To Attack With Army
Bestow Present
Betrothed Engaged
Bland Lacking Stimulating Characteristics, Uninteresting
Boast Show Off
Brag Boast
Brisk Active, Fast, Energetic
Brook A Natural Stream Of Water Smaller Than A River
Bully A Person Who Uses Strength Or Power To Harm Or Intimidate
Those Who Are Weaker.
Candid Straightforward And Truthful
Capitulate Surrender Under Agreed Conditions
Caprice A Sudden Desire
Cardinal Cardinal is a High-ranking Bishop
Cite Make Reference To
Clad Dressed Or Covered
Cleave Separate
Clemency Mercy, Lenience
Coast The Shore Of A Sea Or Ocean
Cohere Cause To Form A United, Orderly, And Aesthetically Consistent Whole

Confer Have A Conference In Order To Talk Something Over
Confined Restricted
Conscientious Characterized By Extreme Care And Great Effort
Consecrate Render Holy By Means Of Religious Rites
Consider Deem To Be
Conspicuous Obvious To The Eye Or Mind
Constrained Lacking Spontaneity, Not Natural
Contempt Lack Of Respect
Contend Compete For Something
Contrive Make Or Work Out A Plan For; Devise
Convention A Meeting,
Cower To Shrink In Fear
Daunting Seeming Difficult To Deal With In Prospect.
Deceive Cheat, Delude, Beguile
Decorum Propriety In Manners And Conduct
Decree An Official Order That Has The Force Of Law.
Delicacy The Quality Of Being Beautiful
Deprave Corrupt
Despicable Contemptible
Destitute Without The Basic Necessities Of Life.
Dingy Covered With Dirt
Disconcert Feels Confused And Out Of Sorts
Discreet Quiet, Prudent
Disposition Your Usual Mood Or Attitude Towards Life
Distinction A Discrimination Between Things
Dwell Think Moodily
Ebb Fall Away Or Decline
Edict A Formal Or Authoritative Proclamation
Edifice Building
Elaborate Marked By Complexity And Richness Of Detail
Elude Escape
Emulate Imitate, Compete, Mimic
Enduring Unceasing
Enmity The State Or Feeling Of Being Actively Opposed
Ensue Issue Or Terminate
Entreat Ask For Or Request Earnestly
Evasive Dishonest
Evident Clear
Exalt Praise, Glorify Or Honour

Exasperate Irritate
Exert Make A Great Effort At A Mental Or Physical Task
Exertion Use Of Physical Or Mental Energy, Hard Work
Exhausted Tired
Explicate Elaborate, Explain
Exploit Draw From
Extort Obtain By Coercion Or Intimidation
Facile Arrived At Without Due Care Or Effort, Lacking Depth
Fathom Come To Understand
Fervent Characterized By Intense Emotion
Flourish Grow Vigorously
Foreword A Short Introduction To A Book, Preface
Forsake Leave Someone Who Needs
Fortitude Emotional Power
Fray A Noisy Fight
Furore Excitement
Furnish Provide Or Equip With Furniture
Gentry The Most Powerful Members Of A Society
Germane Relevant
Gird Get Ready For The Dangerous Situation
Grapple Try To Overcome
Hapless Unfortunate
Harry Annoy Continually Or Chronically
Headlong In A Hasty Or Rashly Manner
Heed Pay Close Attention To
Horde A Moving Crowd
Humiliate Cause To Feel Shame, Hurt The Pride Of
Impel Cause To Move Forward With Force
Imposed Set Forth Authoritatively As Obligatory
Imposing Impressive In Appearance
Impudent Not Showing Due Respect For Another Person.
Impulsive Spontaneous Or Forceful
Indolent Lazy
Inevitable Unavoidable
Infallible Incapable Of Failure Or Error
Insist Be Emphatic Or Resolute
Inspire To Excite, Encourage, Or Breathe Life Into
Instance An Occurrence Of Something
Insurgent A Rebel Or A Revolutionary

Intimate Marked By Close Acquaintance
Intrigue Cause To Be Interested Or Curious
Jerk Jolt, Pull, Blockhead, Dolt
Keen Interest In Something, Focused
Kindle Catch Fire
Labour Any Piece Of Work That Is Undertaken Or Attempted
Languid Lacking Spirit Or Liveliness
Loquacious Talkative Or Chatty
Latitude Freedom From Normal Restraints In Conduct
Leverage Clout, Power, Influence, Advantage
Levy Impose (a Tax, Fee, Or Fine)
Loath Strongly Opposed
Lofty Of Imposing Height
Luxuriant Produced Or Growing In Extreme Abundance
Malice Feeling A Need To See Others Suffer
Manifest Reveal Its Presence Or Make An Appearance
Manifestation A Clear Appearance
Maverick Open Minded
Minute Very Small
Monetary Relating To Or Involving Money
Mortify Cause To Feel Shame, Hurt The Pride Of
Muddle Confuse, Mix Up, Confound, Jumble, Tangle
Multitude A Large Indefinite Number
Muse Reflect Deeply On A Subject
Muster Gather Or Bring Together
Nerd Geek, Techie
Nostalgic Sentimental, Wistful
Notion A General Inclusive Concept
Obscure Not Discovered
Obsolete Outdated, Superannuated
Odium State Of Disgrace Resulting From Detestable Behaviour
Oppress To Use Authority To Keep Someone Down
Outskirts Outlying Areas
Pacify To Bring Peace Or Calm To The Situation
Parable A Short Moral Story
Passage A Section Of Text
Pathetic Pitiable, Pitiful, Paltry
Paucity Scarcity, Shortage, Dearth
Pawn Guarantee
Perceptible Noticeable, Sensible, Observable
Perish Slow Death Or Non Violent Death
Perpetrate Perform An Act, Usually With A Negative Connotation
Perplexed To Feel Completely Baffled
Persist Continue To Exist
Petrified So Frightened That Not Able To Move Or Think
Pious Having Or Showing Or Expressing Reverence For A Deity
Plead Enter A Plea
Plight Unfortunate Situation,
Poke Jab, Prod, Pry
Ponder Think About Carefully
Precept Rule Of Personal Conduct
Pretence Pretext, Sham, Excuse
Procrastination Act Of Delaying Something
Procurement Obtainment, Acquirement
Project Exceptional Skill Or Ability
Queer Strange
Quirk A Strange Act
Radiant Shining
Rail Criticize Severely
Ratify Approve And Express Assent
Rave Praise Enthusiastically
Reconciliation Rapprochement, Settlement
Recourse Source Of Help
Remorseful Feeling Or Expressing Pain
Repatriation The Act Of Returning To The Country Of Origin.
Repeal Cancel Officially
Repent Regret
Restraint Restriction, Reserve, Limitation, Control
Retaliate To Take Revenge
Reticent Silent
Retort A Quick Reply To A Question Or Remark
Retraction To Withdraw A Statement Or Any Charge
Rhetoric Using Language Effectively To Please Or Persuade
Sanction Give Authority Or Permission To
Sanctity The State Or Quality Of Being Holy, Sacred, Or Saintly.
Sarcastic Biting, Sardonic

Satire Witty Language Used To Convey Insults Or Scorn
Scarce Deficient In Quantity
Scorching Very Hot, Burning, Torrid
Sentinel A Person Keeping Watch
Shook Emotionally Disturbed Or Upset
Shrewd Clever
Slay Kill Intentionally And With Premeditation
Slew Large Number Or Amount
Slovenly Dirty
Sob Weep Convulsively
Sobbing Cry Noisily
Sobriquet A Person's Nickname.
Solace Consolation, Comfort, Relief
Squander Waste, Dissipate, Lavish
Staid Dignified, Respectable
Steep Having A Sharp Inclination
Stipulate Specify As A Condition Or Requirement In A Contract Or Agreement
Strife Quarrel, Contention, Dispute, Fight, Conflict
Stubborn Obstinate, Unrelenting
Stump Cause To Be Perplexed Or Confounded
Sublime Of High Moral Or Intellectual Value, Elevated In Nature Or Style
Subside Wear Off Or Die Down
Sulking Be Silent, Morose
Suppliant Humbly Entreating
Symmetry Balance Among The Parts Of Something
Tarry Leave Slowly And Hesitantly
Throng Press Tightly Together Or Cram
Toil To Work Hard
Tout To Praise Or To Boast
Tract A System Of Body Parts That Together Serve Some Particular Purpose
Trauma Serious Injury Or Shock
Tread A Step In Walking Or Running
Trifles A Thing Of Little Value Or Importance.
Uncouth Rough
Vain Unproductive Of Success

Valet Servant
Venerable Impressive By Reason Of Age
Venerate Regard With Feelings Of Respect And Reverence
Vex Cause Annoyance In, Disturb, Especially By Minor Irritations
Visage The Human Face
Wander To Move Or Cause To Move In A Sinuous, Spiral, Or Circular Course
Wax Grow Larger Or Increase
Weigh To Be Oppressive Or Burdensome
Wistful Showing Pensive Sadness
Wont A Custom Or Habit
Rules Table
Tips For Mastering Vocabulary:
➢ Use vocabulary words in context
➢ Annotate passages
➢ Get to grips with the basics
➢ Be inquisitive
➢ Improve your context skills
➢ Make up as many associations and connections as possible
➢ Use mnemonics
➢ Get in the habit of looking up words you don't know
Exercise
Each question is followed by four suggested answers. Choose the most appropriate one:
1. The word most closely associated with HOSPITALITY is:
(a) Hospital (b) Doctor
(c) Nurse (d) Host
2. A person who helps others by donating money to charitable institutions is called a:
(a) Socialist (b) Puritan
(c) Philanthropist (d) Proletarian
3. A person who is out to subvert a government is a / an
(a) Convalescent (b) Anarchist
(c) Mercenary (d) Autocrat
4. Industrious means
(a) Reserved (b) Sophisticated
(c) Hard working (d) Intelligent
5. An extrovert is a person ______
(a) Who is ex-communicated? (b) Who goes to extremes?
(c) Who is excommunicated? (d) Who is mainly interested in the world external to himself?
6. The Old Testament gives the ______of Jews made with God.
(a) Covenant (b) Covennant

(c) Covenent (d) Covanant
7. The masculine gender of countess is ______
(a) Earl (b) Viceroy
(c) Viscount (d) Vicerine
8. Which of the following adjectives is used to refer to a person who does not make mistakes?
(a) Incredible (b) Infallible
(c) Gullible (d) Invincible
9. One who loves books can be called a ______
(a) Bilingual (b) Bibliophile
(c) Volunteer (d) Misanthrope
10. A person who doubts the existence of God
(a) Theist (b) Agnostic
(c) Pagan (d) Misanthrope
11. To crack knuckles is to:
(a) Break bones (b) Be pestering
(c) Pop joints (d) Crackers
12. When you shell out $500 you:
(a) Keep it for later use (b) Pay or hand over half a grand
(c) Spend it freely (d) Loose it
13. If something saps your strengths it
(a) Drains your power (b) Revives you
(c) Helps you develop your skills (d) None of these
14. When you say that you have to put up with the incessant noise you mean that:
(a) The noise is causing you a headache (b) The noise never stops
(c) The noise is usually harmless (d) The noise is good
15. When your perception is skewed it is:
(a) Distorted (b) Very accurate
(c) Working very fast (d) approximate
16. If your doctor wants you to avoid alcohol, he should tell you to:
(a) Abstain from it (b) Revel in it
(c) Wolf it down (d) Pick it up
17. When you sit in a reclining position, your upper body is
(a) Leaning forward (b) Leaning backward
(c) Straight (d) At rest
18. If a man in a suit wants to peddle you something, he would like to:
(a) Offer you a gift (b) Bring it to you by bike
(c) Sell it (d) Transfer it
ANSWER KEY
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (b)
11.(c) 12.(b) 13.(a) 14.(b) 15.(a) 16.(a) 17.(b) 18.(c)
7. SYNONYMS/ANTONYMS
Definition of Synonyms
Synonyms are words that are similar or have a related meaning to another word.
They can be lifesavers, especially when you want to avoid repeating the same words over and over .
Here you will find a table of words and their synonyms.
We only listed typical synonyms and recommend using a good dictionary.
7.1 LIST OF SYNONYMS
Word Synonym Synonym
Abandon Discard Vacate
Accord Agree Grant
Adversity Difficulty Misfortune
Affluent Plentiful Rich
Aggravate Annoy Infuriate
Alleviate Lighten Mitigate
Amenable Agreeable Favourable
Anguish Distress Sorrow
Apathetic Dispirited Lifeless
Arrogant disdainful Imperious
Astonish confound Overwhelm
Atrocious appalling Detestable
Augment Add Enlarge
Avoid Ignore Shun
Awkward graceless Inept
Baffle Confuse Deceive
Banal common Plain
Barren desolate Sterile
Berate Criticize Disapprove
Betray deceive Fool
Bias inclination Predisposition
Candid honest Truthful
Caricature cartoon Imitation
Casual informal Natural
Category classification Division
Cease desist Stop
Chaotic disordered Messy
Cherish esteem Love
Circumvent Avoid go around
Commemorate Celebrate Honor
Compensate Balance Recompense
Competent Able Capable
Conceive Design Plan
Damp Moist Wet
Dare Challenge Defy
Decay Decline Rot
Decent Honorable Pure

Dense Filled Packed
Designate Name Select
Detain Hold Keep
Disclose Announce Reveal
Dogma Belief View
Durable Constant Lasting
Dwindle Abate Diminish
Eager Earnest Keen
Eccentric Abnormal Idiosyncratic
Elaborate Embellish Enhance
Emanate Arise Radiate
Embezzle Purloin Steal
Eminent distinguished Prominent
Encourage Foster Induce
Endure Last Persist
Essential Cultured Learned
Fastidious Exacting Particular
Federation Alliance Band
Feeble Helpless Infirm
Fervor Intensity Passion
Feud Argument Dispute
Filth Dirt Squalor
Flatter compliment Praise
Fleet Nimble Swift
Frivolous inconsequential Trivial
Frugal Prudent Saving
Furious Angry Outraged
Generous benevolent Unselfish
Genuine Actual Real
Glare Gleam Glisten
Gloomy Cheerless Dim
Goad Provoke Badger
Grasp Grab Hold
Greed Avarice Longing
Guarantee assure Pledge
Guile cunning Deceit
Gullible credulous Unsuspicious
Habitual accustomed Regular
Handicap disability Disadvantage
Harass annoy Disturb
Harmless innocuous Inoffensive
Harsh Hard Coarse
Hasty abrupt Hurried
Haughty arrogant Pretentious

Humiliate humble Shame
Hygiene cleanliness Sanitation
Hypocrisy duplicity Falseness
Ideal Goal Perfection
Idle Lazy Unoccupied
Ignorant stupid unintelligent
Illogical incongruent rambling
Illustrious eminent famous
Imitate Copy reflect
Immense Huge mammoth
Impartial candid impersonal
Impatient anxious Eager
Implicate accuse insinuate
Importune Beg Solicit
Inadvertent accidental unintentional
Indifferent apathetic disinterested
Isolate detach quarantine
Jargon Argot Slang
Jovial genial Merry
Judge estimate referee
Justification excuse reason
Juvenile adolescent immature
Keen clever observant
Label brand classify
Labor Toil Work
Lead direct proceed
Lean Slim Thin
Leave abandon desert
Liberal copious unrestrained
Liberal lenient open-minded
Limitation boundary constraint
Lucid Clear understandable
Lucky auspicious fortunate
Manage administer control
Manipulate Control Shape
Marginal Borderline limited
Match Agree correspond
Meditate Ponder think
Memorial commemoration monument
Mention Allude refer to
Merge Blend fuse
Necessary Mandatory requisite
Negate Contradict refute
Negligent Careless remiss

Negotiate Bargain deal
Nice Affable benign
Noble Aristocratic distinguished
Novice Beginner nonprofessional
Nuisance Annoyance offense
Obedient Faithful loyal
Objection disapproval protest
Obligatory Compulsory required
Observe Notice watch
Obvious conspicuous definite
Offend Anger irritate
Offer Bid proposal
Omen premonition sign
Omit Exclude remove
Opportune advantageous auspicious
Pacify Appease placate
Pain Ache discomfort
Paramount Chief leading
Partisan Biased dogmatic
Passive Inactive lethargic
Pause Break cease
Permeate Diffuse disseminate
Perpetuate Endure preserve
Perplex Astonish baffle
Persecute Afflict harass
Radiate Effuse emanate
Radical Basic fundamental
Range Anger furor
Rank Arrange classify
Realize Accomplish fulfill
Recalcitrant Obstinate stubborn
Receptacle Container repository
Reconcile Atone conciliate
Regret Deplore grieve
Reliable dependable trustworthy
Scope Aim extent
Section division portion
Settle adjust compromise
Shallow superficial trivial
Shrewd careful calculating
Significant distinctive important
Slight delicate slender
Spontaneous impromptu unplanned
Spread announce broadcast

Stabilize balance steady
Temper mood nature
Tendency inclination trend
Term Cycle duration
Thrift conservation prudence
Tough aggressive unyielding
Transfer convey exchange
Tumult agitation commotion
Turbulent disordered violent
Vain boastful inflated
Valid authorized legitimate
Variety assortment diversify
7.2 ANTONYMS
Definition of Antonyms
An antonym is a word that means the opposite of another word. For instance, the antonym of
'hot' may be 'cold.'
The root words for the word 'antonym' are the words 'anti,' meaning 'against' or 'opposite,' and
'onym,' meaning 'name.'
In order to better understand antonyms, let's take a look at what the word 'synonym' means.
A synonym is a word that has a similar meaning to or exactly the same meaning as another
word. Synonyms and antonyms are exactly the opposite.
Categories of Antonyms
Examples
Graded Antonyms – Express relationships along a continuum
fat – skinny young - old happy - sad
Hard- soft last - first foolish - wise
Fast- slow Warm - cool wide - narrow
abundant – scarce joy - grief Dark - light
Dangerous- safe clever - foolish Early - late
empty – full Smart- dumb risky - safe
pretty – ugly bad - good best - worst
Sane- crazy Rich- poor cool - hot
wet – dry late - early ignorant - educated
Big – small optimistic - pessimistic Excited - bored
Complementary Antonyms – Express two opposite possibilities
man – woman push - pull dead - alive
day – night absent - present exit exit -entrance
sink – float true - false pass - fail
input – output interior – exterior Exhale- inhale
occupied - vacant leave -arrive pre - post
Complementary Antonyms (con’t) – Express two opposite possibilities
question - answer single – married hired - fired
crooked - straight identical - different Natural- artificial
Silence – noise Yes- no fantasy - reality
wet – dry sharp - dull black - white
Relational Antonyms – A relationship results in two opposite possibilities

husband - wife doctor – patient Buy - sell
predator - prey Above- below former - later
Give – receive teach - learn instructor – pupil
Servant - master borrow - lend come – go
toward - away Divisor- dividend parent - child
east - west north - south seller - buyer
brother - sister mother - daughter slave - master
Rules Table
Important Techniques to be followed:
➢ Try to put the word in a sentence or a phrase and guess its meaning
➢ When you have a word try to guess all its synonyms and from the answers see the exact
word which has the same meaning, in the case of antonym the opposite meaning
➢ Read all the options, most of us think of time and come up with the answer which has
close match to the word. But there is an actual word with the same meaning hidden there.
➢ First know the part of the speech the word is used in… For example the word run can be
used as a verb but it could also be used as noun like ‘home run’ so make sure you know
the part of speech before answering.
➢ Some words are eye catchy, you immediately think it’s going to be the antonym/synonym,
but most of the guesses are not going to be right so go through the options once again
unless you’re sure of the answer.
Directions (1 to 15): Each of the following items consists of a sentence followed by four words
or group of words. Select the synonym of the word or group of words (Occurring in the sentence
in capital letters) as per the context.
1. One must live life with DIGNITY.
(a) nobility (b) eminence
(c) honour (d) rank
Solution: (c)
Dignity means honour, self-respect, pride or decorum. It is one’s right to lead life with self-
respect, dignity or pride.
2. Europe, America and Japan have taken to the field of science with SINGULAR vigour and
activity.
(a) peculiar (b) outstanding
(c) familiar (d) single
Solution: (b)
Singular means extraordinary, remarkable or outstanding. Europe, America and Japan are the
group of nations who have achieved a lot remarkably in the fields of science and technology
with distinctive strength and action.
3. Our age is pre-eminently an AGE of science.
(a) era (b) date
(c) generation (d) moment
Solution: (a)
Age means era, period, times or epoch. The period in which we live is preoccupied by the
forces of science and technology.
4. Ant is believed to be the most INDUSTRIOUS creature.
(a) sensible (b) successful
(c) diligent (d) punctual
Solution: (c)
Industrious means diligent, busy, active or productive. Ants are one of the smallest creatures
but they render some of the biggest lessons of life; they are always busy in gathering food and
finding shelter; they always move in a queue and remain in groups.
5. The schools insist on giving WHOLESOME food to the children for the proper growth of their
mind and body.
(a) whole crops (b) nourishing
(c) fit (d) sound
Solution: (b)
Wholesome means nourishing, nutritious, natural or healthy. Wholesome food containing
nutrients such as carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, vitamins and fats are necessary for all-
round development of a child.
6. As I look around I see the crumbling ruins of a proud civilization strewn like a vast heap of
FUTILITY.
(a)irrelevance (b) absurdity
(c) pointlessness (d) downtrodden
Solution: (c)
Futility means pointlessness, useless, vainness or ineffectiveness. It’s quite an agreeable fact
that our ancient civilizations have guided us to this point but we are only turning them into heaps
of vainness
7. Mark Antony’s EULOGY of Caesar is finely recorded by Shakespeare in his play.
(a) prayer (b) honour
(c) praise (d) denunciation
Solution: (c)
Eulogy means praise, tribute or acclamation. Shakespeare is a versatile genius of English
literature, which has written so many dramas; in one of the drama he has revealed the tribute
paid by mark Antony to Julius Caesar; Mark Antony was a good friend, relative and successor
of Julius Caesar.
8. By 1918, Gandhiji had established himself as a leader with a UNIQUE way of protesting
exploitation and injustice.
(a) different (b) exceptional
(c) excellent (d) good
Solution: (b)
Unique means exceptional, distinctive, inimitable or exclusive. Gandhi known as the ‘father of
the nation’ stepped into the struggle for independence since 1918 after returning from South
Africa.
9. Your INTERVENTION was required.
(a) interference (b) interruption
(c)disturbance (d) connection
Solution: (a)
Intervention means interference, involvement, intrusion or intercession. Positive involvement or
participation of another person is required to complete a work.
10. It is difficult to DISCERN the sample on the side without adjusting the microscope.
(a) discard (b) arrange
(c) determine (d) debate
Solution: (c)
Discern means determine, detect, discriminate or recognize. Microscope is an instrument which
enlarges the smallest objects are placed for detection.
11. MOMENTOUS changes are taking place in the social and economic life of India.
(a) notorious (b) momentary
(c) official (d) enormous
Solution: (d)
Momentous means enormous, important, significant, historic or crucial.
12. His condition DETERIORATED day by day.
(a) went bad (b) grew worse
(c) went down (d) grew bad
Solution: (b)
Deteriorated means grew worse, decline, depreciate, go down or worsen.
13. She is a pretty INSIPID young lady.
(a) clever (b) lazy
(c) dull (d) lean
Solution: (c)
Insipid means dull, bland, colourless, trite or unexpecting.
14. It is the difficulty or SCARCITY of a thing that makes it precious.
(a) poverty (b) absence
(c) insufficiency (d) isappearance
Solution: (c)
Scarcity means insufficiency, shortage, lack, dearth or paucity.
15. We should not allow ADVERSITY to discourage us.
(a) poverty (b) darkness
(c) time of trouble (d)unfriendly criticism
Solution: (c)
Adversity means time of trouble, hardship, difficulty, misfortune or danger.
DIRECTIONS (Qs. 16- 110): Each of the following questions consists of a word in capital
letters, followed by four words or groups of words. Select the words or group of worded that is
nearest in meaning to the word in capital letters.
16. DEFECT
(a) Loss (b) Harm
(c) Shortcoming (d) Delicate
Solution: (c) Defect means a shortcoming, imperfection, or lack and the similar word is
shortcoming that means a fault or failure to meet a certain standard, typically in a person's
character, a plan, or a system.
17. PLAUSIBLE
(a) Pleasing to the taste (b) Seemingly true
(c) Manageable (d) Cannot be proved
Solution: (b) Plausible means an argument or statement seeming reasonable or probable.
Seemingly true is the right synonym.
18. CREDITABLE
(a) Able to lend money (b) Bringing praise
(c) Able to repay a loan (d) Fit to believed
Solution: (b) Creditable means of a performance, effort, or action deserving public
acknowledgement and praise but not necessarily outstanding or successful. Bringing praise is
the correct synonym.
19. SALIENT
(a) Most important (b) Salt-like taste
(c) Pleasing (d) Satisfactory
Solution: (a) Salient means most noticeable or important therefore most important is the right
synonym.
20. FRAGILE
(a) Soft (b) Smooth
(c) Flexible (d) Easily broken
Solution: (d) Fragile means an object which can be easily broken or damaged. Easily broken is
the correct synonym.
21. POIGNANT
(a) Bitter (b) Deep
(c) Very painful (d) Sharp
Solution: (c) Poignant means evoking a keen sense of sadness or regret. Very painful is the
correct synonym.
22. OUTLOOK
(a) Looking out (b) Prospect
(c) Outward appearance (d) Scrutiny
Solution: (b) Outlook means a place from which a view is possible; a vantage point. Prospect is
the correct synonym that means an extensive view of landscape.
23. FORTITUDE
(a) Fortune (b) Fortification
(c) Bravery (d) Breakthrough
Solution: (c) Fortitude means courage in pain or adversity therefore Bravery is the correct
synonym.
24. RETICENT
(a) Sensitive (b) Secretive
(c) Not feeling well (d) Not saying much
Solution: (d) Reticent means not revealing one's thoughts or feelings readily and most similar
word is not saying much.
25. RECIPROCAL
(a) Formal (b) Favourable
(c) Mutual (d) Sustainable
Solution: (c) Reciprocal means expressing mutual action or relationship. The most similar word
is mutual which means having the same specified relationship to each other.
26. APPRISE
(a) Inform (b) Estimate
(c) Admire (d) Require
Solution: (a) Apprise means inform or tell someone. The most similar word is Inform
27. CONSENSUS
(a) Awareness (b) General agreement
(c) Careful observation (d) Praiseworthy
Solution: (b) Consensus means a general agreement. So option (b) is correct.
28. UNCEREMONIOUS
(a) Impolite (b) Informal
(c) Incomplete (d) Irregular
Solution: (a) Unceremonious means having or showing a lack of courtesy; rough or abrupt. The
right synonym is Impolite that means not having or showing good manners; rude.
29. TREASON
(a) Absurdity (b) Disloyalty
(c) Dishonesty (d) Deception
Solution: (b) Treason means the action of betraying someone or something. Disloyalty is the
right synonym that means the quality of not being loyal to a person, country, or organization;
unfaithfulness.
30. AMIABLE
(a) Popular (b) Generous
(c) Friendly (d) Reasonable
Solution: (c) Amiable means having or displaying a friendly and pleasant manner. Friendly is
the right synonym means a person on good or affectionate terms.
DIRECTIONS (Qs. 31- 14): Each of the following questions consists of a word in capital letters,
followed by four words or groups of words. Select the words or group of worded that is farthest
in meaning to the word in capital letters.
31. ONEROUS
(a) Egregious (b) Effusive
(c) Easy (d) Efficient
Solution: (c) The word Onerous means involving a great deal of effort, trouble or difficulty; thus
the antonym, Easy.
32. CATASTROPHE
(a) Beneficial (b) Blessing
(c) Soothing (d) Disastrous
Solution: (b) Catastrophe is an event causing great and usually sudden damage or suffering; a
disaster; hence the antonym Blessing.
33. GRATUITOUS
(a) Charitable (b) Grand appearance
(c) Warranted (d) Being grateful
Solution: (c) The word Gratuitous means done without good reason; uncalled for or
Unwarranted; hence the antonym Warranted which means to justify or necessitate.
34. VERACITY
(a) Purity (b) Being just
(c) Falsity (d) Immorality
Solution:. (c) The word Veracity means habitual observance of truth in speech or statement;
truthfulness, thus the antonym Falsity.
35. GRIT
(a) Anxiety (b) Cowardice
(c) Impatience (d) Perseverance
Solution:. (b) The word Grit means firmness of character; indomitable spirit; pluck, whereas
Cowardice means lack of courage, thus the answer.
36. SPORADIC
(a) Spreading easily (b) Inciting
(c) Regular (d) Uncommon
Solution:. (c) The word Sporadic means appearing or happening at irregular intervals in time;
occasional, hence the antonym, Regular.
37. MALADROIT
(a) Authoritative (b) Skilful
(c) Maladjusted (d) Malevolent
Solution:. (b) The word Maladroit means lacking in adroitness or unskillful; hence the antonym
Skillful.
38. ROTUND
(a) Feeble (b) Healthy
(c) Slim (d) Weak
Solution:. (c) The word Rotund means plump or fat; thus the antonym, Slim.
39. PUNCTILIOUS
(a) Foolish (b) Uncommunicative
(c) Careless (d) Inexperienced
Solution:. (c) Punctilious means being strict or exact in the observance of the formalities or
amenities of conduct or actions, thus the antonym, Careless.
40. PROBITY
(a) Dishonesty (b) Timidity
(c) Treachery (d) Insincerity
Solution: (a) The word Probity means integrity and uprightness; honesty; hence the antonym
Dishonesty.
41. CONTEST
(a) Accept (b) Defeat
(c) Lose (d) Run for
Solution: (a) The word Contest means a race, conflict, or other competition between rivals;
hence the antonym Accept.
42. SPORADIC
(a) Surviving (b) Sweeping
(c) Restrained (d) Persistent
Solution: (d) The word Sporadic means appearing or happening at irregular intervals in time;
whereas the word Persistent means something constantly repeated.
43. IMPLICATION
(a) Consideration (b) Exoneration
(c) Conclusion (d) Interpretation
Solution: (b) The word Implication means something implied or suggested as naturally to be
inferred or understood whereas the word Exoneration means the release of someone from a
duty or obligation.
44. APPOSITE
(a) Intemperate (b) Inappropriate
(c) Indecent (d) Incriminatory
Solution: (b) The word Apposite means something suitable; hence the antonym Inappropriate.
45. GREGARIOUS
(a) Indecent (b) Unsociable
(c) Above reproach (d) Unlovable
Solution: (b) The word Gregarious means fond of the company of others; sociable; hence the
antonym Unsociable.
Exercise
1. He is very OBLIGING by nature
(a) helpful (b) nice
(c) thankful (d) compelling
2. She thought that RUNNING INTO her old friend was a stroke of fate.
(a) meeting by chance (b) colliding
(c) travelling with (d) quarrelling with
3. He was a CHARISMATIC leader.
(a) exceptionally fascinating (b) particularly popular
(c) compulsively pleasant (d) strangely haunting
4. She was completely ENGROSSED in her work.
(a) disturbed (b) absorbed
(c) fatigued (d) successful
5. He is an INDEFATIGABLE worker.
(a) tired (b) tireless
(c) brave (d) skilful
6. The convict’s INGENUOUS explanation brought tears in every eye.
(a) candid (b) secret
(c) insincere (d) consistent
7. The ENORMITY of the population problem is irksome.
(a) intensity (b) vastness
(c) cruelty (d) Fragility
8. EXAGGERATION of facts would always lead to confusion.
(a) Simplification (b) negation
(c) emancipation (d) amplification
9. After his father’s death, he became INSOLVENT.

(a) rich (b) poor
(c) bankrupt (d) nonchalant
10. He INDUCES human beings to want things they don’t want.
(a) Influences (b) dictates
(c) persuades (d) appreciates
11. His information is not AUTHENTIC.
(a) Real (b) reliable
(c) believable (d) genuine
12. He is not CUT OUT to be a teacher.
(a) Trained (b) suited
(c) selected (d) guided
13. The Chief Minister REPRIMANDED the officers for their methods of handling the public.
(a) Adulated (b) scolded severely
(c) disapproved of (d) suspended
14. Sin is the sole calamity that a wise man should APPREHEND.
(a) Give up (b) discourage
(c) comprehend (d) fear
15. We must be proud of our cultural HERITAGE.
(a) Things we make for ourselves (b) things we have lost
(c) Things we have from the past (d) things we do for others
16. The newspaper reports were MENDACIOUS
(a) mischievous (b) truthful
(c) provocative (d) false
17. The priest pronounced BENEDICTION
(a) good wishes (b) blessings
(c) punishment (d) appreciation
18. Her habits are INNOCUOUS
(a) useful (b) injurious
(c) causing no harm (d) bad
19. I INVEIGHED her for her different outlook
(a) criticized (b) rebuked
(c) disliked (d) appreciated
20. The youth was BEFOGGED when he was interrogated loudly by the police inspector.
(a) terrified (b) panicky
(c) surprised (d) puzzled
DIRECTIONS (Qs. 21-120): Each question below consists of a word in capital letters followed
by four words or group of words. Select the word or group of words that is same (nearest)
meaning to the words in capital letters.
21. DISCREET
(a) Mature (b) Intelligent
(c) Clever (d) Prudent
22. MOMENTOUS
(a) Time-tested (b) Momentary
(c) Very important (d) Hectic
23. PORTEND
(a) Profess (b) Portray
(c) Think (d) Foreshadow
24. ODIUM
(a) Illness (b) Hatred
(c) Oddity (d) Devious
25. It needs an expert to decipher the secret message sent to the Army Officers during war
time.
(a) swindle (b) decode
(c) make up (d) defy
26. Bana in Sanskrit, Lyly in English and Prasad in Hindi are celebrated for their florid style.
(a) ornate (b) rich
(c) refined (d) rambling
27. My brother’s zest for the new project was infectious.
(a) greed (b) enthusiasm
(c) attraction (d) fascination
28. The eyewitness testimony was incontrovertible.
(a) disputable (b) debatable
(c) unacceptable (d) unquestionable
29. His forthright behaviour shows that he is honest but he seems rude to some people.
(a) courteous (b) straightforward
(c) tactful (d) correct
30. He disdained to notice the insult.
(a) was very proud (b) refused
(c) was unhappy (d) was too reluctant
31. He gave an evocative rendering of his recent poems.
(a) thrilling (b) enchanting
(c) emotional (d) incantatory
32. Expeditious steps should be taken to complete the work in two weeks.
(a) unmerciful and punitive (b) strict and forceful
(c) disciplinary (d) prompt and efficient
33. Why did you make that, flippant remark?
(a) highly critical (b) not showing deserved respect
(c) casual (d) indifferent
34. That is not an occasion to make an impromptu speech.
(a) without preparation (b) thoughtless
(c) improper (d) long and boring
35. The weavers have to do monotonous work.
(a) autonomous (b) irksome
(c) exhausting (d) repetitive
36. There is not a single word that is redundant in the report.

(a) unimportant (b) not needed
(c) bombastic (d) flowery
37. The country’s economy is beginning to look up now.
(a) look clear (b) go down
(c) remain static (d) improve
38. The old man shows no signs of infirmity even though he is eighty years old.
(a) lack of fitness (b) feebleness
(c) fickleness (d) indolence
39. PROHIBIT
(a) Forbid (b) Forfeit
(c) Forsake (d) Forbear
40. DUBIOUS
(a) Dismal (b) Doubtful
(c) Derogatory (d) Devilish
41. ECCENTRIC
(a) Destructive (b) Deceitful
(c) Conformist (d) Unconventional
42. CONTRADICT
(a) Request politely (b) Deny emphatically
(c) Talk abusively (d) Contempt
43. GIVE UP
(a) Abandon (b) Present
(c) Lift (d) Scatter
44. SPECIFIC
(a) Proper (b) Uncommon
(c) Noteworthy (d) Precise
45. ERADICATE
(a) Put up (b) Remove
(c) Soften (d) Suppress
46. PROBABLE
(a) Certain (b) Indefinite
(c) Likely (d) Temporary
47. ADHERE
(a) Act reluctantly (b) Give allegiance
(c) Waver frequently (d) React promptly
48. INFER
(a) Conclude (b) Calculate
(c) Debate (d) Suggest
49. HESITATE
(a) Afraid to talk (b) Unwilling to act
(c) Unwilling to speak (d) Unable to decide quickly
50. EXPLICIT
(a) Immediate (b) Plainly stated
(c) Marked (d) Revealing the secret
51. SUFFICIENT
(a) Adequate (b) Complete
(c) Full (d) Frugal
52. REPRESS
(a) Express (b) Impress
(c) Curb (d) Confuse
53. VINDICTIVE
(a) Cruel (b) Harsh
(c) Revengeful (d) Rude
54. FLYING COLOURS
(a) Enviable (b) Notable success
(c) Being pleasant (d) Highly ambitious
55. SANCTUM
(a) Environment (b) The holy part
(c) Corridor (d) Room for pilgrims
56. FRAIL
(a) Unhealthy (b) Weak
(c) Ugly (d) Tender
57. HOBNOB
(a) Nagging (b) Friendly chat
(c) Quarrel (d) Pestering manner
58. DILLY DALLYING
(a) Quarrelling (b) Arguing with each other
(c) Waiting for orders (d) Wasting time
59. HUSH UP
(a) Blow up (b) To keep quiet
(c) To remove (d) Wind up
60. GRIEVANCES
(a) Complaints (b) Problems
(c) Obstacles (d) Hardships
61. AFFINITY
(a) Admiration (b) Adoration
(c) Respect (d) Intimacy
62. IGNOMINY
(a) Condemnation (b) Disgrace
(c) Failure (d) Criticism
63. ALLEVIATE
(a) Eradicate (b) Remove
(c) Understand (d) Lessen
64. IMPERCEPTIBLY
(a) Extremely (b) Invisibly
(c) Inconceivably (d) Intensely
65. DOLEFUL
(a) Sobre (b) Depressed
(c) Dreary (d) Mournful
66. MODULATE
(a) Set (b) Tune
(c) Balance (d) Adjust
67. PRESUMPTUOUS
(a) Bold (b) Egotistical
(c) Arrogant (d) Audacious
68. RHYTHM
(a) Flow (b) Measure
(c) Tempo (d) Regular pattern
69. PRECIPITATE
(a) Hasten (b) Advance
(c) Arrive (d) Instigate
70. OUTLAST
(a) To come to an end (b) To fight till the end
(c) To make a last attempt (d) To endure longer than
71. INTERREGNUM
(a) Pause (b) Interference
(c) Intrusion (d) Prevention
72. DEMOLISH
(a) Abolish (b) Overthrow
(c) Destroy (d) Overturn
73. INITIATE
(a) Enlighten (b) Begin
(c) Guide (d) Lead
74. STROLL
(a) Exercise (b) Jogging
(c) A ride (d) A walk
75. LANGUID
(a) Absent minded (b) Negligent
(c) Sluggish (d) Thoughtless
76. OSTRACISE
(a) Censure (b) Sentence
(c) Banish (d) Berate
77. APPALLED
(a) Shocked (b) Saddened
(c) Scared (d) Alarmed
78. IMBECILITY
(a) Stupidity (b) Rusticity
(c) Verbosity (d) Incoherence
79. COLLUSION
(a) A conflict (b) A secret agreement
(c) A consultation (d) A misunderstanding
80. HESITANT
(a) Antagonistic (b) Grumbling
(c) Contradict (d) Undecided
81. DECEPTIVE
(a) Disagreeable (b) Misleading
(c) Mistake (d) Debatable
82. PALPABLE
(a) Obvious (b) Immense
(c) Sufficient (d) Hidden
83. LAID-BACK
(a) Lie in wait (b) Sorry state
(c) Lame (d) Easy-going
84. SAUNTERING
(a) Jogging (b) Brisk walking
(c) Travelling (d) Strolling
85. POMPOUS
(a) Grandiose (b) Polished
(c) Modest (d) Skilled
86. STARTLED
(a) Jumped (b) Shocked
(c) Surprised (d) Offended
87. INDIGENOUS
(a) State-of-the-art (b) Indigent
(c) Native (d) Foreign
88. GUSTO
(a) Guts (b) Enthusiasm
(c) Enjoyment (d) Hope
89. VERACITY
(a) Forcefulness (b) Simplicity
(c) Truthfulness (d) Humour
90. SUSTENANCE
(a) Courage (b) Nourishment
(c) Health (d) Wisdom
91. RAPPORT
(a) Love and affection (b) Full support
(c) Harmonious accord (d) Sportsmanship
92. INTRUDE
(a) Fault (b) Disagree
(c) Interrupt (d) Leave
93. IMPERATIVE
(a) Negligible (b) Indifferent
(c) Significant (d) Urgent
94. GENIAL
(a) Generous (b) Wonderful
(c) Liberal (d) Friendly and cheerful
95. REVAMP
(a) Retreat (b) Reconstruct
(c) Retrial (d) Retrace
96. RESCIND
(a) Reunite (b) Repeal
(c) Reserve (d) Reproach
97. RESPLENDENT
(a) Wonderful (b) Dazzling
(c) Beautiful (d) Respectful
98. CORPULENT
(a) Fleshy (b) Thin
(c) Stout (d) Bony
99. ACRIMONY
(a) Disagreement (b) Despondency
(c) Bitterness (d) Difference
100. CANTANKEROUS
(a) Bad tempered (b) Full of contempt
(c) Very sick (d) Very envious
101. FELICITY
(a) Peace (b) Comfort
(c) Faithfulness (d) Great happiness
102. UNRUFFLED
(a) Simple (b) Indifferent
(c) Sluggish (d) Calm
103. FELINE
(a) Feminine (b) Cat-like
(c) Ferocious (d) Ugly-and clumsy
104. TENUOUS
(a) Being tenacious (b) Not substantial
(c) Gross (d) Popular
105. EXQUISITE
(a) Highly refined (b) Too costly
(c) Extemporaneous (d) Exotic
106. WRESTED
(a) Took by force (b) Took away easily
(c) Lost narrowly (d) Won easily
107. EXPOSTULATED
(a) Requested (b) Quarrelled ferociously
(c) Remonstrated (d) Appealed with good reason
108. PLACATE
(a) Implore (b) Flatter
(c) Pacify (d) Compensate
109. PERPETUAL
(a) Contagious (b) Continuous
(c) Perplexing (d) Perennial
110. DAUNTLESS
(a) Praiseworthy (b) Effortless and smooth
(c) Fearless and determined (d) Unceasing
111. SEETHING
(a) Dissatisfied (b) Be agitated
(c) Noisy (d) Soothing
112. STINGY
(a) Violent (b) Miserly
(c) Cautious (d) Quarrelsome
113. EXULTATION
(a) Extinction (b) Anxiety
(c) Jubilation (d) Expectation
114. DOUGHTY
(a) Dastardly (b) Deceptive
(c) Flabby (d) Valiant
115. OBVIATE
(a) Delaying the solution of a problem (b) To remove a difficulty
(c) Make obstruction (d) Supersede
116. SACRILEGE
(a) Offering sacrifice (b) Privilege
(c) Blasphemy (d) Being sacred
117. BLOW BY BLOW
(a) Eruptions in quick succession from a (b) Continuously raining with thunders.
great volcano.
(c) Describe an event as it occurred in (d) A rapid decline of business leading to its
every detail closure
118. BY HOOK OR BY CROOK

(a) In a completely insane manner (b) In whatever way one can
(c) Being very evil and destructive (d) To be very tenacious
119. CHOCK-A-BLOCK
(a) Filled to capacity. (b) Not being able to fulfil one’s desires.
(c) Blocking somebody’s path to progress. (d) Suffocation caused due to living in a
congested area.
120. A FEATHER IN ONE’S CAP
(a) Accumulating more money or property (b) Taking more burden on oneself
(c) Being felicitated for one’s artistic merits (d) Something achieved that constitutes a victory
DIRECTIONS (Qs. 121-150): Each question below consists of a word in capital letters followed
by four words or group of words. Select the word or group of words that is most opposite in
meaning to the words in capital letters.
121. PROCRASTINATE
(a) To be prompt (b) To adjudicate
(c) To teach (d) To help others
122. PROCLIVITY
(a) Speed (b) Weakness
(c) Disgust (d) Disinclination
123. OUTLANDISH
(a) Modern (b) Moderate
(c) Disrespectful (d) Coward
124. SUPPLICATE
(a) Short of supply (b) To be arrogant
(c) To be tolerant (d) To fall on lean days
125. TERSE
(a) Detailed (b) Nasty
(c) Advanced (d) Impure
126. CELERITY
(a) Lack of wisdom (b) Silence
(c) Victory (d) Sluggishness
127. VOLITION
(a) Pretext (b) Unwillingness
(c) Compliance (d) Interlude
128. COPIOUS
(a) Imitable (b) Unprecedented
(c) Shaky (d) Shortage
129. ARDUOUS
(a) Facile (b) Influential
(c) Deplorable (d) Tenuous
130. DEFERENTIAL
(a) Discount (b) Disrespectful
(c) Preconception (d) Acute
131. FELICITOUS
(a) Unfriendly (b) Uneasy
(c) Unheard of (d) Inappropriate
132. ABSOLVE
(a) To remember someone fondly (b) To imitate someone
(c) To pretend (d) To declare someone guilty
133. PAROCHIAL
(a) Open-minded (b) Temporary
(c) Irrelevant (d) Disinclination
134. PUERILE
(a) Fresh (b) Suspenseful
(c) Matured thinking (d) Easily attainable
135. IGNOMINY
(a) Entrance (b) Activity
(c) Eligibility (d) Honour
136. PENURIOUS
(a) Timid (b) Without any perforation
(c) Affluent (d) Inescapable
137. SCURRILOUS
(a) Scandalous (b) Admiration
(c) Primary (d) Opposition
138. ENNUI
(a) Poverty (b) Shortage
(c) Excitement (d) Fearlessness
139. SLAPDASH
(a) Careful (b) Violent
(c) Pervasive (d) Scarce
140. CHIMERICAL
(a) Complement (b) Feasible
(c) Hypercritical (d) Spurious
141. THWART
(a) Encourage (b) Suffer
(c) Agonize (d) Pacify
142. VENERATION
(a) Embezzlement (b) Awe
(c) Disrespect (d) Far-Sighted
143. INVECTIVE
(a) Adjective (b) Polite language
(c) Pertaining to legal matters (d) Brief
144. COPIOUS
(a) Shortage (b) Imitation
(c) Warm (d) Delightful
145. ACERBIC
(a) The accused (b) Polite
(c) Unpleasant (d) Improbable
146. ASCETIC
(a) Ardent (b) Indulging in pleasures
(c) Careless (d) Patriotic
147. UBIQUITOUS
(a) Honest (b) Rarely found anywhere
(c) Out of fashion (d) Scrupulous
148. PARSIMONIOUS
(a) Partisan (b) Permissible
(c) Revealing (d) Extravagant
149. EPHEMERAL
(a) Mysterious (b) Impolite
(c) Long-lasting (d) Exciting
150. INSUPERABLE
(a) Predictable (b) Surmountable
(c) Countable (d) Unendurable
ANSWER KEY
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (c)
11.(d) 12.(b) 13.(b) 14.(d) 15.(c) 16.(d) 17.(b) 18.(c) 19.(a) 20.(d)
21.(d) 22.(c) 23.(d) 24.(b) 25.(b) 26.(a) 27.(b) 28.(d) 29.(b) 30.(b)
31.(b) 32.(d) 33.(b) 34.(a) 35.(d) 36.(b) 37.(d) 38.(b) 39.(a) 40.(b)
41.(d) 42.(b) 43.(a) 44.(d) 45.(b) 46.(c) 47.(b) 48.(a) 49.(d) 50.(b)
51.(a) 52.(c) 53.(c) 54.(b) 55.(b) 56.(b) 57.(b) 58.(d) 59.(b) 60.(a)
61.(d) 62.(b) 63.(d) 64.(b) 65.(d) 66.(d) 67.(a) 68.(d) 69.(a) 70.(d)
71.(a) 72.(c) 73.(b) 74.(d) 75.(c) 76.(c) 77.(d) 78.(a) 79.(b) 80.(d)
81.(b) 82.(a) 83.(d) 84.(d) 85.(a) 86.(c) 87.(c) 88.(b) 89.(c) 90.(b)
91.(c) 92.(c) 93.(d) 94.(d) 95.(b) 96.(b) 97.(b) 98.(a) 99.(c) 100.(a)
101.(d) 102.(d) 103.(b) 104.(b) 105.(a) 106.(a) 107.(c) 108.(c) 109.(b) 110.(c)
111.(b) 112.(b) 113.(c) 114.(d) 115.(b) 116.(c) 117.(c) 118.(b) 119.(a) 120.(d)
121.(a) 122.(d) 123.(a) 124.(b) 125.(a) 126.(d) 127.(b) 128.(d) 129.(a) 130.(d)
131.(d) 132.(d) 133.(a) 134.(c) 135.(d) 136.(c) 137.(b) 138.(c) 139.(a) 140.(b)
141.(a) 142.(c) 143.(b) 144.(a) 145.(b) 146.(b) 147.(b) 148.(d) 149.(c) 150.(b)
8. CLASSIFICATION AND ANALOGY

INTRODUCTION
Classification in English language means the act of or process of putting people or
things into groups based on the ways that they are alike.
For example, classification of all your clothes by colour may make it easier for you to put
together an outfit.
8.1 ANALOGY
An analogy is a comparison in which an idea or a thing is compared to another thing that is
quite different from it. It aims at explaining that idea or thing by comparing it to something that is
familiar.
Many common literary devices are examples of analogy, such as metaphor, simile, allegory,
parable and exemplification.
Analogy comes from the Greek word analogia, which is a combination of the prefix ana- (upon,
again, or back) and the suffix –logos (ratio, word, or speech).
Together, the word means something akin to “proportion.”
Types of Analogy
As the definition of analogy includes all types of comparisons, the following list of literary
devices all qualify as analogies:
• Metaphor: A metaphor compares two subjects without any connecting words such as “like”
or “as.” Metaphors are considered a strong form of analogy as they assert that one
thing is another.
• Simile: A simile is a comparison between two things using the connecting words “like” or
“as.” Not quite as strong of a comparison as metaphor, simile still requires the reader to
understand the similarities between the two things and make new cognitive links.
• Allegory: An allegory is a story in which the characters, images, and/or events function as
symbols. These symbols can be interpreted to have deeper significance and may illustrate
moral truths or a political or historical situation.
• Parable: Similar to allegory, though more condensed, a parable is a simple story used to
illustrate an instructive lesson or principal.
• Exemplification: Exemplification is the relation between a sample and what it refers to. For
example, if a sign at an arboretum said “oak” in front of an oak tree, that tree would be an
exemplification of the label.
Common Examples of Analogy
Analogy is not only a literary term. Indeed, the concept of analogy is used in many different
fields, from math to biology to philosophy. Analogy is an important part of high-level perception
in humans; the ability to form and understand analogies requires high cognitive functioning.
Analogies have been used as a part of the American SAT exam to test cognitive functioning.
Here are some simple examples of analogy that one might have found on the SAT test:
• GREEN : COLOR :: ORCHID : FLOWER
• SCIENTIST : EINSTEIN :: MUSICIAN : MOZART
• HUMAN : FINGERNAIL :: TIGER : CLAW
There are many other analogies that we can find in common speech. Here are some examples
of simile, one of the main types of analogy:
• Mary had a little lamb / Her fleece was white as snow.
• As light as a feather
• As dead as a doornail
• As busy as a bee
• As quiet as a mouse
• As happy as a clam
• Sly like a fox
• You’re as sweet as sugar
• That would be as difficult as finding a needle in a haystack.
“We will not be satisfied until justice rolls down like waters, and righteousness like a mighty
stream” –Martin Luther King, Jr. “I have a dream” speech
Rules Table
Techniques to be followed:
➢ Categorize each group.
➢ Describe or define each category. List down the general characteristics and discuss
them.
➢ Provide enough illustrative examples. An example should be a typical representative of
the group.
➢ Point out similarities or differences of each category, using comparison-contrast
techniques.
➢ Figure out what you’re trying to say
➢ Think about your POV character
➢ Brainstorm a few possibilities, and then choose your favourite.
EXERCISE
1. Absurd: preposterous:: _____
(a) accountant: lawyer (b) apprehensive: anxious
(c) desirable: imaginable (d) Meager: abundance
2. Problem: solution::_____
(a) retaliates: surrender (b) argument: agreement
(c) reject: accept (d) stationary: mobile
3. Superior: dominant:: _____
(a) inferior: submissive (b) variety: uniqueness
(c) strong: weak (d) personal: personable
4. Palomino: horse:: _____
(a) bear: grizzly (b) purring: cat
(c) collie: dog (d) animal: domestication
5. Counterfeit: phony:: _____
(a) fiction: fact (b) data: analysis
(c) money: finance (d) authentic: genuine
6. Costume: disguise:: _____

(a) seatbelt: safety (b) mask: face
(c) leave: embark (d) event: memorable
7. Marriage: divorce:: _____
(a) division: union (b) partnership: breakup
(c) begin: end (d) Hate: love
8. Porpoise: sea::_____
(a) eaglet: nest (b) vulture: carrion
(c) hawk: air (d) wolf: prey
9. Spectators: participant:: _____
(a) audience: magician (b) theatre: performance
(c) visitors: museum (d) team: supporters
10. Spy: espionage:: _____
(a) computer: programmer (b) doctor: medicine
(c) instruction: teacher (d) police officer: thief
ANSWER KEY
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (b)
9. SPOTTING THE ERRORS

INTRODUCTION
Spotting the errors is interrelated with the grammatical formation which further relates to the
parts of speech. Usually, the error may be pertaining to the usage of parts of speech, which can
be broadly described under the following points.
1. Articles Comprising the usage of A, An and The
2. Noun Kinds of Noun, Gender, Number, Person, Noun case etc.
3. Pronoun Cases, kinds of Pronoun, different forms and its appropriate rules likewise, Some,
Who, What, Which, That, Whose, Any, Whom, Each, Other, One other etc.
4. Adjective Kinds of Adjective and its patterns, various usages like positive, Comparative,
Superlative degrees etc.
5. Adverb Kinds of Adverb and its appropriate usages, comprising certain forms.
6. Tenses grammatical rules of entire tenses (Present, Past, Future, Translation) and its
appropriate application.
7. Prepositions: In, On, Over, Into, Out, Behind, Among, Over, Off, At, Of, Across, Under etc.
8. Conjunction: neither ….. nor, Either …… or, Because, Not only ……. but also, Scarcely,
Barely, Hardly, When, Although, But, And, No sooner ……. then, such ……. as, So …… that
etc.
9. Subject-verb Agreement It is one of the crucial parts, which a candidate must focus upon and
must learn the correct grammatical co-ordination of subject and verb.
Use of A/An
Article A or An is used before a singular noun. The choice between A or An is determined by the
first sound of pronunciation (not by the letter of alphabet even it may be A, E, I, O, U) of the
noun. If it is pronounced with a vowel sound, use An otherwise A.
Look at the following sentences:
a) He is an honest man.
b) He is a European.
c) He is an MLA.
d) He is a policeman.
The following words and the use of ‘A’ or ‘An’ before them. Students generally make
mistake using A or An before these words.
1. An hour 14. A heinous crime 27. A united front
2.An hourly morning 15. A young man 28. A unified plan
3. An hour’s daybreak 16. A ewe 29. A year
4. An honour 17. A university 30. A USA ally
5. An honorary post 18. A unity 31. An FO
6. An honourable person 19. A union 32. A forest officer
7. An honest man 20. A eulogy 33. An MP/ MLC
8. An heir 21. A one rupee note 34. A member of society
9. An honorarium 22. A one eyed man 35. An IAS/ IPS/ ILO
10. A house 23. A uniform 36. An SP/ SDO
11. A historical fair 24. A useful book 37. An M.A./M.Sc.
12. A humble person 25. A useful feature 38. An RTS/ RTC
13. A husband 26. A unique decision 39. An RC worker
Error Identification
1. While speaking of a particular person or thing or one already referred to.
Example: She found a purse. The purse contained a golden chain. The golden chain is very precious.
2. When a singular noun is meant to represent a whole category/ class:
Example: The dog is a faithful animal.
3. ‘The’ is used before superlatives.
Example:She is the most beautiful girl in our college.
4. ‘The’ is used with the names of renowned building, gulf, river, ocean, sea etc.
Example: The TajMahal, The Pacific, The Ganges, The Red Sea, The Yamuna, The Thames.
5. ‘The’ is placed only before the plural names of islands and the mountain ranges, chains of
mountains, plural names of countries.
Example:The Netherlands, The Himalayas, The Alps etc.
‘The’ is not used before the names of countries but if the name of the country contains words
like; States, Kingdoms, Republic, we use ‘the’ before them. e.g. The USA, The USSR, The
Republic of Ireland, The Dominican Republic.’
6. ‘The’ is used before names consisting of adjective + noun (Provided the adjective is not east-west etc.)
Example: The Arabian Gulf, The New Forest, The High Street
7. ‘The’ is also used before names consisting of noun + of + noun.
Example: The Cape of Good Hope, the Bay of Biscay, The Gulf of Mexico
8. ‘The’ is used before the adjectives east/west etc. + noun in certain names.
Example: The East/West End, The East/West Indies, The North/South Pole
9. ‘The’ is also used before the name of directions.
Example: The East, The West, The North, The South
10. ‘The’ is used before then name of persons (Family) in plural.
Example: The Raymond’s, The Ambanis, The Birla’s
11. Before the names of important and renowned books.
Examples:
The Kuran, The Ramayana, The Mahabharata
But we say- Homer’s Iliad, Valmiki’s Ramayana,
12. Before such common nouns that are names of things unique of their kind.
Example: The Sun, The Earth, The sky, The world, The sea, The environment
Examples:
a) The sky is dark and the moon is shining.
b) The sea seems calm today.
i) In the following cases, we do not use ‘The’ before ‘Sea’
a) We go to sea as sailors.
b) He is at sea now-a-days. (on a voyage)
ii) We can use ‘the’ before ‘Space’ if it means place.
He tried to park his car there but the space was too small. But if it means area beyond the
earth’s atmosphere, do not use ‘the’ before it.
Example: There is lac of stars in space.
13. Before terms referring Nationality or Community.
Example: The Indian, the French, The American, The English

14. Before a proper noun, only when it is qualified by an adjective.
Example: The great Caesar, The immortal Shakespeare, The brave Napoleon.
15. with ordinals like.
Examples:
a) He was the first man to stand up.
b) The sixth chapter of this book is very interesting.
First, second, third …….are called ordinals.
One, Two, Three ……..are called cardinals.
16. Before Musical instruments and name of Inventions.
Examples:
a) He can play the flute/ the table/ the harmonium well.
b) Who invented the telephone?
17. Before an adjective, when the noun represents a class of persons.
Examples:
a) The young will support the motion.
b) The poor can be trusted.
18. Before a common noun to give it the meaning of an abstract noun.
Examples:
a) The moralist in Gandhi revolted against the injustice.
b) The judge in her prevailed upon the wife and she sentenced her husband to prison.
19. ‘The’ is used before name of Newspaper, Community, Political Party, Historical event, Train,
Ship, and Aeroplane etc.
20. When two or more nouns refer to one person, put ‘the’ before the first noun only. If both the
nouns refer two different persons or thing, ‘the’ is used before both of them.
Examples:
a) The producer and financier was present there.
(Producer and financier is one person)
b) The producer and the financier were present there.
(Producer and financier are two different persons)
21. ‘The’ is used as an adverb with a comparative.
Examples:
a) The more she gets the more she demands.
b) The sooner you complete the better it is
22. ‘The’ is used before comparative degree being used for selection or comparison.
Examples:
a) He is the stronger of the two.
b) This is the better of the two novels.
23. When a person being referred by his designation, ‘the’ is used. The Chairman, The Director,
The President, The Chancellor.
Example: All financial decisions will be taken by the chairman.
24. When the thing referred is understood.

Examples:
a) Kindly return the book. (That I gave you)
b) Can you turn off the light? (The light in the room.)
25. ‘The’ is used in some phrases also.
Examples:
a) What is the matter?
b) Come to the point.
c) She came to the rescue.
d) Keep to the left.
e) The market is hot with the rumour.
f) He is in the wrong.
26. In phrases; Go to the cinema, Go to the theatre ‘the’ is used.
Examples:
a) He went to the cinema yesterday.
b) She is going to the theatre.
27. Before the names of Committee, Club, Foundation and Trust.
Examples: The United Nation, The WHO, The Ford Foundation, The Rajiv Gandhi Trust etc.
28. Letters written to two or more unmarried sisters jointly may be addressed:
The Misses + Surname
The Misses Smith.
Solved Examples:
Decide which part of the sentence is grammatically incorrect. Then look at the answers
below.
1. I enjoyed study geography at school and now I’ve enrolled at the Economics Faculty.
Answer: Enjoyed studying
2. I used to be keen of all scientific subjects but now I would prefer to study art.
Answer: keen on
3. I want meet your sister when she comes to see you – she sounds very nice.
Answer: want to
4. My friends tell the English exam is quite difficult but I’m not worried.
Answer: tell me
5. The tickets, which are extremely good value, can be buy from large supermarkets.
Answer: can be bought
6. The number of people which asked for the discount was low but grew during the summer period .
Answer: who
7. He wanted always to be a doctor and after doing medicine he now works in a hospital.
Answer: always wanted
8. The information’s they gave us was not very helpful so I consulted the website instead.
Answer: the information
9. There isn’t many times, do you think we should get a taxi to the exhibition centre?
Answer: much time
10. He graduated in languages in June and is now thinking of do a second degree in psychology.
Answer: doing
11. The policeman showed us an identikit picture of the man who steal the car.
Answer: stole
12. How long does it take to get the station on foot from your house
Answer: get to
13. I was so angry that I took the watch broken to the jewellers to get my money back.
Answer: broken watch
14. He rang me this morning for tell me that he had passed his driving test.
Answer: to tell me unless will get
15. I won’t be able to go on holiday this year unless I will get a part-time job.
Answer: such
16. It was so nice day that they decided to have a picnic in the field.
Answer: I havenever
17. I haven’t never seen anybody who rides a horse so well before.
Answer: l don’t like
18. My boyfriend always takes me to see horror films, but I don’t like very much.
Answer: as
19. We went to Guatemala last year so we were tired of the usual beach holiday.
Answer: I’ve been to Madrid
Rules Table
➢ ‘No sooner’ is followed by ‘than’
➢ More than one indicates a plural sense, but it is treated as a sort of compound of one.
➢ Thus it agrees with a singular noun and takes a singular verb.
➢ ‘Only’ should be placed immediately before the word it qualifies.
➢ An infinitive verb should not be split.
➢ Care should be taken in the use of
➢ Scarcely should be followed by when, not by then.
➢ Till is used of time and to is used of place.
➢ Beside means by the side of while besides means in additions to.
➢ Between is used for only two things or persons while among is used for more than two.
➢ Above and below merelydenote position while over and under also carry a sense of covering
or movement.
➢ Above and below merely denote position while over and under also carry a sense of
covering or movement.
➢ Above and below merely denote position while over and under also carry a sense of
covering or movement.
➢ Some nouns are always used in a plural form and always take a plural verb.
➢ A pronoun must agree with its antecedent inperson, number and gender.
➢ The pronoun ‘one’ mustbe followed by ‘one’s’
➢ ‘Whose’ is used for living persons and ‘which’ for lifeless objects.
➢ Use of ‘less’ and ‘fewer’
➢ ‘One of’ always takes a plural noun after it.
EXERCISE
1. If the police would have worked (a)/ in time (b) /the riot would not have occurred (c)/ No error
(d)
2. The flag is risen in the morning (a)/ and taken down at night (b) /by the guards (c) /No error
(d)
3. I have seen him (a) /going to the theatre (b) /with his friends yesterday evening (c) / No error
(d)
4. He was charged of murder (a) / though the evidence did everything (b) / to convince the
judge of his innocence (c) / No error (d)
5. Neither he nor his brother (a) / is a good student (b) / but both are good players (c) / No error
(d)
6. He has taken charge (a) / as principal of our college (b) / three years ago (c) / No error (d)
7. If you will work hard (a) / you will always (b) / succeed (c) / No error (d)
8. She has been teaching (a) / dancing at the victory (b) / since five days (c) / No error (d)
9. Many a boy were happy (a) / dancing at the victory (b) / of our cricket team in Australia (c) /
No error (d)
10. Imagine living (a) / with someone (b) / who never stops talk (c) / No error (d)
11. I was shocked (a) / when he told me (b) / that the old woman died by cancer (c) / No error
(d)
12. To the men who worked so hard in the project (a) / the news was (b) / profound
disappointing (c) / No error (d)
13. Even though she lost the beauty contest (a) / she was still more prettier(b) / than the other
girls (c) / No error (d)
14. The novel is interesting (a) / informative (b) / and it is easy to read (c) / No error (d)
15. The differential attractions of the sun and the moon have a direct effect (a) / in the rising and
falling (b) / and it is easy to read (c) / No error (d)
16. There is not many traffic (a)/ along the street (b)/ where I live. (c)/ No error. (d)
17. The front page story was about a schoolgirl, (a)/and had hurt herself, (b)/ while saving a
child in an accident. (C) / No error. (d)
18. He took (a)/ leave of (b)/four days. (c)/ No error. (d)
19. The police arrived and discovered (a)/ a large number of hoarded sugar (b)/in his shop.
(c)/No error. (d)
20. Raju doesn’t come to our house because our dog barks at him (a)/ and licks him
(b)/although I have often told him not to afraid of it (c)/ No error. (d)
21. Running across the playground, my pen fell in the mud; (a)/ fortunately, I noticed it. (b)/ and
picked it up. (c)/ No error. (d)
22. The last thing that the fond mother (a)/ gave her only son (b) / was his blessing. (c)/ No
error. (d)
23. To his innovative ideas and practices in farming (a)/ he was given (b)/the Krishi Pandit
Award last year. (c)/No error. (d)
24. As a dramatist. (a)/Shaw is superior than (b)/ any other twentieth century writer. (c)/ No
error. (d)
25. Molly speaks (a)/ French well; (b)/ isn’t it? (c)/ No error. (d)
26. Mutton is more hard (a)/ to digest (b)/ than vegetables. (c)/ No error. (d)
27. I have found that he is (a)/ neither willing (b)/ or capable. (c)/ No error. (d)
28. For times immemorial (a)/see shells have been used by man (b)/ in many ways. (c)/ No
error. (d)
29. He will not (a)/ listen (b)/ what you say. (c)/ No error. (d)
30. I have done my best; (a)/ the whole thing is now (b)/ in the hands of the Gods. (c)/ No error.
(d)
31. Oh for God sake (a)/ leave me alone (b)/ and go away from here. (c)/ No error. (d)
32. This is a strange world (a)/ where each one pursues their own golden bubble (b)/ and
laughs at others for doing the same. (c)/ No error. (d)
33. Each of the boys (a)/ were to blame (b)/ for the accident. (c)/ No error. (d)
34. He told us (a)/ that (b)/ he has not read the book. (c)/ No error (d)
35. I should (a)/ have preferred (b)/to go by myself. (c)/ No error (d)
36. There is (a)/ no place (b)/ in this compartment. (C) /No error (d)
37. The (a)/ young man (b)/had no manner. (c)/ No error (d)
38. There are many (a)/ beautiful furnitures (b)/ in the room. (c)/ No error (d)
39. The policeman prevented us from (a)/ entering into (b)/ the hall. (c)/ No error (d)
40. The world (a)/comprises (b)/ good and bad people. (c)/ No error (d)
41. Would you please order (a)/for tea and biscuits (b)/ for all of us (c)/ No error (d)
42. I have paid (a)/my bill for electricity (b)/ only a week ago. (c)/ No error (d)
43. He has just been appointed (a)/ ambassador to an important country (b)/ for a five-year
term. (c)/No error (d)
44. This is the old man (a)/ whom I sad (b)/had helped me. (c)/ No error (d)
45. The dog pushed (a)/ the door open (b)/ and stole the meat. (c)/No error (d)
46. The truck driver accused (a)/ the lady for walking (b)/ in the middle of the road. (c)/ No error.
(d)
47. These are the ideas (a)/ and ideals which have shaped (b)/ our economic thought in the
past, (c)/ No error. (d)
48. India's problems are not similar with (a)/ those of other countries (b)/ in several ways. (c)/ No
error. (d)
49. He had lost a ring in the sand and (a)/ I helped him search for it, (b)/ but it was like a look for
a needle in a haystack. (c)/ No error. (d)
50. The Ganges and (a)/its tributaries constitute (b)/ one of the largest river-systems in the
world. (c)/ No error. (d)
51. The sudden change (a)/ of place (b)/ effected her health. (C) /No error. (d)
52. There are a number of people (a)/ of every class and nationality (b)/ who doubts the truth of
his statement. (c)/ No error. (d)
53. I like this book because the writer has explained(a)/the reasons(b)/ of his failure truly.(c)/No
error. (d)
54. She is very weak in the subject (a)/and does not understand things (b)/ though the teacher
explains her repeatedly. (c)/ No error. (d)
55. The speaker from the Fifth Avenue, (a)/ who was a rich banker's (b)/ wife was simple and
compassionate. (c)/No error. (d)
56. There was no any piece of paper (a)/ in my pocket (b)/ as I had expected. (c)/No error. (d)
57. Neither the teacher (a)/or the student (b)/is keen on joining the dance. (c)/ No error. (d)
58. My neighbour Deepak (a)/ is a person (b)/ that will help anyone (c)/ No error. (d)
59. I'll ask that man (a)/ which of the roads (b)/ are the one we want. (c)/ No error. (d)
60. Now we have banks (a)/ and people deposit their money there, (b) / and draw it out by
cheques. (c)/ No error. (d)
61. Apart government agencies, (a)/ a number of private organisations too (b)/ have been
making use of satellites. (c)/ No error. (d)
62. What sort of a drug this is (a)/ that no one seems to be able to predict its long-term effects
(b)/ with any certainty? (C) / No error. (d)
63. You will lose (a)/ your dog (b)/ if you did not tie it up. (c)/ No error. (d)
64. In view of the fact that almost all varieties of rural games and sports (a)/ are fast gaining
national importance it is desired (b)/ that the rules of such games are strictly adhered. (c)/ No
error. (d)
65. More than one (a)/ workmen (b)/ was killed. (c)/ No error. (d)
66. The parties disagreed (a)/ on the two first clauses (b)/ in the agreement. (c)/ No error. (d)
67. The scientist was seemed (a)/ to be excited (b)/ over the result of his experiment. (c)/ No
error. (d)
68. The student could not answer the teacher (a)/ when he was asked to explain (b)/ why he
was so late that day. (c)/ No error. (d)
69. John could not come (a)/ to school (b)/as he was ill from cold. (c)/ No error. (d)
70. Though she has aptitude in Mathematics (a)/ I won't allow her to take it up as a subject of
study for the Master's degree (b)/ because I know the labour involved will tell upon her health.
(c)/ No error. (d)
71. I am not familiar with (a)/ all the important places in this town, (b)/ although I have been
living here since two years. (c)/ No error. (d)
72. If I would be a millionaire, (a)/ I would not be wasting my time (b)/ waiting for a bus. (c)/ No
error. (d)
73. Until you begin to make a better use of your time, (a)/ I shall not stop (b)/finding fault in you.
(c)/ No error. (d)
74. Neither of the two boys (a)/ is sensible (b) /enough to do this job. (c)/ No error. (d)
75. They left (a)/ their luggage’s (b)/ at the railway station. (c)/ No error. (d)
76. You will get (a)/all the information’s (b) / if you read this booklet carefully. (c)/No error. (d)
77. She sang (a)/ very well, (b)/ isn't it? (c)/No error. (d)
78. He is working (a)/ in a bank in New Delhi (b)/ for the past several months. (c)/ No error. (d)
79. There is no question (a)/ of my failing (b)/ in the examination. (c)/ No error. (d)
80. He is going everyday (a)/ for a morning walk (b)/ with his friends and neighbours. (c)/ No
error. (d)
81. Her relatives could not explain to us (a)/ why did not she come for the wedding (b)/ as she
was expected. (c)/ No error. (d)
82. He was prevented to accept the assignment (a)/ because he was a government employee
(b)/ and as such barred from accepting such assignments. (c)/ No error. (d)
83. If you repeat this mistake, (a)/ I will inform to your father (b), and do not blame me then. (c)/
No error. (d)
84. Lieutenant Anand was short and muscular (a)/ with shoulders that bulged impressively (b)/
against his smart uniform. (c)/ No error. (d)
85. I should do (a)/ the same (b)/ if I were in your place. (c)/ No error. (d)
86. He has been suffering (a)/ with fever (b)/ for the last six weeks. (C) /No error. (d)
87. The examination begins (a)/ from Monday (b)/ next weak. (c) /No error.(d)
88. My father says that one should always be sincere to his duties. (a) (b) (c) No error. (d)
89. There has been (a), a number of railway accidents (b)/ during the last month. (c)/ No error. (d)
90. In spite of all efforts to eradicate malaria (a)/ is still prevalent (b)/ in many parts of India. (c)/
No error. (d)
91. It is only three days age (a)/that (b)/ he has arrived. (c)/ No error. (d)
92. He has lost (a)/all what (b)/I gave him. (c)/ No error. (d)
93. I have (a)/no news from him (b)/ for a long time. (c)/ No error. (d)
94. Mahatma Gandhi’s entire life (a)/ was one unrelenting experiment (b)/ on truth. (c)/ No error (d)
95. As the thieves ran out of the bank (a)/ they got into the getaway car (b)/ which was waiting
with its engine running. (c)/ No error (d)
96. He denied that he had not stolen my purse. (a)/ Though I was quite sure (b)/ that he had.
(c)/ No error (b) (c) (d)
97. The media of films has been accepted by all (a)/ as the most powerful force (b)/ that
influences the younger generation. (c)/ No error. (d)
98. The French Embassy employs him (a)/ regularly. (b)/ As he knows to speak French (c)/ No
error (d)
99. How is it that neither your friend Mahesh (a)/ nor his brother Ramesh (b)/ have protested
against this injustice. (c)/ No error. (d)
100. Lack of winter rains (a)/ have delayed the sowing of (b)/ wheat crop in this area. (c)/ No
error. (d)
ANSWER KEY
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (d) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (c)
11. (c) 12. (c) 13. (c) 14. (b) 15. (b) 16. (a) 17. (b) 18. (b) 19. (b) 20. (c)
21. (a) 22. (c) 23. (a) 24. (b) 25. (c) 26. (a) 27. (c) 28. (a) 29. (b) 30. (c)
31. (a) 32. (b) 33. (b) 34. (c) 35. (d) 36. (b) 37. (c) 38. (b) 39. (b) 40. (d)
41. (b) 42. (a) 43. (d) 44. (b) 45. (d) 46. (b) 47. (b) 48. (a) 49. (a) 50. (b)
51. (c) 52. (c) 53. (a) 54. (d) 55. (b) 56. (a) 57. (b) 58. (c) 59. (c) 60. (b)
61. (a) 62. (c) 63. (c) 64. (c) 65. (b) 66. (b) 67. (a) 68. (d) 69. (c) 70. (c)
71. (c) 72. (a) 73. (c) 74. (b) 75. (b) 76. (b) 77. (c) 78. (a) 79. (b) 80. (a)
81. (b) 82. (c) 83. (b) 84. (c) 85. (a) 86. (b) 87. (b) 88. (c) 89. (a) 90. (b)
91. (c) 92. (b) 93. (a) 94. (b) 95. (d) 96. (c) 97. (a) 98. (a) 99. (c) 100.(c)
101.(c) 102.(a) 103.(c) 104. (c) 105.(a) 106.(c) 107.(b) 108.(a) 109.(c) 110.(a)
10. COMPREHENSION
INTRODUCTION
The definition of comprehension refers to your ability to understand something, or your actual
understanding of something. Instead of reading the entire passage, read critically the first and
last paragraph of the comprehension. Generally what the author is saying can be identified in
the first few lines of the passage, which in case of longer passages becomes roughly 1/3rd of
the passage. For the remaining passage examine hastily, what the author has said about the
subject. Also for longer passages, try to put down in 10-15 words, for each paragraph, what you
feel are the central points of the passage.
The next thing in this approach is to identify the structural words that tell you the important Ideas
or Transitions in a passage. These structural words play a specific role in a sentence and
paragraph. Whenever a question is asked on a phrase given in the passage, just read the three
lines above and below that phrase to have an idea of what is implicit from that phrase.
There are around 4-6 questions based on Synonyms and Antonyms, these questions can be
answered if you have good vocabulary and if your vocabulary is not good, then read the
sentence in which the word is used to get a rough idea of the meaning of the word.
1. Read the following passage carefully.
Raju, 35, a power-loom owner from Madurai, Tamil Nadu, and his mother were homeward-
bound one evening when heavy rain forced them to take shelter beneath a bridge. Not far away,
a small group of labourers huddled together under a part of the cement housing above a 16
metre deep well used to pump water for irrigation.
Suddenly, Raju and his mother heard the labourers scream. When the two got to the well, they
were told that a five year old boy named Hari had fallen in through a side opening in the
structure. Ignoring his mother's fears, Raju quickly knotted together lengths of flimsy rope
belonging to the labourers and asked them to lower him into the dark well. "I hope the rope
holds," he thought.
As he descended, Raju noticed the metal rungs on the wall of the well. He grabbed hold of one
and started climbing down, when he saw the boy clinging to a pipe running up the well's centre.
Grabbing the child, Raju started to climb praying that the old rungs wouldn't give away and
plunge them both into the churning water below. Their luck held and within a few minutes, Raju
clambered to ground level and handed over Hari to his sobbing father.
The man fell at Raju feet and offered him some money as a reward. Refusing the cash, Raju
took Hari and his family to a nearby eatery and offered them steaming tea to warm them up.
Several organisations have honoured Raju for his bravery and presence of mind on that wet day
three years ago. "I am happy I was at the right place at the right time," he says," and was able
to return a little boy to his family."
Read the questions given below and write the option you consider the most appropriate
in your answer sheet.
1. What first drew Raju and his mother to the well?
(a) Shelter from the heavy rain. (b)The return journey home.
(c) News of a small boy's fall. (d) The labourer's screams.
Answer: (d) The labourer's screams.
2. What were Raju’s mother's fears really associated with?
(a) The rusted rungs inside the wall. (b) The risk to
(c) The churning water inside (d) Doubts about the safety the well. of the boy.
Answer: (b) The risk to

3. Which of the following could be learnt from the report?
(a) It is best not to involve one (b) One should not take shelter even in situations
involving others beneath a bridge in the rain.
(c) One cannot predict when an (d) Metal rungs alongside the wall of accident may
befall any person. a well may not always be useful.
Answer: (b) One should not take shelter even in situations involving others. Beneath a bridge in
the rain.
4. Which of these expressions best describes Raju’s in view of this incident?
(a) Disregard for an elder (b) Disbelief in one's own abilities warnings.
(c) Faith only in prayers for (d) Concern for others with no success expectations.
Answer: (d) Concern for others with no success expectations.
Marie Curie was one of the most accomplished scientists in history. Together with her husband,
Pierre, she discovered radium, an element widely used for treating cancer, and studied uranium
and other radioactive substances. Pierre and Marie's amicable collaboration later helped to
unlock the secrets of the atom.
Marie was born in 1867 in Warsaw, Poland, where her father was a professor of physics. At an
early age, she displayed a brilliant mind and a blithe personality. Her great exuberance for
learning prompted her to continue with her studies after high school. She became disgruntled,
however, when she learned that the university in Warsaw was closed to women. Determined to
receive a higher education, she defiantly left Poland and in 1891 entered the Sorbonne, a
French university, where she earned her master's degree and doctorate in physics.
Marie was fortunate to have studied at the Sorbonne with some of the greatest scientists of her
day, one of whom was Pierre Curie. Marie and Pierre were married in 1895 and spent many
productive years working together in the physics laboratory. A short time after they discovered
radium, Pierre was killed by a horse-drawn wagon in 1906. Marie was stunned by this horrible
misfortune and endured heart breaking anguish. Despondently she recalled their close
relationship and the joy that they had shared in scientific research. The fact that she had two
young daughters to raise by herself greatly increased her distress.
Curie's feeling of desolation finally began to fade when she was asked to succeed her husband
as a physics professor at the Sorbonne. She was the first woman to be given a professorship at
the world-famous university. In 1911 she received the Nobel Prize in chemistry for isolating
radium. Although Marie Curie eventually suffered a fatal illness from her long exposure to
radium, she never became disillusioned about her work. Regardless of the consequences, she
had dedicated herself to science and to revealing the mysteries of the physical world.
1. The Curies' _________ collaboration helped to unlock the secrets of the atom.
(a) friendly (b) competitive
(c) courteous (d) amicable
Answer: (d) Amicable
2. Marie had a bright mind and a ______ personality.
(a) strong (b) light-hearted
(c) blithe (d) strange
Answer: (c) blithe
3. When she learned that she could not attend the university in Warsaw, she felt _________.
(a) disgruntled (b) annoyed

(c) depressed (d) worried
Answer: (a) disgruntled
4. Marie _________ by leaving Poland and traveling to France to enter the Sorbonne.
(a) challenged authority (b) showed intelligence
(c) behaved (d) None of the above
Answer: (d) None of the above
5. _________ she remembered their joy together.
(a) Dejectedly (b) Worried
(c) Despondently (d) Happily
Answer: (c) Despondently
6. Her _________ began to fade when she returned to the Sorbonne to succeed her husband.
(a) misfortune (b) anger
(c) wretchedness (d) desolation
Answer: (d) desolation
7. Even though she became fatally ill from working with radium, Marie Curie was never ______.
(a) troubled (b) worried
(c) disappointed (d) sorrowful
Answer: (c) disappointed
The Trojan War is one of the most famous wars in history. It is well known for the 10-year
duration, for the heroism of a number of legendary characters, and for the Trojan horse. What
may not be familiar, however, is the story of how the war began.
According to Greek myth, the strife between the Trojans and the Greeks started at the wedding
of Peleus, King of Thessaly, and Thetis, a sea nymph. All of the gods and goddesses had been
invited to the wedding celebration in Troy except Eris, goddess of discord. She had been
omitted from the guest list because her presence always embroiled mortals and immortals alike
in conflict.
To take revenge on those who had slighted her, Eris decided to cause a skirmish. Into the
middle of the banquet hall, she threw a golden apple marked "for the most beautiful." All of the
goddesses began to haggle over who should possess it. The gods and goddesses reached a
stalemate when the choice was narrowed to Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite. Someone was
needed to settle the controversy by picking a winner. The job eventually fell to Paris, son of King
Priam of Troy, who was said to be a good judge of beauty. Paris did not have an easy job. Each
goddess, eager to win the golden apple, tried aggressively to bribe him.
"I'll grant you vast kingdoms to rule," promised Hera. "Vast kingdoms are nothing in comparison
with my gift," contradicted Athena. "Choose me and I'll see that you win victory and fame in
war." Aphrodite outdid her adversaries, however. She won the golden apple by offering Helen,
daughter of Zeus and the most beautiful mortal in the land, to Paris. Paris, anxious to claim
Helen, set off for Sparta in Greece.
Although Paris learned that Helen was married, he nevertheless accepted the hospitality of her
husband, King Menelaus of Sparta. Therefore, Menelaus was outraged for a number of reasons
when Paris departed, taking Helen and much of the king's wealth back to Troy.
Menelaus collected his loyal forces and set sail for Troy to begin the war to reclaim Helen.
1. Eris was known for ______ both mortals and immortals.

(a) scheming against (b) creating conflict amongst
(c) embroiling (d) comforting
Answer: (c) embroiling
2. Each goddess tried ______ to bribe Paris.
(a) boldly (b) effectively
(c) secretly (d) None of these
Answer: (d) None of these
3. Athena ______ Hera, promising Paris victory and fame in war.
(a) disregarded the statement of (b) defeated
(c) agreed with (d) restated the statement of
Answer: (a) disregarded the statement of
Rules Table
Tips for Easy Sailing:
➢ Begin with the Topic and the Scope
➢ The Tone is either Neutral or Strong/Complex
➢ Go back to the passage for Detail questions.
➢ Write down the Purpose as soon as you finish reading
➢ Inferences are based on Implications.
➢ Focus on the opening and closing paragraphs of longer passages.
➢ Really understand what the question is asking.
➢ Do not bring in outside knowledge.
➢ Underline and take notes as you read
➢ Don’t make assumptions.

DIRECTIONS (Qs. 1-21): In this section there are six short passages. Each passage is followed
by items based on the passage. Read each passage and answer the items that follow.
PASSAGE – I
Our voyage was very prosperous, but I shall not trouble the reader with a journal of it. The
captain called in at one or two parts and sent in his long-boat for provisions and fresh water, but
I never went out of the ship till we came into the Downs, which was on the 3rd-day of June,
1706, about nine months after my escape. I offered to leave my goods in security for payment of
my freight, but the captain protested he would not receive one farthing. We took kind leave of
each other, and I made him promise that he would come to see me at my house in Redriff. I
hired i a house and a guide for five shillings which I borrowed from the captain.
1. When the writer uses the word “prosperous” to describe the voyage, he means that
(a) it made him rich. (b) it made him healthy.
(c) it was very pleasant (d) it was uneventful.
Solution: (d) By the word prosperous, the author means that the voyage was uneventful as the
ship stopped only at two ports and was nothing to talk about.
2. On the voyage, the author
(a) left the ship at intervals. (b) was not able to leave the ship because it did not stop.
(c) never left the ship at all. (d) never left the ship till they came into the downs.
Solution: (d) On the ship, the author never left the ship till they came into the downs.
3. In the context of the passage, the word “provisions” means
(a) mainly food. (b) mainly security.
(c) money. (d) mainly ammunition.
Solution: (a) In the context of the passage, provisions means food. The author writes that the
ship stopped at one or two ports for food and fresh water.
4.For the payment of the author's freight, the captain
(a) kept his goods as security. (b) refused to accept any money.
(c) protested against being paid only a farthing. (d) accepted a sum of money.
Solution: (b) For the payment of the author's freight, the captain refused to accept any money
not even a single farthing.
5. From the passage, it is clear that the captain's attitude to the author was
(a) one of hostility. (b) one of indifference.
(c) one of extreme friendliness and kindness. (d) one of disgust and irritation.
Solution: (c) Since the captain did not take a single penny from the author and was very soft to
him, it shows his friendliness and kindness towards the author.
PASSAGE – II
What were the early ideas of men about the sky and the earth? They naturally believed that the
earth was motionless, and they also supposed that it was flat. These' two ideas' do not surprise
us. Children now-a-days think the same until they are taught differently. How were men to know
that the earth was a ball circling round the sun? They had no telescope for accurate
observation. They had not travelled round the world. In fact, many parts of the world in those
days were unexplored and unknown. They thought they lived on a kind of flat plate, and that the
sky with the sun and the moon and the stars, was a kind of inverted bowl turning round above
them. The sun, the moon and the stars were their lamps for day and night.
6. Unless children 'are taught differently they think that
(a) the earth is round and moving. (b) the sun and the moon are motionless.
(c) the sun and the moon are moving. (d) the sun and the moon are moving round the earth.
Solution: (b) Unless the children are taught differently, they think that the sun and moon are
motionless.
7. The early ideas of man were wrong because
(a) man did not use the telescope. (b) man did not like to travel.
(c) man never had the scientific knowledge. (d) man was foolish and lazy.
Solution: (c) The early ideas of the man were wrong because they did not have any scientific
knowledge because there were no telescopes or instruments to study the motion of earth and stars.
8. What was true for the early man?
(a) The earth was round and moving. (b) The telescope was accurate.
(c) Travelling and, exploring were the (d) The sun was motionless.
methods to gain knowledge.
Solution: (d) For the early man, the sun, the earth and the stars were motionless.
9. What was the main cause of the early man’s wrong ideas?
(a) Lack of scientific knowledge (b) Seeing and believing
(c) Lack of desire to know (d) Lack of desire to observe and explore
Solution: (d) The early man lacked in desire to observe and explore.
PASSAGE – III
The man sat up in the snow for a moment and struggled for calmness. Then he pulled on his
gloves by means of his teeth, and got upon his feet. He glanced down at first in order to assure
himself that he was really standing up, for the absence of sensation in his feet left him unrelated
to the earth. His erect position in itself started to drive the webs of suspicion from the dog's
mind; and when he spoke peremptorily, with the sound of whip-lashes in his voice, the dog
rendered its customary allegiance and came to him. As it came within reaching distance, the
man lost his control. His arms flashed out to the dog and he experienced genuine surprise when
he discovered that his hands could not clutch, that there was neither bend not feeling in the
fingers. He had forgotten for the moment that they were frozen and that they were freezing
more and more. All this happened quickly and before the animal could get away, he encircled its
body with his arms. He sat down in the snow and in this fashion held the dog, while it snarled
and whined and struggled.
10. From the passage, which group of words expresses the effect of snow upon the man's feet?
(a) With the sound of whip-lashes in his voice. (b) His arms, flashed out to the dog.
(c) The absence of sensation in his feet left him (d) The man sat up in the snow for a
unrelated to the earth. moment and struggled for calmness.
Solution: (c) The words 'The absence of sensation in his feet left him unrelated to the earth'
11. The statement that, the man experienced genuine surprise when he discovered that his
hands could not clutch means that
(a) the man did not see anything to clutch. (b) the man had nothing to clutch.
(c) the man was afraid of the dog. (d) there was neither bend nor feeling in the
fingers.
Solution: (d) As a result of the cold from snow, his hands and fingers were freezing and could
neither be bend nor had any sensation.
12. Which word of group of words shows the exact condition of being ‘frozen’?
(a) Whip-lashes in his voice (b) He pulled on his gloves
(c) His hands could not clutch (d) Lost his control
Solution: (c) His hands could not clutch depicts how frozen his hands and fingers are that they
cannot be moved and felt.
EXERCISE
DIRECTIONS (Qs. 1-15): In this Section you have THREE short passages. After each passage,
you will find several questions based on the passage. First, read a passage, and then answer
the questions based on it. You are required to select your answers based on the contents of the
passage and opinion of the author only. Examples ‘I’ and ‘J’ are solved for you.
PASSAGE
In our approach to life, be it pragmatic or otherwise, a basic fact that confronts us squarely and
unmistakably is the desire for peace, security and happiness. Different forms of life at different
levels of existence make up the teeming denizens of this earth of ours. And, no matter whether
they belong to the higher groups such as human beings or to the lower groups such as animals,
all beings primarily seek peace, comfort and security. Life is as dear to a mute creature as it is
to a man. Even the lowliest insect strives for protection against dangers that threaten its life.
Just as each one of us wants to live and not to die, so do all other creatures.
I. The author’s main point is that
(a) different forms of life are found on earth (b) different levels of existence are possible in nature
(c) peace and security are the chief goals of (d) even the weakest creature struggles to
all living beings preserve its life
J. Which one of the following assumptions or steps is essential in developing the author’s
position?
(a) All forms of life have a single overriding (b) The will to survive of a creature is identified
goal with a desire for peace
(c) All beings are divided into higher and (d) A parallel is drawn between happiness and
lower groups life, and pain and death
Explanations:
I. The idea which represents the author’s main point is ‘peace and security are the chief goals of
all living beings, which is response (c). So (c) is the correct answer.
J. The best assumption underlying the passage is ‘The will to survive of a creature is identified
with a desire for peace’, which is response (b). So (b) is the correct answer.
PASSAGE – I
The New Year is a time for resolutions. Mentally at least, most of us could compile formidable
lists of do’s and don’ts. The same old favourites recur year in and year out with monotonous
regularity. Past experience has taught us that certain accomplishments are beyond attainment.
If we remain inveterate smokers, it is only because we have so often experienced the frustration
that results from failure. Most of us fail in our efforts at self-improvement because our schemes
are too ambitious and we never have time to carry them out. We also make the fundamental
error of announcing our resolutions to everybody so that we look even more foolish when we
slip back into our old bad ways.
1. The author seems to think that others
(a) feel happy when we slip back to our old ways (b) do not really want us to improve ourselves
(c) are ready to tease and laugh at our (d) might embarrass us by praising our
attempts attempts
2. The author says that most of us fail in our attempts at self-improvement because
(a) we set too high goals for ourselves (b) we do not have the persistence of mind
(c) our nature is such that we cannot (d) certain imperfections have become a part
become perfect and parcel of our lives
3. The author seems to imply that many are inveterate smokers because
(a) they have not really tried to give up (b) they know from past experience that they
smoking can never succeed in their attempt to give up
(c) they want to forget the frustration of not (d) they do not have the will power to stop
smoking smoking
4. The same old favourites recur... with monotonous regularity’ implies that
(a) we want to be so perfect that we include (b) we have been so regularly doing certain
some items regularly things that they have become monotonous
(c) in spite of repeated failures, we still (d) some favourite actions if repeated often
would like to try one more time could become monotonous
5. The phrase ‘formidable lists of do’s and don’ts’ means that
(a) the bad points of our character are formidable (b) the list is so long that it is frightening
(c) the things that need to be included is (d) the realisation that we are so imperfect
frightening is frightening
PASSAGE – II
Deriving your authority from the government, your position would secure the respect and
consideration of everyone, especially in a service where official rank carries so much weight.
This would secure to you every attention and comfort on your way and there, together with a
complete submission to your orders. I know these things are a matter of indifference to you
except so far as they may further the great objects you have in view, but they are of importance
in themselves, and of every importance to those who have a right to take an interest in your
personal position and comfort.
6. The above passage most probably is a part of a
(a) speech (b) official communication
(c) written report (d) personal letter
7. The writer’s attitude towards the person addressed is characterized by
(a) officiousness (b) flattery
(c) humility (d) arrogance
8. The person addressed is most likely a
(a) social worker (b) government servant
(c) commercial agent (d) foreign dignitary
9. The writer is asking his reader to accept
(a) great objects (b) a respected position
(c) an official rank (d) a significant assignment
10. ‘The great objects’ in the passage means
(a) Significant items (b) Noble goals
(c)Precious merchandise (d) Objects of praise
PASSAGE – III
While I stood drinking in the beauty of this placid scene I became conscious of an alteration. In
a moment the sole porter emerged from his midday nap, operated a signal that clanked noisily
into position, and then ambled slowly towards me for my return-half ticket, whilst I remarked that
his red amiable face and easygoing gait were in perfect harmony with the tranquil surroundings.
A wisp of smoke on the horizon with a dark snake crawling beneath it announced the approach
of the train. As it drew nearer, the deep silence of the place was gradually displaced by a
creaking of brakes and a hissing of steam. Save for myself, no one entered the train and no one
alighted. The porter with leisurely expertness, trundled a couple of milk churns on board, the
door was slammed, the guard signaled to the driver, and we moved off, leaving the small station
once more to its drowsy silence.
11. The meaning of drowsy is
(a) Untidy (b) Sleepy
(c) Freezing (d) Drugged
12. The central idea of the passage is
(a) Leisure and Peace (b) Hurry and Noise
(c) Activity (d) The Porter
13. Who had a midday nap?
(a) The author (b) The passenger
(c) The Station-master (d) The porter
14. Who/what does first break the silence of the station?
(a) The train (b) The porter

(c) The passenger (d) Milk churns
15. What does the author suggest by the word ‘placid’?
(a) The scene was filled with noise of the train (b) The place was filled with lively humanity
(c) The place was quite and lonely (d) The horizon looked smoke laden
DIRECTIONS (Qs. 16-25): In this Section you have Eight short passages. After each passage,
passage and opinion of the author only.
Examples ‘I’ and ‘J’ are solved for you.
PASSAGE
In our approach to life, be it pragmatic or otherwise, a basic fact that confronts us squarely and
unmistakably is the desire for peace, security and happiness. Different forms of life at different
levels of existence make up the teeming denizens of the earth of ours. And, no matter whether
(a) different forms of life are found on earth (b) different levels of existence are possible in
nature
(c) peace and security are the chief goals, of (d) even the weakest creatures struggles to
all living beings preserve its life.
positions?
(a) All forms of life have a single overriding (b) The will to survive of a creature is identified
goal with a desire for peace
(c) All beings are divided into higher and (d) A parallel is drawn between happiness and
lower groups life and pain and death
Explanation:
I. The idea which represents the author’s main point is “peace and security are the chief goals
of all living beings”, which is response (c). So (c) is the correct answer.
J. The best assumption underlying the passage is “The will to survive of a creature is identified
with a desire for peace”, which is response (b). So (b) is the correct answer.
PASSAGE – I
Popular illusion about birds extend further than the use of the word ‘egg-shape’ that would
suggest that all eggs are alike. For instance, there is the popular idea that owls hoot. Actually,
only very few owls hoot and these include the common brown or tawny wood owl. The white
barn owl screeches; the little owl has a wailing cry; the long-eared owl barks; and the short
eared owl snorts! Another mistaken idea is that all ducks ‘quack’, because the common
farmyard duck is a domesticated form of the common wild duck or mallard that quacks. Actually
most wild ducks call with whistles.
16. The main purpose of this passage is
(a) to describe the life of popular birds. (b) to show our incorrect ideas of bird life.
(c) to show our perfect knowledge about birds. (d) to describe the calls of owls and ducks.
17. The impression created by repeating the terms, ‘popular’ and ‘common’ are
(a) human beings are closely attached to (b) our ideas about birds are derived from the
birds. most common types.
(c) owls and ducks are our favourite birds. (d) domesticated birds are our source of
information about the bird world.
18. The common duck is not a separate species but a tamed version of wild variety because it
(a) whistles like most wild ducks. (b) grunts like the tufted duck.
(c) has the same call as other ducks. (d) quacks like the mallard.
PASSAGE – II
“What is sixteen and three multiplied?” asked the teacher. The boy blinked. The teacher
persisted, and the boy promptly answered: “twenty-four”, with, as it seemed to the teacher, a
wicked smile on his lips. The boy evidently was trying to fool him and was going contrary on
purpose. He had corrected this error repeatedly, and now the boy persisted in saying “twenty
four”. How could this fellow be made to obtain fifty in the class test and go up by double-
promotion to the first form, as his parents fondly hoped? At the mention of “twenty-four” the
teacher felt all his blood rushing to his head. He controlled himself, and asked again: “How
much”? as a last chance. When the boy said the same thing obstinately, he felt as if his finger
was releasing the trigger: he reached across the table, and delivered a wholesome slap on the
youngster’s cheek.
19. The boy answered the question
(a) with fear and anxiety (b) with the intension to fail in the class test.
(c) to make some fun in the class. (d) when the teacher persisted in asking.
20. The teacher felt blood rushing in his head because
(a) there was no arrogant smile on the boy’s (b) he thought the boy was hopelessly dull.
lips.
(c) he thought the boy made the mistake (d) the boy gave a wrong answer to such as
deliberately. simple question.
21. The teacher controlled his anger because
(a) he remembered the fond hopes of boys’ (b) he wanted to give another opportunity to
parents. the boy.
(c) the boy was too young to pick up (d) he believed that the boy must be taught the
mathematics fast. lesson again.
PASSAGE – III
I was at the shop early. He was standing behind the counter and as soon as I saw him, I knew
that there would be some unpleasantness. Mr. Higson is never at his best unshaven, in slippers
and braces and smoking on the empty stomach. The atmosphere of the little shop was heavy
with the bitter odour of fresh newspaper print and ink: stacks of crisp newspapers and
magazines lay neatly on the counter, the Higson and the boy were making up the daily mend.
22. At the shop Mr. Higson appeared in
(a) his joy of smoking. (b) his most slip-shod condition.
(c) the most unusual condition. (d) in a strange mood.
23. The overall atmosphere in the shop was
(a) pleasant, wholesome and welcome. (b) heavy with a lot of goods placed there.
(c) with the inactivity of the early morning. (d) congenial and businesslike.
PASSAGE – IV
A village must have some trade; and this village has always been full of virility and power.
Obscure and happy, its splendid energies had found employment in wrestling a livelihood out of
the earth, whence had come a certain dignity, and kindliness, and love for other men.
Civilization did not relax these energies, but it had diverted them; and all the special qualities,
which might have helped to heal the world, had been destroyed. The family affection, the
affection for the commune, the sane pastoral virtues – all had perished. No villain had done this
thing: it was the work of ladies and gentlemen who were rich and often clever.
24. Village life is praised by the author because it
(a) helps villagers to achieve material (b) makes men complacent.
prosperity.
(c) breeds humane virtues. (d) is free from the din and hurry of city life.
25. Civilization mainly destroys
(a) the ability of create employment. (b) family affection and pastoral virtues.
(c) medical facilities for the rural people. (d) agricultural trade.
DIRECTIONS (Qs. 26-37): In this Section, you have seven short passages. After each
passage, you will find several questions based on the passage. First, read a passage, and then
answer the questions based on it. You are required to select your answers based on the
contents of the passage and opinion of the author only.
Examples ‘I’ and ‘J’ are solved for you.
PASSAGE
In our approach of life, is it pragmatic or otherwise, a basic fact that confronts us squarely and
unmistakable is the desire for peace, security and happiness. Different forms of life at different
levels of existence make up the teeming denizens of this earth of ours, and, no matter whether
I. The author’s main point is that (a) different forms of life are found on earth (b) different levels
of existence are possible in nature (c) peace and security are the chief goals of all living beings
(d) even the weakest creature struggles to preserve its life
position?
(a) All forms of life have a single overriding goal
(b) The will to survive of a creature is identified with a desire for peace
(c) All beings are divided into higher and lower groups
(d) A parallel is drawn between happiness and life, and pain and death
Explanation: I. The idea which represents the author’s main point is ‘peace and security are the
chief goals of all living beings’, Which is response (c). So (c) is the correct answer.
J. The best assumption underlying the passage is ‘The will to survive of a creature is identified
with a desire for peace’, which is response (b). So (b) is the correct answer.
PASSAGE – I
As civilization proceeds in the direction of technology, it passes the points of supplying all the
basic essentials of life, food, shelter, cloth, and warmth. Then we are faced with a choice
between using technology to provide and fulfill needs which have hitherto been regarded as
unnecessary or, on the other hand, using technology to reduce the number of hours of work
which a man must do in order to earn a given standard of living. In other words, we either raise
our standard of living above that necessary for comfort and happiness or we leave it at this level
and work shorter hours.
I shall take it as axiomatic that mankind has, by that time, chosen the latter alternative. Men will
be working shorter and shorter hours in their paid employment.
26. “Then we are faced with a choice ...” what does `then’ refer to?
(a) When automation takes over many aspects of human life
(b) The present state of civilization
(c) The past stage of civilization
(d) After having provided the basic essentials of life
27. What does the passage suggest about the use of technology?
(a) It creates new and essential needs for mankind
(b) It is opposed to the basic essentials of life
(c) It is complementary to a raised standard of living
(d) It is responsible for man’s love of comfort and happiness
28. What does increased use of technology imply?
(a) An advanced stage in human civilization
(b) A backward step in human culture
(c) Unnecessary comfort and happiness for mankind
(d) Man’s zest for more and more work
29. What does the author suggest?
(a) Man will gradually rise above his present stage in civilization
(b) Man will gradually settle down to the same stage with fewer hours of work
(c) Man will gradually raise his standard of living by working longer hours
(d) Man will gradually earn a given standard of living with the help of technology
PASSAGE – II
It is said that ideas are explosive and dangerous. To allow them unfettered freedom is, in fact,
to invite disorder. But, to this position, there are at least two final answers. It is impossible to
draw a line round dangerous ideas and any attempt at their definition involves monstrous folly. If
views, moreover, which imply disorder, are able to disturb the foundations of the state, there is
something supremely wrong with the governance of the state. For disorder is not a habit of
mankind. We cling so eagerly to our accustomed ways that, as even Burke insisted; popular
violence is always the outcome of a deep popular sense of wrong.
30. What is the central point that the passage emphasizes?
(a) It is unnecessary to define dangerous ideas
(b) Dangerous ideas are born out of the enjoyment of freedom
(c) A well-governed state is unaffected by dangerous ideas
(d) Dangerous ideas originate from man’s preoccupation with politics
31. From a close study of the passage, which one of the following statements emerges most clearly?
(a) The author is against the exercise of political freedom
(b) He is indifferent to dangerous and explosive ideas
(c) He welcomes violence as a method to change governments
(d) He warns that violence is the outcome of popular dissatisfaction with the government
32. The author says, “We cling eagerly to out accustomed ways”. Which one of the following
statements may be considered as the assumption of the author?
(a) We are afraid of social changes
(b) Mankind is averse to any disorder
(c) We have developed inertia that makes us incapable of social action
(d) There is an all-round lack of initiative in the society
33. Which of the following statements may most correctly bring out the significance of the
opinion of Burke quoted in the passage?
(a) Burke advocated violence against injustice
(b) Burke’s opinion coincides with the author’s opinion on explosive and dangerous ideas
(c) Burke hated any popular uprising
(d) Burke had no belief in political liberty
PASSAGE – III
The psychological causes of unhappiness, it is clear, are many and various. But all have
something in common. The typical unhappy man is one who, having been deprived in youth of
some normal satisfaction, some come to value this one kind of satisfaction more than any other,
and has therefore given to his life a one-sided direction, together with a quite undue emphasis
upon the achievement as opposed to the activities connected with it. There is, however, a
further development which is very common in the present day. A man may feel so completely
thwarted that he seeks no form of satisfaction, but only distraction and oblivion. He then
becomes a devotee of ‘pleasure’. This is to say, he seeks to make life bearable by becoming
less alive. Drunkenness, for example, is temporary suicide - the happiness that it brings is
merely negative, a momentary cessation of unhappiness.
34. Who is a typical unhappy man?
(a) One who has been deprived of normal satisfaction in youth?
(b) One who finds life unbearable and attempts suicide
(c) One who does not mind momentary unhappiness?
(d) One who seeks every form of satisfaction?
35. “One sided direction” refers to the pursuit of which one of the following?
(a) Drinking and forgetfulness
(b) The satisfaction one had been deprived of
(c) Activities leading to happiness
(d) Every form of psychological satisfaction
36. Which one of the following is the correct statement? Drinking helps the unhappy only to
(a) Forget their dissatisfaction
(b) Get sublime happiness
(c) Get the motivational needs fulfilled
(d) Concentrate harder
37. What does “becoming less alive” imply?
(a) Neglect of health
(b) Decline in moral values

(c) Living in a make believe world
(d) Leading a sedentary way of living
DIRECTIONS (Qs. 38-51): In this section you six short passages. After each passage, you will
find several questions based on the passage. First, read a passage, and then answer the
questions based on it. You are required to select your answers based on the contents of the
passage and opinion of the author only.
Examples ‘I’ and ‘J’ are solved for you. PASSAGE In our approach to life pragmatic or
otherwise, a basic fact that confronts us squarely and unmistakably is the desire for peace,
security and happiness. Different forms of life at different levels of existence make up the
teeming denizens of this earth of ours. And, no matter whether they belong to the higher groups
such as human beings or to the lower groups such as animals, all beings primarily seek peace,
comfort and security. Life is as dear to a mute creature as it is to a man. Even the lowliest insect
strives for protection against dangers that threaten its life. Just as each one of us wants to live
and not to die, so do all other creatures.
(a) Different forms of life are found on earth.
(b) Different levels of existence are possible in nature.
(c) Peace and security are the chief goals of all living beings.
(d) Even the weakest creature struggles to preserve its life
position?
(a) All forms of life have a single overriding goal.
(b) The will to survive of a creature is identified with a desire for peace
(c) All beings are divided into higher and lower groups
(d) A parallel is drawn between happiness and life and pain and death.
Explanation: I. The idea which represents the author’s main point is “peace and security are
the chief goals of all living beings”, which is response (c). So (c) is the correct answer.
J. The best assumption underlying the passage is “The will to survive of a creature is identified
with a desire for peace”, which is response (b). So (b) is the correct answer.
PASSAGE – I
Ah! Whatever could be said was said. All held him guilty. Even his own mother who claimed to
understand him the best. All had betrayed him in his hour of need. Yet, there he was, still with a
sparkling hope and knew that the truth must prevail. In the cold, dark and damp cell he never for
a moment lost faith in God and goodness and was waiting anxiously for an angle to come, plead
non-guilty for him and free him of his miseries.
38. Three of the following statements indicate that he had a sparkling hope. Which statement
does not?
(a) He had never lost faith in God (b) He was sure there was goodness
(c) He could have evidence in his favour (d) He knew that the truth must prevail
39. Whatever others said about him, he
(a) Betrayed no one. (b) Thought over the problem
(c) Never lost faith in goodness (d) Raised his voice against injustice
40. In the dark dungeon he always waited for
(a) His mother (b) The jailer
(c) The verdict freeing him of his miseries (d) The angle to come and plead for him
41. The truth must prevail means
(a) He was true (b) Angle will reveal truth
(c) Truth always wins in the end (d) We must plead for the truth
PASSAGE – II
Once while travelling by the local bus, I got a seat beside a very strange man. He seemed
interested in every passenger aboard. He would stare at a person, scribble some odd
mathematical notations on his long notebook and then move on to the next. Being quite
interested in what he was doing I asked him what all those notations meant and then came the
starling reply. He saw a man’s face not as a single unit but as thousands of squares put
together. He was in fact a statistical expert and a budding artist learning the art of graphics.
42. The man was scribbling down
(a) The figures of co-passengers
(b) The details of thousands of squares put together
(c) Some mathematical formulae and calculations
(d) Some mathematical signs
43. The man caught author’s attention because
(a) He was sitting next to him.
(b) He was staring at every person in the bus.
(c) He would stare at every person and then scribble down some mathematical notation.
(d) He was budding artist learning the art of graphics.
44. The author found that man’s reply quite startling because
(a) A statistical expert cannot be a budding scientist
(b) A budding artist cannot be a statistical expert
(c) Graphics is still a rare art form and he was learning in while travelling in a bus
(d) They fact that “a man’s face can be analysed as thousands of squares” was a strange
concept.
45. From the passage we gather that
(a) The author is very inquisitive.
(b) The author tries to poke his nose in other people’s business
(c) The author is interested in mathematical notations.
(d) The author wants to talk to fellow passengers in the bus.
PASSAGE – III
With the inevitable growth of specialization I see the universities facing two great dangers. First,
it is very easy to get so involved in the technical details of education that the object of education
is lost. And secondly, in an effort to condition a university to the needs of its students and to the
needs of the state it may lose its power to make or mould those students into responsible men,
capable of thinking for themselves and capable of expressing the results of their thoughts to others .
46. The author calls growth of specialisation ‘inevitable’. Which one of the following statements
is likely to be the most correct reason for this inevitability?
(a) Universities give grants only to do specialised work in different disciplines
(b) The professors and researchers in universities are competent only for specialised work
(c) Specialization helps economic growth of the nation.
(d) In an age of science and technology specialization becomes necessary
47. Which one of the following statements most correctly suggests the central theme of the
passage?
(a) The aim of education is specialization
(b) The aim of education is to mould the youth to work for the state
(c) The aim of education is to make the youth capable of independent thought and expression
(d) The aim of education is to enable the youth to each a comfortable living
48. Which one of the following statements most correctly suggests the warning implied in the
passage?
(a) University education should not be concerned with technical details.
(b) Universities should not subordinate themselves to the interests of the state.
(c) Universities should be concerned only with the needs of students.
(d) Universities should not go in for any specialization.
PASSAGE – IV
One December night, a family had gathered around their fireside and piled it high with wood
gathered from mountain streams and ruins of great trees that had come falling down the
mountain sides. The fire roared and brightened the room with its light. The faces of the father
and mother had a quiet gladness’ the children laughed; the oldest daughter was the picture of
happiness at seventeen’ and the aged grandmother who sat sewing in the warmest place was
the picture of happiness grown old.
49. The firewood had been
(a) Brought (b) Stolen
(c) Collected (d) Found
50. The parents looked
(a) Serene (b) Cheerful
(c) Gloomy (d) Dull
51. The oldest daughter looked
(a) stupid (b) Glad
(c) Intelligent (d) Mournful
DIRECTIONS (Qs. 52-63): In this section you have eight short passages. After each passage,
passage and opinion of the author only. [2010-I]
PASSAGE – I
The sky was already full of rusting wings. But when Jean stepped into the still lusterless water,
he seemed to be swimming in an in determinate darkness until he saw the streaks of red and
gold over the horizon. Then he suddenly swam back to land and clambered up the winding path
to his house. After a great deal of panting he reached a little gate, pushed it open and climbed a
stairway. The house above the world had its huge bay-windows through which one could see
the horizon from one edge to the other. Here, no one complained of exhaustion. Everyone had
his joy to conquer, every day.
52. Which of the following is/are indicated by the description in the passage?
1. Time before sunrise
2. Time after sunset
3. Clouds
4. Birds
Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 2 and 3 only (b) 2 only
(c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1 and 4 only
53. What do the words “great deal of panting” imply?
1. Jean was too weak to walk.
2. Jean’s house was on a hill.
3. Jean was too tired to walk after swimming.
4. Jean’s house was too far away from the shore.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only
(c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 4
PASSAGE – II
Punctually at midday he opened his bag and spread out his professional equipment, which
consisted of a dozen cowrie shells, a square piece of cloths with obscure mystic charts on it, a
note book, and a bundle of Palmyra writing. His forehead was resplendent with sacred ash and
vermilion, and his eyes sparkled with a sharp abnormal gleam which was really an outcome of a
continual searching look for customers, but which his simple clients took to be prophetic light
and felt comforted. The power of his eyes was considerably enhanced by their position placed
as they were between the painted forehead and the dark whiskers which streamed down his
cheeks: even a half-wit’s eyes would sparkle in such a setting. To crown the effect he wound a
saffroncoloured turban around his head. This colour scheme never failed. People were attracted
to him as bees are attracted to cosmos or dahila stalks.
54. From the description of this passage one can make out the person to be a:
(a) Snake Charmer (b) Footpath vendor
(c) Astrologer (d) Priest
55. The eyes of person described sparkled because:
(a) He was sitting under midday sun (b) He was always looking for possible clients
(c) His forehead was bright with ash and (d) He was full of joy
vermilion
56. The person opened his bag
(a) To search for something he needed (b) To indicate the start of his work
(c) To keep his professional equipment (d) To take out things for display
57. The tone of the description is
(a) Sad (b) Neutral
(c) Ironic (d) Sympathetic
PASSAGE – III
‘Punctuality’ said Louis XIV, ‘is the politeness of kings’. It is the mark of a gentleman, and ‘the
necessity of men in business’. Washington once took his Secretary to task for being late. The
Secretary laid the blame upon his watch. Washington retorted. “Then, sir, either you must get a
new watch or I must get a new Secretary”. Much of our success in life depends upon our being
punctual in our undertakings and appointments. Hence the necessity of steadily cultivating this
virtue in our daily life.
58. Washington wanted

(a) To get a new watch (b) To get a new secretary
(c) His secretary to get a new watch (d) His secretary to be punctual
59. Punctuality is a virtue
(a) Which is appreciated by kings (b) Which is difficult to cultivates
(c) Which is necessary for success in life (d) Which can make daily life pleasant
PASSAGE – IV
Fortunately it is as yet only through fantasy that we can see what the destruction of the
scholarly and scientific disciplines would mean to mankind. From history we can learn what their
existence has meant. The sheer power of disciplined thought is revealed in practically all the
great intellectual and technological advances which the human race has made. The ability of
the man of disciplined mind to direct this power effectively upon problems for which he has not
specifically trained is proved by examples without number. The real evidence for the value of
liberal education lies in history and in the biographies of men who have met the valid criteria of
greatness. These support overwhelmingly the claim of liberal education that it can equip a man
with fundamental powers of decision and action, applicable not only to boy-girl relationship, to
tinkering hobbies, or to choosing the family dentist, but to all the great and varied concerns of
human life ------------- not least, those that are unforeseen.
60. Liberal education enables a person to
(a) Read with more discernment than others (b) Apply general principles to resolve issues
(c) Gain prestige (d) Develop a clearer understanding of history
than others
61. In this passage, the author stresses the importance of
(a) Education for living (b) Technological advances
(c) Increased interest in the study of history (d) Satisfying the desire for security
62. In this passage, the expression ‘specifically trained’ refers to
(a) Characteristically trained (b) Particularly trained
(c) Peculiarly trained (d) Ostensibly trained
63. According to the author, ‘the great and varied concerns of human life’ are about
(a) Fundamental rights (b) challenges facing mankind
(c) Tinkering hobbies (d) Liberal education
ANSWER KEY
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10.(a)
11.(b) 12.(a) 13.(d) 14.(b) 15. (c) 16.(b) 17.(b) 18.(d) 19.(d) 20.(c)
21.(a) 22.(c) 23.(b) 24.(c) 25.(b) 26.(d) 27.(c) 28.(d) 29.(b) 30.(b)
31.(d) 32.(c) 33.(a) 34.(a) 35.(c) 36.(a) 37.(c) 38.(c) 39.(c) 40.(d)
41.(c) 42.(d) 43.(c) 44.(d) 45.(a) 46.(d) 47.(c) 48.(a) 49.(c) 50.(b)
51.(b) 52.(d) 53.(c) 54.(c) 55.(b) 56.(d) 57.(b) 58.(d) 59.(c) 60.(b)
61.(a) 62.(b) 63.(b)
11. FILLING THE BLANKS & CLOZE TEST

INTRODUCTION
A cloze test is an exercise, test, or assessment consisting of a portion of text with certain words
removed where the participant is asked to replace the missing words. Cloze tests require the
ability to understand context and vocabulary in order to identify the correct words or type of
words that belong in the deleted passages of a text.
Tips to solve Cloze Test
1. Read Thoroughly:- It is very important that you should read the passage thoroughly to gain
the understanding of text . You should try to identify the theme of passage.
2. Identify tone of passage: - The passage is usually written in a certain tone; sometimes
narrative, sometimes critical, and sometimes humorous. Pick words that fit in with the tone of
the passage
3. Identify whether passage is about negative topics or positive:-While reading the
passage identify whether the passage is about positive topics like development, employment
etc. or negative topics like poverty, unemployment. Usually positive passage will have positive
words and negative passage will have lots of negative words.
4. Link the Sentences Together -Remember that it is a passage with sentences that are
connected to each other. Do not make the mistake of treating each sentence like an individual
one and filling in the blanks accordingly. Try to come up with logical connections that link up the
sentences together.
5. Improve English grammar: – If you want to gain accuracy in cloze test then you need to
have good command on grammar particularly you should be good in topics like Article ,
Preposition, verbs etc.
6. Build language skills:- Read , read and read as much you can to develop language skills ,
have a habit of reading newspaper, magazine or any article online.
7. Use Frequently used words and apply Eliminations rule :- Avoid going for fancy words.
Answers will usually be frequently used words. In case of confusion instead of finding correct
words perform eliminations i.e identify the words which do not fit as answer and eliminate them.
Practice Cloze test Questions:- In the end practice makes a man perfect so do enough
practice . Try to solve one or two sets daily to gain insight of problems.
Solved Examples:
Directions for questions 1–10: In the following passage there are blanks, each of which
has been numbered. These numbers are printed below the passage and against each,
five words are suggested, one of which fits the blank most appropriately. Find out the
most appropriate word in each case.
Educational planning should aim at …(1)… the educational needs of the …(2)… population of
all age groups. While the traditional structure of education as a three layer …(3)… from the
primary …(4)… to the university represents the …(5)… , we should not overlook the …(6)…
which is equally important. Under modern conditions workers need to …(7)… or renew their
enthusiasm, or …(8)… out in a new direction or improve their …(9)… as much as any university
professor. The retired and the aged have their own …(10)… as well. Educational planning in
other words, should take care of the needs of everyone.
1. (a) promoting (b) meeting
(c) understanding (d) experience
Answer: (b)
2. (a) all (b) maximum

(c) entire (d) full
Answer: (c)
3. (a) position (b) ranking
(c) order (d) hierarchy
Answer: (d)
4. (a) grade (b) stage
(c) dais (d) part
Answer: (b)
5. (a) centre (b) gist
(c) core (d) basis
Answer: (c)
6. (a) fringe (b) beginning
(c) boundaries (d) periphery
Answer: (c)
7. (a) regain (b) rewind
(c) start (d) halt
Answer: (a)
8. (a) find (b) tap
(c) move (d) strike
Answer: (d)
9. (a) aptitudes (b) skills
(c) accomplishment (d) capacities
Answer: (a)
10. (a) commitments (b) wants
(c) needs (d) duties
Answer: (c)
II. Directions (1- 10): In the following passage, there are blanks, each of which has been
numbered. These numbers are printed below the passage and against each, five words
are suggested, one of which fits the blank appropriately. Find out the appropriate word in
each case.
Martin Luther King, Jr. was born Michael Luther King, Jr., ...(1)... his grandfather had his name
...(2)... to Martin. Martin Luther attended segregated public schools in Georgia, ...(3)... from high
school at the age of fifteen; he received the B.A. degree in 1948 ...(4)... More house College, a
distinguished Negro institution of Atlanta from which both his father and grandfather and
grandfather had graduated. After three years of ...(5)... study at Crozier Theological Seminary in
Pennsylvania where he was elected president of a ...(6)... white senior class, he was awarded
the B.D. in 1951. ...(7)... a fellowship won at Ebenezer he enrolled in graduate studies at Boston
University, completing his residence ...(8)... the doctorate in 1953 and receiving the degree in
1955. In Boston he ...(9)... and married Coretta Scott, a young woman of ...(10)... intellectual
and artistic attainments.
1. (a) and (b) so
(c) since (d) but
Answer: (d)
2. (a) given (b) changed
(c) become (d) made
Answer: (b)
3. (a) graduating (b) finishing
(c) graduated (d) finish
Answer: (c)
4. (a) in (b) from
(c) by (d) with
Answer: (b)
5. (a) theological (b) intellectual
(c) educational (d) psychological
Answer: (a)
6. (a) predetermined (b) predominantly
(c) significantly (d) somewhat
Answer: (b)
7. (a) from (b) by
(c) with (d) through
Answer: (c)
8. (a) for (b) of
(c) about (d) to
Answer: (a)
9. (a) saw (b) eloped
(c) met (d) watched
Answer: (c)
10. (a) common (b) particular
(c) uncommon (d) general
Answer: (c)
EXERCISE
DIRECTIONS (Qs.1 - 21): In the following passage, at certain points you are given a choice of
three words in a bracket, one of which fits the meaning of the passage. Choose the best word
from each bracket. Mark the letter viz., (a), (b) or (c), relating to this word on your Answer
Sheet. Examples Y and Z have been solved for you.
Y. The (a) boy/ (b) horse/ (c) dog was in the school in Shimla.
Z. (a) She/ (b) It/ (c) He was homesick.
Explanation: Out of the list given in item Y, only boy is the correct answer because usually a
boy, and not a horse or a dog, attends school. So (a) is to be marked on the Answer Sheet for
item Y. A boy is usually referred to as “he”, so for item Z, the letter (c) is correct answer. Notice
that to solve this kind of items you have to read the preceding or succeeding sentences of the
given passage.
PASSAGE
There has been quite some talk in recent times about the status of women in our society, some
of it sentimental and some of it, angry. But the status of women __1__. (a) can/ (b) shall/ (c)
should be improved only if we join __2__. (a) ourselves/ (b) heads/(c) hands earnestly to
achieve the desired __3__. (a) goal/ (b)intention /(c) wish. Obviously, it cannot be done merely
through __4__. (a) enforcing/ (b) enacting/ (c) passing legislation. It requires an intelligent and
sympathetic __5__. (a) presentation/ (b) understanding / (c) vision of each others' problems and
a __6__. (a) consent/ (b) cooperation/ (c) willingness to give up pointless claims __7__ (a) of/
(b) about/ (c) over superiority. The delicate adjustment can be achieved not __8__. (a) by/ (b)
through/ (c) from conflict but by peaceful and dispassionate __9__. (a) behaviour,/ (b)
confrontation,/ (c) means, in other words, through frank and courteous __10__. (a) discussion./
(b) bargaining./ (c) argument. The problem can be solved only __11__. (a) through/ (b) by/ (c)
from mutual understanding, and not through insistence on a __12__. (a) vital,/ (b) hard,/ (c) rigid
observance of a code of __13__. (a) agreement./ (b) conduct./ (c) rights. If we truly desire a
solution to this __14__. (a) difficult problem,/ (b) doubtful/ (c) small problem we should be
prepared for __15__. (a) one/ (b) a/ (c) no compromise. The system cannot be changed
overnight. There __16__. (a) was/ (b) is/ (c) has been a great need for patience in __17__. (a)
dealing/ (b) handling/ (c) tackling with this complex matter. Problems are __18__. (a)
immensely/ (b) best/ (c) rarely solved through the application of __19__. (a) brain/ (b) wisdom/
(c) theory and certainly not through angry __20__. (a) enmity./ (b) hostility./ (c) conflicts. At
every step in our life we __21__. (a) understand,/ (b) compromise,/ (c) discuss, then why should
we take up rigid stand in matters which concern us intimately?
22. The poisoner showed no_______for his crimes.
(a) hatred (b) obstinacy
(c) remorse (d) anger
23. It is inconceivable that in many schools children an subjected to physical________in the
name of
(a) violation (b) exercise
(c) violence (d) security
24. We have not yet fully realised the consequence________ of the war.
(a) happy (b) pleasing
(c) grin (d) exciting
25. Happiness consists in being_______what we have?
(a) contented to (b) contented with
(c) contented for (d) contented in
26. His rude behaviour is a_______his organization.
(a) disgrace for (b) disgrace on
(c) disgrace upon (d) disgrace to
27. No child is__________understanding. One has to wait and provide proper guidance.
(a) dull to (b) dull in
(c) dull of (d) dull for
28. I am fully__________the problems facing the industry.
(a) alive with (b) alive to
(c) alive for (d) alive on
29. The Romans were ________science.
(a) bad in (b) bad to
(c) bad for (d) bad at
ANSWER KEY
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (c) 10. (a)
11.(a) 12.(c) 13.(b) 14.(a) 15.(b) 16.(b) 17.(a) 18.(b) 19.(b) 20. (c)
21.(b) 22.(c) 23.(c) 24.(c) 25.(b) 26.(d) 27.(b) 28.(b) 29.(d)
12. JUMBLED SENTENCES/WORDS

INTRODUCTION
Proper sentences are divided into phrases. These phrases are jumbled. The student is
expected to look at the jumbled phrases, comprehend the meaning implied, and put the
sentence in order.
Here are a few tips to successfully solve Para Jumbles:
Look for the sentence that clearly introduces a person, place, committee, or concept in the Para
Jumble. That will most likely be the opening sentence.
Always spot the central theme of each Para Jumble. The flow of the story/dialog goes a long
way in piecing together the paragraph in the correct order.
At times, the Para Jumble will have sentences talking about activities. In such cases by just
analysing which activity happens when, the question can be solved very easily.
There will be sentences having ‘connectives’ like although, though, if, until, since, but, after,
alternatively, besides, then, yet, because, consequently, notwithstanding, and, when,
meanwhile, so, however, for, whoever, whatever, whenever, nevertheless, therefore,
furthermore, whereas, moreover etc.
Even articles can help to some extent in these questions. ‘The’ is a definite article, whereas ‘a’
and ‘an’ are indefinite articles. ‘The’ is used to denote something or someone specific or when
the person or thing for which the article has been used has already been introduced. ‘A’ or ‘an’
are used while introducing something for the first time and also for stating general facts.
Pronouns like he, she, they, it, them, their, him, her etc. are used when the person being talked
about has already been introduced. Some Para Jumbles can be tackled by taking pronouns as
a guide. Adjectives like ‘simpler’, ‘better’, ‘cleverer’ etc are comparative. Hence they always hold
a relation to other things. Such adjectives can also be of good help in solving Para Jumbles.
Examples:
I. Rearrange the given jumbled words to make a meaningful sentence:
1. Writing /system /telephone /am/ to/ I/about banking /your /and /complain
Answer: I am writing to complain about your telephone banking system.
2. I/ tried/four/ details/ this /week /to /system access/ feel/ to/ account /my/ times/ have/ use/ the
Answer: I have tried four times this week to use the system to access my account details.
3. Crashed /on /I /the/ system /been/ that each/ informed/ this /computer/ has /have/ occasion
Answer: On each occasion, I have been informed that the computer system has crashed.
4. Branch /day /person /unable/ to /working/ I a /am/ I /bank /my /as/ during/ the/ visit
Answer: As a working person, I am unable to visit my branch during the day.
5. I /access/ do/ addition/ service /have /so internet /use/ cannot /great /them/ to /in /your/ not
/online
Answer: In addition, I do not have access to the internet so cannot use your online service.
6. Advertise/ use /convenient/have /telephone you/ as /to /banking /your /service/ and/ easy
Answer: You advertise your telephone banking service as easy to use and convenient.
7.afraid/ not /of /work/ evidence/ have/ I features /seen /am/ I /either/ yet/ these/ of
Answer: I am afraid I have not yet seen evidence of either of these features.
8. Grateful /will /problems/ I /as /would/ that be /soon /finished /for/ have/ I/ described/ an the/
possible /as /assurance /out/ be/ sorted
Answer: I would be grateful for an assurance that the problems I have described will be sorted
out as soon as possible.
II. Directions for Questions 1 to 25: The sentences given in each question, when properly
sequenced, form a coherent paragraph. Each sentence is labelled with a letter. Choose
the most logical order of sentences from among the given choices to construct a
coherent paragraph.
1. A. The two neighbours never fought each other.
B. Fights involving three male fiddler crabs have been recorded, but the status of the
participants was unknown.
C. They pushed or grappled only with the intruder.
D. We recorded 17 cases in which a resident that was fighting an intruder was joined by an
immediate neighbour, an ally.
E. We therefore tracked 268 intruder males until we saw them fighting a resident male.
(a) BEDAC (b) DEBAC
(c) BDCAE (d) BCEDA
Answer: (a)
2. A. He felt justified in bypassing Congress altogether on a variety of moves.
B. At times he was fighting the entire Congress.
C. Bush felt he had a mission to restore power to the presidency.
D. Bush was not fighting just the democrats.
E. Representative democracy is a messy business, and a CEO of the White House does not
like a legislature of second guessers and time wasters.
(a) CAEDB (b) DBAEC
(c) CEADB (d) ECDBA
Answer: (b)
3. A. In the west, Allied Forces had fought their way through southern Italy as far as Rome.
B. In June 1944 Germany’s military position in World War Two appeared hopeless.
C. In Britain, the task of amassing the men and materials for the liberation of northern Europe
had been completed.
D. The Red Army was poised to drive the Nazis back through Poland.
E. The situation on the eastern front was catastrophic.
(a) EDACB (b) BEDAC
(c) BDECA (d) CEDAB
Answer: (b)
4. A. Experts such as Larry Burns, head of research at GM, reckon that only such a full hearted leap
will allow the world to cope with the mass motorization that will one day come to China or India.
B. But once hydrogen is being produced from biomass or extracted from underground coal or
made from water, using nuclear or renewable electricity, the way will be open for a huge
reduction in carbon emissions from the whole system.
C. In theory, once all the bugs have been sorted out, fuel cells should deliver better total fuel
economy than any existing engines.
D. That is twice as good as the internal combustion engine, but only five percentage points
better than a diesel hybrid.
E. Allowing for the resources needed to extract hydrogen from hydrocarbon, oil, coal or gas, the
fuel cell has an efficiency of 30 %.
(a) CEDBA (b) CEBDA
(c) AEDBC (d) ACEBD
Answer: (a)
5. A. But this does not mean that death was the Egyptians’ only preoccupation.
B. Even papyri come mainly from pyramid temples.
C. Most of our traditional sources of information about the Old Kingdom are monuments of the
rich like pyramids and tombs.
D. Houses in which ordinary Egyptians lived have not been preserved, and when most people
died they were buried in simple graves.
E. We know infinitely more about the wealthy people of Egypt than we do about the ordinary
people, as most monuments were made for the rich.
(a) CDBEA (b) ECDAB
(c) EDCBA (d) DECAB
Answer: (c)
6. A. Too much of the Labour movement, it symbolises the brutality of the upper classes.
B. And to everybody watching, the current mess over foxhunting symbolises the government’s
weakness.
C. To foxhunting’s supporters, Labour’s 1991 manifesto commitment to ban it symbolises the
party’s metropolitan roots and hostility to the countryside.
D. Small issues sometimes have large symbolic power.
E. To those who enjoy thundering across the countryside in red coats after foxes, foxhunting
symbolises the ancient roots of rural lives.
(a) DEACB (b) ECDBA
(c) CEADB (d) DBAEC
Answer: (a)
7. A. In the case of King Merolchazzar’s courtship of the Princess of the Outer Isles, there
occurs a regrettable hitch.
B. She acknowledges the gifts, but no word of a meeting date follows.
C. The monarch, hearing good reports of a neighbouring princess, dispatches messengers with
gifts to her court, beseeching an interview.
D. The princess names a date, and a formal meeting takes place; after that everything buzzes
along pretty smoothly.
E. Royal love affairs in olden days were conducted on the correspondence method.
(a) ACBDE (b) ABCDE
(c) ECDAB (d) ECBAD
Answer: (c)
8. A. Who can trace to its first beginnings the love of Damon for Pythias, of David for Jonathan,
of Swan for Edgar?
B. Similarly with men.
C. There is about great friendships between man and man a certain inevitability that can only be
compared with the age old association of ham and eggs.
D. One simply feels that it is one of the things that must be so.
E. No one can say what was the mutual magnetism that brought the deathless partnership of
these wholesome and palatable foodstuffs about.
(a) ACBED (b) CEDBA
(c) ACEBD (d) CEABD
Answer: (b)
9. A. Events intervened, and in the late 1930s and 1940s, Germany suffered from “over-
branding”.
B. The British used to be fascinated by the home of Romanticism. C. But reunification and the
federal government’s move to Berlin have prompted Germany to think again about its image.
D. The first foreign package holiday was a tour of Germany organized by Thomas Cook in 1855.
E. Since then, Germany has been understandably nervous about promoting itself abroad.
(a) ACEBD (b) DECAB
(c) BDAEC (d) DBAEC
Answer: (c)
10. A. The wall does not simply divide Israel from a putative Palestinian state on the basis of the
1967 borders.
B. A chilling omission from the road map is the gigantic ‘separation wall’ now being built in the
West Bank by Israel.
C. It is surrounded by trenches, electric wire and moats; there are watchtowers at regular
intervals.
D. It actually takes in new tracts of Palestinian land, sometimes five or six kilometres at a
stretch.
E. Almost a decade after the end of South African apartheid, this ghastly racist wall is going up
with scarcely a peep from Israel’s American allies who are going to pay for most of it.
(a) EBCAD (b) BADCE
(c) AEDCB (d) ECADB
Answer: (b)
11. A. Luckily the tide of battle moved elsewhere after the American victory at Midway and an
Australian victory over Japan at Milne Bay.
B. It could have been no more than a delaying tactic.
C. The Australian military, knowing the position was hopeless, planned to fall back to the south-
east in the hope of defending the main cities.
D. They had captured most of the Solomon Islands and much of New Guinea, and seemed
poised for an invasion.
E. Not many people outside Australia realize how close the Japanese got.
(a) EDCBA (b) ECDAB
(c) ADCBE (d) CDBAE
Answer: (a)
12. A. Call it the third wave sweeping the Indian media.
B. Now, they are starring in a new role, as suave dealmakers who are in a hurry to strike
alliances and agreements.
C. Look around and you will find a host of deals that have been inked or are ready to be
finalized.
D. Then the media barons wrested back control from their editors, and turned marketing
warriors with the brand as their missile.
E. The first came with those magnificent men in their mahogany chambers who took on the
world with their mighty Fountain pens.
(a) ACBED (b) CEBDA
(c) CAEBD (d) AEDBC
Answer: (d)
13. A. The celebrations of economic recovery in Washington may be as premature as that

“Mission Accomplished” banner hung on the USS Abraham Lincoln to hail the end of the Iraq war.
B. Meanwhile, in the real world, the struggles of families and communities continue unabated.
C. Washington responded to the favourable turn in economic news with enthusiasm.
D. The celebrations and high-fives up and down Pennsylvania Avenue are not to be found
beyond the Beltway.
E. When the third quarter GDP showed growth of 7.2% and the monthly unemployment rate
dipped to 6%, euphoria gripped the US capital.
(a) ACEDB (b) CEDAB
(c) ECABD (d) ECBDA
Answer: (d)
14. A. Four days later, Oracle announced its own bid for PeopleSoft, and invited the firm’s board
to a discussion.
B. Furious that his own plans had been endangered, PeopleSoft’s boss, Craig Conway, called
Oracle’s offer “diabolical”, and its boss, Larry Ellison, a “sociopath”.
C. In early June, PeopleSoft said that it would buy J.D. Edwards, a smaller rival.
D. Moreover, said Mr. Conway, “he could imagine no price or combination of price and other
conditions to recommend accepting the offer.”
E. On June 12th, PeopleSoft turned Oracle down.
(a) CABDE (b) CADBE
(c) CEDAB (d) CAEBD
Answer: (a)
15. A. A few months ago I went to Princeton University to see what the young people who are
going to be running our country in a few decades are like.
B. I would go to sleep in my hotel room around midnight each night, and when I awoke, my
mailbox would be full of replies—sent at 1:15 a.m., 2:59 a.m., 3:23 a.m.
C. One senior told me that she went to bed around two and woke up each morning at seven;
she could afford that much rest because she had learned to supplement her full day of work by
studying in her sleep.
D. Faculty members gave me the names of a few dozen articulate students, and I sent them e-
mails, inviting them out to lunch or dinner in small groups.
E. As she was falling asleep she would recite a math problem or a paper topic to herself; she
would then sometimes dream about it, and when she woke up, the problem might be solved.
(a) DABCE (b) DACEB
(c) ADBCE (d) AECBD
Answer: (c)
Rules Table
➢ Identify the opening sentence
➢ Identify the closing sentence
➢ Identify mandatory pairs
➢ Identify transition words
➢ Identify pronoun antecedents
➢ Understanding the Chronology
➢ Look for short forms and abbreviations
EXERCISE
1. S1: During college, Pamela Johnson had the opportunity to work with a famous
anthropologist.
S6: She earned a doctorate and today holds a key government position.
P: When her son was three, she undertook the four-year hard work of post-graduate studies.
Q: But then she married, had a baby and became a Rill-time mother.
R: None the less, Pamela never lost sight of her desire to study and assists tribal people.
S: She enjoyed the experience and decided to major in Anthropology.
The proper sequence should be
(a)Q-P-R-S (b)S-R-Q-P
(c)R-S-Q-P (d)S-Q-R-P
2. S1: My friend Peter went to live in a village.
S6: It did not like to work.
P: But it was a very slow animal.
Q: So Peter bought a donkey for five pounds.
R: One day his new neighbour told him that he must buy a donkey.
S: Every family there had a donkey to carry things them.
(a) S-R-Q-P (b) S-P-R-Q
(c) Q-S-R-P (d) Q-R-S-P
3. S1: Miss Sullivan brought Helen Keller a doll.
S6: Her heart was filled with pleasure and pride.
P: After some efforts, she succeeded in making the letters correctly.
Q: When she had played with it for some time, Miss Sullivan spelt into her hand the letters doll.
R: The child's attention was arrested by the gentle movement of the finger on her hand.
S: She tried to imitate the finger's motion.
(a) Q-R-S-P (b) R-Q-P-S
(c) P-S-R-Q (d) S-R-Q-P
4.S1: When she was not yet an adult, Mother Teresa knew that she had a vocation to help the
poor.
S6: She received permission for this after two years.
P: At the age of 18; she left her home to become a nun.
Q: There she taught at a convent high school and became its Principal.
R: She felt that she must leave the job and go into slums to serve the poor.
S: After training at Dublin, she was sent to Kolkata where she took her final vows.
(a) S-R-P-Q (b) P-Q-S-R
(c) R-S-Q-p (d) P-S-Q-R
5. The conspiracy/ (P) got wind of/ (Q) the government/ (R) against the king's life/ (S)
The Correct sequence should be
(a) PQRS (b) RQPS
(c) PSQR (d) SPQR
6.To death penalty is that/ (P) in preventing the crime/ (Q) the important objection/ (R) it has not
succeeded/ (S)
(a) PRSQ (b) PSRQ
(c) RPSQ (d) QSPR
7. Choice carefully/ (P) when you want to use/ (Q) make your/ (R) a graphic representation for
your data/ (S)
(a) QRSP (b) SRQP
(c) PRQS (d) QSRP
8. He would like to see some changes/ (P) but as a junior lecturer/ (Q) he does not cut match
ice/ (R) in the curriculum/ (S)
(a) PQRS (b) QPSR
(c) QRPS (d) PSQR
9. He simply starves/ (P) even when there are good crops/ (Q) but if the crops fail/ (R) he lives
from hand to mouth/ (S)
(a) SQRP (b) PQRS
(c) SRQP (d) SPQR
10. Providence had helped me/ (P) to retain my true identity and/ (Q) changed the course of my
life/ (R) in the process/ (S)
(a) PSQR (b) PQSR
(c) RSQP (d) PRQS
11. He had/ (P) 'no' to him/ (Q) such a winning smile/ (R) that I could not say/ (S)
(a) QPRS (b) RPQS
(c) SPQR (d) PRSQ
12. He nodded/ (P) he understood/ (Q) as though/ (R) everything/ (S)
(a) PRQS (b) PSQR
(c) QRSP (d) SPRQ
13. The child burned down/ (P) the house/ (Q) by playing/ (R) with matches/ (S)
(a) RSPQ (b) QSPR
(c) RPSQ (d) QPSR
14. In his innocence/ (P) I believed/ (Q) of the charge/ (R) and acquittal/ (S)
(a) SRQP (b) QPSR
(c) PRSQ (d) RPQS
15. My little sister in school/ (P) instead of reading books/ (Q) who was quite intelligent/ (R)
played with dolls/ (S)
(a) PRSQ (b) RSPQ

(c) QPSR (d) PRQS
16. for having stood first/ (P) last year/ (Q) at the B.A. Examination/ (R) he was awarded gold
medal/ (S)
(a) PQRS (b) SPRQ
(c) PRQS (d) SRQP
17. We are proud that as our chief guest/ (P) our mayor/ (Q) is a former student of this college/
(R) who is presiding over today's function/ (S)
(a) PQRS (b) QPSR
(c) PQSR (d) QSPR
18. At the end of the morning exercise, the soldiers/ (P) to get ready to leave/ (Q) were asked/
(R) for an unknown destination/ (S)
(a) PQRS (b) RSPQ
(c) SRQP (d) PRQS
19. After having got up from bed the magistrate/ (P) to bring coffee/ (Q) ordered the attendant/
(R) immediately/ (S)
(a) PQRS (b) SPQR
(c) SPRQ (d) PRQS
20. To resolve it (P) than (Q) it is easier (R) to talk about a problem (S)
(a) RPQS (b) QPRS
(c) PQSR (d) RSQP
21. The conspiracy/ (P) got wind of/ (Q) the government/ (R) against the king's life/ (S)
(a) PQRS (b) RQPS
(c) PSQR (d) SPQR
22. To death penalty is that/ (P) in preventing the crime/ (Q) the important objection/ (R) it has
not succeeded/ (S)
(a) PRSQ (b) PSRQ
(c) RPSQ (d) QSPR
23. Choice carefully/ (P) when you want to use/ (Q) make your/ (R) a graphic representation for
your data/ (S)
(a) QRSP (b) SRQP
(c) PRQS (d) QSRP
24. He would like to see some changes/ (P) but as a junior lecturer/ (Q) he does not cut match
ice/ (R) in the curriculum/ (S)
(a) PQRS (b) QPSR
(c) QRPS (d) PSQR
25. He simply starves/ (P) even when there are good crops/ (Q) but if the crops fail/ (R) he lives
from hand to mouth/ (S)
(a) SQRP (b) PQRS
(c) SRQP (d) SPQR
26. Providence had helped me/ (P) to retain my true identity and/ (Q) changed the course of my
life/ (R) in the process/ (S)
(a) PSQR (b) PQSR
(c) RSQP (d) PRQS
27. He had/ (P) 'no' to him/ (Q) such a winning smile/ (R) that I could not say/ (S)
(a) QPRS (b) RPQS
(c) SPQR (d) PRSQ
28. He nodded/ (P) he understood/ (Q) as though/ (R) everything/ (S)
(a) PRQS (b) PSQR
(c) QRSP (d) SPRQ
29. The child burned down/ (P) the house/ (Q) by playing/ (R) with matches/ (S)
(a) RSPQ (b) QSPR
(c) RPSQ (d) QPSR
30. In his innocence/ (P) I believed/ (Q) of the charge/ (R) and acquittal/ (S)
(a) SRQP (b) QPSR
(c) PRSQ (d) RPQS
31. My little sister in school/ (P) instead of reading books/ (Q) who was quite intelligent/ (R)
played with dolls/ (S)
(a) PRSQ (b) RSPQ
(c) QPSR (d) PRQS
32. for having stood first/ (P) last year/ (Q) at the B.A. Examination/ (R) he was awarded gold
medal/ (S)
(a) PQRS (b) SPRQ
(c) PRQS (d) SRQP
33. We are proud that as our chief guest/ (P) our mayor/ (Q) is a former student of this college/
(R) who is presiding over today's function/ (S)
(a) PQRS (b) QPSR
(c) PQSR (d) QSPR
34. At the end of the morning exercise, the soldiers/ (P) to get ready to leave/ (Q) were asked/
(R) for an unknown destination/ (S)

(a) PQRS (b) RSPQ
(c) SRQP (d) PRQS
35. After having got up from bed the magistrate/ (P) to bring coffee/ (Q) ordered the attendant/
(R) immediately/ (S)
(a) PQRS (b) SPQR
(c) SPRQ (d) PRQS
DIRECTIONS (Qs. 36-52): In the following questions, some parts of the sentence have been
jumbled up. You are required to rearrange these parts which are labelled P, Q R and S to
produce the correct sentence. Choose the proper sequence and mark in your Answer Sheet
accordingly. Example ‘Z’ has been solved for you.
Z. It is well-known that
P: the effect
Q: is very bad
R: on children
S: of cinema
Which one of the following is the correct sequence?
(a) PSRQ (b) SPQR
(c) SRPQ (d) QSRP
Explanation: The proper way of writing the sentence is “It is well-known that the effect of
cinema on children is very bad.” This is indicated by the sequence P S R Q and so (a) is the
correct answer.
36. Climate
P: cultures and political structures
Q: in that it affects the entire
R: change is a truly unifying phenomenon
S: world irrespective of national borders
(a) RSQP (b) PQSR
(c) RQSP (d) PSQR
37. This may
P: after decades of relative neglect and even reversal
Q: when land reforms were finally put back on
R: go down as the year
S: the nation’s policy agenda
(a) SQRP (b) RPSQ
(c) SPRQ (d) RQSP
38. There is, however,
P: to clear the backlog in respect of education and poverty alleviation programmes
Q: a strong perception that reservation
R: unless it is followed by sincere and intensive efforts
S: alone cannot transform the lives of oppressed people

(a) QSRP (b) SQRP
(c) SQPR (d) QSPR
39. More than ever before,
P: good governance and sound public policies for the benefit of its people
Q: to provide leadership and to deliver
R: the continued prosperity of Asia depends
S: on the ability of its politicians and policy makers
(a) RPQS (b) QSRP
(c) RSQP (d) QPRS
40. In the post-genetic
P: of choice for the entire spectrum of research
Q: has acquired the status of the experimental animal or the animal model system
R: particulary in the last two decades or so the mouse
S: engineering era of modern biology
(a) QRSP (b) SPQR
(c) QPSR (d) SRQP
41. It was not
P: conditions with fuel prices climbing to dizzy heights
Q: but resentment arising out of harsh economic
R: which led to the recent protests in Myanmar
S: an inspiration for democracy
(a) Q S R P (b) S Q P R
(c) Q S P R (d) S Q R P
42. You have been writing to me often about
P: getting a first prize in sports etc.
Q: but my daughter
R: distinguishing in a fancy dress show, or
S: such achievements make me apprehensive of your educational progress
(a) QPRS (b) RSQP
(c) QSRP (d) RPQS
43. The Secretary announced that
P: to find an answer to these questions
Q: in an attempt
R: a national workshop on technical training had been organised
S: by the Confederation of Engineering Industry
(a) QPSR (b) PQRS
(c) QPRS (d) PQSR
44. Technology transfer

P: from one country to another
Q: either through a government policy
R: or via private channels of communications
S: implies the transfer of technical knowledge
(a) S P R Q (b) P S Q R
(c) S P Q R (d) P S R Q
45. Physical training
P: the character of
Q: who are going to be responsible citizens
R: can shape well
S: young boys and girls
(a) R P S Q (b) Q S P R
(c) R S P Q (d) Q P S R
46. His favourite subject
P: the secrets of life and of nature
Q: because Science reveals
R: happens to be Science
S: which men did not know in the past
(a) P S R Q (b) R Q P S
(c) P Q R S (d) R S P Q
47. From my plane flying over Namibia
P: stretching 320 kilometres away
Q: a shore of pink and silver sand
R: I looked down at a haunting sight
S: edged by a line of smoking surf
(a) Q R P S (b) R Q S P
(c) Q R S P (d) R Q Q S
48. I was
P: to see a mongoose
Q: just in time
R: with an egg in its mouth
S: scurrying across the grass
(a) S R Q P (b) Q P S R
(c) S P Q R (d) Q R S P
49. How strange that a refugee
P: should fall in love
Q: when he had got to America
R: with a girl less than half his age

S: who had by the skin of his teeth escaped death in Germany
(a) R Q P S (b) S P R Q
(c) R P Q S (d) S Q P R
50. I think it should be necessary for eggs
P: by the poulterer
Q: as soon as they are laid
R: to be stamped with the date
S: by the hen
(a) Q S P R (b) S Q P R
(c) S Q R P (d) Q S R P
51. Reuter reports that soldiers
P: fought each other in the streets of the capital today
Q: crack down on demonstrators
R: of armies loyal to rival political factions
S: following the week-end military
(a) R P S Q (b) Q S P R
(c) R S P Q (d) Q P S R
52. The old lady
P: wanted to sell her precious table
Q: having the capacity to pay a huge amount as its price
R: to someone
S: with gold-coated legs and glossy surface
(a) QSRP (b) PRSQ
(c) QRSP (d) PSRQ
jumbled up. You are required to re-arrange these parts which are labelled P, Q R and S to
accordingly. [2008-II]
Example ‘Z’ has been solved for you.
Z. It is well-known that the effect (P)/ is very bad (Q)/ on children (R)/ of cinema(S).
(a) P S R Q (b) S P Q R
(c) S R P Q (d) Q S R P
cinema on children is very bad”. This is indicated by the sequence P S R Q so (a) is the correct
answer.
53. Please equally share (P)/ the prize money (Q)/ that all are satisfied (R)/ among your friends
to make sure (S).
(a) Q R S P (b) P Q S R
(c) Q P R S (d) Q P S R
54. You can learn and can be quite difficult (P)/ as well as the difficult ones (Q) the easy things
(R)/ although the easy ones are not so easy (S).
(a) S P R Q (b) P Q R S
(c) Q S P R (d) R Q S P
55. We met this evening (P)/on our way home (Q)/ Mr and Mrs Gupta (R)/ and asked them if
they would be free (S)
(a) Q R P S (b) P Q R S
(c) R Q S P (d) R Q P S
56. After his (P)/ arrival immediately (Q)/ he began to(R)/ quarrel with his wife(S)
(a) Q R S P (b) P Q R S
(c) Q P R S (d) R Q S P
57. In the middle of (P)/ he stopped (Q)/ his speech (R)/ to take a glass of water (S)
(a) Q R S P (b) Q R P S
(c) Q P R S (d) P Q R S
58. The manmade (P)/ a complaint (Q)/ at the police station (R)/ whose cycle was stolen (S)
(a) P Q R S (b) P R S Q
(c) P S Q R (d) R P Q S
59. The clerk was (P)/ not present (Q)/ in the office (R) /whom I wanted to meet (S)
(a) P S Q R (b) P Q R S
(c) P R S Q (d) R P Q S
60. Nobody in the house was (P)/kept where the key (Q)/seemed to know (R)/to the main door (S)
(a) R Q P S (b) Q P R S
(c) S Q P R (d) R Q S P
61. A tortoise fly in the air (P) / two geese (Q) / everyday(R) / watched(S)
(a) S Q P R (b) R S Q P
(c) P S Q R (d) R P S Q
62. If in their daily lives the people of our country and (P)/ never deceive one another (Q)/
always speak the truth (R )/ then out prestige will be great (S)
(a) P Q R S (b) R Q P S
(c) S P Q R (d) P R Q S
63. The clothes were sent by mistake (P) / to my father (Q) who was very much surprised (R) /
that I ordered (S)
(a) S Q P R (b) P Q S R
(c) P Q R S (d) S P Q R
64. The President a brief vacation at Shimla is (P)/ returning from (Q)/ in order to attend a press
conference (R) with his wife and children (S)
(a) Q S R P (b) Q P R S
(c) S Q P R (d) R S Q P
65. This letter is addressed to Mr. Shah (P)/ which is written in Gujarati (Q)/ who is (R)/ my
father’s best friend (S)
(a) P Q R S (b) Q P R S
(c) Q R S P (d) R S P Q
66. Whether the plan depends on how it (P)/suggested will succeed or fail (Q) / interested in its
progress (R)/ will be received by those (S)
(a) S R P Q (b) Q P S R
(c) P Q R S (d) R S Q P
67. the nun who was the Principal (P)/ called an assembly (Q)/ of my grand - daughter’s school
(R)/ to announce the result of a fund - raising drive (S)
(a) P Q R S (b) P R Q S
(c) P Q S R (d) P Q S R
68. Self-taught experts expected to go (P)/ through which (Q) / the escapers (R)/ prepared
maps of the country (S)
(a) P Q R S (b) S Q R P
(c) S R Q P (d) P R Q S
69. Some men were rarely successful (P)/ but they (Q) / tried bribing (R)/ their guards (S)
(a) P Q R S (b) R Q P S
(c) R S Q P (d) P Q S R
70. She introduced me at the party (P)/ I had met (Q)/ to a man (R)/ the previous night (S)
(a) R P Q S (b) R Q P S
(c) S P R Q (d) P Q R S
71. Of all things that distinguish man is his brain (P)/ the most important (Q)/ of the animal
kingdom (R)/ from-the rest (S)
(a) S R Q P (b) Q P S R
(c) S R P Q (d) R S Q P
72. they forget (P)/between defeat and victory, (Q)/ that the conditions of welfare have so
altered (R) that there is not much difference today (S)
(a) S R P Q (b) P Q S R
(c) R S Q P (d) P R S Q
jumbled up. You are required to re-arrange these parts which are labelled P, Q, R and S to
accordingly.
Z. It is well-known that the effect (P)/ is very bad (Q) / on children (R)/ of cinema (S)
The correct sequence should be
(c) ) S R P Q (d) Q S R P
cinema on children is very bad”. This is indicated by the sequence P S R Q and so (a) is the
correct answer.
73. He found the house and knocked at (P)/ without any difficulty (Q)/ the door (R)/ twice (S)
(a) P Q R S (b) P R S Q
(c) Q P S R (d) Q P R S
74. A good garden, should display (P)/ round about a huge building or palace (Q)/ laid out on a
magnificent scale (R)/ fresh beauties every month (S)
(a) P Q R S (b) P S Q R
(c) R Q P S (d) R P Q S
75. When a spider has a meal. its next meal, (P)/ until it has (Q)/ to last for many months (R) it
cats enough (S)
(a) Q P S R (b) S R Q P
(c) S Q P R (d) Q P R S
76. Mother tongue is for (p)/ the development as natural (Q) /of man’s mind (R)/ as mother’s
milk (S)
(a) S R P Q (b) P Q S R
(c) S R Q P (d) Q S P R
77. The year (P)/ that has just ended (Q) /has proved to be disastrous (R) /for my uncle’s family (S)
(a) P R S Q (b) P Q R S
(c) P S R Q (d) S P R Q
78. When I look back on my life I find it hard to believe (P)/ which has been eventful (Q)/ despite
what cynics say (R)/ that it is an illvsion (S)
(a) P S Q R (b) P Q S R
(c) Q R S P (d) Q P S R
79. Guards often use to search for cavities (P)/ metal probing rods (Q) / which they push (R)/
through the ground (S)

(a) S Q R P (b) Q R S P
(c) S R Q P (d) Q S P R
80. I realized more than ever (P)/ and how we lived and worked (Q)/ how cut off we were from
our people (R)/ and agitated in a little world apart from them (S)
(a) Q S P R (b) S Q R P
(c) P R Q S (d) R S Q P
81. Medical practice in recent years (P)/ has changed so radically (Q)/ you only get specialists
in a variety of fields (R)/ that you can no longer find a good general practitioner (S)
(a) P S Q R (b) Q P S R
(c) S P R Q (d) P Q R S
82. If everything will be a great success (P)/ the closing function (Q)/ we are sure (R)/ goes on
well (S)
(a) P Q R S (b) S R Q P
(c) P R Q S (d) S Q P R
83. With an idea to reach the deprived child (P)/ by the United Nations (Q)/ the year 1979 has
been declared as (R)/ the International Year of the Child (S)
(a) R S P Q (b) R S Q P
(c) P R S Q (d) P Q R S
84. The gardener with a little brown moustache (P)/ a short fellow (Q)/ and sharp little brown
eyes (R)/ tiptoed into the room (S)
(a) P Q R S (b) Q P R S
(c) Q P S R (d) Q S R P
85. If you have something interesting express it clearly (P)/to write about (Q) / simply and (R)
with the human touch (S)
(a) P Q S R (b) S P R Q
(c) R S Q P (d) Q P R S
86. One cloudless morning towards the valley (P)/the pilots flew off together (Q)/ of the farmer’s
house (R)/ in close formation (S)
(a) Q S P R (b) S Q P R
(c) P Q S R (d) R Q P S
87. When he had ridden to the end of his mad little journey (P)/ in front of his rocking horse (Q) /
he climbed down and stood (R)/ staring fixedly into its lowered face (S)
(a) Q R P S (b) S Q P R
(c) P R Q S (d) P S R Q
88. The meeting if Mr Rai (P)/would have been over on time (Q) /with his long financial report
(R)/ did not hold us up (S)
(a) Q R P S (b) S P R Q
(c) Q P S R (d) P R S Q
89. The long gruelling hours had finally paid off (P)/ on drawing after drawing, (Q)/ working
tirelessly (R)/painting after painting (S)
(a) P R Q S (b) R Q S P
(c) Q S R P (d) R P Q S
90. For us before this Monday (P)/ to complete this work (Q)/ and it should not be delayed (R) is
very important (S)
(a) P Q R S (b) Q P S R
(c) R S P Q (d) Q S P R
91. When the the party realized that (P)/ elections were over (Q) / in the assembly (R)/ it had
lost its majority (S)
(a) P S Q R (b) Q P S R
(c) Q R P S (d) P Q R S
92. If you must arm yourself so (P)/ before starting a war (Q)/ that the enemy think twice (R)/
you want peace (S)
(a) S P R Q (b) P R Q S
(c) R Q S P (d) P R S Q
accordingly.
Example ‘Z’ has been solved for you. Z. It is well-known that the effect (P) / is very bad (Q) / on
children (R) / of cinema (S)
The correct sequence should be:
(a) P – S – R – Q
(b) S – P – Q – R
(c) S – R – P – Q
(d) Q – S – R – P
cinema on children is very bad”. This is indicated by the sequence P – S – R – Q and so (a) is
the correct answer.
93. no conclusive evidence (P)/ the enquiry committee found to (Q)/ the airplane (R)/ of a
thermal shock. (S)
(a) R – Q – P – S (b) Q – P – S – R
(c) R – P – S – Q (d) R – P – Q – S
94. For thirty years with slave-like docility (P)/ of her tribe (Q)/ his wife had submitted to his
persecution (R)/ that is the badge (S)
(a) R – Q – P – S (b) P – R – Q – S
(c) R – P – S – Q (d) R – P – Q – S
95. I can finally (P)/ and saw an article (Q)/ to the editorial page (R)/ dealing with Pandit Nehru (S)
(a) Q – R – P – S (b) P – R – Q – S
(c) S – Q – R – P (d) P – R – S – Q
96. Although many institutions these can have have (P)/ tried to organize (Q)/ remedial
programmes for the weaker students, (R)/ only a peripheral impact (S)
(a) P – Q – R – S (b) Q – R – P – S
(c) S – R – P – Q (d) P – R – Q – S
97. Our society to-day that people have lost their frankness (P)/ is so fragmented (Q) / and the
art of conversation seems to be (R)/ disappearing fast (S)
(a) Q – P – R – S (b) P – Q – S – R
(c) Q – S – P – R (d) R – S – P – Q
98. Even today many superstitious exist (P)/ by a great many people (Q) / and are believed in
(R)/ among the most civilized (S) nations.
(a) S – P – R – Q (b) P – S – Q – R
(c) S – Q – P – R (d) Q – P – R – S
99. The eyes of seeing persons to the routine of their surroundings (P)/ and they actually see
(Q) / soon become (R)/ accustomed only the startling and spectacular (S)
(a) S – P – R – Q (b) P – S – Q – R
(c) R – P – Q – S (d) Q – P – R – S
100. Though he was a man when there was no choice (P)/ who held all life scared, (Q) / he did
not hesitate to kill (R)/and loved all forms of life (S)
(a) R – P – Q – S (b) P – S – Q – R
(c) Q – S – R – P (d) S – Q – P – R
101. For a moment that I am terribly old (P)/ since I was a child (Q)/ and that it is a very long
time ago(R)/ I forget. (S)
(a) Q – P – R – S (b) P – S – R – Q
(c) R – P – Q – S (d) S – P – R – Q
102. From behind a curtain (P)/ he held it in such a manner (Q)/ bringing (R)/ the light that it fell
slandwise on her face. (S)
(a) S – Q – R – P (b) R – P – Q – S
(c) S – P – Q – R (d) S – R – P – Q
103. The man had been sportsman (P)/ and received many prizes (Q)/ throughout his
educational career and (R)/ medals in competitions. (S)
(a) P – Q – R – S (b) Q – P – R – S
(c) S – P – Q – R (d) P – R – Q – S
104. He was passing when he heard (P)/ by a hut (Q)/ the cries of a (R)/ child and went in. (S)
(a) P – Q – R – S (b) Q – P – R – S
(c) P – R – Q – S (d) S – P – Q – R
105. Only if we worked hard (P)/ the teacher warned us (Q)/ that we (R)/ would pass the test for
at least eight hours a day. (S)
(a) Q – R – P – S (b) Q – P – R – S
(c) P – S – R – Q (d) S – Q – P – R
106. There is among the great powers (P) / no agreement (Q) / to ban nuclear weapons (R) / on
a treaty. (S)
(a) R – S – Q – P (b) S – R – P – Q
(c) Q – P – S – R (d) R – P – Q – S
107. According to one theory have descended from (P) / all land animals (Q) / organisms of the
sea (R) / including man (S)
(a) S – P – Q – R (b) Q – S – P – R
(c) S – Q – P – R (d) R – P – Q – S
108. The judge when he was presented in court (P) / sentenced the prisoner to life
imprisonment (Q) / by the police (R) / on a charge of (S) murder
(a) P – R – S – Q (b) S – R – P – Q
(c) Q – P – R – S (d) Q – R – S – P
109. the problems of working wives are different (P) / they have to look after, (Q) / for those of
housewives because (R) / their family as well as their jobs(S)
(a) S – P – R – Q (b) P – S – Q – R
(c) S – Q – P – R (d) Q – P – R – S
110. as the marketing and distribution of drugs (P) / to eradicate the menace of drug addiction
(Q) /it has become increasingly problematic (R) / generates huge illegal profits. (S)
(a) R – Q – P – S (b) P – S – Q – R
(c) P – R – Q – S (d) P – R – Q – S
accordingly.
Z. It is well-known that the effect (P) / is very bad (Q) / on children (R) /of cinema (S)
(c) S R P Q (d) Q S R P
cinema on children is very bad”. This is indicated by the sequence P S R Q and so (a) is the
correct answer.
111. The teacher had to be specially careful (P)/ because he enjoyed the confidence (Q)/ about
how he faced up to this problem (R)/ of all the boys (S)
(a) P R Q S (b) Q P S R
(c) S P R Q (d) P S R Q
112. Movies made in all around the globe (P) / Hollywood in America (Q) / by people (R)/ are
seen at the same time (S)
(a) Q S R P (b) Q R P S
(c) P S R Q (d) Q P S R
113. The foundations of the prosperity of a state (P)/ primary health and education but also (Q)/
involves the creation of job opportunities (R)/ does not merely rest on (S)
(a) P S Q R (b) P Q R S
(c) P R Q S (d) P S R Q
114. I am sure and will be happy (P) / sooner or later (Q) / a day will come (R)/ when all will be
equal (S)
(a) Q P R S (b) Q S R P
(c) R Q S P (d) R S Q P
115. To do his/her work properly (P)/ it should be the pride and honour (Q)/ without anybody
forcing him/her (R)/ of every citizen in India (S)
(a) Q S R P (b) P R Q S
(c) Q S P R (d) P Q R S
DIRECTIONS (Qs. 125-135): Each of the following questions in this section consists of a
sentence the parts of which have been jumbled. These parts have been labelled P, Q, R, and S.
Given below each sentence are four sequences namely (a), (b), (c) and (d). You are required to
re-arrange the jumbled parts of the sentence and select the correct sequence.
116. It is foolish of of those who passes them (P) / to believe that (Q) /will result in victory (R)/
the use of nuclear weapons (S)
(a) R S P Q (b) Q S R P
(c) P R Q S (d) S Q P R
117. A distressing fact is that social accountability (P) / are dominated only by greed (Q)/ many
people today (R) / and there is hardly any (S)
(a) S R P Q (b) Q S R P
(c) P R Q S (d) R Q S P
118. I once had every morning (P) / a client who swore (Q) /for the past four years (R)/ she had
a headache (S)
(a) P R S Q (b) Q S P R
(c) R P Q S (d) S Q R P
119. People know not only of the smokers themselves, (P) /that smoking tobacco (Q)/ but also
of their companions (R) / is injurious to the health (S)
(a) P S Q R (b) R P S Q
(c) Q P R S (d) Q S P R
120. He had finished his lunch (P) / hardly (Q) /at the door (R)/ when someone knocked (S)
(a) Q P R S (b) P Q R S
(c) Q P S R (d) R P Q S
ANSWER KEY
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (d) 9. (a) 10. (b)
11. (d) 12. (a) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (b) 16. (b) 17. (d) 18. (d) 19. (d) 20. (d)
21. (b) 22. (c) 23. (d) 24. (d) 25. (a) 26. (b) 27. (d) 28. (a) 29. (a) 30. (b)
31. (b) 32. (b) 33. (d) 34. (d) 35. (d) 36. (c) 37. (d) 38. (a) 39. (c) 40. (d)
41. (b) 42. (d) 43. (c) 44. (b) 45. (a) 46. (b) 47. (b) 48. (b) 49. (b) 50. (d)
51. (a) 52. (d) 53. (b) 54. (d) 55. (c) 56. (c) 57. (c) 58. (c) 59. (a) 60. (d)
61. (a) 62. (d) 63. (d) 64. (c) 65. (b) 66. (b) 67. (b) 68. (b) 69. (c) 70. (b)
71. (a) 72. (d) 73. (d) 74. (c) 75. (b) 76. (d) 77. (b) 78. (d) 79. (b) 80. (c)
81. (b) 82. (b) 83. (b) 84. (b) 85. (d) 86. (a) 87. (c) 88. (c) 89. (b) 90. (b)
91. (b) 92. (a) 93. (b) 94. (c) 95. (b) 96. (b) 97. (a) 98. (a) 99. (c) 100. (c)
101.(d) 102.(b) 103.(d) 104.(b) 105.(a) 106.(c) 107.(b) 108. (c) 109. (b) 110. (d)
111.(a) 112.(a) 113.(a) 114.(a) 115.(c) 116.(b) 117.(d) 118. (b) 119. (d) 120. (c)
PHYSICS
PHYSICS
1. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND STATES OF MATTER
Matter
• Matter is anything that has a resting mass and occupies a space.
• Every object that you see or feel around you is made of matter.
States of matter
In usual definitions, there are four states of matter.
➢ Solid
➢ Liquid
➢ Gas
➢ Plasma
There are more than 15 states of matter in total. Here we will discuss four states of matter
described above in details and some others in short.
Even though the above mentioned states of matter exist freely in nature, all others have to be
manufactured in laboratories.
Solid
• The states of matter in which the particles are packed closely together are called solids.
• As the space between the constituent particles decreases the density increases.
• In solids the particles or molecules are incapable of independent movement.
• Hence, solids have a definite shape.
• Solids have a definite volume.
• The shape and volume of solid changes only when it is broken by exerting an external force.
• Solids can be crystalline or non – crystalline.
• Solids usually change its state to liquid on increase in temperature (Melting).
• Further increase in temperature may change it to a gaseous state (Vaporization). (e.g.: ice-
water-water vapor).
Liquid
• The state of matter in which the molecules are loosely arranged is called a liquid.
• Liquid state allows free movement of molecules.
• Hence liquids don’t have a definite shape.
• Liquids acquire the shape of the container which they occupy.
• The liquids usually change to gas to increase in temperature and to solid on decrease in
temperature.
Gas
• Molecules are held freely than solids and liquids.
• The molecules move freely in gases.
• Hence gases do not have a definite shape and volume.
• Gases fully occupy the container in which they are stored.
Plasma
• Plasma is the fourth state of matter.
• Plasma is not made up of atoms or ions.
• It can be said as an ionized gas made up of positively charged ions in the sea of negatively
charged electrons.
• Plasma has electrical conductivity.
• It is influenced by electric and magnetic fields.
• The sun and stars exist in the plasma state.
• Temporary plasma states are also created on earth during lightning.
• Plasma state is also seen on plasma televisions, fluorescent lamps etc.
Other states of matter
• Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC) was created in 1995. Eric Cornell and Carl Weiman used
lasers and magnets in an experimental set up to cool rubidium to almost absolute zero. At
this low temperature, kinetic motion of atoms are almost lost and the atoms tend to clump
together to form one super molecule.
• Bose-Einstein condensate is used to study wave and particle behavior of light as light
appears to slow down when passing through BEC.
• BEC helps in the study quantum mechanics on a macroscopic level.
• BEC also has some of the properties of a superfluid.
• Conditions in a black hole are also studied using a BEC.
• Quark-gluon plasma (QGP) is a state of matter that exists at extremely high temperatures.
It was a state of matter found in the beginning of formation of the universe.
• Jahn-Teller Metal was made in 2015 by a group of scientists in Tokyo University. It has
properties of an insulator, superconductor and magnet.
• There are other states of matter called Bose-Einstein condensate, Fermionic
condensate, Photonic matter, Dropleton, Dark matter, Time crystal etc.
Physical properties of matter
• Physical property is a distinctive feature of matter that is visually interpreted or scaled
without upsetting the chemical uniqueness of the matter.
• Some examples of physical property are colour, odour, texture, appearance, density, melting
point, boiling point etc.
• Colour is the hue of an object as the human eye perceives.
• Odour is the smell of a substance.
• Texture is the feel or appearance of a substance.
• An equilibrium phase in which solid and liquid states co-exist and solid changes its state to
liquid is called melting point.
• Boiling point is the temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid rises and reaches
the atmospheric pressure on the liquid.
• Physical properties can be classified as extensive or intensive.
• Extensive properties are the characteristic of matter whose measurement depends on the
amount of matter present.
• Examples are volume, mass, etc.
• Intensive properties are the characteristic of matter whose measurement does not depend
on the amount of matter present.
• Examples are colour, density, boiling point, melting point etc.
2. MASS, WEIGHT, VOLUME, DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Mass
• Mass is the fundamental property of a physical body.
• It indicates the matter the physical body contains.
• It can be also defined as the measure of a body’s resistance to acceleration on application of
an external force.
• According to Newtonian physics, any resting body with a mass has energy and anything with
energy will resist acceleration or movement by force and has gravitational attraction.
• Mass is a fundamental term and is usually difficult to define in other terms.
• The symbol for mass is ‘𝑚’.
• The SI unit for mass is ‘𝑘𝑔’.
• The mass of an object remains the same irrespective of the gravitational pull.
• An object of mass 1 kg will have the same mass on the moon and earth, even though there
will be a difference in weight.
• Even though mass and weight are different, the mass is often quantified by measuring the
object’s weight rather than comparing it with objects of known mass.
• Several phenomena have also been used in the measurement of mass like inertial mass,
gravitational mass and passive gravitational mass.
• Inertial mass measures the resistance of an object to the movement from its inertia on
application of an external force. As we know F=ma, and know the values of the force applied
and resultant acceleration, mass can be calculated.
• The measure of gravitational force exerted on an object is called gravitational mass. The
objects on Earth interact with the gravitational field and gravitational flux. The strength of
interaction with gravitational field is passive gravitational mass and with gravitational flux is
active gravitational mass.
Weight
• Weight is the measure of the force of gravity on the mass of the object.
• Weight is calculated as the product of mass x acceleration due to gravity(𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔).
• W=m x g can be related to F=ma when an object is in free fall, and hence we can say W=F= ma.
• The SI unit of Weight is Newton (N).
Volume
• Volume is the amount of space occupied an object or matter.
• The basic unit of volume is litre or metre cube.
• Volume of a solid object can be measured using the application of mathematical formulae, if
applicable.
• Liquid volumes can be measured by graduated cylinders. Volume of liquids is affected by
temperature and pressure and hence the conditions are indicated if measurements are not
taken in ambient conditions.
• The volume of gases is greatly influenced by temperature and pressure and hence the
volume measurements always take these two parameters into consideration.
Density
• Density is mass per unit volume.
• Principle of density was discovered by Archimedes.
• The density of any state of matter is calculated by dividing the mass in kilograms by its
volume.
• Density is represented by .
• Density is calculated as  = 𝑚/𝑣.
• The SI unit of density is kg/ cubic metre (𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 ).
• The density of water is 1000𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 .
• Any object with a density greater than water will sink if placed in water.
• The density of air is approximately 1.2𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 .
• Density of a substance changes when its state changes. When a solution changes from
liquid to gas, the density changes.
• The densities of irregular solids can be calculated using the help of eureka can. Eureka can
be used to measure the volume of the object to be used in density calculations.
• The Eureka can be a large vessel with a spout on the top.
• The can is filled with water and the object is placed in water.
• The water that is gushing out is collected in a measuring cylinder and the volume of water is
equal to the volume of the unknown object.
Specific gravity
• Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a given substance to a reference substance.
• Since it is a ratio of two substances, it is dimensionless. Hence there is no SI unit for specific
gravity.
• Water is usually used as the reference substance for measuring specific gravity of liquids.
• Specific gravity 𝑆𝐺 = 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 /𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
• A hydrometer or pycnometer can be used to measure specific gravity.
3. PRINCIPLE OF ARCHIMEDES AND PRESSURE BAROMETER
Archimedes principle
• Archimedes principle states that the loss of weight of a body partially or fully immersed in a
fluid is equal to the volume of fluid displaced by the body.
• A body fully or partially immersed in a fluid, the fluid exerts an upward pressure on the
object. This is called buoyant force.
• Buoyancy depends on the density of the floating object and the fluid. If the object is denser
than the fluid it will sink as the weight of an object is more than the buoyant force and vice
versa.
➢ The Archimedes principle can be formulated as 𝐹 = 𝑔𝑉.
Where F is the buoyant force,  is the (density of the fluid) – (density of the object), g is the
acceleration due to gravity, V is the volume of fluid displaced.
• Rearranging the equation with
𝜌 = 𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 − 𝜌𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
𝐹 = (𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 − 𝜌𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 )𝑔𝑉
• Consider another derivation to reach the equation.
➢ Consider a small cylinder immersed in a big cylinder.
➢ Let the area on the top and bottom surfaces of the cylinder be ‘a’.
➢ Atmospheric pressure acting on liquid surface be ‘P’.
➢ The density of the liquid is .

➢ The increase in height of liquid on immersion of cylinder is h1 and the total increase in
height is h2.
➢ Force on top surface of object =(ℎ1 𝜌𝑔 + 𝑃)𝑎
➢ Force on bottom surface of object= (ℎ2 𝜌𝑔 + 𝑃)𝑎
Buoyant force = (force on top surface of object - force on bottom surface of object)
Buoyant force = [(ℎ1 𝜌𝑔 + 𝑃)𝑎 − (ℎ2 𝜌𝑔 + 𝑃)𝑎]
= (ℎ1 − ℎ2 )𝑎𝜌𝑔
= (mass of fluid displaced) g
We know that
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 () × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑉)
Fig: Derivation of Archimedes principle

Buoyant force, 𝐹 = 𝑔𝑉
• If the weight of the fluid displaced by an object is lesser than the weight of the object, it will
sink.
• If the weight of the fluid displaced by an object is equal to or greater than the weight of the
object, it will float.
• This has been used in the building of ships and boats that make them float.
• Archimedes principle has been employed in making of ships, submarines, hydrometers, hot
air balloons etc.
Pressure Barometer
• Atmospheric pressure at any point in the earth’s atmosphere is equal to the weight of the air
column in a unit cross sectional area from that point to the end of an atmosphere.
• At sea level, the atmospheric pressure is 1 × 105 Pascal’s which is equivalent to 1 atm.
• Evangelista Torricelli devised the mercury barometer.
• Torricelli’s barometer consisted of an inverted tube containing mercury immersed in a
trough of mercury.
• The pressure was measured using the rise of mercury in the column.
• This was equated in the equation
𝑃𝑎 = 𝑔ℎ.
Where Pa is the atmospheric pressure, is the density of mercury, g is the acceleration due
to gravity, and h is the height of mercury column.
• At sea level, the height of mercury was 76 cm which is equal to 1 atm.
• Atmospheric pressure can be expressed in mm Hg.

• Different units are used for expressing pressure as given below.
• 1 mm Hg =1 torr.
• 1 torr = 133 Pa.
• 1 bar = 105 Pa.
• Blood pressure measuring apparatus in hospitals use the rise in mercury to measure blood
pressure.
Another pressure gauging instrument is an open tube manometer.
• An open tube manometer consists of a U-tube consisting of two fluids. One is used for
measuring low pressures like oil (low density fluid) and the other one is used to measure
high pressures. It mostly uses mercury (high density fluid).
• One end of the tube is open to the atmosphere and the other end is connected to the system
whose pressure we want to measure.
• The pressure is measured as the difference in the height of fluids in the two arms (P-Pa)
where P is the pressure of the system and Pa is the atmospheric pressure.
• If the pressure of the system we want to measure is higher than atmospheric pressure, the
mercury in the open arm rises.
• If the pressure of the system we want to measure is lower than atmospheric pressure, the
mercury in the enclosed arm rises.
• A closed tube manometer is used for gauging pressure.
• It has the same design as the open tube manometer except that both ends are closed.
• The closed end is sealed and the manometer contains a vacuum.
• A vacuum pump oil barometer uses vacuum pump oil instead of mercury as the fluid.
• An aneroid barometer works without the help of any fluids. The barometer has a small
metal box called aneroid cell or capsule.
• The aneroid cell is a vacuum chamber and has sprung to prevent from collapsing.
• The changes in the atmospheric pressure cause small changes in the aneroid cell which are
amplified by levers to make movements in a gauge needle which records the pressure.
4. MOTION OF OBJECTS, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION
Motion of objects
• Motion is the change in position of an object with time.
• The motion of an object in a straight line is called rectilinear motion.
• The distance travelled by an object from point A to B irrespective of the distance travelled is
called path length. Otherwise, it is the total distance travelled by the object.
• Path length has a magnitude but no direction.
• Hence it is a scalar quantity.
• Displacement is the change in position of an object from point A to B through the shortest
distance.
• It is represented mathematically as
∆𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 .
Where 𝑥𝑓 is the final position in time t2 and 𝑥𝑓 is the initial position is the initial position at time
t1.
• Displacement has magnitude and direction and hence is a vector quantity.
• The magnitude of displacement may or may not be equal to the path length traversed by an
object.
• An object is said to be in uniform motion if it travels the equal distance in equal intervals of
time.
• If an object travels different distances in a specified unit of time, it is called non-uniform
motion.
• A position- time graph of a moving object helps understand its motion.
Velocity
• Velocity is the rate at which a moving object changes its position or is the rate of change of
position of an object with respect to the frame of reference.
• Velocity is a vector quantity and has both magnitude and direction.
• Average velocity is the change in position of the object or displacement divided by the time
interval in which the displacement occurs.
• Average velocity 𝒗̅ = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )/ (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) = ∆𝒙/∆𝒕.
Where 𝑥2 is the final position in time 𝑡2 and 𝑥1 is the initial position is the initial position at
time 𝑡1 .
• The SI unit of velocity is 𝑚/𝑠.
• A position time graph, the average velocity in a given time interval is usually a slope
connecting the initial and final positions in the time interval.
Fig: The position- time graph showing the average velocity at P1-P2
• For objects in uniform motion, the velocity is same as average velocity in all instants.
• Average speed is the total path length travelled by an object divided by the total time taken
for that motion.
• Average Speed = Total path length / Total time taken.
• Instantaneous velocity is the limit of average velocity when the time interval becomes
infinitesimally small.
∆𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝐥𝐢𝐦 =
∆𝒕→𝟎 ∆𝒕 𝒅𝒕
• Average velocity gives the velocity of an object over a given interval of time, whereas the
instantaneous velocity gives an understanding of the velocity at a particular instant.
• In a position time graph, the slope of a tangent drawn at a particular instant gave the
instantaneous velocity at that time.
Acceleration
• Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity of an object with respect to time.
• The average acceleration is represented as change in velocity divided by the time taken
𝑣2 − 𝑣1 ∆𝑣
𝑎̅ = =
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ∆𝑡
Where 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 are velocities at time 𝑡2 and 𝑡1 .
• The SI unit of acceleration is 𝑚/𝑠 2

• On a velocity- time graph average velocity will be the slope of the straight line connecting
the points 𝑣1 𝑡1 and 𝑣2 𝑡2 .
• Instantaneous acceleration is the acceleration of a body at any particular instant or is
defined as the limit of average acceleration as the time interval tends to zero.
• It is represented as
𝑎̅ = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝑎̅
∆𝒕→𝟎
∆𝑣 𝑑𝑥
= 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =
∆𝒕→𝟎 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Where ∆v is the change in velocity and∆t
is the change in time.
• In a velocity –time graph acceleration at any instant is the slope of the tangent drawn to the
velocity- time curve at that instant.
• A velocity –time graph for motion with uniform acceleration, is a straight line inclined to the
time axis.
• A velocity- time graph of an object in uniform motion has no acceleration and hence will be a
straight line parallel to the time axis.
• A position - time graph for motion with uniform acceleration, is a parabola inclined to the time
axis.
• A prominent feature of velocity- time graph of a moving object is that the area under the
curve represents displacement over a given interval of time.
Fig: Position-time graph of a stationary object
Fig: Position-time graph of an object with uniform motion
Fig: Position-time graph of an object with uniform acceleration

• Kinematic equations of motion are used to relate five quantities of motion of an object in
uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion
𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡
1
𝑥 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
𝑣 2 = 𝑣0 2 + 2𝑎𝑥
Where,
𝒗̅ is the velocity
𝑣0 is the final velocity
𝑡 is the time taken
𝑥 is the displacement
𝑎 is the acceleration.
5. NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
• Aristotle postulated that a body in motion requires an external force to be applied on it.
• Galileo, with the help of his experiment, countered Aristotle’s view.
• He studied the motion of objects and postulated the ‘law of inertia’.
• Inertia is the resistance of an object to any change in its state of motion.
• According to the law of inertia, an object moving on a frictionless horizontal plane neither
has neither acceleration nor retardation. An object in a state of rest or uniform linear motion
is equivalent to this state.
• Sir Isaac Newton postulated three laws of motion which form the basis of modern mechanics
on the foundation laid by Aristotle.
First law of motion
• First law of motion states that “Everybody continues to be in the state of rest or uniform
motion in a straight line unless acted upon by an external force to act otherwise”.
• The net external force on an object is zero if its acceleration is zero.
• Acceleration moves from zero to non-zero only if there is a net external force.
• If we are standing on a bus and suddenly the bus starts, we are thrown back with a jerk.
Newton’s first law of motion gives an explanation for this scenario.
• Due to the friction between the bus and our feet, we move along with the bus. Otherwise, the
bus would have moved beneath our feet and the back of the bus would’ve hit us.
• At the same time, the rest of the body is at inertia and is thrown back relative to the bus
moving forward.
• The muscles in the body acts and bring back our body to the normal position.
• When a bus suddenly brakes we are thrown forward because the friction between our feet
and bus stops us along with the bus, but the inertia of motion causes our body to move
forward.
Second law of motion
• First law of motion refers to the situation when the net force acting on a body is zero. The
second law refers to a situation when there is a net force acting on a body.
• The second law of motion demands understanding of a term called momentum.
• Momentum is a vector quantity and is defined as the product of its mass and velocity.
𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣
where momentum is given by p, mass is denoted by m and velocity is denoted by v.

• The Second law of motion states that “The rate of change of momentum of a body is
directly proportional to the external force applied and takes place in the direction of applied
force”.
∆𝑝
𝐹∝
∆𝑡
∆𝑝
𝑜𝑟 𝐹 = 𝑘
∆𝑡
Where, F is the is force
k is the constant of proportionality
∆p is the change in momentum
∆t is the change in time
∆𝑝
• If ∆t tends to zero, the term becomes derivate of the p with respect to t and now
∆𝑡
𝑑𝑝
becomes .
𝑑𝑡
• Therefore,
𝑑𝑝
𝐹=𝑘
𝑑𝑡
• We know that p=mv.
And equation can be rewritten as
𝑑𝑝 𝑑
𝐹 = 𝑘 𝑑𝑡 =𝑘 𝑑𝑡 (𝑚𝑣)
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
= 𝑘 × 𝑚 ( 𝑑𝑡 ) [𝑎 = ]
𝑑𝑡
=𝑘 × 𝑚𝑎. Therefore,
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑚
• If k=1, then 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
• The SI unit of force is Newton (N).
• I N= 1 kg 𝑚/𝑠 2 .
• In the second law of motion, if the force applied is zero, the acceleration is zero and is in
correlation with the first law of motion.
• Considering the application of second law of motion of a point particle, F is the net external
force applied to the particle and a is the acceleration.
• If we consider the application of the second law on a system of particles (or a rigid body of
particles), F is the net external force applied to the system and the acceleration of the
system is denoted by a. Internal forces if any, in the system are neglected.
• The second law of motion is governed by the vector law and for the components x, y and z,
the basic equation is modified as
𝑑𝑝𝑥
𝐹𝑥 = = 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑝𝑦
𝐹𝑦 = = 𝑚𝑎𝑦
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑝𝑧
𝐹𝑧 = = 𝑚𝑎𝑧
𝑑𝑡
• From these equations it can be understood that if the force applied to an object is not
parallel to the velocity and is in angle to the velocity, it won’t affect the component of velocity
normal to the force applied, but only the component of velocity in the direction of the force.
• The acceleration of a particle in space at an instant is due to the force applied to the particle
at that instant. Forces applied earlier in the system is not taken into consideration.
• A large force acting for a short time to produce a finite change in momentum is called
impulsive force.
• Impulse = Force x Time duration = Change in momentum.
Third law of motion
• Newton’s third law of motion states that “For every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction”.
• Force always occurs in pairs. Consider two objects A and B. The force exerted on A by B is
equal and opposite to force exerted on B by A.
• In the above statement, either force exerted by A or B can be the action or reaction. The
third law never implied that action is the cause and reaction is the effect.
• There is no cause –effect relationship in third law.
• The force exerted on A by B and B by A, an act in the same instant. Hence, either one can
be called action or reaction.
• Action and reaction are experienced by different bodies.
• If we consider a pair of bodies A and B, Then according to third law,
𝐹𝐴𝐵 =−𝐹𝐵𝐴
If we consider these two bodies as particles in space and motion of only one of the bodies is
taken into account, then it is a mistake to add up the forces of two bodies to zero. In such
cases force of only one body is considered.
• If we are considering A and B as the particles in a system, the forces exerted by A and b
cancel each other and become null. Hence we can say that internal forces of the system
cancel each other.
• Law of conservation of momentum follows the second and third law of motion.
• The law states that the total momentum of an isolated system of interacting particles is
conserved.
• Consider two particles A and B in a system. The collision with a momentum and move apart.
According to the second law
𝑑𝑝
𝐹=
𝑑𝑡
𝐹𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑝
Rewriting the equation,
𝐹𝐴𝐵 =𝑃′𝐴 -𝑃𝐴
𝐹𝐵𝐴 =𝑃′𝐵 -𝑃𝐵
Here 𝐹𝐵𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝐴𝐵 are the forces of collision 𝑃𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝐵 are the initial momenta and 𝑃′𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑃′𝐵 are
the final momenta.
From the third law,
𝐹𝐴𝐵 =−𝐹𝐵𝐴
𝑃′𝐴 -𝑃𝐴 = -(𝑃′𝐵 -𝑃𝐵 )
𝑃′𝐴 + 𝑃′𝐵 = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝑃𝐵
• From the equation, the total initial momentum and final momentum in the system are equal
and hence conserved.
6. FORCE AND MOMENTUM PARALLELOGRAM OF FORCES
Force and Momentum
• Force is a push or pull or any external influence experienced on an object that causes the
change in acceleration, the direction of motion or shape of the object.
• Force may be applied to stop or accelerate a body.
• Momentum is a measure of the movement of a body. It is the product of an object’s mass
and velocity.
• Thus an object with a large mass and low velocity will have a large momentum.
• From the second law of motion, we have
𝑑𝑝
𝐹= = 𝑚𝑎
𝑑𝑡
𝐹 ∗ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑝
Where F is the force, dp is the change in momentum and dt is the change in time.
• Hence, Newton relates Force and momentum with time.
Force Momentum
Force is an external cause on an object Momentum is the property of the object on the
application of force
Force may be applied to accelerate or An object with momentum is always moving
stop an object
Unit for force is N Unit for momentum is kg m/s
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑃 = 𝑚𝑣
Force is vector quantity Momentum is a vector quantity
Force is required to change the Momentum is the result of applied force
momentum of an object
Parallelogram of forces
The law of parallelogram of forces states that if two forces acting on a particle at the same
time be represented in magnitude and direction by the two contiguous sides of a parallelogram
drawn from a point, their resultant force is represented in magnitude and direction by the
diagonal of the parallelogram drawn from the same point.
Fig: Parallelogram of vector addition

P and Q are the forces and R is the resultant force
𝑅 = √𝑃2 + 𝑄2 + 2𝑃𝑄 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑄 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 [ ]
𝑃 + 𝑄 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃
Here,
P is the magnitude of vector P
Q is the magnitude of vector Q
R is the magnitude of resultant vector R
θ is the angle between two vectors
α is the direction of the resultant vector.

• When the two vectors are acting in the same direction, then θ = 0
Magnitude of the resultant vector R
𝑅 = √𝑃2 + 𝑄2 + 2𝑃𝑄 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃
[When θ = 0, Cos θ = 1]
Therefore 𝑅 = √𝑃2 + 𝑄2 + 2𝑃𝑄 ∗ 1
𝑅 = √𝑃2 + 𝑄2 + 2𝑃𝑄
𝑅 = √(𝑃 + 𝑄)2
𝑅 =𝑃+𝑄
• Thus , when two vectors are acting in the same direction, magnitude of the resultant vector
is the sum of the magnitudes of the two vectors
𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 [𝑃+𝑄 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 ]
[When θ = 0, Cos θ = 1, Sin θ =0]
𝑄×0
𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 [𝑃+𝑄×1]
0
𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 [𝑃+𝑄 ]
α = 0.
• The direction of the action is along P and Q.
• When two vectors are acting in opposite directions, then θ = 180.
Magnitude of the resultant vector R
𝑅 = √𝑃2 + 𝑄2 + 2𝑃𝑄 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃
[When θ = 180, Cos θ = -1]
Therefore 𝑅 = √𝑃2 + 𝑄2 + 2𝑃𝑄 × −1
𝑅 = √𝑃2 + 𝑄2 − 2𝑃𝑄
𝑅 = √(𝑃 − 𝑄)2
𝑅 =𝑃−𝑄
[When θ = 180, Cos θ =- 1, Sin θ =0]
𝑄∗0
𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 [ ]
𝑃+𝑄×−1
0
𝛼= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 [𝑃−𝑄 ]
−1
𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 0
α = 0 or 180.
• When two vectors act in opposite directions, the magnitude of the resultant vector is the
difference in magnitude of the two vectors. The direction of the action will be along the
largest vector.
• When two vectors are acting at right angles to each other’s, then θ = 90.
𝑅 = √𝑃2 + 𝑄2 + 2𝑃𝑄 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃
[When θ = 180, Cos θ = 0]
Therefore 𝑅 = √𝑃2 + 𝑄2 + 2𝑃𝑄 × 0
𝑅 = √𝑃2 + 𝑄2
𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 [ ]
𝑃 + 𝑄 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃
[When θ = 90, Cos θ = 0, Sin θ =1]
𝑄×1
𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 [ ]
𝑃+𝑄×0
𝑄
𝛼 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 [ ]
𝑃
• When two vectors act in right angles to each other, the magnitude of the resultant vector is
the square root of the sum of squares of the vectors.
Proof of parallelogram of forces by Newton
• Assume that two forces act on a particle from the origin. Let the lengths of the
vectors F1 and F2 represent the velocities the two forces could produce in the particle by
acting for a given time and let the direction of each represent the direction in which they act.
• Each force acts independently and will produce its particular velocity, whether the other
force acts or not. The particle thus has a net velocity of the two velocities at the end of given
time.
• By the above proof, they are equivalent to a single velocity, 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 .
• According to Newton's second law of motion, the resultant velocity is a measure of the
forces acting to produce it and thus the two forces are equivalent to a single force.
7. STABILITY AND EQUILIBRIUM OF BODIES
• Equilibrium of a particle means that it is in a condition where the net external force acting on
it is zero. Otherwise, the particle is at rest or in uniform motion.
• For a particle to be in equilibrium, the forces acting on it must be equal and opposite.
• 𝐹1 = −𝐹2 , where F1 and F2 are the two forces acting on the particle and are equal and
opposite.
• If three concurrent forces are acting on a particle, then the vector sum of the three forces
has to be equal to zero, for the particle to be in equilibrium.
• 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 + 𝐹3 = 0
• The resultant force of two forces (F1 and F 2) acting on a particle, obeying the parallelogram
law of forces must be equal and opposite to the third force (F 3). Thus the particle will be in
equilibrium.
States of equilibrium
There are three states of equilibrium based on the position of action of a centre of gravity and
support.
➢ Stable equilibrium
➢ Unstable equilibrium
➢ Neutral equilibrium
• A body is said to be in stable equilibrium when the centre of gravity lies above the point of support.
• A book kept on a table is in stable equilibrium.
• A body is said to be in unstable equilibrium when the centre of gravity lies below the point
of support.
• A pencil kept vertically on its base is in unstable equilibrium.
• A body is said to be in neutral equilibrium when the centre of gravity lies on the point of
support.
• A rolling ball is in neutral equilibrium.
Centre of gravity
• The particles that make up an object experience a downward force called gravity toward the
center of the earth.
• The object’s weight is the sum of the forces experienced by the constituent particles.
• If a support is placed directly below (or above) the center of mass distribution of an object or
body, it will balance. This is called the centre of gravity.
• Stability is a body’s ability to return to a position or trajectory after suffering a disturbance.
• Base of support is the area covered by a balanced object, including the entire surface that
occupies its supporting parts. For example, for a man standing on two feet, the base of
support is the area under and between the feet.
• There are five principles of balance and stability.
➢ For stability to occur, the line of gravity must intersect the base of support of the body.
➢ The increase in the area of the base of support is directly proportional to balance or
stability.
➢ An object becomes more stable when the lower centre of gravity lies above the point of
support.
➢ Massive objects tend to more stable than their lighter versions.
➢ An object becomes more stable when the line of gravity moves farther from the edge of
its base of support.
• High stability or low mobility of a body is accomplished when
➢ The base of support of the body is large.
➢ Centre of gravity is low.
➢ The centre of gravity projection at the base of support is central.
➢ The Mass of the body is large.
➢ The friction between the body and ground is higher.
• Low stability and high mobility are accomplished when
➢ The base of support of the body is small.
➢ Centre of gravity is high.
➢ The centre of gravity projection at the base of support is near the edge.
➢ The Mass of the body is small.
➢ The friction between the body and ground is low.
8. GRAVITATION
• Gravitation or gravity is the phenomenon in which two objects with mass attract each other.
Kepler’s laws
Fig: Elliptical orbit of a planet around Sun.

• Law of orbits states that all planets move in elliptical orbits around the Sun and the Sun is
situated at one of the foci of the ellipse.
P is the closest point called perihelion. A is the farthest point called aphelion. The semi
major axis is half the distance of AP
• Law of areas states the line that joins the Sun with a planet covers equal areas in equal
intervals of time.
Fig: The elliptical orbit of planet P around Sun.

The shaded region represents area ∆A covered in time ∆t
• Law of period’s state that the square of the time period of revolution of a planet is
proportional to the cube of the semi major axis of the ellipse traced out by the planet.
• For circular orbits of planets around the Sun
4𝜋 2 3
𝑇2 = [ ]𝑅
𝐺𝑀𝑠
Where T is the period, Ms is the mass of the Sun and R is the radius of the orbit.
• For elliptical orbits, the radius R is replaced by the semi-major axis a.
Newton’s Universal law of gravitation
• The law states that “the gravitational force of attraction between two particles of masses m 1
and m2 separated by the distance r have the magnitude”
𝐺𝑚1𝑚2
𝐹=
𝑟2
Where G is the universal gravitational constant
G= 6.672 x 10-11 Nm2kg2.
• To find the gravitational force acting upon numerous particles, the principle of superposition
has to be used. Let the mass of particles be M1, M2,M3………..Mn and the forces are F1,
F2,F3…….Fn, the resultant force FR can be calculated as
𝐹𝑅 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 + 𝐹3 + ⋯ . +𝐹𝑛
𝑛
= ∑ 𝐹𝑖
𝑖=1
• Gravitational constant was experimentally measured by Henry Cavendish using a specially

designed apparatus and has the value
G= 6.672 x 10-11 Nm2kg2.
Acceleration due to gravity of earth
• The force of attraction due to a hollow spherical shell of uniform density, on a point mass
kept inside is zero.
• The force of attraction between a hollow spherical shell of uniform density and a point mass,
kept outside is as if the entire mass of the shell is concentrated in the centre of the shell.
• Considering earth to be a sphere of shells, the acceleration due to gravity is coded as
𝐹 𝐺𝑀𝐸
𝑔= =
𝑚 𝑅𝐸 2
Where ME is the mass RE is the radius of the earth.
Acceleration due to gravity below and above the surface of earth
• Acceleration due to gravity above the surface of earth at a distance h
Let the distance from the earth’s surface is h
𝐺𝑀𝐸
𝑔 (ℎ ) =
(𝑅𝐸 + ℎ)2
Since the height h is too small compared to RE
𝐺𝑀𝐸 2ℎ
𝑔(ℎ) = 2 [1 − ]
𝑅𝐸 𝑅𝐸
2ℎ
𝑔(ℎ) = 𝑔(0) [1 − ]
𝑅𝐸
𝐺𝑀𝐸
Where g(0) = 𝑅𝐸 2
• Thus, for small heights above the surface, the acceleration due to gravity decreases by a
2ℎ
factor of 1 − 𝑅 .
𝐸
• Acceleration due to gravity at a depth from earth’s surface.

𝐹(𝑑)
𝑔 (𝑑 ) = Where F(d) is the force on point mass and m is the mass
𝑚
𝐹(𝑑)
𝑔 (𝑑 ) =
𝑚
𝐺𝑀𝐸
=
[𝑅𝐸 − 𝑑]
𝑅𝐸 3
𝑅𝐸 − 𝑑
= 𝑔 (0)[ ]
𝑅𝐸
𝑑
= 𝑔(0) 1 −
𝑅𝐸
• Thus, for depths below the surface, the acceleration due to gravity decreases by a factor of
𝑑
1−𝑅 .
𝐸
Gravitational potential energy
• Gravitational potential energy caused due to earth’s gravitational force is defined as the
potential energy of a particle of unit mass at that point.
• It is given by the equation
𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
𝑉= −
𝑟
Where G is the Gravitational constant, m1 and m2 are the masses and r is the distance
separating the two bodies.
• Here we consider V=0, as r→∞.
• The principle of superposition is applied when calculating the potential energy of an isolated
system of particles. The total potential energy is the sum of potential energies of all the
possible particle pairs in the system.
Escape speed or Escape velocity
• Escape speed or escape velocity is the minimum velocity an object should have to escape
the gravitational force of the earth or any other planet.
• The minimum velocity required by an object to escape the earth’s gravitational force.
1 𝐺𝑚𝑀𝐸
𝑚(𝑉𝑖 2 ) =
2 ℎ + 𝑅𝐸
If h=0, then
2𝐺𝑀𝐸
𝑉𝑖 = √
𝑅𝐸
𝐺𝑀𝐸
Given that 𝑔 = 𝑅𝐸 2
𝑉𝑖 = √2𝑔𝑅𝐸
Where Vi is the escape velocity, g is the acceleration due to gravity and R E is the radius of
the earth.
• From the equation
𝑉𝑖 = √2𝑔𝑅𝐸
The numerical value of escape speed or escape velocity is calculated as 11.2 km/s.
• The escape speed of the Moon is 2.3 km/s.
Earth’s Satellites
• Earth’s satellites are artificial or terrestrial bodies that rotate around the earth.
• Moon is the only natural satellite of Earth and revolves around the Earth in 27.3 days.
• It has a nearly circular orbit.
• Earth’s satellites obey Kepler’s laws of planetary motion.
• Their orbits are either circular or elliptical.
• Every satellite traverse a distance of 2𝜋 (𝑅𝐸+ h) with a speedV.
• The period T of the satellite orbiting very close to the earth can be equated as
𝑅𝐸
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔
Substituting values of 𝑅𝐸 and g
g=9.8 m/s2 and 𝑅𝐸 = 6400 km
6400000
𝑇 = 2 × 3.14√ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
9.8
= 85 minutes.
Energy of an orbiting satellite
• Satellites orbiting Earth have both kinetic energy and potential energy.
• Kinetic energy has a positive value and potential energy has a negative value.
• The potential energy has twice the magnitude of kinetic energy.

• The energy of an orbiting satellite is given by the equation.
𝐺𝑚𝑀𝐸
𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸 = − .
2(𝑅𝐸+ℎ)
• The total energy of the satellite remains negative in circular or elliptical orbit.
• The energy becomes positive only if the satellite escapes to infinity.
Geostationary and polar satellites
• The satellites that revolve in orbits around the earth in the equatorial plane with a period (T)
of 24 hours are called geostationary satellites.
• They are located at very large heights from the earth’s surface. It will be around 4.2 X 10 4
km from the Earth’s core.
• Polar satellites move around the earth in north, south direction and are located 500-800 km
above the earth’s surface.
• Polar satellites cover one revolution around the earth in say 100 minutes and do so several
times a day and collect data for meteorology and environmental studies.
Weightlessness
• The weight of an object is the force with which the earth’s gravitational pull attracts it.
• Weightlessness occurs when there is no exertion of such force to support your body.
• Weightlessness occurs when the body is in a free fall or is accelerating towards the earth.
• In a spaceship or satellite, the crew feels weightless. These satellites have an acceleration
towards the centre of the Earth, which is equal to the acceleration due to gravity at that point
on Earth. Thus the satellite will experience a state of free fall and weightlessness and hence
the crew.
9. ELEMENTARY IDEAS OF WORK, POWER AND ENERGY
Work
• Work refers to the force applied to the object and the displacement, over which it acts.
• Work done by a force is defined as the product of the force component in the direction of
displacement and magnitude of displacement.
𝑊= 𝐹 × 𝑑
• The SI unit of work done is the joule (J).
• The work- energy theorem states that the work done on an object by a net force is equal to
change in kinetic energy of the object.
𝑊 = 𝐾𝑓 − 𝐾𝑖
Where W is the work done, K f is the final kinetic energy and Ki is the initial kinetic energy.
• Force and displacement are two important factors affecting work.
• No work is said to be done if
➢ The net force is zero.
➢ There is no displacement.
➢ Force and displacement are mutually perpendicular.
Kinetic Energy
• Kinetic energy is the amount of work done by an object by virtue of its motion.
1
Kinetic energy, 𝐾 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2
Where m is the mass of moving object and v is the velocity.
Work done by a variable force

When variable force act on a body, the work done is calculated as
𝑥𝑓
𝑊 = lim ∑ 𝐹(𝑥)∆𝑥
∆𝑥→0
𝑥𝑖
𝑥𝑓
𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝑥𝑖
Where 𝑥𝑖 and 𝑥𝑓 are the initial and final positions, F is the force, lim stands for the limit of sum
when ∆𝑥 →0
Work-Energy theorem for variable force
• It states that the change in kinetic energy of an object is equal to the work done on it by the
net force.
𝑥𝑓
𝐾𝑓 − 𝐾𝑖 = ∫ 𝐹𝑑𝑥
𝑥𝑖
Potential Energy
• Potential energy - Energy stored in an object.
• Potential energy 𝑉(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑔ℎ where m is the mass, g is the acceleration due to gravity and
h is the height of the object.
• For a conservative force potential energy,
∆𝑣 = −𝐹(𝑥)∆𝑥
Conservation of mechanical energy
• The sum of kinetic energy (K) and potential energy (V(x)) is called the total mechanical
energy of a system.
Conservative forces
• A force is said to be conservative, if it can be derived from a scalar quantity like potential
energy from the equation ∆𝑣 = −𝐹(𝑥)∆𝑥.
• The work done by a conservative force depends only on the end points.
𝑊 = 𝐾𝑓 − 𝐾𝑖
= 𝑉(𝑥𝑖 ) − 𝐾𝑓
• The work done by a conservative force in a closed path is zero.
𝐾𝑖 + 𝑉 (𝑥𝑖 ) = 𝐾𝑓 + 𝐾𝑓 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑥𝑓
• The law of conservation of mechanical energy states that the total mechanical energy of
a system is conserved if the forces working on it are conserved.
Potential energy of a spring
• For a spring connected to a block, the spring force F s is directly proportional to the
displacement x of the block from the equilibrium position. This law of the spring is called
Hooke’s law.
𝐹𝑠 = −𝑘𝑥
• The displacement can either be positive or negative.
• The constant k in the equation is called the spring constant.
• If k is large spring is stiff and a soft spring has small k.
• The SI unit of k is N/m.
• The work done by a spring force in a cyclic process is zero.

• Spring force is position dependent.
• Spring force does only the work which depends on initial and final positions.
• The elastic potential energy of a spring of force constant k and extension x is
1
𝑉(𝑥 ) = 𝑘𝑥 2
2
• When the block and spring are in equilibrium position, the potential energy is zero.
Energy
• The ability or capacity of a system of the body to do work is called energy.
• There are different forms of energy like heat energy, chemical energy, electrical energy,
nuclear energy etc.
• Albert Einstein showed that mass and energy are equivalent and can be related by the
equation
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
where the energy is E, mass is denoted by m and the speed of light in vacuum is denoted by
c.
• For 1 kg of matter, the energy is calculated as 9x10 16 J.
• The principle of conservation of energy states that
• The total energy of an isolated system remains constant and hence conserved.
• Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed.
• Energy can transform from one form to another.
Power
• Power is defined as the time rate in which work is done or energy is transferred.
• Average power is defined as the ratio of work done in the time taken.
𝑊
𝑃𝑎𝑣 =
𝑡
• Instantaneous power is defined as the limiting value of average power as time taken
approaches zero.
𝑃 = 𝑑𝑊/𝑑𝑡
• Instantaneous power can also be represented as 𝑭. 𝒗̅, where vi s the instantaneous velocity
and F is the force.
• The SI unit of power is Watt.
• The dimension is 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −3 .
• Another unit of power is HP, 1hp=746W.
10. EFFECTS OF HEAT, MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
Effects of Heat
• Heat is a form of energy and the degree of hotness is measured in units of temperature.
• Heat is the form of energy transferred between two or more systems and their surrounding
by virtue of its difference in temperature.
• The SI unit of heat energy is Joule.
• The SI unit of temperature is Kelvin.
• Heat has many different effects on matter.
Change in temperature
• Change in temperature is the primary physical effect of the application of heat.
• When heat energy is added to a substance, the kinetic energy of the particles increases and
their vibrations increase.
• Temperature is a measure of average kinetic energy and hence temperature increases.
• The amount of heat required to warm a substance depend on the mass of the object,
change in temperature and the nature of the substance.
• The change in temperature of a substance when heat energy supplied to it is absorbed or
rejected is called the heat capacity of the substance.
Heat capacity 𝑆 = ∆𝑄/∆𝑇 where ∆Q is the amount of heat supplied to change the
temperature from T to ∆T.
• Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat per unit mass absorbed or rejected by a
substance to change its temperature by one unit.
• SI unit of specific heat capacity is J/kg/K.
• If the mass in kilogram in specific heat capacity is expressed per moles of the substance, it
is molar specific heat capacity.
• SI unit of molar specific heat capacity is J/mole/K.
• Heat to be absorbed for a temperature change to occur is given by
• Heat absorbed =mass in kg × specific heat × temperature change.
Expansion of matter
• Expansion of matter is another effect of heat application.
• The increase in dimensions of a body due to increase in temperature is called thermal
expansion.
• Different substances expand differently
• Solids, liquids and gases expand in the order of gas>liquid> solid on application of equal
amounts of heat
• As the particles are held compactly in solids than liquids and gases, the vibration of particles
causes them to move apart happening at a large scale in gases.
• The expansion in length of a solid object is called linear expansion.
• The change in length and the change in temperature are directly proportional
∆𝑙
= 𝛼1 ∆𝑇
𝑙
Where α1 is called the coefficient of linear expansion.
• The thermal expansion in the area is called area expansion.
• The expansion in volume by heat is called volume expansion.
• The change in volume is directly proportional to change in temperature
∆𝑉
= 𝛼𝑣 ∆𝑇
𝑉
Where 𝛼𝑣 is the coefficient of volume expansion.
• For liquids, the coefficient of volume expansion is somewhat independent of temperature.
• For gases, the coefficient of volume expansion is dependent on temperature.
• αv=1/T is the equation for the coefficient of volume expansion for an ideal gas.
• αv=3.7 x 10-3k-1 at 0˚C for gases.
• There is a relation between the coefficient of linear expansion and coefficient of volume
expansion.
αv= 3 α1
• Change of state of matter is another important effect of heat.

• Solid may change to liquid and liquid to gas on the application of heat.
• The temperature remains unchanged during a change of state.
• The heat required for a change of state to occur.
Heat absorbed =latent heat x Mass in kg.
• Absorption of heat can also lead to chemical changes in substances.
Measurement of Temperature and Heat
Thermometer
• Temperature is measured using a thermometer.
• The physical property of change in volume of a liquid is used in the construction of
thermometers.
• Two commonly used temperature scales are the Fahrenheit temperature scale and Celsius
temperature scale.
• Fahrenheit (tF) and Celsius scales (tc) are related by the equation.
9
𝑡𝐹 = ( ) 𝑡𝑐 + 32𝑡𝐹
5
• Kelvin scale and Celsius scale are related by the equation.
𝑡𝐾 = 𝑡𝑐 + 273.15
• To obtain temperature scales, two fixed points are chosen and arbitrary values are assigned.
• These fixed points may be related to physical phenomena that occur at these temperatures
like freezing point and boiling points of water.
Calorimeter
• A device that can measure heat is called a calorimeter.
• Calorimetry means measurement of heat.
• Theoretically, when a body with a higher temperature is brought into contact with a body of
lower temperature, the heat lost by the hot body is equal to the heat gained by the cool body
considering no heat escapes into the surroundings.
• Calorimeter consists of a metallic vessel jacketed by a wooden casing which acts as a heat
insulator. It has a small opening through which a thermometer can be inserted to make
readings.
11. CHANGE OF STATE AND LATENT HEAT, MODES OF TRANSFERENCE OF HEAT
Change of State
• Matter usually exists in solid, liquid and gaseous state.
• Transition from one state to another is called change of state.
• Melting is process of change of state of matter from solid to liquid.
• The change of state from liquid to solid is called fusion.
• The change of state from liquid to vapor is called vaporization.
• Solid and liquid states of a substance co-exist in thermal equilibrium during the change of
state from solid to liquid.
• The temperature at which the solid and liquid states of a substance are in thermal
equilibrium is called its melting point and melting point at standard atmospheric
temperature is called the normal melting point.
• The temperature at which the liquid and gaseous states of a substance are in thermal
equilibrium is called its boiling point and boiling point at standard atmospheric temperature
is called normal boiling point.
• Regelation is the phenomenon of melting under pressure and refreezing on relieving

pressure.
• The temperature and pressure at which the solid, liquid and gaseous states of a substance
co-exist is called the triple point of the substance.
• The triple point of water is at 273.16 K and 6.11 x 10-3 Pa.
• The change of state from solid to gas is called sublimation (eg: dry ice, iodine).
• The temperature remains constant during a change of state, whether heat is added or
removed from the system.
Latent Heat
• Latent heat for a process is the amount of heat per unit mass transferred during the change
of state of a substance.
• The heat requirement for the change of the state depends on the mass of the substance
undergoing change of state and the amount of heat transferred.
• L=Q/m where L is the latent heat, m is the mass and Q is the heat of transformation.
• The SI unit of latent heat is J/kg.
• The latent heat required for the solid –liquid state change is called latent heat of fusion or
heat of fusion.
• The latent heat requirement for a liquid-gas state change is called latent heat of
vaporization or heat of vaporization.
Fig: change of state of water with respect to heat

Modes of Transference of Heat
• The three modes of transference of heat involves
➢ Conduction
➢ Convection
➢ Radiation
Conduction
• Conduction is the mode of heat transfer in which the heat is transferred between two
adjacent parts of a body by virtue of the difference in temperature.
• Conduction is quantitatively described as the time rate of heat transfer between two adjacent
parts of a body for a given temperature difference.
• In a steady state, the rate of heat flow is directly proportional to the difference in temperature
and area of a cross section of the object is inversely proportional to the length.
𝑇𝑐 − 𝑇𝑑
𝐻 = 𝐾𝐴
𝐿
where H is the heat flow
K is the thermal conductivity
A is the area of cross section

L is the length.
• The greater the value of K, the faster it will conduct heat.
• The SI unit of thermal conductivity is 𝐽𝑆 −1 𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 𝑜𝑟 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1
Convection
• Convection is a mode of heat transfer which involves actual movement of matter for efficient
heat transfer.
• Convection is only found in liquids.
• Convection may be natural or forced.
• Boiling of water on a stove is an example of natural convection. The bottom layer of liquid
heats up and move upwards due to buoyancy and pushing cold water downwards to heat
up.
• For transfer of heat in forced convection, the matter is pumped upwards by physical means.
Radiation
• Radiation is the mode of energy transfer through a system boundary by the mechanism of
photoemission or electromagnetic waves.
• The energy thus transmitted is called radiant energy.
12. SOUND WAVES AND THEIR PROPERTIES
• Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical waves that produce the sensation of hearing.
• Sound waves can pass through solids, liquids and gases.
• Sound waves travel as a series of compressions and rarefaction through the medium.
• It requires a medium for it to propagate.
• Sound gets absorbed into the medium through which it passes.
• Sound waves get reflected at the boundary between two media. Echo is an example of
reflection of sound by a rigid boundary.
• Sound waves also undergo refraction if the wave is incident obliquely on the boundary
between two media.
• Sound waves show diffraction.
• Sound shows the property of interference where both the crest and trough of the waves add
together constructively to form a louder sound or cancel out each other destructively.
• The velocity of the sound waves is smaller than that of light waves.
• The speed of sound waves in a medium is given by the equation
𝐵
𝑣 = √ 𝜌 where B is the bulk modulus of elasticity and  is the density.
• The speed of sound waves in a solid medium is given by the equation

𝑌
𝑣 = √𝜌 where B is the Young’s bulk modulus of elasticity and  is the density.
• The speed of sound waves in a liquid medium is given by the equation

𝐵
𝑣 = √ 𝜌 where B is the bulk modulus of elasticity and  is the density.
• The speed of sound waves in a gaseous medium (ideal gas) is given by the equation
𝛾𝑃
𝑣 = √ 𝜌 where  is the ratio of Cp/Cv, P is the adiabatic bulk modulus and  is the density.
𝑃
• Speed of longitudinal wave in an ideal gas was given by Sir Isaac Newton as 𝑣 = √𝜌 .This is
known as Newton’s formula.
𝛾𝑃
• Newton’s formula was modified by Laplace as 𝑣 = √ .This is known as Laplace
𝜌
correction.
• The value of  in air is 7/5.
• Thus the speed of sound in air was calculated at STP and was 331.3 m/s.
• Beats is the phenomenon of regular rise and fall of intensity of sound when two waves
having slightly different frequencies traveling in the same line and direction superpose with
each other.
• Number of beats per second is called beat frequency
𝑉𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡 = 𝑉1 ~𝑉2
• Whenever there is relative motion between the source of a sound and the listener, the
apparent frequency of sound heard by the listener is different from the actual frequency of
sound from the source. This is called Doppler Effect.
• Observed frequency of sound
𝑣 + 𝑣0
𝑣 = 𝑣0 [ ]
𝑣 + 𝑣𝑠
Here v is the speed of sound through the medium.
𝑣0 is the velocity of the observer relative to the medium.
The velocity of the source relative to the medium is 𝑣𝑠 .
• Sound intensity is a measure of the energy of a sound wave.
• It is the energy carried by a wave through an area per unit of time.
• The intensity is related to the amplitude of sound waves.
• Sound intensity is directly proportional to the square of the wave's amplitude.
𝐼 ∝ 𝐴2
where I is the intensity and
A is the amplitude
• The greater the difference between the regions of compression and rarefaction of the sound
wave, the higher is its intensity.
• Sound intensity is related to loudness by the equation
𝐿 ∝ log 𝐼
• Loudness is expressed in decibels.
• Pitch is the characteristic of a sound wave by which a shrill and grave sound can be
distinguished.
• Pitch depends on the frequency of sound, higher the frequency higher the shrill.
• Quality is the characteristic of the sound by which we are able to differentiate notes
produced by different sources even if they are of the same pitch and loudness.
13. SIMPLE MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
• Travelling waves are sine waves that are not confined to a boundary in the medium.
• These waves travel till they are disturbed by another wave.
• A travelling wave will reflect with a phase change at closed boundaries, but in an open
boundary, it gets reflected without phase change.
• Standing waves are waves propagated in a confined space which reflect and interfere with
each other continuously.
• In doing so, the waves create points in the wave pattern that appear to stand still and hence
called standing waves.
• The equation of a standing wave is (2𝑎𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 )𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 where 2𝑎𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 is the amplitude of
oscillation of the element of string located at point x.
Fig: Standing waves showing node and antinodes

• The areas of highest vibration or amplitude are called antinodes and waves of lowest
vibration or amplitude are called nodes.
• In standing waves the points of maximum and minimum amplitude stay at one position.
• Half the wavelength or𝜆/2 separated two consecutive nodes and internodes.
Sitar and Violin
Fig: Modes of oscillation in a stretched string tied at both ends

• In a musical instrument with a stretched string tied at both ends, the two ends have to be
nodes.
𝜐
• The lowest frequency of a tied string is given by the equation𝑣 = 𝑛 (2𝐿 ) where n=1, 𝑣 is the
speed of travelling waves on the string.
• The set of frequencies governed by the above equation is called modes of oscillation of the
system.
• The oscillation mode with the lowest frequency (n=1) is called the first harmonic or
fundamental mode.
• Overtones are frequencies that exist in a musical instrument other than the fundamental
mode.
• Different overtones are produced by instruments of different shapes and actions.
• The fundamental mode gives the pitch to the string.
• The oscillation mode with the lowest frequency (n=2) is called the second harmonic.
• The oscillation mode with the lowest frequency (n=3) is called the third harmonic.
• All possible modes of oscillations thus produced with different values of ‘n’ are called
harmonic series and n is called the harmonic number.
• A stretched string tie at both ends can vibrate in different modes simultaneously.
• The strongly excited mode depends on the position and pressure with which the string is
plucked. This is the principle used in sitar and violin.
• In these instruments sound is produced by the string disturbing the air. In the string,
transverse waves moving back and forth.
Tabla
• Tabla is a musical instrument in which a membrane is tightly clamped to the circumference
upper opening of the instrument body.
• The normal modes of oscillation in the instrument are determined by the condition that no
point on the circumference of the membrane vibrates.
• The instruments frequency calculations involve wave propagation in two dimensions.
Aero phone
• Aero phone is any wind instrument that produces sound primarily by the vibration of standing
waves in the air column within the instrument and not majorly by the vibration of the
instrument itself.
• In an instrument with a piped closed at one end, open end is an antinode and the closed end
is a node.
1 𝜐
• The fundamental frequency is calculated as 𝜈/4𝐿 using the equation 𝑣 = 𝑛 2 (2𝐿 ).
• The higher frequencies are odd harmonics of the fundamental frequency i.e.,3𝜈/4𝐿,5𝜈/4𝐿
and so on..(n=1, 3, 5, 7...).
• In an instrument with an open pipe, both ends of the waves are antinodes.
𝜐
• The fundamental frequency is calculated as 𝑣 = 𝑛 ( ).
2𝐿
• Thus, from the equations, it is clear that, based on the length (L) of the instrument different
tube instruments have different fundamental frequencies.
• In a trumpet, valves are opened to attain different effective lengths and thus different
frequencies.
Flute
• The high-pressure pulse of air travelling down the tube is dragged out of the tube by its
momentum creating a low-pressure region at the exit.
• This drags more air from the inlet forming a high pressure pulse of air.
• Thus, inside the tube, a high-pressure pulse of air move downwards and a low-pressure
pulse of air moves upwards.
• From this, we can say that a pressure wave got reflected at the outlet with a phase change
of 180˚.
• Standing waves in the flute are created due to this phenomenon.
• In an instrument with an open pipe, both ends of the waves are antinodes.
𝜐
• The fundamental frequency is calculated as 𝑣 = 𝑛 (2𝐿 ).
• The length of the tube determines different frequencies.
• Different frequencies of sounds are made into a flute by opening holes to control the
effective distance.
14. RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION OF LIGHT, REFLECTION AND REFRACTION
• In a homogenous transparent medium, light travels in a straight line. This is called
rectilinear propagation of light.
• A light wave travelling from point A to B is called a ray of light and a bundle of such rays
form a beam of light.
• Reflection is the change in direction of a wave at an interface between two
different media so that the wave returns into the medium from which it originated.
• Angle of incidence is the angle between the incident ray and normal to the reflecting
surface.
• Angle of reflection is the angle between the reflected ray and normal to the reflecting
surface.
• Normal to the tangent to the surface at the point of incidence is taken as normal.
• Angle of reflection =Angle of incidence.
• The incident ray, reflected ray and normal lie in the same plane to the incident light.
• The geometric centre of a spherical mirror is called a pole.
• The geometric centre of a lens is called its optical centre.
• The line joining the pole and the centre of curvature of a spherical mirror is called its
principal axis.
• The line joining the optic centre and the principal focus of a spherical lens is called its
principal axis.
Cartesian sign convention
• According to the Cartesian sign convention.
• Distances measured in the same direction as incident light are positive.
• Distances measured in the opposite direction as incident light are negative.
• All measurements are made from pole of the mirror to the principal axis.
• In the case of a lens, all measurements are made from the optic centre to the principal axis.
• Heights measured above x-axis in an upward direction and normal to the principal axis of the
mirror are taken as positive.
• Heights measured upwards above the x-axis and normal to the principal axis of the lens are
taken as positive.
• Heights measured downwards below the x-axis in the case of a lens and mirror is taken as
negative.
Focal length of spherical mirrors
• In concave mirrors, the reflected rays converge at a point F on the principal axis.
• In a convex mirror, the reflected rays appear to diverge from a point F on the principal axis.
• In both cases, the point F is called the principal focus of the mirror.
• If the parallel paraxial beam were incident at an angle with the principal axis, the reflected
rays converge or appear to diverge from a point in a plane through normal to the principal
axis called the focal plane of the mirror.
• The distance between focus F and pole P of the mirror is called focal length of the mirror.
𝑅
Focal length, 𝑓 = 2
R is the radius of curvature of the mirror.
• Mirror equation
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
The mirror equation is given by 𝝊 + 𝒖 = 𝒇
Where 𝝊is the image distance
u is the object distance
f is the focal length of the mirror
Focal length is approximately half the curvature of a mirror, R.
For concave mirror f is negative and for convex mirror f is positive.
• Linear magnification is defined as the ratio of the size of the image (h’) to the size of the
object (h).
m= h’/h= 𝝊/u
Fig: image formed in a concave mirror with object in between P and F
Fig: image formed in a convex mirror with object in between P and F
Position Position Image

Nature
of of size
of
object image image
At At the
Highly Real
infinity focus F
diminished and
inverted
Beyond Between Diminished Real
C F and C and
inverted
At C At C Same size Real
and
inverted
Between Beyond Enlarged Real
C and F C and
inverted
At F At Highly Real
infinity enlarged and
inverted
Between Behind Enlarged Virtual
P and F the and
mirror erect
Fig: Image formation by concave mirror

Position Position Image Nature
of of image size of
object image
At At the Highly Virtual
infinity focus F, diminished and
behind erect
the mirror
Between Between Diminished Virtual
infinity P and F , and
and the behind erect
pole P the mirror
of the
mirror
Fig: Image formation by a convex mirror
Refraction
• Refraction is the bending of a light wave when it passes across the interface between two
media.
• The bending happens due to the change in speed in the two media.
Fig: Figure showing refraction of light

Snell’s law of refraction
• According to Snell’s law, the incident ray, refracted ray and the normal to the interface at the
point of incidence lie in the same plane.
• The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is constant
sin 𝑖
= 𝑛21
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟
𝑛21 is a constant called refractive index of the second medium with respect to the first
medium.
• Angle of incidence (i) is the angle between the incident ray and normal to the refracting
surface.
• Angle of refraction (r) is the angle between the refracted ray and normal to the refracting
surface.
Total internal reflection
• When light passes from an optically denser medium to a rarer medium, some light is
reflected back to the same medium and some light is refracted to the second medium. This
is called internal reflection.
• When light passes from an optically denser medium to a rarer medium, at an angle greater
than the critical angle, the whole light is reflected and no refraction takes place. This is called
total internal reflection.
Examples of total internal reflection
Mirage
• On a hot day, the air becomes hot and less dense and will have a smaller refractive index
than cool air. The optical density of air increases as the height increases if there is no
disturbance in the air.
• The light reflected from a tree or tall object passes through a medium whose optical density
decreases towards the ground.
• A ray of light from such an object will bend successively away from the normal and undergo
total internal reflection if the angle of incidence of the air near the ground exceeds the critical
angle.
• If we look from a distance, the reflection will seem to be from below the ground and will be
mistaken for a pool of is a phenomenon called mirage.
Sparkle of diamond
• Diamonds exhibit their spectacular brilliance by virtue of total internal reflection.
• The critical angle for air- diamond interface is approximately 24.4˚.
• Thus a light beam entering the diamond will undergo multiple internal reflections.
• The natural diamonds are cut at suitable angles to increase the sparkle.
Prism
• Prisms having the capacity to bend light 90˚ or 180˚ make use of total internal reflection.
• The critical angle for the material of the prism is 45˚.
Optical fibers
• For transmission of audio and video signals, optical fibres use the phenomenon of total
internal reflection.
• Optical fibres are made of high-quality composite, glass or quartz.
• A light beam passed into an optical fibre at an angle undergoes total internal reflection and
exit at the other end without loss of intensity.
• Optical fibres act as a light tube. Even if the fibre is bending, light can travel the entire length
of the cable by virtue of total internal reflection.
Refraction at a spherical surface
• An image I of an object O on the principal axis of a spherical surface with the centre of
curvature C and radius of curvature R. The light rays moved from a medium of refractive
index 𝑛1 to 𝑛2 .
𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2 − 𝑛1
− =
𝜐 𝑢 𝑅
This gives the relation between object and image distance with respect to refractive index
where 𝝊 is the image distance
u is the object distance.
Refraction by a lens
Rules of refraction
• Convex lens rules
➢ An incident ray falling in a plane parallel to the principal axis of the lens will refract
through the lens and pass through the focal point which is on the opposite side of the
lens.
➢ An incident ray passing through the focal point of the lens will refract through the lens
and pass parallel to the principal axis.
➢ An incident ray passing through the optic centre of the lens will emerge without a change
in direction after refraction.
• Concave lens rules
➢ Incident ray falling parallel to the principal axis of the lens will refract through the lens and
move in line with the focal point.
➢ An incident ray moving towards the focal point to pass through the lens will refract
through the lens and travel parallel to the principal axis.
➢ An incident ray passing through the optic centre of the lens will emerge without a change
in direction after refraction.
Magnification of the lens
• Magnification is defined as the ratio of a size of the image to the size of the object.
𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝒎 = 𝝊/𝒖
• For an erect and virtual image m is positive.
• For inverted and real image m is negative.
Refraction through a prism
• An incident ray entering glass from air bends towards the normal and the emergent ray
bends away from the normal. The angle between the direction of the incident ray and
emergent ray is called the angle of deviation.
• When the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of emergence angle of deviation is
minimum.
• At minimum deviation (𝐷𝑚 ), the refracted ray inside the prism becomes parallel to its base.
𝐷𝑚 = (𝑛21 − 1)𝐴
Where 𝐷𝑚 is the minimum deviation
𝑛21 is a constant called refractive index of the second medium with respect to the first
medium.
‘A‘ is the sum of the angle of refraction of the incident and emergent faces of the prism.
𝐴 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
• Thus, a prism does not cause much deviation of light.
15. SPHERICAL MIRRORS, LENSES AND HUMAN EYE
Spherical Mirrors
• The geometric centre of a spherical mirror is called its pole while that of a spherical lens is
called its optical center.
• The line joining the pole and centre of curvature of the spherical mirror is known as the
principal axis.
• Focal plane - If the parallel paraxial beam of light were an incident, making some angle with
the principal axis, the reflected rays would converge or diverge from a point in a plane
through F normal to the principal axis.
• Focal length - The distance between the focus F and the pole P of the mirror is called the
focal length of the mirror, denoted by f.
𝑓 = 𝑅/2
where R – radius of curvature of the mirror.
Cartesian sign convention
• Distance measured in the same direction as the incident light is positive; those measured in
the opposite direction are negative.
• All the distances are measured from the pole/ optic center of the mirror/ lens on the principal
axis.
• The heights are taken as positive above the principal axis of the mirror and the heights
measured downwards are taken as negative.
The mirror equation
• Image – point at which the rays emanating from a point actually meet after reflection or
refraction.
• Real images converge to a point, whereas Virtual images appear to diverge from the point
when produced backwards.
1 1 1
+𝑢=𝑓
𝑣
where u and v are object and image distances respectively
f is the focal length of the mirror
f is positive for a convex mirror.
• Linear magnification, m = h’ (height of the image)/ h (height of the object).
Spherical lens
• The principal axis is the line joining the optical center with its principal focus.
• Thin lens formula
1 1 1
− =
𝜐 𝑢 𝑓
where 𝝊 is the image distance
u is the object distance, f is the focal length.
• Lens makers formula
1 𝑛2 − 𝑛1 1 1
= [ − ]
𝑓 𝑛1 𝑅1 𝑅2
R1 and R2 are the radii of curvature of the lens, f is the focal length, 𝑛2 is the refractive
index of medium 2 and 𝑛1 is the refractive index of medium 1.
Power of lens
• The power of a lens is defined as the tangent of the angle by which it converges or diverges
a beam of light falling at unit distance from the optical centre.
1
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑠, 𝑃 =
𝑓
• The SI unit of power is dioptre (D).
1𝐷 = 1𝑚/𝑠
• The power of a lens of focal length 1metre is 1 D.
• The power is positive for convergent lens and negative for divergent.
• Combination of thin lenses in contact
• If several thin lenses of focal length f1,f2,f3….are in contact, their effective focal length will
be
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + +⋯
𝒇 𝒇𝟏 𝒇𝟐 𝒇𝟑
• The total power of a combination of lenses will be
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝑷 = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 + 𝑷𝟑 + ⋯
The eye
• Light enters the eye through the cornea (a curved front surface) and passing through the
pupil (the central hole in the iris) thereby focused by the eye lens on the retina.
• The eye has a convex lens of focal length about 2.5 cm.
Retina
• It is a film of nerve fibres covering the curved back surface of the eye.
• It contains rods and cones which sense light intensity and colour.
• Transmit electrical signals via the optic nerve to the brain which finally process the
information.
• Accommodation – The property of the eye to modify the shape and therefore the focal length
of the lens by the ciliary muscles.
• The closest distance for which the lens can focus light on the retina is called the least
distance of distinct vision or nearest point.
• The standard value of normal vision is 25 cm.
• Presbyopia - Defect of the eye in which the image appears blurred and is corrected using a
converging lens for reading.
• Myopia – the light from a distant object arriving at the eye–lens may get converged at a point
in front of the retina.
• If the eye –lens focuses the incoming light at a point behind the retina, a convergent lens is
needed to compensate for the defect in vision, the defect is called farsightedness or
hypermetropia.
• Astigmatism – When the cornea is not spherical in shape, it results in lines in one direction
being well focused while those in a perpendicular direction may appear distorted. It can be
corrected by using a cylindrical lens of the desired radius of curvature with an appropriately
directed axis.
16. NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL MAGNETS, PROPERTIES OF A MAGNET, EARTH AS A
MAGNET
Natural and Artificial Magnets
• Lodestone (or loadstone) is a naturally occurring ore of iron-magnetite meaning leading
stone.
• Artificial magnets are made out of iron and its alloys.
Properties of a Magnet
• When a magnet is freely suspended, it points in the north-south direction.
• The tip, which points to the geographic north is called the North Pole and the tip which points
to the geographic south is called the south pole of the magnet.
• There is a repulsive force when north poles (or south poles) of two magnets are brought
close together. Conversely, there is an attractive force between the north pole of one
magnet and the south pole of the other.
• Cutting a bar magnet in two leads to two smaller magnets.
• Magnetic poles cannot be isolated.
Earth as a Magnet
• The earth behaves as a magnet with the magnetic field pointing south to north.
• The magnetic field arises due to electrical currents produced by the convective motion of
metallic fluids in the outer core of the earth. This is known as the dynamo effect.
• The earth’s magnetic field is like a magnetic dipole located at the centre of the earth.
• The location of the north magnetic pole is at a latitude of 79.74º N and a longitude of 71.8ºW
, a place somewhere in northern Canada.
• The magnetic south pole is at 79.74º S, 108.22º E in the Antarctica.
• The pole near the geographic north pole of the earth is called the north magnetic pole, and
the pole near the South Pole is called the south magnetic pole.
• The earth’s magnetic field varies from point to point in space.
• The magnitude of the field at the earth’s surface 4 × 10–5 T.
• The angle between the true geographic north and the north shown by a compass needle is
called the magnetic declination.
• The declination is greater at higher latitudes and smaller near the equator.
• Dip is the angle that the total magnetic field BE of the earth makes with the surface of the
earth.
• Three quantities are needed to specify the magnetic field of the earth on its surface –the
magnetic declination D, the angle of dip or the inclination I and the horizontal component of
the earth’s field HE. These are known as the element of the earth’s magnetic field.
𝑍𝑒 = 𝐵𝐸 𝑆𝑖𝑛
𝐻𝐸 = 𝐵𝐸 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑙
𝑍𝐸
𝑇𝑎𝑛 𝑙 =
𝐻𝐸
17. STATIC AND CURRENT ELECTRICITY, CONDUCTORS AND NON-CONDUCTORS

OHM’S LAW, SIMPLE ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
Static and Current Electricity
• Static electricity is the frictional electricity in which the forces, fields and potentials arise from
static charges.
• Charges in motion constitute an electric current.
• Current through a given area of a conductor is the net charge passing per unit time through
the area.
• To maintain a steady current, we must have a closed circuit in which an external agency
moves electric charge from lower to higher potential energy.
Conductors
• Substances which allow electricity to pass through them easily are called conductors.
• Conductors contain mobile charge carriers.
• They contain electrons that are free to move inside the material.
• When some charge is transferred to a conductor, it readily gets distributed over the entire
surface of the conductor.
• Metals, human and animal bodies and earth are conductors.
• In metals, the mobile charges are electrons; in electrolytes both positive and negative ions
are mobile. Metals have low resistivity, in the range of 10 -8  to 10-6 m.
• When we bring a charged body in contact with the earth, all the excess charge on the body
disappears by causing a momentary current to pass to the ground through the connecting
conductor. This process of passing charges to the earth is called grounding or earthing.
• Earthing provides a safety measure for electrical circuits and appliances.
Non-conductors
• Substances which offer high resistance to the passage of electricity through them are called
insulators or non-conductors.
• Most of the non-metals like glass, porcelain, plastic, nylon, wood, are non-conductors.
• Insulators like glass and rubber have 10 22 to 1024 times greater resistivity.
Ohm’s Law
• Ohm’s law states that
𝑉∝𝐼
𝑉 = 𝑅𝐼
where the constant of proportionality R is called the resistance of the conductor.
• The SI units of resistance is ohm, and it is denoted by the symbol.
• The resistance R not only depends on the material of the conductor but also on the
dimensions of the conductor.
• Doubling the length of a conductor doubles the resistance.
• Resistance is proportional to length, i.e.,
𝑅∝𝑙
• Halving the area of the cross-section of a conductor doubles the resistance.

• Resistance R is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area,
1
𝑅∝
𝐴
• For a given conductor,
𝑙
𝑅=𝜌
𝐴
where the constant of proportionality  depends on the material of the conductor but not on
its dimensions.  is called resistivity.
𝐼𝜌𝑙
𝑉 =𝐼×𝑅 =
𝐴
𝑙
• Current per unit area, 𝐴 is called current density and is denoted by j.
• The SI units of the current density are A/m2.
• If E is the magnitude of a uniform electric field in the conductor whose length is l, then the
potential difference V across Its ends is El.
𝐸𝑙 = 𝑗𝜌𝑙
𝐸 = 𝑗𝜌
𝐸𝑗 = 𝜎𝐸
1
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜎 = 𝜌 is called the conductivity.
Limitations of Ohm’s law
• Ohm’s law is obeyed by many substances, but it is not a fundamental law of nature. It fails if
➢ V depends on I non-linearly.
➢ The relation between V and I depends on the sign of V. eg, rectifier.
➢ The relation between V and I is not unique. A material exhibiting such behaviour is gas.
Simple Electrical Circuits
• A simple electric circuit consists of a power source (cell) and a resistor.
• They are devices in which a controlled flow of electrons can be obtained.
• Heat is produced in the resistor R which is connected across the terminals of a cell.
• The energy dissipated in the resistor R comes from the chemical energy of the electrolyte.
• A steady current can be maintained using a closed circuit in which an external agency
moves electric charge from lower to higher potential energy.
18. HEATING, LIGHTING AND MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF CURRENT
Heating Effects of Current
• Heating effect of the current causes a rise in temperature. This will cause an increase in
resistance and a slight decrease in current.
• When the current through the element is very small, heating effects can be ignored.
• This heating effect of the current is effectively utilized in an electric toaster which uses
nichrome for its heating element.
• When the toaster is connected to the supply, its initial current will be slightly higher than its
steady value. But the heating effect causes a slight decrease in the current. In a few
seconds, a steady state will be reached when temperatures will rise no further, and both the
resistance of the element and the current drawn will achieve steady values.
• The steady temperature of the heating element is achieved when the heating effect due to
the current equals heat loss to the surroundings.
Lighting Effects of Current
• When a steady current is passed through a conductor with the help of an external source
supplying power, the power heats up the conductor thus radiating heat and light. This is
called the lighting effect of current.
Magnetic Effects of Current
• Moving charges or currents produce a magnetic field in the surrounding space.
• Magnetic field exerts force on moving charged particles, like electrons, protons, and current-
carrying wires.
• The total force exerted on a charge q moving with velocity v by the magnetic and electric
fields B and E, respectively is called the Lorentz force.
𝐹 = 𝑞(𝑣 × 𝐵 + 𝐸)
• The magnetic force, on a current-carrying conductor, is
𝑭 = 𝒍𝟏 × 𝑩
where l is a vector and l is the length of the rod.
• In the case of motion of a charge in a magnetic field, the magnetic force is perpendicular to
the velocity of the particle. So no work is done and no change in the magnitude of the
velocity is produced.
• When a charged particle moves in a uniform magnetic field, the perpendicular force, q v × B,
acts as a centripetal force and produces a circular motion perpendicular to the magnetic
field.
𝑚𝑣
𝑟=
𝑞𝐵
where 𝑟 is the radius of the circle described by the charged particle.
• The larger the momentum, the larger is the radius and bigger the circle described.
• If is the angular frequency, then 𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟
𝑞𝐵
2𝜋𝜐 =
𝑚
Where  is independent of the velocity or energy. Here  is the frequency of rotation.
• If there is a component of the velocity parallel to the magnetic field (denoted by 𝑣11 ), it will
make the particles move along the field and the path of the particle would be a helical one.
• The distance moved along the magnetic field in one rotation is called pitch p.
𝑝 = 𝜐11 𝑇 = 2𝜋𝜐11 /𝑄𝑏
• The time for one revolution of an ion is independent of its speed/radius of its orbit.
• The cyclotron is a machine to accelerate charged particles or ions to high energies.
• The cyclotron uses both electric and magnetic fields in combination to increase the charge of
energy particles. As the fields are perpendicular to each other they are called crossed fields.
• A Cyclotron uses the fact that the frequency of revolution of the charged particle in a
magnetic field is independent of its energy.
𝜐𝑐 = 𝑄𝑏2𝜋𝑚
This frequency is called the cyclotron frequency and is denoted by c.
• The operation of the cyclotron is based on the fact that the time for one revolution of an ion
is independent of its speed or radius of its orbit.
• The cyclotron is used to bombard nuclei with energetic particles, so accelerated by it, and
study the resulting nuclear reactions. It is also used to implant ions into solids and modify
their properties or even synthesize new materials. It is used in hospitals to produce
radioactive substances which can be used in diagnosis and treatment.
• All magnetic fields are due to currents and due to intrinsic magnetic moments of the
particles.
• According to Biot-Savart’s law, the magnitude of the magnetic field dB is proportional to the
current I, the element length |dl|, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance r.
Its direction is perpendicular to the plane containing dl and r.
𝜇0 𝑑𝑙 × 𝑟
𝑑𝐵 = 𝐼
4𝜋 𝑟3
• To obtain the total field at P, we must integrate this vector expression over the entire length
of the conductor.
• The magnitude of the magnetic field due to a circular coil of radius R carrying a current I at
an axial distance x from the centre is
𝜇0 𝐼𝑅2
𝐵=
2(𝑥 2 + 𝑅2 )3/2
At the center, this reduces to
𝜇0𝐼
𝐵=
2𝑅
• Right-hand thumb rule states that when the palm of the right hand is curled around the
circular wire with the fingers pointing in the direction of the current, the right-hand thumb
gives the direction of the magnetic field.
• Ampere’s law states that this integral is equal to μ0 times the total current passing through
the surface, i.e.,
∫ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼
Where I is the total current through the surface.
• The magnetic field at a distance R from a long, straight wire carrying a current I, is
𝜇0𝐼
𝐵=
2𝜋𝑅
The field lines are circles concentric with the wire.
• A Solenoid consists of a long wire where the neighbouring turns are closely spaced and
each turn is considered a circular loop. Enameled wires are used for winding so that turns
are insulated from each other.
• The magnitude of the field B inside a long solenoid carrying a current I is
𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼
where n is the number of turns per unit length.
• The toroid is a hollow circular ring on which a large number of turns of a wire is closely
wound,
𝜇0 𝑛𝐼
𝐵=
2𝜋𝑟
where N is the total number of turns and r is the average radius.
• Parallel currents attract and anti-parallel currents repel.
• A planar loop carrying a current I, having N closely wound turns, and area A has a magnetic
moment,
𝑵
𝒎=
𝑨
When this loop is placed in a uniform magnetic field B, the force F on it is:𝐹 = 0
And the torque on it is,
𝝉=𝒎×𝑩
• In a moving coil galvanometer, this torque is balanced by a counter torque due to a spring,
yielding
𝑘𝜙 = 𝑁𝐼𝐴𝐵
where φ is the equilibrium deflection and k the torsion constant of the spring.
• A rectangular loop carrying a steady current I and placed in a uniform magnetic field
experiences a torque. It does not experience a net force.
• All magnetism is due to circulating currents.
• An electron moving around the central nucleus has a magnetic moment 𝜇1 given by:
𝑒
𝜇1 = 𝑙
2𝑚
where l is the magnitude of the angular momentum of the circulating electron about the
central nucleus. The smallest value of μ l is called the Bohr Magneton μB and it is
𝜇𝐵 = 9.27 × 10−24 𝐽/𝑇
• A moving coil galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by introducing a shunt
resistance of small value in parallel and into a voltmeter using a resistance of a large value
in the series.
19. UMEASUREMENT OF ELECTRICAL POWER
• Electric power is the rate at which electric energy is delivered to a circuit.
• Electric power is measured in watts using a wattmeter.
1𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
1𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 =
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
1 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 = 1000 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
1 𝑚𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 = 1000𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
• According to Blondal, measurement of electric power requires (n-1) number of wattmeters,
where n is the number of lines in the circuit.
• For a DC circuit, electric power is written mathematically in simple terms as
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 × 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝐼 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑑𝑐 = 𝐼𝑅 × 𝐼
= 𝐼2𝑅
𝑉2
=
𝑅
• For an AC circuit, electric power is written mathematically in simple terms as
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
= 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 × 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 × 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
• Electric power in a single phase AC circuit is given by
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑉 × 𝐼 × 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
Where Cos𝜙 is the power factor
• Electric power in a single phase AC circuit is given by
𝑃𝑎𝑐 = √3 × 𝑉𝐿 × 𝐼𝐿 × 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
Here 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ is the power factor, VL is the line voltage and IL is the line current.
• The power dissipated is the energy dissipated per unit time.
∆𝑊
𝑃=
∆𝑡
𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉
𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑂ℎ𝑚′ 𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝑉2
𝑃 = 𝐼2𝑅 =
𝑅
as the power loss (“ohmic loss”) in a conductor of resistance R carrying a current I.
• Power heats up radiating out heat and light.
• An external source is needed to supply power and keep a steady current through the
conductor.
• Electrical power is transmitted from power stations to homes and factories, which may be
hundreds of miles away, via transmission cables.
• From equation,
𝑃2 𝑅𝑐
𝑃𝑐 = 2
𝑉
It is understood that, to drive a device of power P, the power wasted in the connecting wires
is inversely proportional to V2.
• To reduce Pc, the wires carry current at enormous values of V and this is the reason for the
high voltage danger signs on transmission lines. Using electricity at such voltages is not
safe, hence, a device called a transformer lowers the voltage to a value suitable for use.
20. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CELLS
Primary cell
• Primary cells contain two rods of different metals in it, known as plates or electrodes and the
chemical solution in which these electrodes are immersed is known as electrolytes.
• The battery cannot be reused again as the reaction occurs only once in the cell.
• The chemical reaction is non-reversible.
• These directly convert chemical energy into electrical energy.
• It is less constantly lightweight and maintenance free.
• These cannot be recharged.
• Their EMF is lower, the internal resistance is higher and has lower capacity.
• Example; dry cell, Daniel cell, cadmium cell, Leclanche cell, etc.
• A dry cell which is used commonly in transistors and clocks.
• It consists of a zinc container (anode) and a carbon (graphite) rod surrounded
by powdered manganese dioxide and carbon (cathode). The space between the electrodes
is filled with a moist paste of ammonium chloride (𝑁𝐻4 𝐶𝑙) and zinc chloride (𝑧𝑛𝑐𝑙2 )).
• Anode : Zn(s) → Zn2+ + 2e-
Cathode: MnO2+ NH4+ + e- → MnO (OH) + NH3.
• In the reaction at the cathode, manganese is reduced from the oxidation state in the +3
state. The ammonia produced in the reaction forms a complex with Zn 2+ to give
[𝑧𝑛(𝑁𝐻3 )4 ]2+ .The cell has a potential of nearly 1.5 V.
• Mercury cell, suitable for low current devices like hearing aids, watches, etc. consists of zinc
– mercury amalgam as anode and a paste of HgO and carbon as the cathode. The
electrolyte is a paste of KOH and ZnO.
• Zn (Hg) + HgO(s) → ZnO(s) + Hg (l).
• The cell potential is approximately 1.35 V and remains constant during its life as the overall
reaction does not involve any ion in solution whose concentration can change during its
lifetime.
Secondary cell
• The device in which electric energy is stored in the form of chemical energy, is known as
secondary cell or battery or accumulator.
• Secondary cells are of two types -
(a) Lead accumulator or acidic cell.
(b) Ni-Fe accumulator or basic cell.
• Electrical energy is first stored in the form of chemical energy and then it again gets
converted into electrical energy on drawing current from them.
• The chemical reaction is reversible.
• A secondary cell can be reused by recharging after exhaustion.
• Recharging is done by passing electric current in the opposite direction.
• A good secondary cell can undergo a large number of discharging and charging cycles.
• Secondary cell is constantly heavy and requires maintenance.
(c) Its EMF is higher, the internal resistance is lower and has greater capacity.
(d) Example – lead accumulator, Edison cell, etc.
(e) The lead storage battery is commonly used in automobiles and invertors. It consists of a
lead anode and a grid of lead packed with lead dioxide as the cathode. A 38% solution of
Sulphuric acid is used as an electrolyte.
(f) 𝑝𝑏(𝑠) + 𝑝𝑏𝑜2 (𝑠) + 2𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 (𝑎𝑞 ) → 2𝑝𝑏𝑆𝑂4 + 2𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙 ).
(g) On charging the battery, PbSO4(s) is converted into Pb (anode) and PbO2 (cathode).
(h) Another important secondary cell is the nickel cadmium cell which has a longer life than
the lead storage cell but more expensive to manufacture.
(i) )𝑐𝑑(𝑠) + 2𝑁𝑖(𝑂𝐻)3 (𝑠) → 𝑐𝑑𝑂(𝑠) + 2𝑁𝑖(𝑂𝐻)2 (𝑠) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
21. USE OF X-RAYS
X-rays
• X-rays are electromagnetic waves.
• The wavelength of X-rays is in the range of 0.1 to 100 A.
• The frequencies are in the range of 1016 to 1018 Hz.
• X-rays are produced in a Coolidge tube.
• The tube consists of an evacuated chamber with a tungsten filament that emits electrons on
heating by electric current.
• The electrons, when allowed to hit a tungsten or molybdenum metal target, it emits X-rays.
• The intensity of the X-rays depends on the voltage of the filament.
• The energy of the X- ray is given by the equation 𝐸 = ℎ𝑐/𝜆 where h is the Planck’s constant,
c is the speed of light, λ is the wavelength.
• The wavelength of the X-ray is given by the equation λ=hc/eV where h is the Planck’s
constant, c is the speed of light, e is the electric charge and V the potential difference across
the tube.
• The quality of the X-rays is determined by its wavelength.
• The frequency of X-rays is given by the equation 𝑉 = 𝑎(𝑍 − 𝑏)2 where Z is the atomic
number of the element, a and b are constants.
• The intensity of X-rays can be controlled by varying the electric supply to the cathode.
• X-rays are absorbed as they pass through different substances.
• The absorption is governed by the equation
𝐼 = I0 e−μt
where I0 is the intensity of the incident ray
I is the intensity of emergent ray
t is the time taken
μ is the absorption coefficient.
• The equation can also be written as
𝐼 = I0 e−μx
Where x is the thickness of the material.
• X- rays undergo diffraction by crystals.
• The diffraction follows Bragg’s law which is given by the equation
2𝑑𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
Where θ is the angle of diffraction
d is the distance between crystal planes
n=1, 2, 3….
Uses of X-rays
Medicine
• In medicine, X-rays are used in the detection of breakage in the bones.
• X-rays are also used for diagnosis of diseases in soft tissue.
• X-rays of frequency 7x108Hz are used in X-ray imaging.
• Hard X-rays or high-frequency X-rays are used in radiology.
• Soft X- rays are absorbed by the body.
• Soft X-rays are filtered out before the diagnostic procedure to avoid unnecessary radiation
damage.
• Soft tissues with less density absorb less and form darkened shadows.
• X-ray imaging of bones gives very high-resolution images.
• Attenuation is a measure of absorption of X-rays by an object. Attenuation increases with
increase in atomic density.
• Hence hard X-rays pass through the body bones absorb more rays and cast a shadow on
the X-ray film.
• For imaging of soft body tissues, a contrast medium is administered before imaging.
• The contrast medium absorbs more X-rays and gives a high-resolution image.
• This is particularly helpful in CAT (Computer Axial Tomography) scans where several X-rays
are taken from different angles and merged together using a computer to get desired
images.
• Fluoroscopy is the real time video imaging using X-rays. This is used to image an instrument
inserted as in angioplasty or study organ like intestinal tract.
• X-rays are also used in mammography, dental X-rays and calculation of bone density.
Security systems
• The most commonly used X-ray systems in security are cabinet screens and walk through
screens.
• Both cases use a continuous stream of low dose X-rays radiations which bounce off people
or objects for screening.
• The X-rays from the security screen is backscattered from the body into a series of radiation
detectors, and creates an image of the subject’s body, showing any items concealed under
the clothing.
• These systems use a fixed peak voltage and current and are 50kV and 5mA respectively.
• The low dose of X-rays makes it safer to use multiple times and there is no limitations on the
amount of radiation acceptable per year.
• CT (Computerized Tomography) machines are also used to scan luggage and cargo.
• X- rays are also used to kill possible biological agents sent through the mail. This uses high
dose X-ray beams.
Astronomy
• X-rays are used in astronomy to study the X-rays emitted by celestial bodies.
• The X-ray detecting instruments have to be sent up the earth’s atmosphere by balloons or
rockets to make the observations.
• X-ray telescopes are used in imaging of celestial bodies.
• The first X-ray telescope was used to image the Sun.
• X-ray mirrors help in determining the direction of an X-ray falling on it.
Industries
Food industry
• In food industry, X-rays are used to detect the difference in densities of large quantities of
food products.
• X-ray cameras positioned over the conveyor belt scans the food products moving in line.
• The X- ray transparent images obtained by the peripherals are used to identify any defects
or contamination.
Sorting and recycling industry
• X-rays are used to visualize the internal structure of packages for sorting for recycling.
• X- rays are used to detect the internal structure of fruits for spoilage or damage.
• Such early detection of production site considerably reduces the cost of transportation and
finished product costs.
• It is used to detect the different types of plastic for recycling and it is very hectic to do
manually.
• X-rays are used in grading. In Herring fish, females contain hard roe or egg mass that is a
delicacy. X-rays help in sorting male and female herrings.
Tire manufacturing industry
• X-rays are used to check the quality of a finished brand new tire.
• It is also used to check the internal structure of a tire before retreating.
Manufacturing industry
• In manufacturing industries, the X- ray imaging is used in quality control.
• The three dimensional X-ray imaging helps in ensuring high product quality.
• It also helps in detecting internal defects of the product.
• Electronic product inspection
• X-rays are used in quality control and failure analysis of electronic components and systems.
• X-ray inspection is done throughout the production line to ensure quality.
• Art
• X-rays are used to authenticate paintings.
• The nature of the origin of a painting can be traced using an X-ray to detect the types of
paper, changes in the art, materials, preparatory sketches etc.
• X-rays also detect traces of minerals or metals in the paintings which help in tracing the
origin.
• X-rays can also reveal chipped off parts of paintings which needs retouching for restoration.
Research
• X-rays are used to visualize fingerprint from crime scenes.
• X-rays are used in various spectrometric techniques.
22. GENERAL PRINCIPLES IN THE WORKING OF THE FOLLOWING: SIMPLE
PENDULUM, SIMPLE PULLEYS, SIPHON, LEVERS, BALLOON, PUMPS, HYDROMETER,
PRESSURE COOKER, THERMOS FLASK, GRAMOPHONE, TELEGRAPHS, TELEPHONE,
PERISCOPE, TELESCOPE, MICROSCOPE, MARINER’S COMPASS
SIMPLE PENDULUM
• A simple pendulum is an apparatus with a weight called bob attached to a rigid support with
the help of an inextensible flexible string.
• The point of attachment of the string to the support is called a point of suspension or pivot
point.
• The distance between the point of suspension and the centre of gravity of the bob is called
length of the pendulum.
• The Bob is free to swing to and fro in a plane, to left and right through a vertical line passing
through the pivot point.
• The forces acting on the bob are T, the tension of the string and Fg, the force of gravity.
• The string makes an angle θ with the vertical.
Fig: A simple pendulum
• The gravitational force has a radial component and tangential components.

• The radial component is cancelled by the tension of the string.
• The tangential component produces the restoring force about the pivot point of the
pendulum.
• This torque acts opposite to the displacement to bring the Bob back to the equilibrium
position or a central location.
• The angular acceleration of the pendulum is given by the equation
𝑚𝑔𝐿
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝛼 = − 𝜃
𝐼
where mg= force, L is the length of the string, I is the rotational inertia, θ is the angle that the
string makes with the vertical.
• From the equation, the angular acceleration of the pendulum is proportional to the angular
displacement θ but is opposite in sign. Thus, as the pendulum moves to the right, it pulls to
the left increases until it stops and returns to right and vice versa. This continues in simple
harmonic motion.
• Thus, a simple pendulum undergoes simple harmonic motion. Simple harmonic motion is the
motion of an object subjected to a force which is proportional to the displacement and
directed towards the mean position.
𝑙
The time period of the pendulum, 𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝑔.
1 1 𝑔
Frequency 𝜈 = 𝑇 = 2𝜋 √ 𝑙
Simple Pulleys
Pulley
• Pulleys are simple machines with a rope passing through a disc called a block. The main
function of a pulley is to change the direction of the tension force in the rope
• The working principle of the pulley is that when one end of a rope is pulled downwards, the
load on the other end is pulled upwards.
• The theory of operation of a pulley system assumes that
➢ The pulleys are weightless.
➢ The ropes are weightless.
➢ There is no friction during operation and hence no energy loss.
➢ As the number of pulleys increases, it is easier to pull a weight.
➢ As the number of pulleys increases, and the greater the distance to pull, it is easier to lift
an object.
• Using pulleys reduce the force needed to pull an object.
• To lift an object the force needed
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔
• When using a pulley the force needed to lift the weight is distributed between the tension of
the string attaching the pulley (T) and the tension of the rope gripped in hand (F).
• Since there are two forces (F and T) pulling the weight.
𝑚𝑔
2𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝐹 =
2
• Thus, one has to apply only half the force to lift a weight when using a pulley than lifting
without a pulley.
Fig: A simple pulley

Siphon
• With the help of a tube or pipe liquids can be made to flow from the higher level to the lower
level without using a pump. This tube or pipe is called siphon.
• Liquids flow down the tube under the gravitational force.
• The pull on the surface of liquids to flow from higher to a lower altitude is known as
siphoning.
• Siphon allows liquids to flow uphill, above the surface of the tank or reservoir, without
pumps.
• The liquid sucked out of the reservoir is discharged at a level lower than the surface of the
reservoir.
• Siphon is usually a ‘U’ shaped tube.
• The tube is filled at first with a priming pump.
• Gravity pulls down at the taller column of water generating an atmospheric pressure lesser
than other parts of the siphon.
• The pull causes a mass of water to enter the tube and flow upward.
• This is equal to the mass of water flowing downwards and leaving the tube.
• A siphon draws the liquid out of the reservoir until the level of the tube or pipe falls below
the intake of the liquid.
• Siphoning continues till the level of the reservoir reaches the level of the outlet of a siphon.
Levers
• A lever is a simple machine consisting of a fulcrum or pivot point and two load arms. One of
the arms is called a force arm and the other one is called a load arm.
• The relationship of the loads balanced on the lever is drawn based on assumptions that
(1) There is no friction between the bar and the fulcrum
(2) There are no external forces acting on the lever that throws it off balance.
• If two loads of masses M1 and M2 are balanced on a lever, then we can say M1=M2.
Fig: Simple lever

• If the loads are not equal, then the relation of equivalence is given by the equation.
𝑀1 𝑎 = 𝑀2 𝑏
where M1 and M2 are the masses on either side of the lever, a is the distance from the
fulcrum to M1,b is the distance from the fulcrum to the M2.
• In the equation if a=2b
𝑀1 2𝑏 = 𝑀2 𝑏
1
𝑀1 = 𝑀2
2
• The components of a lever can be combined together in three basic ways - Class 1, 2 and 3.
➢ Class 1- This is a configuration where the fulcrum is in between the input and output
forces.
➢ Class 2 - The resistance comes between the input force and the fulcrum (e.g.:
wheelbarrow, bottle opener).
➢ Class 3-The fulcrum and resistance are on either end, with the effort in between the two
(e.g.: tweezers).
• Mechanical advantage of the lever
𝑎 𝐹0
=
𝑏 𝐹𝑖
where 𝐹0 is the output force and 𝐹𝑖 is the input force.
➢ The mechanical advantage of the class 2lever. Here a<b and hence the mechanical
advantage is always greater than 1.
➢ The mechanical advantage of the class 3lever. Here a>b and hence the mechanical
advantage is always less than 1.
Balloon
• A hot air balloon is made up of a large balloon or envelope with a suspended wicker basket.
• In the basket is a burner which heats the air in the envelope.
• The principle of hot air balloon is the buoyancy created by hot air which generates the lift to
be airborne.
• The buoyant force acting on the balloon is equal to the weight of the cooler surrounding air
displaced by the hot air balloon.
• The hot air in the balloon was less dense than the surrounding cool air and hence the
buoyant force generated will be greater and can lift the balloon, people and equipment along
with it.
• For an object to remain stable, the centre of mass G must be below the centre of buoyancy.
This is true in the case of the balloon and hence remains.
• The balloon is lowered either by switching off the burner or releasing hot air through a vent,
thereby increasing the density of air in the balloon.
• Altitude is maintained by the intermittent firing of the burner and sideward movement is by
wind.
• The balloon stays inflated because it has a higher pressure than the surrounding air.
• The net buoyant force of a hot air balloon is defined as the difference in the air densities
inside and outside the balloon multiplied by the balloon volume.
𝐹𝐵,𝑛𝑒𝑡 = (𝐴𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 − 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟) 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒.
Pump
• Pumps are used to raise or transfer fluids- either liquids or gases.
• A centrifugal pump has a casing surrounding the mechanical parts.

• An impeller exerts fast rotary motion causing water to spin, generating centrifugal force that
channels it through a discharge outlet.
• The water discharge creates a temporary vacuum to atmospheric pressure to force more
water out of the casing.
• The pumping is a continuous process working on a constant supply of water and rotary
motion.
Hydrometer
• A hydrometer is an instrument used to measure density of liquids.
• It is made of glass and consists of a glass bulb filled with mercury or lead shot to keep it
afloat and a graduated scale.
• Hydrometers work on Archimedes principle
• The weight of the hydrometer is adjusted such that a reading of 1.000 is exactly equal to the
weight of the hydrometer.
• The mass of the displaced fluid is equal to the mass of the hydrometer and hence it will float.
• When a fluid denser than water is measured, the hydrometer will rise higher.
• The measuring scale of the hydrometer will move higher or lower in a fluid depending on its
density.
• The fluid displaced is the volume of the hydrometer times the density of the fluid.
Pressure cooker
• The working of a pressure cooker is based on the simple principle that water boils at 100°C
at an atmospheric pressure of 1atm at sea level.
• When the pressure is lowered, water will boil at a lower temperature. At higher altitudes,
water will boil at a temperature of just 90°C.
• Similarly, at a higher pressure, higher temperatures will be needed to boil water.
• The change in boiling temperature of water at different pressures depends on the vapour
pressure.
• In other words, based on the amount of pressure, the energy needed for the water
molecules to escape and trigger the boiling process will be higher or lower.
• In a pressure cooker, the pressure is raised above the external atmospheric pressure by
heating the moisture in the vessel. A safety valve releases the excess vapour at a point
before the explosion. This creates a point of “equilibrium”.
• The pressure inside a pressure cooker is usually in the range of 2atm which makes water
boil at 120˚ C or above.
• Thus, food will cook faster than boiling at 100˚ C in an open vessel.
• The pressure is maintained at a steady state in the cooker by the generation of steam. This
can be expressed by the ideal gas law 𝑝𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 where temperature, volume and pressure
are balanced.
Thermos flask
• A thermos flask is an insulated container with a screw cap on the top.
• A thermos flask is also called a vacuum flask.
• The flask has an inner and outer chamber with a vacuum and reflecting layer in between.
• In glass type vacuum flask has an inner chamber and outer metal or plastic cover separated
by two layers of glass with a reflective metal layer and a vacuum in between.
• The thermos flask works by being super insulated and avoiding all forms of heat transfer.
• The vacuum in the flask prevents conduction.
• The tight stopper prevents convection. Air movement in and out of the flask is prevented to
avoid heat loss by convection.
• Radiation is also not allowed to transfer heat from the liquid. The reflective lining of the liquid
containing inner chamber reflects back any infrared radiations escaping from the hot liquid.
• Thus, it is not possible for heat to escape from a flask for long periods of time and the liquid
stays hot.
• Similarly, cool liquids can also be kept in a vacuum flask without losing cold.
• The flask prevents the hot air outside from entering the flask.
• The tight stopper prevents convection.
• The vacuum prevents conduction.
• The reflective lining prevents radiation.
• Over a period of time, the liquid in the flask gets to room temperature due to leakage mostly
through the stopper.
Gramophone
• Gramophone is an audio device which playback recorded music.
• The turntable is an aluminum spindle with a rubber pad that keeps records in place and
isolates vibrations on turning of the disc.
• Gramophone playback sound from a record disc.
• The record disc had small grooves which represented music.
• A small needle made of steel or copper called stylus which fits into the groove in the record
read the musical notes.
• The stylus is attached to a diaphragm, which in turn is attached to a horn.
• A motor is driven by spring turn the record.
• The turning of record causes the stylus to go back and forth reading the record.
• The sound is created when the vibrations from the record causes the diaphragm to vibrate.
• The sound produced is channeled to the horn.
• The horn works by acoustic impedance matching.
• The sound reproduced at the narrow end is limited to a small area which gives high
impedance for the reproduction.
• And as the sound moves through the horn it spreads out, and the wave pressure drops.
• Thus, the horn produces an amplified sound.
Telegraph
• A "telegraph" is a long distance communication device.
• A telegraph key is simply a switch in an electric circuit which turns on an electric current.
• This early communication system has operators at the sending and receiving stations.
• The operator at the sending station taps down operator keys that closes the electronic circuit
and sends a signal through the telegraph lines or wires to the receiver.
• The signal reaches the receiver’s end, activates an electromagnet that pulls down the key
completing the circuit at the receiver station.
• Tapping the keys or pushing releasing the key on the instrument in the sender's station
allows current to flow or be interrupted in pulses. This series of pulses is called Morse Code.
• For specific letters of the alphabet, Morse code has a specific pattern of dots and dashes
assigned to it.
• Other modifications of the instrument had the circuit of the electric current powering an
indicator dial or pointer machine, or an electric 'sounder' or a buzzer or device printing on
paper tape.
• Each character in a telegraph message is made up of many elementary signals.
• The most easily recognized example of is dot-dot-dot, dash-dash-dash, dot-dot-dot, or SOS.
• The transmission speed of telegraph is calculated by the number of elementary signals
transmitted per sec.
• The number of characters transmitted per minute is calculated using the formula
𝑉60
𝑊=
𝑛
V is the transmission speed in bauds
n is the number of elementary signals per character.
• The number of words transmitted per hour is given by the equation
𝑊60 3600𝑉
𝑄𝑡𝑒𝑜 = =
𝑛 𝑚𝑛
Where m is the average word length
V is the transmission speed in bauds
n is the number of elementary signals per character
W is the number of characters transmitted per minute
Q teo is the theoretically calculated value and it may vary from the actual considering the
time the operator spends on other auxiliary operations.
Telephone
• Telephone is an instrument used to transmit sound from source to very long distances.
• Landline phones operate at frequencies between 300 Hz and 3.4k Hz as most of the human
sound energy is within this range.
• Telephone is equipped with a microphone or mouthpiece, a speaker or an earpiece and a
main component with a numbered dial.
• Telephone works by the principle of electromagnetism.
• Sound waves received in a telephone are converted into electrical oscillations and send over
a wired network to the destination where the electrical oscillations are converted back to
sound waves.
• These oscillations can travel 9 x 105 times faster than sound waves.
• The earpiece of the telephone contains U-shaped magnet. This magnet is formed by placing
a short bar magnet over the ends of two soft iron bars.
• Solenoids are wrapped in opposite directions on the iron bar.
• This magnet is placed such that it exerts a pull on the metal diaphragm.
• The earpiece receives electric oscillations from the other end of the line and passes through
the solenoids.
• This causes a change in the flux of the U shaped magnet and produces a variation in the
pull of the diaphragm.
• The diaphragm vibrates and reproduces a copy of the sound wave that the receiver hears.
• The vibrations of the air molecules when someone speaks is transmitted by a transmitter in
the mouthpiece.
• This created a vibration in an electrical diaphragm and transmitted to a piston.
• The piston is a metallic box, filled with carbon granules.
• Here sound waves are converted to electrical oscillations and send over a network to be
received by the receiver.
Periscope
• The periscope is an optical device which allows for seeing things which are beyond the line
of sight or from a concealed position.
• It consists of a tube with a system of mirrors, lens or prisms to reflect the images.
• Periscope has wide applications in the military field.
Fig: Ray diagram of periscope

• A periscope has a bend tube and so it uses reflection to change the direction of light.
• Visible light wave which is an electromagnetic wave, traveling in straight lines, is piped
through a periscope.
• Usually, there will be two mirrors are angled to direct light.
• The first mirror in the periscope deflects it down through a vertical tube on to the second
mirror which diverts it horizontally in order to be viewed.
• The two mirrors are angled at 45 degrees inside the periscope. The light entering the
periscope strikes the top mirror and is then reflected 90 degrees down the second mirror and
angled into the viewer's eye.
• The image produced is not inverted due to the two mirrors present in the periscope.
• The working principle of the periscope is based on the principle of reflection between two
parallel plane mirrors.
• According to the law of reflection, the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection are equal
and that the incident ray, reflected ray, and normal ray all lie in the plane of incidence.
• Periscopes cannot be used in dusty places or places with moisture as this will cause
depositions in the mirror and thus reducing visibility.
• When mirrors are not oriented at 45 degrees, light cannot reach the second mirror and the
viewer cannot see anything.
• Periscopes are used in submarines for general navigation and to detect threats.
• Periscopes are also used to look out of trenches in the battlefield.
• In medicine, periscopes are used in cystoscopes and endoscopes.
Telescope
• The telescope is an instrument used for angular magnification of distant objects.
• It has an objective lens and an eyepiece.
• The lens in the front of the telescope, called the objective lens, produces an upside-down
image of the object. The lens near the eye, called the eye lens, simply magnifies the image
produced by the objective lens like an ordinary magnifying glass. This is the basic principle
of a telescope.
• Terrestrial telescopes have a pair of inverting lenses to make the image erect.
• The magnifying power m of the telescope is defined as the ratio of the angle β subtended at
the eye by the final image to the angle α which the object subtends at the lens or the eye.
𝛽 𝑓𝑜
𝑚= =
𝛼 𝑓𝑒
• The length of the telescope tube is 𝑓𝑜 + 𝑓𝑒
Where𝑓𝑜 is the focal length of the objective and
𝑓𝑒 is the focal length of the eyepiece
• Astronomical telescopes are made of objective lenses with large diameter to enhance their
light gathering power and optical resolution.
• Modern day telescopes use a concave mirror as objective and are called reflecting
telescopes.
• The reflecting telescopes are advantageous over normal astronomical telescope in that they
avoid chromatic and spherical aberrations. Mechanical support is also not a problem as the
mirror can be supported on the entire base.
Microscope
• The microscope works on the magnification power of the lenses and effect of a combination
of lenses.
• A simple microscope is a converging lens of small focal length.
• Magnifying power m of a simple microscope is given by
𝐷
𝑚 =1+𝑓
where the focal length of the convex lens is denoted by f and the least distance of distinct
vision is denoted by D (D= 25 cm).
• If the image is at infinity,
𝑚 = 𝐷/𝑓
• For realistic focal lengths, the simple microscope only has a magnification up to 9.
Fig: Simple microscope.

The magnifying lens is located such that the image is at the near point
Fig: The object is near the focal point of the lens; the image is far off but closer than
infinity.
• To increase the magnifying power two lenses are compounded.
• This is a compound microscope.
• The objective lens is the lens near the object.
• It forms a real, inverted, magnified image of the object.
• The image formed by the objective lens serves as the object for the second lens.
• The second lens is called the eyepiece, which functions like a simple microscope.
• The final image produced is enlarged and virtual.
• The final image is formed at infinity. This is by virtue of the first inverted image formed near
the focal plane of the eyepiece, at an appropriate distance for the formation of the final
image.
• The final image is inverted with respect to the original object.
• The magnifying power of a compound microscope is given by the equation
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑒 × 𝑚 𝑜
𝐷
where 𝑚𝑒 = 1 + (𝑓 ) is the magnification due to the eyepiece and mo is the magnification
𝑒
due to the objective.
Fig: Ray diagram for the formation of an image by a compound microscope.

Mariner’s Compass
• Mariner's compass is a magnetic needle used by sailors to understand direction.
• A compass moves freely on a pivot on a compass card to which magnets are attached.
• Traditionally the card is divided into thirty-two points (known as rhumbs).
• A marking on the compass bowl or a small fixed needle called a lubber line indicates the
direction of travel on the compass card.
• The glass-covered box (or bowl) contains a suspended gimbal within a binnacle. This
preserves the horizontal position.
• The compass shows the direction under the influence of earth’s magnetic field or the
geomagnetic field.
• The needle faces north because something in the north is pulling it.
• Earth’s magnetic field is weak compared to gravity and friction.
• Hence compass needles are made with ultra-light and mounted on frictionless bearings to
overcome these forces.
23. LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS AND SAFETY FUSES
Lightning Conductors
• During thunderstorms, the ground acquires positive charge. The clouds will have positive
and negative charges. The charge separations create an electrical potential in the clouds.
• On the breaking of the electrical resistance, lightning strikes.
• A lightning flash can have a duration of around 30 seconds and is composed of a series of
strokes with an average of about four.
• The average peak power per stroke is about 10 12 watts.
• Lightning conductors are forked metal rods placed on top of buildings to arrest lightning from
being hit on the building.
• The rod serves to prevent a charged cloud from releasing a lightning flash.
• The rod is connected to the ground with the help of copper strips.
• Thus, if the lightning strikes, the electric current from the lightning flash is conducted to the
earth without affecting the building.
• The idea that lightning rod prevents a lightning flash is based on lightning dissipation theory
by Franklin.
Fig: Lightning conductor

• The lightning dissipation theory is based on the principle that the electric field strength is
great around a pointed object.
• This enhances its conductive ability of the rod.
• The statically charged storm cloud when approaching the lightning rod, cause the charges to
migrate slowly through the rod, thus reducing the likelihood of a lightning strike.
• The idea of the lightning rod conducting the lightning safely to the ground is based on
lightning diversion theory.
• The lightning rod and the attached cable and ground pole provide a low resistance pathway
from the region above the building to the ground below.
• By diverting the charge to the ground, the building is spared of the damage associated with
a large quantity of electric charge passing through it.
Safety Fuses
• A fuse is a short length of wire designed to melt and separate in the event of excessive
current.
• This will cut off the excess current being passed into the electrical system
• The fuse wire burns itself by self-generation of heat in the event of an over current.
• The components to be protected from electrical surge are always connected in series with
the fuse.
• Hence, when the fuse blows, the entire circuit is open and the flow of current halts abruptly.
• In a paralleled circuit, a fuse connected in one of the branches will not affect the current flow
in others.
Fig: A simple fuse
Fig: A blown fuse

• To minimize hazards of severe overcurrent where wire burns open with violent force, the thin
piece of fuse wire is contained within a safety sheath.
• This happens due to the resistance of the fuse wire material, but the wire is engineered such
that it will not contribute any resistance to the circuit to which it is connected.
• This is largely accomplished by making the fuse wire as short as is practically possible.
• When a fuse wire melts, the two pieces are separated by an air gap. If the fuse wire is too
short and the line has an over current, the chances of a spark jumping the air gap
completing the circuit again.
• Depending on the application field, some fuses are intended to blow very fast and others are
intended for delayed action or slow opening times. The latter fuses are sometimes
called slow-blow fuses due to their intentional time-delay characteristics.
• Slow blow fuses find application in an electric motor.
• In an electric motor, during restart from a dead stop, the inrush currents of up to ten times
normal operating current are commonly experienced.
• Fast blowing fuses will cut off the motor during a restart in such cases. The slow blow fuses
are designed such that the fuse element has more mass than a fast blow equivalent
meaning that it will heat up slower for any given amount of current.
• Another type of fuses is called semiconductor fuses designed to open very quickly in the
event of an electrical surge. Semiconductor devices such as transistors are protected from
the electric surges by semiconductor fuses.
Facts Table
➢ 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 . SI unit of weight is ➢ Transverse Wave – Wave vibrates at right
Newton. angles to the direction of its propagation.
➢ Newton’ First Law – Object in ➢ Longitudinal wave – Parallel to the propagation
motion tends to stay in motion of the wave.
unless an external force acting on ➢ Greenhouse Effect – Trapping of heat is known
it. as greenhouse effect.
➢ Newton’s Second Law – Force ➢ Nuclear Fusion – Two or more lighter nuclei
acts on the object will cause the combine to form a heavier nucleus.
object to accelerate. ➢ Work-Energy theorem for variable force, 𝐾𝑓 -
➢ Newton’s Third Law – Every action 𝑥𝑓
𝐾𝑖 =∫𝑥𝑖 𝐹𝑑𝑥
there is an equal and opposite
➢ Calorimeter – Device which is used to measure
reaction.
heat.
➢ Friction – Motion of one object
➢ Conduction, convection and Radiation are the
moving relative to another.
modes of transference of heat.
➢ Types of Friction – Static, Sliding
➢ Fundamental mode – Oscillation mode with
and Rolling.
lowest frequency (n=1). Also called as first
➢ Work is a scalar quantity and SI
harmonic.
unit of work is Joule. 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
➢ Energy – Capacity to do work. ➢ Mirror equation - 𝝊 + 𝒖 = 𝒇
➢ Power – Rate of doing work. SI sin 𝑖
➢ Snell’s law of refraction - 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟 = 𝑛21
unit is Joule/Second or Watts.
➢ Magnification – Ratio of size of the image to the
➢ Light is an electromagnetic
size of object.
radiation. Represented by the
➢ The standard value of normal vision is 25 cm.
symbol c.
➢ Hydrometer - An instrument used to measure
➢ Types of motion – Periodic,
the density of liquids.
Oscillatory, Wave motion.

1. Light waves projected on oil surface show seven colors due to the phenomenon of
(a) Polarization (b) Refraction
(c) Reflection (d) Interference
Solution: (b)
Light waves projected on oil surface seven colors due to the phenomenon of refraction.
2. Which one of the following processes explains the splitting of a beam of white light into its
constituent colors?
(a) Dispersion (b) Reflection
(c) Diffraction (d) Polarization
Solution: (a)
A white light (sunlight) splits into its seven constituent colours VIBGYOR due to dispersion.
3. The permanent wind that blows from the horse latitude to the equatorial region is known as
(a) Westerly (b) Trade wind
(c) Doldrums (d) Easterly
Solution: (b)
Blowing from the subtropical highs or horse latitudes toward the k pressure of the Ii (.7. are the
trade winds. They are named by their ability to quickly propel trading ships across the ocean.
They blow from 30 degree north and south the Equator.
4. Two bodies A and B having masses m and 4m respectively are moving with equal linear
momentum. The ratio of kinetic energies between A and B is
(a) 1:4 (b) 4:1
(c) 1:1 (d) 1:2
Solution: (b)
The relation between linear momentum (P) and kinetic
𝑃2
Energy (K) is K=2𝑚
PA2 PB2
KA = and K B =
2m 2(4m)
2
KA PA 8m
= × [P = PB , given]
K B 2m PB2 A
KA 4
= = 4: 1
KB 1
5. Optical glass used in the construction of spectacles is made by
(a) Flint glass (b) Crooker glass
(c) Quartz glass (d) Hard glass
Solution: (a)
Flint glass, also called lead crystal, heavy and durable glass characterized by its brilliance,
clarity, and highly refractive quality is used in the construction of spectacles.
⃗ = 6î − 8ĵ + 10k̂and accelerates it at 1 m/s'. The
6. A force applied on a body is represented asF
mass of the body is
(a) 10 kg ( b )10√2𝑘𝑔
(c) 2√10𝑘𝑔 (d) 8 kg
Solution: (b)
𝐹 = 6𝑙̂ − 8𝑗̂ + 10𝑘̂
|𝐹 | = √(6)2 + (−8)2 + (10)2
= √36 + 64 + 100 = 10√2 N
|𝑎| = 1 𝑚/𝑠 2
Using F=ma
⇒ 10√2 = mx 1
𝑚 = 10√2𝑘𝑔
7. Light waves are
(a) Electro mechanical waves (b) Electromagnetic waves
(c) Electro optical waves (d) Magneto optical waves
Solution: (b)
Light waves arc electromagnetic waves. Electromagnetic waves arc formed by the vibrations of
electric and magnetic fields. These fields are perpendicular to one another in the direction the
wave is travelling.
8. A sample of carbon dioxide that undergoes a transformation from solid to liquid and then to gas would
undergo
(a) A change in mass (b) A change in density
(c) A change in composition (d) No change in physical properties
Solution: (b)
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
Density =𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Change in state of a substance does not involve change in mass, composition and physical
properties instead of involves charge in volume which alter density.
9. A particle is moving in a circular path of radius r at a constant speed v. Which one of the following
graphs correctly represents its acceleration a?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Solution: (d)
The given situation is uniform circular motion. In this case the centripetal acceleration 𝑎𝑐 =
𝑣2
𝑎𝑠|𝑣|𝑖𝑠
𝑟
1
Constant ⇒ 𝑎 ∝ 𝑟 . Hence, the graph between ‘a’ and ‘r’ is
10. Planet A has double the radius than that of Planet B. If the mass of Planet A is 4 times
heavier than the mass of Planet B, which of the following statements regarding weight of an
object is correct?
(a) Heavier on Planet A than on Planet B (b) Heavier on Planet B than on Planet A
(c) Same on both the Planets (d) Cannot be measured on Planet B
Solution: (c)
𝐺𝑀
As we know, 𝑔 = 𝑅2
From question 𝑅𝐴 = 2𝑅𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑀𝐴 = 4𝑀𝐵
𝑔𝐴 = 𝑔𝐵
Hence weight of the object (w=mg) is same on both the planets.
11. Sound waves are similar to the waves
(a) Of laser light passing through air (b) Generated in a stretched wire by
hitting or plucking the wire
(c) Generated in a pipe filled with air by moving (d) Generated by the mobile phone
the piston attached to the pipe up and down towers
Solution: (c)
Sound waves are similar to the waves generated in a pipe filled with air by moving the piston
attached to the pipe up and down.
12. A sound wave has frequency of 2 kHz and wavelength of 35 cm. if an observer is 1.4
km away from the source, after what time interval could the observer hear the sound?
(a)2𝑠 (b)20𝑠
(c)0. 5𝑠 (d)4𝑠
Solution: (a)
f=2 kHz=2 × 103 𝐻𝑧
𝜆 = 35𝑐𝑚 = 35 × 10−2 𝑚
𝑑 = 1.4𝑘𝑚 = 1.4 × 103 𝑚; 𝑣 = 𝑓𝑥 = 2 × 103 × 35 × 10−2 = 700𝑚/𝑠
𝑑 1.4×103
𝑡 = (𝑣 ) = =2
700
13. Which one among the following waves bats use to detect the obstacles in their flying path?
(a) Infrared waves (b) Electromagnetic waves
(c) Ultrasonic waves (d) Radio waves
Solution: (c)
Bats use a variety of ultrasonic ranging (echolocation) techniques to detect obstacles in their
flying path. They can detect frequencies beyond 100 kHz, possibly up to 200 kHz
14. The pressure of an ideal gas undergoing isothermal change is increased by 10%.
The volume of the gas must decrease by about
(a) 0.1% (b) 9%
(c) 10% (d) 0.9%
Solution: (b)
10
Given that ∆𝑝 = 100 × 𝑝 = 0.1𝑝
Now (𝑝 + ∆𝑝) = 11𝑝.
𝑉−𝑉 𝑡
From ∆𝑣 = ( ) × 100
𝑉
10
=(1 − 11 ) × 100 = 9%
15. The mass number of an atom is determined by
(a) Adding the number of neutrons and (b) Adding the number of protons and
number of electrons number of electrons
( c) The n u mb er of pr ot on s o nly (d) Adding the number of neutrons and
number of protons
Solution: (d)
The atomic mass is determined by adding the number of protons and neutrons in the atom.
16. In optical instruments the lenses are used to form image by the phenomenon of
(a) Reflection (b) Refraction
(c) Scattering (d) Diffusion
Solution: (b)
Refraction is the change in direction of propagation of a wave due to a change in its transmission
medium.
17. How many cubic centimeters (cm3) are in a cubic metre (𝑚3 )?
(a) 103 (b) 106
(c)109 (d) 1012
Solution: (b)
18. A semiconducting device is connected in a series circuit with a battery and a
resistance. Current is found to pass through the circuit. If the polarity of the battery is
reversed. The current drops to zero. The device may be
(a) p-type semiconductor (b) n-type semiconductor
(c) An intrinsic semi-conductor (d) p-n junction
Solution: (d)
The device is a pn junction. When a current flows across the junction, it is forward
biased. On reversing, the polarity of the battery, it is reverse biased and current drops to
almost zero.
19. A motor vehicle is moving on a circle with a uniform speed. The net acceleration of the
vehicle is
(a) Zero (b) Towards the centre of circle
(c) Away from the centre along the radius (d) Perpendicular to the radius and along the
of the circle velocity
Solution: (b)
Acceleration acting on the object undergoing uniform circular motion is called centripetal
acceleration
𝑉2
𝑎𝑐 =
𝑟
A particle moving in a circle require centripetal force. This is always towards the centre.
20. An object is undergoing a non-accelerated motion. Its rate of change of momentum is
(a) A non-zero constant (b) Zero
(c) Not a constant (d) None of the above
Solution: (b)
𝑣 −𝑣
As acceleration i.e. rate of change of velocity 2 𝑡 1 is zero so force is zero. Thus rate of change
(𝑣2−𝑣1 )
of momentum 𝑀 is zero. Thus momentum is constant.
𝑡
21. The motion of a particle is given by a straight line in the graph given above drawn with
displacement (x) and time (t). Which one among the following statements is correct?
(a) The velocity of the particle is uniform (b) The velocity of the particle is non-uniform
(c) The speed is uniform and the particle is (d) The speed is non-uniform and the particle
moving is moving on a straight line path
Solution: (a)
Slope is constant, and the slope of x, t graph gives velocity, so velocity is constant i.e., uniform.
22. A car is moving with a uniform speed. However its momentum is changing. Then the car
(a) May be on an elliptical path (b) Is moving on a straight path without
acceleration
(c) Is moving on a straight path without (d) Is moving on without any acceleration
acceleration
Solution: (a)
As momentum (p =m.v) is changing so velocity is changing.
Here speed is constant, so direction of velocity changes. Thus it cannot be a straight line path
and it should be accelerated.
23. An ant is moving on thin (negligible thickness) circular wire. How many coordinates do you
require to completely describe the motion of the ant?
(a) One (b) Two
(c) Three (d) Zero
Solution: (b)
Circular motion is a two dimensional motion. Hence two coordinates require to describe the
motion of that ant.
24. If d denotes the distance covered by a car in time t and 𝑠 denotes the displacement by the
car during the same time, then:
(a) 𝑑 ≤ |𝑠| (b) 𝑑 = |𝑠|
(c) 𝑑 ≥ |𝑠| (d) 𝑑 < |𝑠|
Solution: (c)
Displacement is the shortest distance. The magnitude of displacement is always less than or
equal to distance
i.e., |̅
𝑺| ≤ 𝒅 (distance).
25. If an object undergoes a uniform circular motion, then its
(a) Acceleration remains uniform (b) Velocity changes
(c) Speed changes (d) Velocity remains uniform
Solution: (b)
In uniform circular motion direction of velocity changes but magnitude remains constant. Due to
change in direction velocity changes. Velocity is a vector quantity.
26. A force F is applied on a body (which moves on a straight line) for a duration of 3s. The
momentum of the body changes from 10 g cm/s to 40 g cm/s. The magnitude of the force F is
(a) 10 dyne (b) 10 Newton
(c) 120 dyne (d) 12 dyne
Solution: (a)
𝑝𝑓−𝑝 40−10
𝑖
The magnitudes of force F = = = 10𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒
𝑡 3
27. A particle is moving freely. Then its
(a) kinetic energy is always greater than zero (b) Potential energy is greater than zero and
kinetic energy is less than zero.
(c) Potential energy is less than zero and (d) Potential energy is zero and kinetic energy
kinetic energy is greater than zero. is less than zero.
Solution: (a)
As the particle is moving so, kinetic energy (𝐸𝑘 1/2𝑚𝑣 2 ) is always positive i.e. 𝐸𝑘 > 0.
28. The displacement of a particle at time t is given by
𝑐
𝑥 = 𝑎𝑖̂ + 𝑏𝑡𝑗̂ + 𝑡 2 𝑘̂
2
Where a, b and c are positive constants. Then the particle is
(a) Accelerated along 𝑘̂ direction (b) Decelerated along 𝑘̂ direction
(c) Decelerated along 𝑗̂ direction (d) Decelerated along 𝑗̂ direction
Solution: (a)
xcoordinate = a
ycoordinate = bt
c
xcoordinate = 2 t 2
𝑑𝑥
Velocity along x – axis i.e., is zero
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦
Velocity along y – axis i.e., 𝑑𝑡
is zero
𝑑𝑧
Velocity along z – axis i.e., 𝑑𝑡 is zero
𝑐 2
𝑑𝑧 𝑑 2 𝑡 𝑐
= = 2 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
29. Specific gravity of silver is 11 and specific gravity of iron is 8. Which one among the
following is the approximate relative density of silver with respect to iron?
(a) 1.4 (b) 0.7
(c) 3.0 (d) 2.8
Solution: (a)
Density of silver w.r.t. iron = Relative density of silver
Density of silver
= Specific gravity of silver is Density of iron
11
= ≅ 1.4
8
30. Which one among the following statements about thermal conductivity is correct?
(a) Steel > Wood > Water (b) Steel > Water > Wood
(c) Water > Steel > Wood (d) Water > Wood > Steel
Solution: (b)
Steel has better thermal conductivity than water whereas wood is a bad conductor of heat.
31. An iron and a wooden ball of the same radius are released from a height ‘H’ in vacuum. The
time taken to reach the ground will be
(a) More for the iron ball (b) More for the wooden ball
(c) Equal for both (d) In the ratio of their weights
Solution: (c)
Equal for both.
EXERCISE
1. A thermodynamic process where no heat is exchanged with the surroundings is
(a) Isothermal (b) Adiabatic
(c) Isobaric (d) Isotropic
2. Which one of the following circuit elements is an active component?
(a) Resistor (b) Transistor
(c) Inductor (d) Capacitor
3. Movements of tides are mostly determined by
(a) Albedo effect (b) Wind velocity
(c) Rotation of the (d) Revolution of
earth the earth
4. Fahrenheit and Celsius are the two scales used for measuring temperature. If the numerical value
of a temperature recorded in both the scales is found to be same, what is the temperature?
(a) -40° (b) +40°
(c) +72° (d) -72°
5. The working of a microwave oven involves
(a) absorption of microwaves by matter (b) reception of microwaves by optical fibre
(c) microwave amplification by stimulated (d) transmission of microwaves through a metal
emission of radiation
6. Two cars A and B have masses mA and mB . Respectively, with mA > mB both the cars are
moving in the same direction with equal kinetic energy. If equal braking force is applied on both, then
before coming to rest
(a) A will cover a greater distance (b) B will cover a greater distance
(c) Both will cover the same distance (d) Distance covered by them will depend on their
respective velocities
7. If the length of the Equator is about 40000 km and the velocity of rotation is about 1700 km per
hour, what would be the velocity of rotation at the Pole?
(a) Zero (b) 850 km/hr
(c) 1700 km/hr (d) 3400 km/hr
8. A bullet is fired vertically up from a 400 m tall tower with a speed 80 m/s, if g is taken as 10m/s 2 , the
time taken by the bullet to reach the ground will be
(a) 8 s (b) 16 s
(c) 20 s (d) 24 s
9. A cyclotron accelerates particles of mass m and charge q. The energy of particles emerging is
proportional to
(a) 𝑞 2 /𝑚 (b) 𝑞/𝑚2
(c) 𝑞 2 /𝑚2 (d) 𝑞
10. The electric field inside a perfectly conducting hollow object is
(a) 4π (b) Infinite
(c) Zero (d) Dependent upon the shape of the object
11. The densities of three liquids are D, 2D and 3D. What will be the density of the resulting mixture if
equal volumes of the three liquids are mixed?
(a) 613 (b) 1.4 D
(c) 2D (d) 3D
12. A particle is moving with uniform acceleration along a straight line ABC, where AB = BC. The
average velocity of the particle from A to B is 10 m/s and from B to C is 15 m/s. The average velocity
for the whole journey from A to C in m/s is
(a) 12 (b) 12.5
(c) 13 (d) 13.5
13. The dimension of 'impulse' is the same as that of
(a) Pressure (b) Angular Momentum
(c) Work (d) Linear momentum
14. A fertilizer contains 20% nitrogen by mass. To provide a fruit tree with an equivalent of kg of
nitrogen. The quantity of fertilizer required is
(a) 20 kg (b) 0.20 kg
(c) 0.05 kg (d) 5 kg
15. If the distance S covered by a moving car in rectilinear motion with a speed v in time t is given
by S = vt, then the car undergoes
(a) A uniform acceleration (b) A non-uniform acceleration
(c) A uniform velocity (d) A non-uniform velocity
16. The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction implies a production of induced
(a) Resistance in a coil when the (b) Current in a coil when an electric field changes
magnetic field changes with time with time
(c) Current in a coil when a magnetic (d) Voltage in a coil when an electric field changes
field changes with time with time
17. A staircase has 5 steps each 10 cm high and 10 cm wide. What is the minimum horizontal
velocity to be given to the ball so that it hits directly the lowest plane from the top of the
staircase? ( 𝑔 = 10𝑚𝑠 −2 )
(a) 2 𝑚𝑠 −1 (b) 1 𝑚𝑠 −1
1
(c) √2𝑚𝑠 −1 (d) 2 𝑚𝑠 −1
18. For a simple pendulum, the graph between 𝑇 2 and L (where T is the time period & L is the
length) is
(a) Straight line passing through origin (b) Parabolic
(c) Circle (d) None of the above
19.
The graph given above indicates change in temperature (∆𝑡) when heat (Q) was given to a
substance. Which among the following parts of the graph correctly depict the latent heat of the
substance?
(a) AB and BC (b)BC and DE
(c) CD and DE (d) DE and AB
20. When a solid object is immersed in water, there is a loss in its weight. This loss is
(a) Equal to the weight of the water (b) Less than the weight of the water displaced
displaced
(c) Greater than the weight of the water (d) Not related to the weight of the water displaced
displaced
21. Body A of mass 2 kg and another body B of mass 4 kg and of same material are kept in the
same sunshine for some interval of time. If the rise in temperature is equal for both the bodies,
then which one among the following in this regard is correct?
(a) Heat absorbed by B is double (b) Heat absorbed by A is double because its mass
because its mass is double is half
(c) Heat absorbed by both A and B is (d) Heat absorbed by B is four times than the heat
equal because the quantity of heat absorbed by A because the quantity of heat
absorbed does not depend upon mass. absorbed is proportional to square of the mass
22. For a steel boat floating on a lake, the weight of the water displaced by the boat is
(a) Less than the weight of the boat (b) More than the weight of the boat
(c) Equal to the weight of the part of the (d) Equal to the weight of the boat
boat which is below the water level of
the lake
23. The thermal conductivity of copper is 4 times that of brass. Two rods of copper and brass
having same length and cross section are joined end to end. The free end of copper is at 0℃
and the free end of brass is at 100℃, the temperature of the junction is
(a) 20℃ (b) 40℃
(c) 60℃ (d) 10℃
24. Thermometer A and B have ice points marked at 15° and 25° and steam points at 75° and
125° respectively. When thermometer A measures the temperature of a bath as 60° the reading
of B for the same bath is
(a) 60° (b) 75°
(c) 90° (d) 100°
25. A liquid rises to a certain length in a capillary tube. The tube is inclined to an angle of 45°.
The length of the liquid column will
(a) Increase (b) Decrease
(c) Remain unchanged (d) First decrease and then increase
26.
Two identical blocks of ice, A and B, float in water as shown in the figure given above. Which
one among the following statements in this regard is correct?
(a) Block A displaces a greater volume (b) Block A displaces a greater volume of water
of water since the pressure acts on a since its submerged end is lower in the water
smaller bottom area
(c) Block B displaces a greater volume (d) The two blocks displace equal volumes of water
of water since its submerged end has a since they have the same specific gravity and same
greater area in water mass
27. A vessel contains oil (density𝜌1 ) over a liquid of density 𝜌2 ; a homogenous sphere of
volume V floats with half of its volume immersed in the liquid and the other half in oil. The
weight of the sphere is
(a) 𝑉(𝜌2 − 𝜌1 )/2 (b) 𝑉(𝜌2 + 𝜌1 )𝑔/2
(c) 𝑉(𝜌2 + 𝜌1 ) (d) 𝑉(𝜌2 + 𝜌1 )/2
28. Kinetic viscosity of a given liquid is the ratio of the
(a) Coefficient of viscosity to the density (b) Coefficient of viscosity to the surface tension
(c) Density to the coefficient of viscosity (d) Surface tension to the coefficient of viscosity
29. When oil floats on water, the surface tension of water
(a) Vanishes immediately (b) Decreases considerably
(c) Increases considerably (d) Remains unaffected
30. Consider two bellow glass spheres, one containing water and the other containing mercury.
Each liquid fills about one-tenth of the volume of the sphere, in zero gravity environment
(a) water and mercury float freely inside (b) water forms a layer on the glass, while mercury
the sphere floats
(c) mercury forms a layer on the glass, (d) water and mercury both from a layer on the glass
while water floats
31. The density of cast iron having specific gravity 7.20 is
(a) 7.20 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 (b) 720 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
(c) 72 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 (d) 7200 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑔𝑚
32. A vessel contains oil of density 0.8 𝑔𝑚/𝑐𝑚3 over mercury of density 13.6 𝑐𝑚3 . A
homogeneous sphere floats with half of its volume immersed in mercury and the other half in
oil. The density of the material of the sphere in CGS unit is
(a) 3.3 (b) 6.4
(c) 7.2 (d) 12.8
33. Water flows out of the hole of a bucket and follows a parabolic path. If the bucket falls freely
under gravity, the water flow (ignoring air resistance)
(a) follows a straight-line path relative to (b) Follows a parabolic path relative to the falling
the falling bucket bucket
(c) Stops (d) Decrease but continues to flow
34. A vessel contains oil (density 𝜌1 ) over a liquid of density 𝜌2 ; a homogenous sphere of
volume V floats with half of its volume immersed in the liquid and the other half in oil. The
weight of the sphere is
(a) 𝑉(𝜌2 − 𝜌1 )/2 (b) 𝑉(𝜌2 + 𝜌1 )𝑔/2

(c) 𝑉(𝜌2 + 𝜌1 ) (d) 𝑉(𝜌2 + 𝜌1 )/2
35. When a ship floats on water
(a) It displaces no water (b) The mass of water displaced is equal to the
mass of the ship
(c) The mass of water displaced is (d) The mass of water displaced is greater than the
lesser than the mass of the ship mass of the ship
36. The mass of water vapor per unit volume of air is known
(a) Relative humidity (b) Specific humidity
(c) Absolute humidity (d) Variable humidity
37. A beautiful rainbow on sky is due to the
(a) Dispersion of sunlight from a water (b) Reflection of sunlight from a water droplet only.
droplet only.
(c) Refection and refraction of sunlight (d) Refraction, dispersion and reflection of sunlight
from a water droplet only. from a water droplet.
38. The weight of an object may be assigned by using Newton’s
(a) First law of motion (b) Second law of motion
(c) Third law of motion (d) Laws of gravitation
39. A current of 0.5 A is drawn by a filament of an electric bulb for 0 minutes. The amount of
electric charge that flows through the circuit is
(a) 1 C (b) 10 C
(c) 600 C (d) 300 C
40. Which one among the following properties of proton may change while it moves freely in a
magnetic field?
(a) Speed (b) Charge
(c) Mass (d) Velocity
41. Power required by a boy of mass 30kg to run up a staircase of 40 steps in 10 second
is(Height of each step is 15 cm)(Take𝑔 = 10 𝑚/𝑠 2 )
(a) 1800 Watt (b)180 Watt
(c)18000 Watt (d) 18 Watt
42.
The figure given above shows the temperature (T)-time (t) plot when we start heating a piece of
naphthalene. The temperature (T*) at the plate of the curve signifies.
(a) Boiling point of naphthalene. (b) Freezing point of naphthalene.
(c) Melting point of naphthalene. (d) The temperature when naphthalene undergoes a
chemical change upon heating.
43. A piece of paper and a coin both having the same mass are dropped from the 10 th floor
building. The piece of paper would take more time to reach the ground because
(a) Gravitational pull on the paper is (b) Buoyant force on the piece of paper is more and
less than the coin. acts in the downward direction.
(c) Buoyant force on the coin is more (d) The piece of paper takes a longer path of reach
and acts in the downward direction. the ground.
44. During sunrise and sunset, sun appears reddish-orange because
(a) During that time sun emits only (b) All other colours are absorbed by the
reddish-orange light. atmosphere
(c) Reddish-orange light is least (d) All other colours apart from reddish-orange are
scattered by the atmosphere. reflected back by the atmosphere.
45. Ohm’s law can also be taken as a statement for
(a) Conservation of energy (b)Conservation of electric charge.
(c) Conservation of angular momentum. (d) Non-conservation of momentum of the flowing
charges.
46. Motion, of a particle can be described in x-direction by x=a sin 𝜔t, and y-direction by y=b
cos 𝜔t. The particle is moving on
(a) A circular path of radius ‘a’. (b) A circular path of radius ‘b’.
(c) An elliptical path. (d) A straight line.
47.
The plot given above represent displacement ‘x’ of a particle with time‘t’. The particle is
(a) Moving with uniform velocity. (b) Moving with acceleration
(c) Moving with deceleration. (d) Executing a periodic motion.
48. A bullet of mass 20gm is fired in the horizontal direction with a velocity 150 m/s from a pistol
of mass 1k.g. Recoil velocity of the pistol is
(a) 3 𝑚/𝑠 (b) 3 𝑘𝑚/𝑠
(c) 300 𝑚/𝑠 (d) 1/3 𝑚/𝑠
49.
What should be the reading of the voltmeter in the circuit given above?
(All the resistance are equal to 1ῼ and the battery is of 1.5 volt)
(a) 1.5 volt (b) 0.66 volt
(c) 1 volt (d) 2 volt
50.
The plot given above represents the velocity of a particle (in m/s) with time (in seconds).
Assuming that the plot
Represent a semi-circle, distance traversed by the particle at the end of 7 seconds is
approximately.
(a) 190 𝑚 (b) 7 𝑚
(c) 3.2 𝑚 (d) 4.75 𝑚
51A body weights 5 kg on equator. At the poles it is likely to weight
(a) 5 kg (b) Less than 5 kg but not zero
(c) 0 kg (d) More than 5 kg
52. An electric heater rated 1500 watt. If electric power costs Rs. 2 per kilo-watt-hour, then the
cost of power of 10 hours running of the heater is
(a) ₹ 30 (b) ₹ 15
(c) ₹ 150 (d) ₹ 25
53. The ceilings of a concert hall are generally curved.
(a) Because they reflect the sound to (b) Because they can absorb noise.
the audience
(c) To have better aeration in the hall. (d) As any sound from outside cannot pass
through a curved ceiling.
54. Bats can know about their prey at a distance even in the night by emitting.
(a) Infra-red lights (b) Ultraviolet lights
(c) Chemicals from their body (d) Ultrasonic sounds
55. Rays of light get refracted while passing from air to glass prism breaks up into light of
different colours because
(a) Refractive index of glass for different (b) Glass prism absorbs white light and emits
colours of light is different lights of several colours in different directions.
(c) Of total internal reflection of white (d) Of the interference of difference colours inside
light on surfaces of the prism the prism.
56.
Which one among the following situation is best represented by the velocity- time plot shown
above?
(a) Uniform motion of a particle on a (b) Accelerated motion of a particle which has a
circle. non-zero initial velocity
(c) Decelerated motion of a particle (d) Decelerated motion of a particle which has no
which has an initial non-zero velocity initial velocity.
57. When long dry hair is brushed the strands often move away from each other because while
brushing
(a) Air is being blown through the (b) Static electric charges are being induced on
strands. the hair
(c) Mechanical energy is being (d) The gravitational attraction among the strands
transferred into heat energy. becomes smaller.
58. If the length of a simple pendulum is being increased by 4-fold, time period of oscillation will be
(a) Decreased by 4-fold (b) Increased by 4-fold
(c) Decreased to half of the initial value. (d) Increased by a factor of 2 of its initial value.
59. A pressure cooker works on the principle of
(a) Elevation of boiling point of water by (b) Making the food-grains softer by application of
application of pressure. pressure.
(c) Making the food-grains softer by (d) Keeping the food-grains inside stream for a
application of pressure and temperature longer time.
60. Pressure of gas increases due to increase of its temperature because at higher temperature
(a) Gas molecules repel each other more . (b) Potential energy of the gas molecules is higher
(c) Kinetic energies of the gas (d) Gas molecules attract each other more.
molecules are higher
ANSWER KEY
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (c) 6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (c)
11.(c) 12. (a) 13. (d) 14. (d) 15. (c) 16. (c) 17. (a) 18. (a) 19. (b) 20. (a)
21.(a) 22. (d) 23. (a) 24. (d) 25. (a) 26. (d) 27. (b) 28. (c) 29. (b) 30. (b)
31.(d) 32. (c) 33. (b) 34. (b) 35. (b) 36. (c) 37. (d) 38. (b) 39. (c) 40. (d)
41.(b) 42. (b) 43. (b) 44. (c) 45. (a) 46. (c) 47. (b) 48. (a) 49. (a) 50. (a)
51.(d) 52. (a) 53. (a) 54. (d) 55. (d) 56. (c) 57. (b) 58. (d) 59. (a) 60. (c)
MATHEMATICS
1. ALGEBRA
1.1 SETS
• A group or a collection of well-defined distinct objects is called Set.
• The objects in the set are generally called the elements of the set. Generally, capital letters
are used to denote the sets and small letters for its elements.
• The set could have a listed or described collection of objects.
E = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} ; O = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
• This form of representation of a set wherein the elements are placed within the {} braces is
called Braces form or Roster form of representation.
• Another form of representation would be instead of listing them, just describing them as
below:
➢ E = The set of all even numbers between 2 and 10 both inclusive.
➢ O = The set of odd numbers between 1 and 9 both inclusive.
• Another way of representing the set E, O is:
➢ E = {x: x = 2m and m being integer lying in the interval 0 <m <6}
➢ = {2x-1: 0< x < 6 and x is an integer}
This is the Rule Method or also known as the set-builder or Property method or Algebraic form
of representation.
In this property method, we say {x: x satisfies properties P} meaning set of all x which satisfy the
properties of P. The ‘:’ or ‘/’ here means ‘such that’.
Proper Subset
A is called a proper subset of B, when A is a subset of B and A is not equal to B. E.g.: A={2,3,5}
and B= {1,2,3,4,5}, A is a proper subset of B, where all the elements of set A are present in set B.
Null or Void Set
An empty set which does not have any proper subsets, is called a null or void set. {} or the
Greek letter phi ‘Φ’ is used to refer it.
Set Operation
Union or Join of 2 Sets: Union of 2 Sets P and Q is set of either all elements belonging to P or
to Q or to both P and Q. It is represented as P ∪ Q.
Intersection of Sets: Intersection of sets P and Q represented as P ∩ Q, is set of elements
belonging to P and Q.
Disjoint Sets: P and Q will be called disjoint sets if they have no common elements.
Complement or Negation Set: For a universal set U with a subset A, the complement of A is
set of all those elements present in U but not in A.
Difference of 2 Set: For P = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} , Q= {3, 5, 6, 7} ; P –Q = {1, 2, 4} ; Q-P = {6, 7}
Ex1: Find P ∪ Q and P ∩ Q from the given data-P = {1, 4, 5, 7} Q = {2, 4, 6}.
Solution:
Given P = {1, 4, 5, 7} and Q = {2, 4, 6}.
Now, P ∪ Q = {1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7} and P ∩ Q = {4}
1.2 VENN DIAGRAMS
Venn Diagrams
• Named after John Venn, Venn Diagrams diagrammatically represent different relationships of sets.
• Here the interior of a rectangle is the universal set which includes all the elements. The
circles present within the rectangle represent the other sets.
A non-empty set P within a universal Set U is represented as:
A representation of Disjoint sets P and Q:
A representation of complement P:
A representation of P ∪ Q:
A representation of P∩Q
A Venn Diagram representation of 3 Sets A,B, C

Where A = {1, 2, 5}; B = {1, 6}; C = {4, 7}
A Venn Diagram representation of 4 sets
Another representation of 4 sets using ellipses
Ex2: Draw Venn diagram to illustrate (P ∪ Q)’

U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 5, 6, 8, 9} and P = {2, 6, 7} and
Q = {1, 3, 4, 5, 8}
Solution:
1.3 DE MORGAN LAWS, CARTESIAN PRODUCT, RELATION, EQUIVALENCE RELATION

De Morgan Laws
De Morgan’s Laws helps us find the complement of the union and the intersection of two sets P
and Q. As per this,
(P∪Q)’ = P’ ∩ Q’ and (P ∩ Q)‘ = P’ ∪ Q’.
Ex3: U = {a, b, c, d, e, f}; P = {b, d, f}; Q = {f, b, c} Prove (P∩Q)‘ = P’∪Q’.
Solution:
(P∩Q) = Common elements of P and Q = {b, f}
(P∩Q)‘ = U- {b, f} = {a, c, d, e}
P’ = {a, c, e} ; Q’ = {a, d, e}
P’ ∪ Q’ = {a, c, d, e}
So (P∩Q)‘ = P’∪Q’.
Cartesian Product
The Cartesian product of two sets P and Q is the set of all distinct possible ordered pairs of the
form (p, q) where p ∈ P and q ∈ Q. It is represented as 𝑃 × 𝑄 or 𝑃. 𝑄 or 𝑃 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑄. ie.
P, Q = {(p, q) :p ∈ P, q∈ Q}.
The Cartesian product P.Q ≠ Q.P
Ex4: If P = {a, b} ; Q = {x, y}, then prove P.Q ≠ Q.P.
Solution:
P.Q = {(a, x), (b, x), (a, y), (b, y)}; Q.P = {(x, a), (x, b), (y, a), (y, b)}. And so P.Q ≠ Q.P
The number of pairs is the product of number of elements in each set.
Ex5: Say P = {H, T} which is the set of possible outcomes when a coin is tossed (wherein H is
for heads and T is for tails).
Solution:
Now when the coin is tossed thrice, the set of all possible outcomes is a Cartesian product as
given below:
P = {H,T}; Q = {H,T}; R= {H,T}
P.Q.R = {(H, H, H), (H, H, T), (H, T, T), (H, T, H), (T, H, H), (T, T, T), (T, H, T), (T, T, H)} = 8
outcomes
Which is also n (P.Q.R) = n(P) × n(Q) × n(R) = 2 × 2 × 2 = 8.
Relation
• A relation R is a non-empty subset of Cartesian product of P and Q, when it satisfies a given
condition.
• It is denoted as R= {(x, y)/x ∈ P, y∈ Q, x∈ y}, which reads as x related to y.
Ex6: 𝐺1 = {1, 2, 3, 4}; 𝐺2 = {1, 2, 3}. Their Cartesian product is 12 ordered pairs.
Solution:
Now if a condition is placed 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 6; then only (3,3) and (4,2) satisfy the condition out of the
12 pairs. So the Relation R = {(3,3), (4,2)}.
➢ Domain of a relation: The set of all first elements of an ordered pair, when belonging to a
relation, it is referred to as domain of relation.
➢ Range of a Relation: Range of a relation comes from a set of all the second elements of an
ordered pair, when they belong to a relation.
Ex7: If X=Y is the set of all possible real numbers and zero, then relation 𝑅1 = {(x,y)/x∈ Y, y∈ Y,
x+y=1} , 𝑅2 = {(x,y)/x∈ X, y∈ Y, x+y≤1} can be found as given.
Solution:
The Cartesian product of both the infinite set will be an infinite set. So relation 𝑅1 comprises all
the points on the line x+y =1 in the positive quadrant and all real numbers lying between 0 and 1
will be the domain and the range.
Relation 𝑅2 = All the points on the line x+y =1, and below it and range and domain are set of all
real numbers from 0 to 1.
Equivalence Relation
• A relation on a set S which is reflexive, transitive and Symmetric is called an equivalence
relation.
• If for a fraction p/q, p/q R p/q since pq =qr → Reflexivity. If p/q R a/b then pb = qa, so bp =aq
and a/b R p/q → Symmetry. If a/b R c/d and c/d R e/f then ad = bc and cf = de.
• On multiplying first by f, we get adf = bcf and so adf = bde. When we divide by d a non-zero
value, then af = be, so a/b R e/f → Transitivity.
1.4 REPRESENTATION OF REAL NUMBER ON A LINE
• A real number line is a horizontal line used to visually represent the real numbers.
• Each real number is represented as a point in the line. Similarly it can be said that each
point on the number line corresponds to a real number.
• All the real numbers are represented on the number line. This includes zero also, as 0 is a
real number. The point on the line where 0 is marked is called origin.
• Taking the origin as reference, the positive numbers are placed on the right of the origin are
the positive numbers and the negative numbers are represented by the points to the left of
the origin.
Ex8: Given below is a number line, wherein we will take the evenly spaced marks as integers
and the distance between them to be the distance between the integers.
In the figure below what could be the possible value represented by the point a?
Options: (a) 1.76, (b) 2.73, (c) 3.93, (d) 4.51

Solution:
Since the marks are evenly spaced consecutive integers, taking 0 as the origin, the point a lies
in between the integers 2 and 3.
So the possible value for point ‘a’ would be 2.73. i.e. Option (b).
1.5 COMPLEX NUMBERS – BASIC PROPERTIES, MODULUS, ARGUMENT, CUBE ROOTS
OF UNITY
Complex Numbers
Complex Number z is a number of the form 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏. Here a and b are real numbers.
The complex number consists of two parts, the real and imaginary part. In 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏, a is the
real part, i.e. 𝑅𝑒 𝑧 and b is the imaginary part denoted as 𝐼𝑚 𝑧.
For example: 𝑧1 = 5 + 𝑖4, 𝑧2 = −1 + 𝑖√3
• Z = 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = (5 − 1) + 𝑖 (4 + 3) = 4 + 7𝑖
Here the 𝑅𝑒 (𝑧) is 4 and 𝐼𝑚 (𝑧) = 7
Two complex numbers z1 and z2 are said to be equal if their real parts and imaginary parts are
equal i.e. 𝑧1 = 𝑝 + 𝑖𝑞 and 𝑧2 = 𝑟 + 𝑖𝑠 are equal if p=r and q=s.
Ex9: What would be real numbers x and y if 4𝑥 + 𝑖(3𝑥 – 𝑦) = 3 + 𝑖(−6).
Solution:
4x = 3, 3x-y = -6. X = 3/4 and y = 33/4.
Basic Properties
• Addition: Addition of two complex numbers z1 = p+iq, z2 = a+ib is another complex number
z1+ z2 = (p+a) +i(q+b).
For Example: (-2 +i3) + (8+i2) = (6+i5)
• Subtraction: Subtraction of two complex numbers z1, z2 is z1- z2 i.e. z1 + (-z2).
For Example: (6+3i) – (2-i) = (4+4i);
(2-i) – (6+3i) = (2-i) + (-6 -3i) = (-4 -4i)
• Multiplication: Multiplication of two complex numbers z1, z2 is given as z1= 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏, z2 = c+id,
Z1. Z2 = (𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏𝑑) + 𝑖(𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐).
For Example: (3 + 𝑖5). (2 + 𝑖6)

= (3 × 2) − (5 × 6) + 𝑖(6 × 3) + 𝑖(5 × 2)
= (−24 + 𝑖28).
• Division: Division of two complex numbers z1, z2 where z2 ≠0, is given as z1/ z2 i.e. z1. 1/ z2.
For Example: z1 = 6+3i, z2 = 2-i,
𝑧 1
=> 1 = (6 + 3𝑖 )
𝑧2 2−𝑖
2 +1
= (6 + 3𝑖 )((22 +(−1)2 ) + 𝑖 )
22 +(−1)2
2+𝑖
= (6 + 3𝑖 ) ( )
5
1 1
= 5 {12 − 3 + 𝑖 (6 + 6)} = 5 (9 + 12𝑖)
• Modulus: The modulus of a complex number z is the non-negative real number. When z =
a+ib, the modulus of that is |z| = √(𝑎2 + 𝑏2 )
For Example: z = 3+i,
=> |z| = √(32 + 12 )= √10
• Conjugate: Conjugate of a complex number is denoted as z̅. For a complex number z =
a+ib, conjugate is a-ib.
For Example: Conjugate of -3i-5 = 3i-5;
Conjugate of 2-5i = 2+5i.
• Multiplicative inverse: For a non-zero number z, its multiplicative inverse is given as 𝑧 −1 =
𝑧
|𝑧|2
The multiplicative inverse of z = 2-3i is determined as z̅ = 2+ 3i, |z|2 = 22 +(-3) 2 =13
So multiplicative inverse is
(2+3𝑖) 2 3
z-1 = z̅ / |z|2 = = + 𝑖
13 13 13
Another method to get it is:
1 2+3𝑖
z-1 = 2−3𝑖 = (2−3𝑖)(2+3𝑖)
2+3𝑖 (2+3𝑖) 2 3𝑖
= ( 22 +(−3𝑖)2) = = 13 + 13
13
•
3
Cube roots of Unity: Supposing cube root of unity is z i.e. √1 = z, on cubing both sides, we
get z3 = 1.
i.e. z3 -1 =0
(z-1) (z2+z+1) =0
This implies that either z-1 is 0 or (z2+z+1) =0
√12 −4×1×1 1 √3
So 𝑧 = −1 ± =− ± 𝑖
2×1 2 2
1 √3 1 √3
So the three roots of unity are 1, − 2 + 𝑖 , −2 − 𝑖 .
2 2
Of these three roots of unity, the number 1 is a real number and the rest two are imaginary cube
roots of unity.
1.6 BINARY SYSTEM OF NUMBERS
Binary numbers
• A numeric value represented using 0 and 1 is called binary number.
• This system of representation used in mathematics and digital electronics is referred to as
the binary numeral system or the base-2 numeral system.
• This is a positional notation with a radix of 2.

• The binary system is used in all modern computers and computer-based devices as they are
easily implemented using the logic gates in the digital electronic circuitry. In this system,
each digit is called a bit.
Binary Counting
• As with any other counting system, the binary counting starts with a single digit and
proceeds through each symbol in increasing order.
Example: Binary of 2 = 0010, 3 = 0011, 4 = 0100, 8 = 1000, 9 = 1001, 10 = 1010, 11 = 1011,
12 = 1100 and 13 = 1101.
Binary Arithmetic
Similar to the other numeral systems, addition, subtraction, multiplication and division can be
done on binary numbers also.
Above is a circuit diagram of an adder which adds two bits and gives the sum and the carry.
1.7 CONVERSION OF A NUMBER IN DECIMAL SYSTEM TO BINARY SYSTEM AND VICE-
VERSA
• The fundamental numbering system used in computer-based systems, digital systems is the
binary numbering system.
• This system follows the similar set of rules as the decimal system; however, the decimal
system uses the powers of 10 while powers of 2 are used in the binary system.
• And so the conversion of binary to decimal is a base-2 to base-10 conversion and vice-versa
for decimal to binary.
• In the decimal system, each digit increases by a factor of 10 while in the binary number
system, the weight of each digit increases by a factor of 2.
Conversion from Decimal to Binary System:
• To convert a decimal number, i.e. the conversion Base-10 to Base-2, the number is simply
divided by 2 continually to get a result and remainder of either 1 or 0.
➢ Take the decimal number and divide it by 2. Now we get a remainder which is either 0 or
1 and a quotient. The remainder becomes the least significant bit.
➢ Now again divide the remaining quotient part by 2. The new remainder now is the next
least significant bit.
➢ Again, divide the quotient by 2.
➢ This process is repeated until the quotient becomes 1.
➢ We get the binary value from the sequence of remainders including the final quotient 1.
Ex10: (88278)10 = (1001100011010110)2
Quotient Remainder
44139 0
22069 1
11034 1
5517 0
2758 1
1379 0
689 1
344 1
172 0
86 0
43 0
21 1
10 1
2 0
1 0
Conversion from Binary to Decimal:
• To convert a binary number to its decimal form, in simple terms, the algorithm mentioned
above for conversion from decimal to binary needs to be simply inverted.
➢ Starting from the leftmost bit, which is the most significant bit, the bits are used one by one.
➢ With 0 to start with, the previous value is multiplied by 2 and then the next value is obtained
by adding it to the next bit.
In the binary system, as the weight of the digits increases by 1, the first digit has a weight of
1(20). The second digit is 2(21), the third is 4(22) and so on.
Ex10: Convert a binary number (101100101) 2, Identify the decimal equivalent of the digits from
the table as shown
256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
• Now add all the decimal values from right to left for which the binary equivalent is ‘1’.
• I.e. In this case for (101100101) 2 → one is present only in the third, sixth, seventh, ninth
positions from the right.
• So we take only those decimal equivalents 256, 64, 32, 4, 1 and add them. i.e. 256 + 64 +32
+4 +1 = 357.
• This gives the decimal equivalent (357) 10 of the binary number (101100101) 2
• Similarly the decimal equivalent of the binary value (100100) 2 = (36) 10
1.8 ARITHMETIC, GEOMETRIC AND HARMONIC PROGRESSIONS
Arithmetic progression
• When each term of a sequence can be obtained by adding a common difference to the
preceding term, the sequence is said to be in arithmetic progression (AP).
• For a sequence, a1, a2, a3…… an in arithmetic progression, a2-a1 = a3-a2 = an- an-1
Example: 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17….. is in AP, common difference d=3. i.e. (5-2) = (8-5) =3.
Example: 17, 15, 13, 11, 9, 7, 5, 3, 1, -1 is in A.P. in which -2 is the common difference. i.e. 15 -
17 = -2; similarly -1-1 =-2. So the common difference is -2.
Nth term in AP can be found from the first term (a) and the common difference (n-1) as:
Nth term = a+(n-1)d
Ex11: In the series 3/√7, 4/√7, 5/√7 …… which term is 17/√7?
Solution:
The first term of the series is a = 3/√7,
Common difference, d = 4/√7 - 3/√7 = 1/√7;
17/√7 = 3/√7 + (n-1) 1/√7

or 17 = 3 +(n-1), n= 15. So it is 15th term.
Sum of n terms of an AP:
Sum of first n terms of AP can be found by using:
• Sn = n/2 [2a + (n-1)d] where n is the number of terms, a is the first term and d is the common
difference.
Arithmetic Mean: In an AP with 3 quantities, the middle one is the Arithmetic Mean (AM)
For example: AM is 8 for AP of 2, 8, 14.
Geometric progression
A set of numbers formed by multiplying preceding terms by a constant is called Geometric
progression (GP). The constant is referred to as common ratio.
For example: 2, 8, 32, 128, is a series in GP. Here, first term is 2, second term = 2 × 4, third
term = 8 × 4, fourth term is 32 x 4, so 4 is the common ratio of the GP.
For example: 1, 3, 9, 27 is in GP with a common ratio of 3.
In a GP with first term ‘a’ and common ratio as ‘r’, the second term would be a × r, the third term
would be ar × r and so on.
So the Nth term in GP can be found from the first term (a) and the common ratio (r) as:
Nth term tn= ar(n-1)
Ex12: 256 is which term in the GP 1, 2, 4, 8….
Solution:
a = 1, r = second term/ first term = 2/1 =2
n =? tn = 256
tn= ar(n-1) ; 256 = 1 × 2 (n-1) ; 28 = 2(n-1) ; n-1 =8;
n = 9.
So the 9th term is 256.
Geometric Mean (GM): For q is called the geometric mean between p and r when p, q and r
are in GP.
Ex13: What are the 3 GMs between 1/9 and 9?
Solution:
The GP is 1/9, …., ….., …., 9
The first term is a = 1/9, r = ?,
The no. of terms are n= 2+ 3 = 5,
The nth term is tn = 9
As per the formula, tn = ar(n-1) ;
1/9 × r 5-1 = 9 ;
r4 = 81; r= 3.
First GM = 1/9 × 3 = 1/3;
Second GM = 1/3 × 3 = 1
3rd GM = 1 × 3 = 3.
Harmonic Progression
• Harmonic Progression (HP) is a sequence reciprocal of whose terms form an Arithmetic
Progression.
For example:
1 1 1
➢ 3, 5, 7 …. is an AP, so 3 , 5 , 7 is an Harmonic Progression.
1 1 1
➢ 2, 4, 6 is not an HP as 2 , 4 , 6 is not an AP.
1 1 1 1 1
➢ 17, 15, 13, 11, 9 is an AP, so 17 , 15 , 13 , 11 , 9 is an HP.
1 1
Ex14: In an HP, the 3rd term is 12, and 7th term is 32. What would be the 15th term?
Solution:
Assume first term of AP is 𝑎 and common ratio is 𝑑.
3rd term = 𝑎 + 2𝑑 = 12
7th term = 𝑎 + 6𝑑 = 32.
1
So d = 5, a =2. 15th term of AP = 𝑎 + 14𝑑 = 72. So the 15th term of HP will be 72.
1 1 1
So the HP will be 2 , 7 , 12 , …
Harmonic Mean: For two quantities p, q if H is the harmonic mean then p, H, q will be in HP
1 1 1
and 𝑝 , 𝐻 , 𝑞 will be in AP.
1.9 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS WITH REAL COEFFICIENTS

• A quadratic equation is an equation of the form px2+qx+r=0 where p, q and r are constants and
x is a variable. Also the value of p is non zero. This is also called a second degree equation.
• If in the above equation, the value of b is 0, then this equation is referred to as pure quadratic
equation, else it is called an affected quadratic equation.
For example: 3x2 + 2x +5 = 0; x2 - 6x =0
Here the root of the equation refers to the value of x, and there are 2 roots in the case of a
quadratic equation.
For a quadratic equation ax2+bx+c=0,
−𝑏 ± √𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎
𝑏
The sum of the roots = - 𝑎 = - coefficient of x/ coefficient of x2
The product of the roots = c/a = constant term / coefficient of x2
Using the sum of the roots and the product of the roots, a quadratic equation can be
constructed as below:
x2- (Sum of the roots) x + Product of the roots =0
Nature of the roots of a quadratic equation
−𝑏 ± √𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎
2
Here 𝑏 − 4𝑎𝑐 actually discriminates between the roots. So this is called the discriminant of the
quadratic equation.
The roots of the quadratic equation are real and equal when 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐=0.
The roots become imaginary if 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0
The roots are real and unequal if 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0. That is, they are distinct roots.
When 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 is a perfect square, and when it is not equal to 0, the roots are real, distinct and
rational.
Other points regarding roots:
In case of irrational roots, if p+√𝑞 is one root, then p-√𝑞 is the other root indicating that they
occur in pairs.
The product of the roots is 1 if the roots are reciprocal to one another. Product =1, c/a=1, c =a.
The sum of the roots is 0 if one root is equal to the other but differ in sign. So sum =0, b/a=0,
b=0.
Ex15: Find the value of x for the quadratic equation 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 2 = 0
Solution:
𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 2 = 0
−𝑏 ± √𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎
−(−6) ± √(−6)2 − (4 × 1 × 2)
=> 𝑥 =
(2 × 1)
6 ± √36 − 8 6 ± √32
= =
2 2
6 ± 4√2
= = 3 ± 2√2
2
So, 𝑥 = 3 + 2√2 or 𝑥 = 3 − 2√2
1.10 SOLUTION OF LINEAR INEQUATIONS OF TWO VARIABLES BY GRAPHS
• We get two parts when a Cartesian plane is divided by a line. These parts are referred to as
half planes respectively.
• We get left and right planes when the plane is divided using a vertical line. While a non-
vertical line divides the plane into the upper and lower half planes.
So there could be three possibilities, namely,
ax + by = c, ax + by > c; ax + by < c
A solution region is one which contains all the solutions of an inequality.
• The graph of the inequality ax + by > c, will be one half of the solution region and can be
depicted by shading the corresponding half plane.
• To identify the half plane, any point (a, b) not on the line, should be checked to see if it
satisfies the inequality or not.
• In case the point satisfies the inequality, then that the region containing the point can be
shaded as the inequality represents the half plane, else the other region which does not contain
the point can be shaded.
• Generally (0, 0) point is taken. The points on the line 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 = 𝑐 are included in the solution
region when the inequalities are of the type, ax + by ≥ c or ax +by ≤ c. In such cases, a darker
line is drawn in the solution region.
• The points on the line ax + by =c are not included in the solution region when the inequalities
are of the type ax + by > c or ax +by < c.
• In such cases, a dotted or a broken line is drawn in the solution region.
Ex16: Solve these inequalities:
8x+ 3y ≤ 100; x ≥ 0 ; y ≥ 0
Solution:
The graph is drawn with line 8x +3y = 100.
The shaded region below this line indicates the inequality 8x+ 3y ≤ 100. This also includes the
points on the line 8x + 3y = 100.
All the points in the shaded region of the first quadrant which includes the axes and the points
on the line represent the solution for this system of inequalities as x ≥ 0; y ≥ 0.
1.11 PERMUTATION AND COMBIMATION

Permutation
Permutation is the way of arranging a group of things or persons from a larger group taking into
consideration the order of selection or grouping. It is dependent on the order of the selection.
Example: If a group of people go to a photo shop to get photographed with them standing in
different positions, then the photographer can use permutation to find the number of
possibilities.
Counting principle: There can be m × n of performing two operations if one of it has m ways
to perform and there are n ways to perform the other.
Factorial: The product of first n natural numbers is called the factorial of n, which is represented
as n!.
n! = 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 × …..n.
For example: 1! = 1
3! = 3× 2 × 1 =6
5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120.
8! = 8×7×6×5×4×3×2×1 = 40320
10! = 10×9×8×7×6×5×4×3×2×1 = 3628800
Mathematical definition of Permutation:
Permutation taking r different things at a time out of n total things is given as
𝒏 𝒏!
𝑷𝒓 𝑜𝑟 𝑷(𝒏, 𝒓) = (𝒏−𝒓)! where r≤ 𝑛
Here r can never exceed n, but n and r must be positive integer values. When r=n, it is all at a
time while if r<n then it is some at a time.
Permutation when repetition is not allowed, and of the n total things, p is one category of things
𝑛!
alike, q is another category and r is third category and rest are different then it can be given as 𝑝!𝑞!𝑟!.
R things are together in a total of n things (n-r+1)!r!
In an arrangement of n things, R things are together in a specific order (n-r+1)!
In an arrangement of n things if r things are never together (n!)-(n-r+1)!r!
In a total of n things, there are r alike things together (n-r+1)!
The above table gives the total arrangements possible under the different scenarios.
Circular permutation:
N things can be placed in a circular arrangement (n-1)!
N things can be placed in a circle with respect to any object (n!)
Clockwise or anticlockwise position of the elements cannot be (n-1)!/2
identified for example, as in the case of the flowers in a bouquet
Ex17: What would be the total arrangements possible for 5 people in a line?
Solution: 5P5 = 5!/(5-5)! = 5! = 120.
Ex18: What are the different possibilities of choosing 3 letters from the word hexagon and 4
from the word triangle?
Solution:
The word hexagon has 7 letters.
7!
Number of permutations is 7P3 = (7−3)!
= 7×6× 5 = 210.
The word triangle has 8 letters.
8!
Number of Permutations is 8𝑃4 = (8−4)! = 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 = 1680
Combination
Selection of items from a total number of items is called Combination. Unlike permutation, it is
not order dependent.
The total number of combinations of r items from total n items is
n 𝑛!
Cr = 𝑟! × (𝑛−𝑟)! where r≤ 𝑛
Without combination or selection, permutation arrangement is not possible, while combination
can happen alone. Mathematically this is represented as nCr < nPr except when r= 0 or 1.
Some of the useful formulas are:
When r>n/2, then nCr = nCn-r
n
Cr + nCr-1 = n+1Cr
n
Cr / nCr-1 = (n-r+1)/r
When either x=y or x+y=n or both are true simultaneously, then in that case the combinations
would be: nCx = nCy
Combination applications: Some of the places where combination is used that is illustrated in
the table given below.
n
No. of circles that can be formed from n points C3
n
From n points in a plane, no. of straight lines that can be formed if no three C2
of them are co-linear
From n points in a plane, no. of straight lines that can be formed if p are co- nC2-pC2 +1
linear
n
No. of triangles that can be formed from n points C3
n
No. of triangles formed from n points when p of them are co-linear C3-pC3
n
No. of diagonals of an n sided polygon C2- n
n
No. of points of intersection of n straight lines when no two of them are C2
parallel and when there are no three concurrent lines
The combination or selection of n different things taking at least one at a time can be found as:
n
C1+ nC2 +nC3+….+nCn = 2n-1
If there are a, b, c items wherein ‘a’ is a kind of alike items and ‘b’ is alike and another type of
items and similarly c is a different type of alike items, in this case the number of selections of a,
b, c that would be possible when taking at least one item is (a+1) (b+1) (c+1) -1.
Division of items into groups
Total ways in which (𝑝 + 𝑞) items can be divided into two groups containing p and q items and
(𝑝+𝑞)!
which are distinct is 𝑝!𝑞!
Total ways in which (𝑝 + 𝑞 + 𝑟) items can be divided into 3 groups containing p, q, r items and
(𝑝+𝑞+𝑟)!
which are distinct is 𝑝!𝑞!𝑟!
(2𝑝)! (3𝑝)!
If 𝑝 = 𝑞 or 𝑝 = 𝑞 = 𝑟, then 2p or 3p items can be equally distributed in or ways into
𝑝! 𝑝!
distinct groups.
If the elements of the groups are not identical, then 2p or 3p items can be equally distributed in
(2𝑝)! 1 (3𝑝)! 1
(( ) 2 × 2!) or ( 3 × 3!) ways into distinct groups.
𝑝! 𝑝!
1.12 BINOMIAL THEOREM AND ITS APPLICATIONS

The calculation of higher powers becomes tough when the standard repeated multiplication
method is applied.
Binomial theorem solves this difficulty. This theorem provides a much easier way to expand
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 wherein n refers to a rational number or an integer.
Let us consider the binomial theorem
(𝑎 + 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏2 One more than the index is the total number of terms of the equation.
In this case, the number of terms is 3 and the index is 2.
The powers of ‘a’ decrease while the powers of ‘b’ increase both by 1 respectively in the
successive terms.
The sum of indices of a and b is equal to the index of a + b for each term of expansion.
Binomial theorem for a positive integer n
(a+b)n = nC0an + nC1an-1 b + nC2an-2 b2 + …+ nCn-1 a bn-1 + nCn bn
Notation:
∑𝑛𝑘=0 𝑛 Ck an-k bk
= nC0an b0 + nC1an-1 b + nC2an-2 b2 + …+ nCr an-r br + ….+nCn-1 a bn-1 + nCn bn
Where b0 = 1= an-n
So the theorem is also given as :
(a+b)n = ∑𝑛𝑘=0 𝑛 Ck an-k bk
Here the binomial coefficients are nCr.
As discussed earlier, the number of terms of an expansion is more than the index by 1.
So in the above case, the number of terms in this expansion is one more than the index n i.e.
n+1.
As can be seen, in the successive terms, the power of ‘a’ decreases, i.e. it goes from a n in the
first term to unity in the last term. In the case of b, it is vice versa, i.e. its power goes on
increasing i.e. It goes from unity to b n.
The sum of the indices in each term of the expansion is n. I.e. In the first term, it is n+0 = n. In
second term n-1+1 = n and so on for the rest of the terms.
3 4
Ex19: When a ≠0, expand (𝑎2 + 𝑎) .
Solution: As per the binomial theorem
(a+b)n = ∑𝑛𝑘=0 𝑛 Ck an-k bk
Expanding to the given expression,
3 3 3 3
= 4C0(a2)4 + 4C1(a2)3( 𝑎) + 4C2(a2)2 ( 𝑎)2 + 4C3 (a2) ( 𝑎)3 + 4C4 ( 𝑎)4
3
= a8 + 4 a6( 𝑎) + 6 a4(9/ a2) + 4 a2 (27/ a3) + (81/ a4)
= a8 + 12 a5 + 54 a2 + (108/ a) + (81/ a4)
Middle term:
𝑛+1+1 th
• n+1 is odd when n is even. So the middle term is term. i.e. (n/2+1)th term.
2
8+1+1
Example: 5th term is the middle term of (x+2y)8 i.e. =5
2
Example: (a-50b)12, the middle term is (12+1+1) /2 = 7
• When n is odd, n+1 is even. So the two middle terms of the expansion would be
((n+1)/2+1)th term and ((n+1)/2)th term.
Example: For (2x-2y)7 the middle terms are 4th and 5th terms. i.e. ((7+1) /2+1) = 5, (7+1) /2 = 4.
Example: (9a+12b)5, the middle terms are (5+1)/2 = 3, (5+1)/2 +1 = 4 th terms.
1.13 LOGARITHMS AND THEIR APPLICATION
Given 3 quantities in a relation ax=n. The logarithm of this is expressed as log a n = x. That is the
index or the power to which a base must be raised to get a number is called the logarithm of a
number to a given base.
In this case, the logarithm of n to the base a is x.
The equations loga n = x, ax = n are just a transformation of one form into other.
Example: log2 16 = 4, 24 =16
Example: 102 =100 → log10 100 = 2,
We know that any number raised to the power of 0 is 1. So the log of 1 to any base is 0 i.e. log a
1=0
Similarly, any quantity raised to the power of 1 is the same value. Hence log of any quantity to
its same base value is 1. i.e. loga a = 1.
Ex20: What is the Logarithm of 5832 to the base of 3√2.
Solution:
log3√2 5832 = x
(3√2)x = 5832 = 8 × 729 = 23 × 3 6
= (√2)6 × 3 6 = (3√2) 6
x =6
Laws of Logarithm
1. Product: For two numbers, the logarithm of their product is the sum of the logarithm of the
individual numbers to the same base.
loga mn = loga m + loga n
2. Quotient: For two numbers, the logarithm of their quotient is the difference of logarithm of the
numbers to the same base.
loga 𝑚/𝑛 = loga m - loga n
3. Power: Logarithm of a number raised to a power is the logarithm of a number to the same
base, multiplied by the index of the power
loga mn = n loga m
Ex21: With the base of 2√3, what is the log of 1728?
Solution:
1728 = 26 × 33 = (2√3)6
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔(2√3) 1728 = 6
Ex22: What is the output of 1/2 log10 25 - 2 log10 3 + log10 18?
Solution:
log10 25(1/2) - log10 32 + log10 18
= log10 5 - log10 9 + log10 18

= log10 (18 × 5/9) = log10 10 =1
Base change: Given the logarithm of a number to a base, the logarithm of the number to any
other base can be determined using log a n = logb n × loga b → logb n = loga n / loga b
Logarithm Tables
The characteristic or the whole part or the integral part and the mantissa or the decimal parts
are the two parts of a logarithm of a number.
Logarithm Tables are used to find the mantissa while the characteristic part can be obtained by
inspection.
Characteristic:
When a given number is >1, then Characteristic of log of the number is positive and is the
number of digits to the left of the decimal point of the number -1.
When a given number is <1, then Characteristic of log of the number is negative and is the
number of zeroes to the right of the decimal point of the number +1. If there are no zeros, then it
is -1.
For example:
32 characteristic is 1;
06.21 characteristic is 0;
123.0005 characteristic is 2;
78124 characteristic is 4;
0.8 characteristic is -1;
0.000670 characteristic is -4.
0.001501207 characteristic is -3
So for numbers greater than 1, the characteristic is positive.
Positive Characteristic
100 =1 → log10 1 = 0
101 =10 → log10 10 = 1
102 =100 → log10 100 = 2
103 =1000 → log10 1000 = 3
104 =10000 → log10 10000 = 4
For all numbers lying in the range of 1 and 10, i.e. the single integral part numbers, the
logarithms lie between 0 and 1 and the integral part is 0.
For numbers with 2 digit integral parts, i.e. those between 10 and 100, logarithms lie between 1
and 2.
This can be then generalized as the logarithm of number with n digits in its integral part is (n-1)
+a fraction.
Negative characteristic
10-1 =1/10 =0.1 → log 0.1 = -1
10-2 =1/100 =0.01 → log 0.01 = -2
For numbers lying between 1 and 0.1, the logarithms lie between 0 and -1 i.e. greater than -1
and less than 0, so their characteristic is -1.
For the numbers in the range of 0.1 to 0.01, their logarithms are between -1 and -2 that is the
characteristics of their logarithms are in between -1 and -2.
This can be generalized as for a number having n zeros immediately following the decimal
point, the logarithm of this number is (n+1) + a fraction
Mantissa:
In the logarithm of a number, the mantissa is the fractional part.
Consider the numbers below:
• Log 4597 here Mantissa is 6625, logarithm is 3.6625
• For 459.7 the mantissa is 6625, logarithm is 2.6625.
• For 4.597, the mantissa is 6625, logarithm is 0.6625
• For 0.4597 the mantissa is 6625 and the logarithm is -1.6625
This indicates that for same figures, the difference comes only in the characteristic part.
The mantissa is always positive and so before referring the log table, the negative mantissa
should be converted to positive.
Ex22: -3.6872 = -4 + (4-3.6872) = 4̅. 3128, where 4 is negative and 0.3128 is positive.
Solution:
Here it 4̅. 3128 is different from -4. 3128. In case of -4. 3128 it is a negative number while in
case of 4̅. 3128, 4 is negative and 0.3128 is positive
Antilogarithm:
For a number n with a logarithm of x for a base, the antilogarithm or antilog is n for that base.
Loga n = x then n = antilog x.
Example:
• log 61720 = 4.7904; antilog 4.7904 = 61720.
• For Number 0.206, the mantissa is -1.3139 and its logarithm is 0.2060.
Ex23: If log 2 is 0.3010, what would be log 5?
Solution:
log 5 = log 10/2 = log 10 – log 2
= 1 – 0.3010 =0.6990
Formula Table
Sets: For a set of n elements ➢ loga mn = n loga m
➢ Total number of subsets = 2n ➢ loga a = 1
➢ Total number of non-empty subsets = 2n -1 ➢ loga 1 = 0
➢ Total number of proper subsets = 2n -1 ➢ logb a × loga b = 1
➢ Total number of non-empty proper subsets=2n-2 ➢ logb a × logc b = logc a
DeMorgan’s Law: ➢ logb a = log a/log b
➢ (A ∪ 𝐵) c = Ac ∩ Bc Roots of quadratic equation:
➢ (A ∩ 𝐵) c = Ac ∪Bc −𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
➢ 𝑥=
Cartesian Product: 2𝑎
➢ C × (A∪ 𝐵) = (C × A) ∪ (C × B) Permutation:
➢ C × (A-𝐵) = (C × A) - (C × B) ➢ nP1 = n
Sum of Natural Numbers: ➢ nP0 = 1
n(n+1) ➢ nPn = n!
➢ ∑𝑛 = 1 + 2+ 3…+𝑛 = ➢ nPn = nPn-1!
2
1
➢ Ʃ 𝑛 = 1 + 2 + 3 … + n = 6 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1)
2 2 2 2 2 ➢ nPr = nPr-1!
➢ Ʃ 𝑛 3 = 13 + 23 + 33… + n3 = (𝑛(𝑛 + 1)/2)2 Relation between Permutation and
=n2(n+1)2 /4 Combination:
Middle term of an expansion: ➢ nPr = nCr × r!
➢ Tr+1 = nCr × ann̅r × br For the expansion (a+b)n ➢ nP0 = nC0 = 1
Properties of Logarithm: ➢ nPr / nCr = r!
➢ loga mn = loga m + loga n ➢ nP1 = nC1 = n
n
➢ loga 𝑚/𝑛 = loga m - loga n Cn = 1 × Pn = n!
1. What is one of the square roots of 3 + 4𝑖, where 𝑖 = √−1?

(a) 2 + 𝑖 (b) 2 − 𝑖
(c) −2 + 𝑖 (d) −3 − 𝑖
Solution: (a)
Let the square roots of 3 + 4𝑖 be 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
then 3 + 4𝑖 = (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 = (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) + 2𝑥𝑦𝑖
Comparing real and imaginary parts, we get
𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 3 and 𝑥𝑦 = 2
2
By substituting the equation 𝑦 = 𝑥 in 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 3, we get, (𝑥, 𝑦) = (2, 1) or −2, −1)
Hence the square roots are 2 + 𝑖 and−2 − 𝑖
So the correct answer is option (a)
2. The number 83 is written in the binary system as
(a) 100110 (b) 101101
(c) 1010011 (d) 110110
Solution: (c)
Therefore, (83)10 = (1010011)2

3. The relation R in the set Z of integers given by 𝑅 = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎 − 𝑏 is divisible by 5} is
(a) reflexive (b) reflexive but not
symmetric
(c) symmetric (d) an equivalence
and transitive relation
Solution: (d)
For reflexive:
(a, a) = a-a =0 is divisible by 5.
For symmetric:
If (a-b) is divisible by 5, then b-a = -(a-b)is also divisible by 5.
Thus relation is symmetric.
For transitive
If (a-b) and (b-c) is divisible by 5.
Thus relation is transitive.
R is an equivalence relation.
4. What is ∑𝑛𝑟=0 𝐶(𝑛, 𝑟) equal to?
(a) 2𝑛 − 1 (b) 𝑛
(c) 𝑛𝑙 (d)2𝑛
Solution: (d)
∑ 𝑐(𝑛, 𝑟) = 𝑛𝐶0 + 𝑛𝐶1 + 𝑛𝐶2 + ⋯ + 𝑛𝐶𝑛

𝑟=0
2 = (1 + 1)𝑛 = 𝑛𝐶0 + 𝑛𝐶1 + 𝑛𝐶2 + ⋯ + 𝑛𝐶𝑛
𝑛
𝑛
∑ 𝑐(𝑛, 𝑟) = 2𝑛
𝑟=0
5. What is 0.9 + 0.09 +0.009 + …… equal to?
(a) 1 (b) 1.01
(c) 1.001 (d) 1.1
Solution: (a)
S = 0.9+0,09+0.009+…
= 9(0.1+0.01+0.001+….)
0.1 0.1
=9 [1−0.1] = 9 × 0.9 = 1
6. How many real roots does the quadratic equation 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 + 3|𝑥 | + 2 = 0 have?
(a) One (b) Two
(c)Four (d) No real root
Solution: (d)
𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2 = 0, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 0
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = { 2
𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 2 = 0, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 0
For 𝑥 ≥ 0
𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2 = 0
−3±√9−8 −3±1
𝑥= =
2 2
X = -2, -1
For x<0
𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 2 = 0
3±√9−8 3±1
𝑥= =
2 2
X = 2, -1
Since x as negative, therefore 𝑥 ≠ 2,1
Hence the given equation has no real roots.
7. In a group of 50 people, two tests were conducted, one for diabetes and one for blood
pressure.30 people were diagnosed with diabetes and 40 people were diagnosed with high
blood pressure. What is the minimum number of people who were having diabetes and high
blood pressure?
(a) 0 (b) 10
(c) 20 (d) 30
Solution: (c)
n(T)=50
n(D)=30
n(H)=40
n(T)= n(D)+n(H)-n(D∩H)
50 =30+40-n(D∩H)
N(D∩H)=70-50=20
Number of people having diabetes and high blood pressure = 20
8. Let 𝑛 be a positive integer and

(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛
What is 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 equal to?
(a) 1 (b) 2𝑛
(c)2𝑛−1 (d)2𝑛+1
Solution: (b)
(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 𝑛𝐶0 + 𝑛𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝑛𝐶2 𝑥 𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑛𝐶𝑛 𝑥 𝑛
Putting x=1
2𝑛 = 𝑛𝐶0 + 𝑛𝐶1 + 𝑛𝐶2 + ⋯ + 𝑛𝐶𝑛
=>𝑎𝟎 + 𝑎1 + ⋯ 𝑎𝒏 = 2𝒏
[here 𝑛𝐶0 = 𝑎𝟎 , 𝑛𝐶1 = 𝑎𝟏 , 𝑛𝐶2 = 𝑎𝟐 , 𝑛𝐶𝑛 = 𝑎𝒏
𝛼 𝛽
9. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0, then what is the value of √𝛽 + √𝛼 +
𝑏
√ ?
𝑎
(a) −1 (b) 0
(c) 1 (d) 2
Solution: (b)
𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the given equation, then
𝑏 𝑏
𝛼 + 𝛽 = 𝑎 and 𝛼𝛽= 𝑎
𝛼 𝛽 𝑏
√𝛽 + √𝛼 + √𝑎
𝑏 𝑏
𝛼+𝛽 𝛼+𝛽+𝛼𝛽 − +
𝑎 𝑎
= +√𝛼𝛽 = = =0
√𝛼𝛽 √𝛼𝛽 √
𝑏
𝑎
10. A number in binary is 110001. It is equal to which one of the following number in decimal
system?
(a) 45 (b) 46
(c) 48 (d) 49
Solution: (d)
(110001)𝟐 = 1 × 25 + 1 × 24 + 0 × 23 + 0 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 2
= 32 +16 +0 +0+0+1=(49)10
11. The roots of the equation
𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 16 = 0
(a) are imaginary (b) are distinct and
real
(c) are equal and (d) cannot be
real ascertained
Solution: (c)
Discriminant, D = (−8)2 − 4 × 16 = 0
Roots are real and equal.
1 1
12. What is 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (2) + 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (3) equal to?
𝜋 𝜋
(a) (b)
2 3
𝜋 𝜋
(c) (d)
4 6
Solution: (c)
1 1
1 1 +
tan−1 ( ) + tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 ( 2 3 )
2 3 1 1
1−2×3
5
𝜋
= tan−1 ( 65 ) = tan−1 (1) = 4
6
13. What is (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃)(1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝜃) equal to?

(a) 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 (b) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
(c) 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 (d) 1
Solution: (d)
1
(1−𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃)(1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃. 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃 = 1
14. How many terms are there in the expansion of (1 + 2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )10 ?
(a) 11 (b) 20
(c) 21 (d) 30
Solution: (c)
(1 + 2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )10 = [(𝑥 + 1)𝟐 ]10 = (𝑥 + 1)20
Number of terms in the expansion of (𝑥 + 1)20
= 20 +1 = 21
15. The sum of the first five terms and the sum of the first ten terms of 𝐴𝑃 are same. Which one
of the following is the correct statement?
(a) The first term must be negative (b) The common difference must be negative.
(c) Either the first term or the common (d) Both the first term and the common difference
difference is negative but not both. are negative
Solution: (c)
𝑆5 = 𝑆10
5 10
=> 2 [2𝑎 + 4𝑑 ] = [2𝑎 + 9𝑑]
2
=> 5a +10d=10a+45d
−1
=> 1 = -7d or d = a
7
We see, if d is positive, then first term should be negative and common difference should be
positive. If d is negative, then first term should be position and common difference should be
negative.
16. If 𝐴 = {1, 3, 5,7}, then what is the cardinality of the power set (𝐴)?
(a) 8 (b) 15
(c) 16 (d) 17
Solution: (c)
If roots are real 𝑏2 − 4 × 4 ≥ 0
=> 𝑏2 ≥ 16
b≤ −4, 𝑏 ≥ 4
20. What is the seventh term of the sequence 0, 3, 8, 15, 24,….?
(a) 63 (b) 48
(c) 35 (d) 33
Solution: (b)
0+3=3, 3+5= 8, 8+7=15, 15+9=24, 24+11=35,
35 +13=48
Sequence is 0, 3, 8, 15, 24, 35, 48
21. What is 𝑙𝑜𝑔81 243 equal to?
(a) 0.75 (b) 1.25
(c) 1.5 (d) 3
Solution: (b)
𝑙𝑜𝑔81 243 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔34 35
𝑙𝑜𝑔35 5
= = = 1.25
𝑙𝑜𝑔34 4
22. Which one of the following is correct?
1 1 1 1
If 𝑏−𝑐 +𝑏−𝑎 = 𝑎 +𝑐 , then a, b, c are in
(a) AP (b) HP
(c) GP (d) None of these
Solution: (b)
1 1 1 1
+𝑏−𝑎 = 𝑎 +𝑐
𝑏−𝑐
1 1 1 1
⇒ − 𝑎 + 𝑏−𝑎 − 𝑐 =0
𝑏−𝑐
𝑎−𝑏+𝑐 𝑐−𝑏+𝑎
⇒ + 𝑐(𝑏−𝑎)
𝑎(𝑏−𝑐)
1 1
⇒ (𝑎 − 𝑏 + 𝑐) {𝑎(𝑏−𝑐) + 𝑐(𝑏−𝑎) } =0
𝑐𝑏−𝑎𝑐+𝑎𝑏−𝑎𝑐
⇒ =0
𝑎𝑐(𝑏−𝑐)(𝑏−𝑎)
Dividing both sides by 𝑎𝑏𝑐
1 1 2 1 1 1
⇒ 𝑎 +𝑐 = 𝑏⇒ 𝑎 ,𝑏 , 𝑐 are in AP
⇒ a, b, c are in HP.
23. What is the 15th term of the series 3, 7, 13, 21, 31, 43,…?
(a) 205 (b) 225
(c) 238 (d) 241
Solution: (d)
Let S= 3+7+13+21+31+…+𝑎𝑛
−𝑠 = ±3 ± 7 ± 13 ± 21 ± 31 ± ⋯ ± 𝑎𝑛−1 ± 𝑎𝑛
0 = 3 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10 + 12 + ⋯ − 𝑎𝑛
⇒ 𝑎𝑛 = 3 + [4 + 6 + 8 + 10 + 12 + ⋯ (𝑛 − 1)
(𝑛−1)
= 3+ [8 + {(𝑛 − 1) − 1})2]
2
(𝑛−1)
= 3+ [8 + 2𝑛 − 4]
2
(𝑛−1)
3+ (2𝑛 + 4)
2
= 3+ (n-1) (n+2)
15th term = 𝑎15 = 3 + (15 − 1)(15 + 2)
=3+14*7=241
24. If the nth term of an arithmetic progression is 2n-1, then what is the sum up to n term?
(a) 𝑛2 (b) 𝑛2 -1
(c) 𝑛2 +1 1
(d) 2n (n+1)
Solution: (a)
Given 𝑎𝑛 =2n-1
𝑛 𝑛
𝑠𝑛 = ∑ 𝑎𝑘 = ∑(2𝑛 − 1)
𝑘=1 𝑘=1
𝑛(𝑛+1)
= 2∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑛 − 𝑛 =2. n
2
= 𝑛 +n-n = 𝑛2
2
25. If the three observations are 3, -6 and -6, then what is their harmonic mean?
(a) 0 (b) ∞
(c) -1/2 (d) -3
Solution: (b)
1
Harmonic mean = 1 1 1 1
( + + )
3 3 −6 −6
1 1
= 1 1 1 =0 = ∞
( − )
3 3 3
𝑛(𝑛+1)
26. Sum of first n natural numbers is given by . What is the geometric mean of the series 1,
2
2, 4, 8…..2𝑛 ?
(a) 2𝑛 (b) 2𝑛/2
(c) 21/2 (d) 2𝑛−1
Solution: (b)
𝑛+1
Geometric mean = √1.2.4.8 … . . 2𝑛
𝑛+1
= √20 . 21 . 22 . 23 … . . 2𝑛
𝑛+1 𝑛(𝑛+1)
=
𝑛+1
√21+2+3+⋯.+𝑛 = √2 2
𝑛
= 2( 2 )
27. If the number of the terms of an A.P is (2n+1), then what is the ratio of the odd terms to the
sum of the term?
𝑛 𝑛2
(a) 𝑛+1 (b) 𝑛+1
𝑛+1 𝑛+1
(c) (d)
𝑛 2𝑛
Solution: (c)
Let the AP is
a, a+d, a+2d, .a+ (2n-1) d, a+2nd
Series of even terms.
a+d, a+3d, a+ (2n-1), has n terms
𝑛
Sum of even number = 2 [(𝑎 + 𝑑 ) + {𝑎 + (2𝑛 − 1)𝑑 }]
𝑛
= [2𝑎 + 2𝑛𝑑 ] = 𝑛[𝑎 + 𝑛𝑑]
2
Series of add terms
a, a+2d, a+4d, a+ nd, has (n+1) terms.
𝑛+1
Sum of add numbers = [𝑎 + (𝑎 + 2𝑑)]
2
= (n+1) (a+nd)
𝑛+1
So, the required ratio = 𝑛
28. If the sum of ‘n’ terms of an arithmetic progression is 𝑛2 − 2𝑛, then what is the nth term?
(a) 3n−𝑛2 (b) 2n−3
(c) 2n+3 (d) 2n−5
Solution: (b)
Given 𝑠𝑛 = 𝑛2 − 2𝑛
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑠𝑛 − 𝑠𝑛−1
= 𝑛2 − 2𝑛 − [(𝑛 − 1)2 − 2(𝑛 − 1)]
= 𝑛2 − 2𝑛 −[𝑛2 + 1 − 2𝑛 − 2𝑛 + 2] = 2𝑛 − 3
29. If a, 2a+2, 3a+3 are in GP, then what is the fourth term of the GP?
(a) −13.5 (b) 13.5

(c) −27 (d) 27
Solution: (a)
Since a, 2a+2 and 3a+3 are in GP
(2𝑎 + 2)2 = 𝑎(3𝑎 + 3)
⇒ 4𝑎2 +4+8a =3𝑎2 =3a ⇒ 𝑎2 +5a+4=0
⇒ a (a+4) +1(a+4) =0 ⇒ (a+4) (a+1) =0
⇒ a+4 = 0 or a+1=0
⇒ a = -4 or -1
Let the fourth term be x
𝑎 3𝑎+3 (3𝑎+3)(2𝑎+2)
= ⇒x=
2𝑎+2 𝑥 𝑎
When a =-4, x = -13.5
And a =-1, x=0
So, the fourth term is -13.5
30. If the AM and GM of two numbers are 5 and 4 respectively, then what is the HM of those
number?
5 16
(a) (b)
4 5
9 (d) 9
(c) 2
Solution: (b)
(𝐺𝑀)2
We know, HM = 𝐴𝑀
16
HM = 5
31. The harmonic mean of two numbers is 21.6. If one of the numbers is 27, then what is the
HM of those numbers?
(a) 16.2 (b) 17.3
(c) 18 (d) 20
Solution: (c)
Harmonic mean=21.6 and 27
We know that,
2𝑎𝑏
Harmonic mean = 𝑎+𝑏
2∗27∗𝑏
⇒ 21.6 = 27+𝑏
⇒ 583.2=54b-21.6b
583.2
⇒ b= = 18
32.4
32. If the sum of the first two terms and the sum of the first four terms of a geometric
progression with positive common ratio are 8 and 80 respectively, then what is the 6 th term?
(a) 88 (b) 243
(c) 486 (d) 1458
Solution: (c)
Let the geometric progression be a, ar,𝑎𝑟 2 ,….with
Common ratio and first term ‘a’
According to the question, we have
a + ar=8⇒a (1+r) =8
a+ ar+𝑎𝑟 2 +𝑎𝑟 3 =80
⇒a (1+r) + 𝑎𝑟 2 (1+r) =80
⇒a (1+r) (1+ 𝑟 2 )=80
⇒ 8(1+𝑟 2 ) =80
⇒ 𝑟 2 =10-1=9
⇒ r=3
From eq. (i), a (1+3) =8
⇒ a=2
Now, 6th term = 𝑎𝑟 5 =2(3)5 = 2*243=486
33. If x>1 and 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥, 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 𝑥, 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 16 are in GP, then what is x equal to?
(a) 9 (b) 8
(c) 4 (d) 2
Solution: (a)
Since 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥, 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 𝑥, 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 16 are in GP
𝑙𝑜𝑔3 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 16
𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 𝑥
⇒ (𝑙𝑜𝑔3 𝑥)2 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 16
log 𝑥 log 16 log 16
⇒log 2 . log =
𝑥 log 2
⇒ (𝑙𝑜𝑔3 𝑥) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 16 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 24
2
⇒ (𝑙𝑜𝑔3 𝑥)2 =4 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 2=4

⇒ 𝑙𝑜𝑔3 𝑥 = 2
⇒ x = 32 =9
34. In a geometric progression with first term and common ratio r, what is the arithmetic mean of
first five terms?
(a) a+2r (b) 𝑎𝑟 2
(c) 𝑎(𝑟 2 − 1)/(𝑟 − 1) (d) 𝑎(𝑟 5 − 1)/[5(r-1)]
Solution: (d)
Let the geometric progression be a, ar, 𝑎𝑟 2 , 𝑎𝑟 3 , 𝑎𝑟 4 ,….First five terms of a geometric
progression are a, ar, 𝑎𝑟 2 , 𝑎𝑟 3 , 𝑎𝑟 4 .
a+ar+ 𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑟 3+𝑎𝑟 4
Mean = 5
𝑎(𝑟 5−1)
= 5(𝑟−1)
35. If (1+3+5+…+p) + (1+3+5+…+q) = (1+3+5+…+r) where each set of parentheses contains

the sum of consecutive odd integers as shown, what is the smallest possible value of (𝑝 + 𝑞 +
𝑟), where p>6?
(a) 12 (b) 21
(c) 45 (d) 54
Solution: (b)
Since nth term of A.P =a+ (n-1) d
p=1+ (n-1)2
First term=a=1 and common difference=d=2
𝑝+1
⇒n= 2
(1+3+5+……………….+p)+(1+3+5+…+q)+(1+3+5+………+r)
𝑝+1 q+1
𝑝+1 ( ) q+1
2 2
⇒ [2*1+ ( − 1)2] + [2 ∗ 1 + ( − 1)2]
2 2 2 2
𝑟+1 𝑟+1
= [2 ∗ 1 + ( − 1) 2]
4 2
𝑝+1 q+1
⇒ [2 + (𝑝 − 1)] + [2 + (q − 1)]
4 4
𝑟+1
⇒ [2 + 𝑟 − 1]
4
⇒ (𝑝 + 1)2 + (q + 1)2 = (r + 1)2
36. If 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 2 , 𝑧 2 are in AP, then y + z, z + x, x + y are in
(a) AP (b) HP
(c) GP (d) None of the
these
Solution: (a)
Let 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 2 , 𝑧 2 are in A.P.
⇒ 𝑦2 − 𝑥2 = 𝑧2 − 𝑦2
2𝑦 2 =𝑥 2 + 𝑧 2
(a) Suppose y+z, z+x and x+y are in A.P
(z+x)– (y+z) = (x+y) –(z+x)
2(z+x) = (y+z) + (x+y)
⇒2z+2x=2y+z+x ⇒z+x=2y
⇒x,y,z are in A.P. which is true.
(b) Let y + z, z + x, x + y are in HP.
2(𝑦+𝑧)(𝑥+𝑦)
Z+x=
𝑦+𝑧+𝑥+𝑦
2(𝑦+𝑧)(𝑥+𝑦)
⇒z+x= 2𝑦+𝑧+𝑥
⇒ 2yz+𝑧 2 +zx+2xy+𝑥 2 =2yx+2𝑦 2 +2zx+2yz
⇒ 𝑧 2 +𝑥 2 =2𝑦 2
X, y, z are in A.P. which is false.
Hence, y + z, z + x and x + y are in A.P.
37. If x, 2x+2, 3x+3 are the first three terms of a GP, then what is its fourth term?
(a) -27/2 (b) 27/2
(c) -33/2 (d) 33/2
Solution: (a)
Since x, 2x+2, 3x+3 are the terms of G.P
2𝑥+2 3𝑥+3
Therefore = 2𝑥+2
𝑥
⇒ (2𝑥 + 2)2 = 𝑥(3𝑥 + 3)
⇒ 4𝑥 2 +4+8x =3𝑥 2 +3x
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 4 = 0
⇒ 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 𝑥 + 4 = 0
⇒ x=−1 and −4
Now, first term a=x
2(𝑥+1) 3
Second term = 𝑎𝑟 3 = 𝑥( )
𝑥
Put x= −4 we get
2(−4+1) 3
Fourth term =−4 ( )
−4
3 3 27
=−4* ( ) = −
2 2
1 1 3
38. Which term of the sequence 20, 19 4 , 18 2 , 17 4,is the first negative term?
(a) 27th (b) 28th
(c) 29th (d) None such term exists
Solution: (b)
1 1 3
Given sequence is 20, 194 , 18 2 , 17 4 ,…..
77 37 71
Which can be rewritten as 20, 4 , , ,…
2 4
This is an AP series
3
Here, first term =20 and common difference =− 4
83 3
= − 4n
4
For first negative term, nth term<0
83 3
⇒ − 4 n<0 ⇒ 83<3n
4
83
⇒ n>3 =27.66
3
So, n should be 28.
Hence, 28th term is the first negative term.
39. In an AP, the mth term 1/n and nth term is 1/m. what is its (𝑚𝑛)𝑡ℎ term?
(a) 1/(mn) (b) m/n
(c) n/m (d) 1
Solution: (d)
Let ‘a’ be the first term and ‘d’ be the common difference of an A.P.
1
Now, given mth term = 𝑛
1
And nth = 𝑚
1
a + (n-1) d =
𝑚
By subtracting the above two equations, we get
1 1
(m-1-n+1) d = 𝑛 − 𝑚
𝑚−𝑛
⇒ (m-n) d = 𝑚𝑛
1
⇒ d = 𝑚𝑛
Now, (𝑚𝑛)𝑡ℎ term = a+ (mn-1) d
1 1
= a+ (mn-1)𝑚𝑛 = a+1 − 𝑚𝑛
1
Now, a=𝑚 − (n-1) d
1 1 1 𝑛 1 1
= 𝑚 – (n−1) = 𝑚 − 𝑚𝑛 + 𝑚𝑛 = 𝑚𝑛
𝑚𝑛
1 1
(𝑚𝑛)𝑡ℎ Term = 𝑚𝑛 + 1 − 𝑚𝑛 = 1
40. The 59th term of an AP is 449 and the 449th terms is 59. Which term is equal to 0 (zero)?
(a) 501st term (b) 502nd term
(c) 508th term (d) 509th term
Solution: (c)
Let a and d be the first term and common difference of an AP respectively
a+58d=449 and a+448d=59
a=507 and d=−1
Nth term of AP is a+ (n−1)d
Let us assume that nth term will be zero.
a+ (n-1) d=0
⇒ 0= 507 + (n-1) (-1)⇒ 507+ (n-1) ⇒ n=508
Hence 508th term will be zero.
41. If the AM and HM of two numbers are 27 and 12 respectively?
(a) 12 (b) 18
(c) 24 (d) 27
Solution: (b)
Given AM =27 and HM=12
And we know that
(𝐺𝑀)2 = (𝐴𝑀)(𝐻𝑀) = 27 ∗ 12
⇒ 𝐺𝑀 = √27 ∗ 12 = √3 ∗ 3 ∗ 3 ∗ 3 ∗ 2 ∗ 2
⇒ 𝐺𝑀 = 3 ∗ 3 ∗ 2 = 18
42. What is the sum of all natural numbers between 200 and 400 which are divisible by 7?
(a) 6729 (b) 8712
(c) 8729 (d) 9276
Solution: (c)
The numbers between 200 and 400 which are divisible by 7, are 203, 210, 217, 399
This is an A.P with first of terms be n.
Therefore from the nth term of A.P =a+ (n-1) d we have 399=203 + (n-1)7
196
⇒ = (𝑛 − 1)⇒ n=29
7
𝑛
Required sum 2 [𝑎 + 𝑙 ] 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑙=last term
29
Thus Required sum = 2 [203 + 399]
29∗602
= = 8729
2
43. Let a, b, c be in A.P.
Consider the following statements:
1 1 1
1.𝑎𝑏, 𝑐𝑎 and 𝑏𝑐 are in AP.
1 1 1
2. , and are in A.P.
√𝑏+√𝑐 √𝑐+√𝑎 √𝑎+√𝑏
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor
2
Solution: (c)
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Let𝑎𝑏,𝑐𝑎,𝑏𝑐 are in AP. ⇒𝑐𝑎 − 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑐 − 𝑐𝑎
1 1 1 1 1 1 𝑏−𝑐 𝑎−𝑏
⇒ 𝑎(𝑐 − 𝑏) = 𝑐 (𝑏 − 𝑎) ⇒ =
𝑎𝑏𝑐 𝑎𝑏𝑐
⇒ b−𝑐 = 𝑎 − 𝑏 ⇒ 2b=a+c
⇒ a, b, c are in AP. Which is true?
1 1 1
⇒Now, , ′
√𝑏+√𝑐 √𝑐+√𝑎 √𝑎+√𝑏
2 1 1
⇒ = +
√𝑐+√𝑎 √𝑏+√𝑐 √𝑎+√𝑏
⇒2(√𝑏 + √𝑐)(√𝑎 + √𝑏) = (√𝑐 + √𝑎)(√𝑎 + 2√𝑏 + √𝑐)
⇒ 2(√𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 + √𝑎𝑐 + √𝑏𝑐) = √𝑎𝑐 + 2√𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐 + 𝑎 + 2√𝑎𝑏 + √𝑎𝑐
⇒ 2√𝑎𝑏 +2b+2√𝑎𝑐+2√𝑏𝑐
⇒ 2b= a + c
a, b , c are in A.P. which is true.
Hence, both the statements are correct.
44. If p time the pth term of an AP is q times the qth term, then what is the (p + q) th term equal
to?
(a) p+q (b) pq
(c) 1 (d) 0
Solution: (d)
Let a and d be the first term and common difference of an AP respectively
Pth term = a+ (p-1) d
qth term = a+ (q-1) d
According to question
P [a+ (p-1) d] =q [a+ (q-1) d]
⇒ pa+ (𝑝2 −p) d=qa+ (q2 − q)d
⇒ (p-q) a= (q2 − 𝑝2 + 𝑝 + q)d
⇒ a=−(𝑝 +q-1) d
Now (𝑝 + q)𝑡ℎ term =a+ (p+ q -1) d
=− (𝑝 + 𝑞 − 1) 𝑑 + (𝑝 + 𝑞 − 1)𝑑 = 0
45. The geometric mean of three numbers was computed as 6. It was subsequently found that,
in this computation, a number 8 was wrongly read as 12. What is the correct geometric mean?
3
(a) 4 (b) √5
3
(c) 2√18 (d) None of these
Solution: (c)
3
Required correct geometric mean =2 √18
46. The arithmetic mean of two numbers exceeds their geometric mean by 2 and the geometric
mean exceeds their harmonic mean by 1.6. What are the two numbers?
(a) 16, 4 (b) 4, 8

(c) 8, 16 (d) 9, 2
Solution: (a)
Let A, G and H be the arithmetic mean, geometric mean and harmonic mean of two numbers a
and b respectively.
According to the question G=H+1.6
A=H+1.6+2=H+3.6
We have AH=𝐺 2
(H+3.6)H=(𝐻 + 1.6)2
⇒𝐻2 +3.6H= 𝐻2 +2.56+3.2H =>H = 6.4
A = 6.4+1.6=8
𝑎+𝑏
Now A = =2A
2
a + b=20 ………….. (i)
ab=𝐺 2 = 64……… (ii)
We know that, (𝑎 − 𝑏)2 =(𝑎 + 𝑏)2 − 4𝑎𝑏
=400−256 =144
a−𝑏 = 12 …….. (iii)
On solving eqn (i) and (iii), we get
a = 16 and b=4
47. The sum of an infinite geometric progression is 6, if the sum of the first two terms is 9/2,
then what is the first term?
(a) 1 (b) 5/2
(c) 3 or 3/2 (d) 9 or 3
Solution: (d)
Let ‘a’ be the first term and ‘ar’ be the second term of GP with common ratio ‘r’.
9 𝑎
Given 𝑠∞ = 6 and a + ar = 2⇒1−𝑟 = 6
⇒ a = 6(1-r)………….. (i)
9
And a + ar = 2
9
⇒ 6(1-r0+6r (1-r) =
2
2
⇒12−12r+12r−12𝑟 =9
3 1 1 −1
⇒ 𝑟 2 = 12 = 4 ⇒ r = 2 or 4
A = 3 or 9
48. If the AM and GM between two number two number is in the ratio m: n, then what is the
ratio between the two numbers?
𝑚+√𝑚 2−𝑛 2 𝑚+𝑛
(a) (b) 𝑚−𝑛
𝑚−√𝑚 2−𝑛 2
𝑚 2 −𝑛 2 𝑚 2+𝑛 2 −𝑚𝑛
(c) 𝑚2 +𝑛2 (d) 𝑚 2+𝑛 2 +𝑚𝑛
Solution: (a)
Let a and b two numbers.
𝑎+𝑏
A.M = 2
and G.M = √𝑎𝑏
According to the question
A: G=M: N
𝑎+𝑏 𝑚
⇒2√𝑎𝑏 = 𝑛
(𝑎+𝑏)2 𝑚2
⇒ = …………. (i)
4𝑎𝑏 𝑛2
(𝑎 + 𝑏)2 − 4𝑎𝑏 𝑚2 − 𝑛2
=
4𝑎𝑏 𝑛2
(𝑎−𝑏)2 𝑚 2−𝑛 2
⇒ = ………… (ii)
4𝑎𝑏 𝑛2
Since, on dividing eqn (i) and (iii), we get
(𝑎 + 𝑏)2 𝑚2
= 2
(𝑎 − 𝑏)2 𝑚 − 𝑛2
𝑎+𝑏 𝑚
⇒𝑎−𝑏 = √𝑚 2−𝑛 2
(𝑎+𝑏)+(𝑎−𝑏) 𝑚+√𝑚 2−𝑛 2
⇒(𝑎+𝑏)−(𝑎−𝑏) =
𝑚−√𝑚 2−𝑛 2
2𝑎 𝑎 𝑚+√𝑚 2−𝑛 2
⇒2𝑏 = =
𝑏 𝑚−√𝑚 2−𝑛 2
49. What is the geometric mean of the data 2, 4, 8, 16, 32?
(a) 2 (b) 4
(c) 8 (d) 16
Solution: (c)
5
Required geometric mean =√2 × 4 × 8 × 16 × 32 = (323 )1/15 = (215 )1/5 =8
50. If A, B and C are in AP and b: c =√3: √2, then what is the value of sin C?
(a) 1 1
(b)
√3
1
(c) √3 (d)
√2
Solution: (d)
Let a-d, a and a + d be three number which are in
A.P. since A, B and C are in A.P
A = a-d, B=a, C=a +d ⇒ a = 60°
⇒ A = 60°-d, B=60° C=60°+d
Now by sine rule
𝑏 sin 𝐵 √3 sin 60°
= ⇒ =
𝑐 sin 𝐶 √2 sin 𝐶
√3 √2 1
⇒sin 𝐶 = ∗ =
2 √3 √2
EXERCISE
1. If the sum of first 10 terms of an arithmetic progression with first term p and common
difference q, is 4 times the sum of the first 5 terms, then what is the ratio p: q?
(a) 1:2 (b) 1:4
(c) 2:1 (d) 4:1
1
2. One of the roots of a quadratic equation with real coefficients is (2−3𝑖). Which of the following
implication is/are true?
1
1. The second root of the equation will be(3−2𝑖).
2. The equation has no real root.
3. The equation is 13𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1 = 0.
Which of the above is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 only
3. What is the sum of the first 50 terms of the series (1×3) + (3×5) + (5×7) +…..?
(a) 1,71,650 (b) 26,600
(c) 26,650 (d) 26,900
𝑦 𝑦 2 𝑦 3
4. If X= 1+ + ( 2 ) + (2 ) +….where |y|<2, what is y equal to?
2
𝑥−1 𝑥−1
(a) (b)
𝑥 2𝑥
2𝑥−2 2𝑥+1
(c) (d)
𝑥 2𝑥
5. What is the product of first 2n+1 term of a geometric progression?
(a) The (n+1)th power of the nth term of the GP (b) The (2n+1)th power of the nth term of the GP
(c)The (2n+1)th power of (n+1)th term of the GP (d) The nth power of the (n+1)th terms of the GP
6. The following question consists of two statements, one labeled as the ‘Assertion (A)’ and the
other as ‘Reason (R)’. You are to examine these two statements carefully and select the
answer.
Assertion (A): 1/8 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 2𝑎 , 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑎2 is in GP but not in AP.
Reason (R): X, Y, Z are in AP as well as in GP if x=y=z.
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is (b) Both A and R are individually true but R
the correct explanation of A. is not the correct explanation A.
(c) A is true but R is false (d) A is false but R is true
7. If x+1, 4x+1 and 8x+1 are in geometric progression, then what is the non-trivial value of x?
(a)-1 (b) 1
(c) 1/8 (d) 1/4
8. The equation (𝑎2 +𝑏2 )𝑥 2 -2b (a+c) x+ (𝑏2 +𝑐 2 ) =0 has equal roots. Which one of the following is
correct about a, b and c?
(a) They are in AP (b) They are in GP
(c) They are in HP (d) They are neither in AP, nor in GP, nor in HP
𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ
9. If 𝑝 term of an AP is q, and its q term is p, then what is the common difference?
(a) -1 (b) 0
(c) 2 (d) 1
10. If a, b, c are in geometric progression and a, 2b, 3c in arithmetic progression, then what is
the common ratio r such that 0<r<1?
1 1
(a) (b)
3 2
1 1
(c) 4 (d) 8
11. For an AP with first term u and common difference v, the 𝑝𝑡ℎ term is 15 uv more than the q𝑡ℎ
term. Which one of the following is correct?
(a) P = q + 15v (b) P = q + 15u
(c) P = q + 14v (d) P = q + 14u
12. If a, b, c are three positive numbers in an arithmetic progression, then:
(a) ac>𝑏2 (b) ac> a + c
(c) ab + bc ≤ 2ac (d) ab + bc≥ 2ac
1 𝑥 𝑛(𝑛+1) 𝑥 2
13. If |x|<2 , what is the value of 1 + n[1−𝑥] +[ ][ ] +…….∞?
2! 1−𝑥
1−𝑥 𝑛 (b) [1 − 𝑥 ]𝑛
(a) [1−2𝑥]
1−2𝑥 𝑛 1 𝑛
(c) [ ] (d) [ ]
1−𝑥 1−𝑥
14. The sum of the first (2p+1) terms of an AP is {(p+1). (2p+1)}. Which one of the following
inference can be drawn?
(a) The (𝑝 + 1)𝑡ℎ term of the AP is (2p+1) (b) The (2𝑝 + 1)𝑡ℎ term of the AP is (2p+1)
(c) The (2𝑝 + 1)𝑡ℎ term of the AP is (p+1) (d) The (𝑝 + 1)𝑡ℎ term of the AP is (p+1)
15. a, b, c are in G.P with 1<a<b<n, and n>1 is an integer.𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑛, 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑛, 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑐 𝑛 From a sequence
in which one of the following?
(a) Harmonic progression (b) Arithmetic progression
(c) Geometric progression (d) None of these
1 1 1
16. What is the sum of the series 1− 2 + 4 + 8+…?
1 3
(a) 2 (b) 4
3 2
(c) (d) 3
2
17. If 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 are three consecutive terms of an arithmetic progression with common difference
d>0, then what is the value of d for which 𝑏32 =𝑏2 𝑏3 + 𝑏1 𝑑 + 2?
(a) 1/2 (b) 0
(c) 1 (d) 2
18. If 1, x, y, z, 16 are in geometric progression, then what is the value of x + y + z?
(a) 8 (b) 12
(c) 14 (d) 16
19. If the nth term of an arithmetic progression is 3n+7, then what is the sum of its first 50
terms?
(a) 3925 (b) 4100
(c) 4175 (d) 8200
20. If for positive real numbers x, y, z, then which x + y, 2y and y + z are in harmonic
progression, then which one of the following is correct?
(a) x, y, z are in Geometric progression (b) x, y, z are in Arithmetic progression
(c) x, y, z are in Harmonic progression (d) None of the above
1 1.3 1.3.5
21. What is the sum of the series 1+ 8 + 8.16 + 8.16.24 +…?
2
(a) (b) 2√3
√3
√3 1
(c) (d) 2
2 √3
22. What is the geometric mean of the ratio of corresponding terms of two series where 𝐺1 and
𝐺2 are geometric means of the two series?
(a) log 𝐺1 1-log 𝐺2 (b) log 𝐺1+log 𝐺2
𝐺 (d) 𝐺1 𝐺2
(c) 1 𝐺2
23. If the point with the coordinates (a, ma), {b, (m+10b}, {c, (m=2) c} are collinear, then which
one of the following is correct?
(a) a, b, c are in AP for all m (b) a, b, c are in GP for all m
(c) a, b, c are in HP for all m (d) a, b, c are in AP for m = 1

24. The following question consists of two statements, one labeled as the ‘Assertion (A)’ and the
other as ‘Reason (R)’. You are to examine these two statements carefully and select the
answer.
Assertion (A): 0.3+0.03+0.003+…=1/3
Reason (R): For each (+)ve integer n, let 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎 + 𝑛𝑑, a and d are real numbers. Then, 𝑎1 +….
𝑛
+𝑎𝑛 = 2 [2a+ (n+1) d].
(a) Both A and R are individually true and (b) Both A and R are individually true and R is
R is the correct explanation of A. not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false (d) A is true but R is true
25. Which one of the following is correct? If the positive numbers a, b, c, d are in AP, then bcd,
cda, dab, abc?
(a) are in AP (b) are in GP
(c) are in HP (d) are in none of the above progression
26. What is the value of 91/3 ,91/19 , 91/27 …∞?
(a) 9 (b) 3
(c) 91/3 (d) 1
27. If a, b, c, d are in harmonica progression such that a>d, then which one of the following is
correct?
(a) a + c = b + d (b) a + c > b + d
(c) ac = bd (d) ab = cd
28. After paying 30 out of 40 installment of a debt of Rs.3600, one third of the debt is unpaid. If
the installment is forming an arithmetic series, then what is the first installment?
(a) Rs. 50 (b) Rs. 51
(c) Rs. 105 (d) Rs. 110
29. The product of first terms of a GP is, in general, equal to which one of the following?
(a) The 9th power of the 4th term (b) The 4th power of the 9th term
(c) The 5th power of the 9th term (d) The 9th power of the 5th term
30. The difference between the nth term and (n-1)th term of a sequence is independent of n.
Then the sequence follows which one of the following?
(a) AP (b) GP
(c) HP (d) None of these
31. If roots and equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 are positive, then which one of the following is
correct?
(a) Signs of the a and c should be like (b) Signs of the b and c should be like
(c) Sign of the a and c should be like (d) None of the above
32. Which one of the following is correct? If 4 <𝑥 2 < 9, then
(a) 2 < x <3 only (b) -3 < x < -2 only
(c) 2<x<3,-3<x<-2 (d) None of these
33. If 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + bc + c = 0, then what are the roots of the
equation 𝑐𝑥 2 + bx + a = 0?
1 1
(a) 𝛽, 𝛼 (b) 𝛼, 𝛽
1 1
(b) −𝛼, −𝛽 (d) 𝛼 , 𝛽
34. If x and y are real numbers such that x>y and |x|>|y|, then which one of the following is
correct?
(a) X>0 (b) Y>0
(c) Y<0 (d) X<0
35. What are the linear constraints for which the shaded area in the above figure is the solution set?
(a) X – y ≥ 1; x+2y ≤ 8; x+y ≥ 1; x, y ≥ 0 (b) X – y ≤ 1; x+2y ≥8; x+y ≤ 1; x, y ≥ 0

(c) X – y ≤ 1; x+2y ≤ 8; x+y ≥ 1; x, y ≥ 0 (d) X – y ≤ 1; x+2y ≤ 8; x+y ≤ 1; x, y ≥ 0
36. If x is real and 𝑥 2 -3x+2>0, 𝑥 2 -3x -4 ≤ 0, then which one of the following is correct?
(a) -1 ≤ X ≤ 4 (b) 2 ≤ X ≤ 4
(c) -1 ≤ X ≤ 1 (d) -1 ≤ X ≤ 1 and 2 ≤ X ≤ 4
1/3 −1/3
37. If x = 2 and -2 , then what is the values of 2𝑥 3 + 6𝑥?
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 4
38. What is the value of √5√5√5√… . . ∞
(a) 5 (b) √5
1
(c) 1 (d) 5(4)
39. For the real number p, q, r, x, y, let <x<q and p<y<r. Which one of the following is correct?
(a) P<x<y<r (b) P<x<q<r
(c) P<y<x<q (d) None of these
40. Once root of the equation𝑥 2 = PX+q is reciprocal of the other and p ≠ ± 1. What is the value
of q?
(a) q=-1 (b) q =1
(c) q =0 (d) q =1/2
41. If the equation𝑥 2 +kx+1=0 has the roots 𝛼 and 𝛽, then what is the value of (𝛼 + 𝛽)*(𝛼 −1 +
𝛽 −1 )?
(a) 𝑘 2 1
(b) 𝑘 2
(c) 2𝑘 2 (d)
1
2𝑘 2
42. If the root of the equation 𝑥 2 -bx+c=0 are two consecutive integers, then what is the value of
𝑏2 -4c?
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) -2 (d) 3
43. If r and s are roots of 𝑥 2 +px+q=0, then what is the value of (1/𝑟 2 ) + (1/𝑠 2 )?
(a) 𝑝2 𝑝2 −4q
(b) 2
𝑝2 −4q 𝑝2 −2q
(c) (d)
q2 q2
44. If x is an integer and satisfies 9<4x-1≤ 19, then x is an element of which one of the following
sets?
(a) {3, 4} (b) {2, 3, 4}
(c) {3, 4, 5} (d) {2, 3, 4, 5}
45. If a=x+√𝑥 2 + 1, then what is equal to?
(a) (1/2) (a+𝑎−1 ) (b) (1/2) (a -𝑎−1 )
(c) 𝑎 + 𝑎−1 (d) 𝑎 − 𝑎−1
46. A quadratic with two distinct roots has one real root. Then, the other root is
(a) Not necessarily real, if the coefficient are real (b) Always imaginary
(c) Always real (d) Real, if the coefficient is real
47. If sin𝛼 and cos 𝛼 are the roots of the equation p𝑥 2 +qx-2pr=0, then which one of the
following is correct?
(a) 𝑝2 +q2 -2pr=0 (b) 𝑝2 - q2 -2pr=0
(c) (𝑝 + 𝑟)2 =2(𝑝2 + 𝑟 2 ) (d) (𝑝 − 𝑟)2 = q2 +𝑟 2
48. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of 𝑥 2 +4x+6=0, then what is the value of 𝛼 3 +𝛽 3 ?
(a) -2/3 (b) 2/3
(c) 4 (d) 8
49. If sum of the roots of 3𝑥 2 + (3𝑝 + 1)𝑥 − (𝑝 + 5) = 0 is equal to their product, then what is the
value of p?
(a) 2 (b) 3
(c) 4 (d) 9
50. If a polygon has 20 diagonals, then what is the number of sides?
(a) 6 (b) 10
(c) 12 (d) 8
ANSWER KEY
1. (a) 2.(c) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (a)
11.(b) 12.(c) 13.(a) 14.(d) 15.(a) 16.(d) 17.(c) 18. (c) 19. (c) 20. (a)
21.(a) 22.(c) 23.(c) 24.(b) 25.(c) 26.(b) 27.(b) 28. (b) 29. (d) 30. (a)
31.(a) 32.(c) 33.(d) 34.(a) 35.(c) 36.(d) 37.(c) 38. (a) 39. (b) 40. (a)
41.(a) 42.(a) 43.(d) 44.(c) 45.(b) 46.(c) 47.(b) 48. (d) 49. (a) 50. (d)
2. MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

MATRICES
Definition: A matrix is defined as an ordered rectangular array of numbers. They can be used
to represent systems of linear equations, as will be explained below. And a fully expanded m×n
matrix A, would look like this:
𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛
𝐴=( ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ )
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛
or in a more compact form: 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗
2.1 TYPES OF MATRICES
In this topic, we shall discuss different types of matrices.
(i) Column matrix: A matrix is said to be a column matrix if it has only one column.
0
√3
For example, 𝐴 = −1
1
[ 2 ]
is a column matrix of order 4 × 1.
In general, 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×1 is a column matrix of order 𝑚 × 1.
(ii) Row matrix: A matrix is said to be a row matrix if it has only one row.
1
For example, B = [− 2 √5 2 3]
1×4
is a row matrix.
In general, 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ]1×𝑛 is a row matrix of order 1 × 𝑛.
(iii) Square matrix: A matrix in which the number of rows are equal to the number of columns,
is said to be a square matrix.
Thus an m × n matrix is said to be a square matrix if m = n and is known as a square matrix of
order ‘n’.
3 −1 0
3
For example, 𝐴 = [ 2 3√2 1 ]
4 3 −1
is a square matrix of order 3.
In general, 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑚 is a square matrix of order m.
Note: If A = [aij] is a square matrix of order n, then elements (entries) a 11, a22, ..., ann are said to
3 −1 0
3
constitute the diagonal, of the matrix A. Thus, if 𝐴 = [ 2 3√2 1 ]
4 3 −1
Then the elements of the diagonal of A are 3, 3√2, –1.
(iv) Diagonal matrix: A square matrix 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑚 is said to be a diagonal matrix if all its non-
diagonal elements are zero, that is a matrix 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑚 is said to be a diagonal matrix if b ij =
0, when i ≠ j.
For example,
−1.1 0 0
−1 0
A = [4], B = [ ], [
C= 0 2 0] are diagonal matrices of order 1, 2, 3, respectively.
0 2
0 0 3
(v) Scalar matrix: A diagonal matrix is said to be a scalar matrix if its diagonal elements are
equal, that is, a square matrix 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ]𝑛×𝑛 is said to be a scalar matrix if 𝑏𝑖𝑗 = 0, when i ≠ j 𝑏𝑖𝑗 =
k, when i = j, for some constant k.
For example,
√3 0 0
−1 0
A= [3], B=[ ], C=[ 0 √3 0 ]
0 −1
0 0 √3
are scalar matrices of order 1, 2 and 3, respectively.
(vi) Identity matrix: A square matrix in which elements in the diagonal are all 1 and rest are all
zero is called an identity matrix. In other words, the square matrix A = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] n × n is an identity
matrix, if
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑖 = 𝑗
𝑎𝑖𝑗 = {
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗
We denote the identity matrix of order n by I n. When order is clear from the context, we simply
write it as I.
1 0 0
[ ] 1 0
For example, 1 , [ ] , |0 1 0| are identity matrices of order 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
0 1
0 0 1
Observe that a scalar matrix is an identity matrix when k = 1. But every identity matrix is clearly
a scalar matrix.
(vii) Zero matrix: A matrix is said to be zero matrix or null matrix if all its elements are zero. For
0 0 0 0 0 [
example, [0], [ ],| | , 0 0]
0 0 0 0 0
are all zero matrices. We denote zero matrix by O. Its order will be clear from the context.
OPERATIONS OF MATRICES
Equality
Two matrices are equal if and only if
• The order of the matrices are the same.
• The corresponding elements of the matrices are the same
Addition
• Order of the matrices must be the same
• Add corresponding elements together
• Matrix addition is commutative
• Matrix addition is associative
Subtraction
• The order of the matrices must be the same.
• Subtract the corresponding elements.
• Matrix subtraction is not commutative (neither is subtraction of real numbers).
• Matrix subtraction is not associative (neither is subtraction of real numbers).
Scalar Multiplication
• A scalar is a number, not a matrix.
• The matrix can be any order
• Multiply all elements in the matrix by the scalar

• Scalar multiplication is commutative
• Scalar multiplication is associative
Matrix Multiplication
Am×n × Bn×p = Cm×p
• The number of columns in the first matrix must be equal to the number of rows in the second
matrix. That is, the inner dimensions must be the same.
• The order of the product is the number of rows in the first matrix by the number of columns
in the second matrix. That is, the dimensions of the product are the outer dimensions.
• Since the number of columns in the first matrix is equal to the number of rows in the second
matrix, you can pair up entries.
• Each element in row i from the first matrix is paired up with an element in column j from the
second matrix.
• The element in row i, column j, of the product is formed by multiplying these paired elements
and summing them.
• Each element in the product is the sum of the products of the elements from row i of the first
matrix and column j of the second matrix.
• There will be n products which are summed for each element in the product.
Elementary Matrix Operations
Elementary matrix operations play an important role in many matrix algebra applications, such
as finding the inverse of a matrix and solving simultaneous linear equations.
Elementary Operations
There are three kinds of elementary matrix operations.
• Interchange two rows (or columns).
• Multiply each element in a row (or column) by a non-zero number.
• Multiply a row (or column) by a non-zero number and add the result to another row (or
column).
When these operations are performed on rows, they are called elementary row operations;
and when they are performed on columns, they are called elementary column operations.
Elementary Operation Notation
In many references, you will encounter a compact notation to describe elementary operations.
That notation is shown below.
Operation description Notation
1. Interchange rows i and j Ri <--> Rj
2. Multiply row i by s, where s ≠ 0 sRi --> Ri
Row 3. Add s times row i to row j sRi + Rj --> Rj
operatio
ns
1. Interchange columns i and j Ci <--> Cj
2. Multiply column i by s, where s ≠ 0 sCi --> Ci
Column 3. Add s times column i to column j sCi + Cj --> Cj
operatio
ns
Elementary Operators
Each type of elementary operation may be performed by matrix multiplication, using square
matrices called elementary operators.
For example, suppose you want to interchange rows 1 and 2 of Matrix A. To accomplish this,
you could pre-multiply A by E to produce B, as shown below.
0 1 1 3 5
𝑅1 < −−> 𝑅2 = [ ] [ ]
1 0 2 4 6
E A
0+2 0+4 0+6 2 4 6
=[ ] = [ ]=B
0+1 0+3 0+5 1 3 5
Here, E is an elementary operator. It operates on A to produce the desired interchanged rows in
B.
How to Perform Elementary Row Operations
To perform an elementary row operation on a A, an r x c matrix, take the following steps.
• To find E, the elementary row operator, apply the operation to an r x r identity matrix.
• To carry out the elementary row operation, pre-multiply A by E.
We illustrate this process below for each of the three types of elementary row operations.
• Interchange two rows: Suppose we want to interchange the second and third rows of A, a
3 × 2 matrix. To create the elementary row operator E, we interchange the second and third
rows of the identity matrix I3.
1 0 0 1 0 0
[0 1 0 ] ⇒ [0 0 1 ]
0 0 1 0 1 0
I3 E
• Then, to interchange the second and third rows of A, we pre-multiply A by E, as shown
below.
1 0 0 0 1
𝑅2 ← 𝑅3 = [0 0 1] [2 3]
0 1 0 4 5
E A
1 ∗ 1 + 0∗ 2 + 0∗ 4 1∗ 1 + 0 ∗ 3 + 0∗ 5
= [0 ∗ 0 + 0 ∗ 3 + 1 ∗ 4 0 ∗ 1 + 0 ∗ 3 + 1 ∗ 5 ]
0 ∗ 0 + 1∗ 2 + 0∗ 4 0∗ 1 + 1 ∗ 3 + 0∗ 5
0 1
= [4 5 ] = B
2 3
• Multiply a row by a number: Suppose we want to multiply each element in the second row
of Matrix A by 7. Assume A is a 2 x 3 matrix.
To create the elementary row operator E, we multiply each element in the second row of the
identity matrix I2 by 7.
1 0 1 0
[ ] ⇒[ ]
0 1 0 7
I2 E
• Then, to multiply each element in the second row of A by 7, we pre-multiply A by E.
1 0 0 1 2
7 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 = [ ][ ]
0 7 3 4 5
E A
1∗0+0∗3 1∗1+0∗4 1∗2+0∗5

=[ ]
0∗0+7∗3 0∗1+7∗4 0∗2+7∗5
0 1 2
= [ ]=B
21 28 35
• Multiply a row and add it to another row: Assume A is a 2 x 2 matrix. Suppose we want to
multiply each element in the first row of A by 3; and we want to add that result to the second
row of A.
For this operation, creating the elementary row operator is a two-step process. First, we
multiply each element in the first row of the identity matrix I2 by 3. Next, we add the result of
that multiplication to the second row of I2 to produce E.
1 0 1 0
I2= [ ]⇒[ ]
0 1 0 + 3∗ 1 1 + 3∗ 0
1 0
⇒[ ]= E
3 1
Then, to multiply each element in the first row of A by 3 and add that result to the second
row, we pre-multiply A by E2.
1 0 0 1
3𝑅1 + 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 = [ ][ ]
3 1 2 3
E A
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
1 0+0 2 1 1+0 3 0 1
=[ ∗ ]=[ ]=B
3 0 + 1∗ 2 3∗ 1 + 1∗ 3 2 6
How to Perform Elementary Column Operations
To perform an elementary column operation on A, an r x c matrix, take the following steps.
• To find E, the elementary column operator, apply the operation to an c x c identity matrix.
• To carry out the elementary column operation, post multiply A by E.
Let's work through an elementary column operation to illustrate the process. For example,
suppose we want to interchange the first and second columns of A, a 3 x 2 matrix. To create the
elementary column operator E, we interchange the first and second columns of the identity
matrix I2.
1 0 0 1
[ ] ⇒[ ]
0 1 1 0
I2 E
Then, to interchange the first and second columns of A, we post multiply A by E, as shown
below.
0 1
0 1
𝐶1 ↔ 𝐶2 = [2 3] [ ]
1 0
4 5
A E
0∗ 0 + 1∗ 1 0∗ 1 + 1∗ 0 1 0
= [2∗ 0 + 3∗ 1 2∗ 1 + 3∗ 0] = [3 2]=B
4∗ 0 + 5∗ 1 4∗ 1 + 5∗ 0 5 4
Note that the process for performing an elementary column operation on an r x c matrix is very
similar to the process for performing an elementary row operation. The main differences are:
• To operate on the r x c matrix A, the row operator E is created from an r x r identity matrix;
whereas the column operator E is created from an c x c identity matrix.
• To perform a row operation, A is pre-multiplied by E; whereas to perform a column
operation, A is post multiplied by E.
2.2 THE DETERMINANT OF A MATRIX

DEFINITION: Determinants play an important role in finding the inverse of a matrix and also in
solving systems of linear equations.
In the following we assume we have a square matrix (m = n). The determinant of a matrix A will
be denoted by det(A) or |A|.
Firstly the determinant of a 2×2 and 3×3 matrix will be introduced, then the n×n case will be
shown.
Determinant of a 2×2 matrix
Assuming A is an arbitrary 2×2 matrix A, where the elements are given by:
𝑎11 𝑎12
𝐴 = (𝑎 𝑎22 )
21
then the determinant of a this matrix is as follows:
𝑎11 𝑎12
det(𝐴) = |𝐴| = |𝑎 𝑎22 |
21
= 𝑎11 𝑎22 − 𝑎21 𝑎12
Now try an example of finding the determinant of a 2×2 matrix yourself.
Determinant of a 3×3 matrix
The determinant of a 3×3 matrix is a little more tricky and is found as follows (for this case
assume A is an arbitrary 3×3 matrix A, where the elements are given below).
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
𝐴 = (𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 )
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
then the determinant of a this matrix is as follows:
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
det(𝐴) = |𝐴| = [𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ]
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
𝑎22 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎22
= 𝑎11 |𝑎 | − 𝑎12 | | + 𝑎13 |𝑎31 𝑎32 |
32 𝑎33 𝑎31 𝑎33
Now try an example of finding the determinant of a 3×3 matrix yourself.
Properties of determinants
In this topic, we will study some properties of determinants which simplifies its evaluation by
obtaining maximum number of zeros in a row or a column.
These properties are true for determinants of any order. However, we shall restrict ourselves
upto determinants of order 3 only.
Property 1: The value of the determinant remains unchanged if its rows and columns are
interchanged.
Verification:
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
Let ∆= |𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 |
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3
Expanding along first row, we get
𝑏 𝑏3 𝑏 𝑏3 𝑏 𝑏2
∆= 𝑎1 | 2 | − 𝑎2 | 1 | + 𝑎3 | 1 |
𝑐2 𝑐3 𝑐1 𝑐3 𝑐1 𝑐2
= a1 (b2 c3 – b3 c2) – a2 (b1 c3 – b3 c1) + a3 (b1 c2 – b2 c1)
By interchanging the rows and columns of Δ, we get the determinant
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
∆1 = |𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 |
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3
Expanding Δ1 along first column, we get

Δ1 = a1 (b2 c3 – c2 b3) – a2 (b1 c3 – b3 c1) + a3 (b1 c2 – b2 c1)
Hence Δ = Δ1
Remark: It follows from above property that if A is a square matrix, then det (A) = det (A′),
where A′ = transpose of A.
Note: If Ri = ith row and Ci = ith column, then for interchange of row and columns, we will
symbolically write Ci ↔ Ri .
Property 2: If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are interchanged, then sign of
determinant changes.
Verification:
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
Let ∆= |𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 |
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3
Δ = a1 (b2 c3 – b3 c2) – a2 (b1 c3 – b3 c1) + a3 (b1 c2 – b2 c1)
Interchanging first and third rows, the new determinant obtained is given by
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3
∆1 = |𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 |
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
Expanding along third row, we get
Δ1 = a1 (c2 b3 – b2 c3) – a2 (c1 b3 – c3 b1) + a3 (b2 c1 – b1 c2)
= – [a1 (b2 c3 – b3 c2) – a2 (b1 c3 – b3 c1) + a3 (b1 c2 – b2 c1)]
clearly Δ1 = – Δ
Similarly, we can verify the result by interchanging any two columns.
Note: We can denote the interchange of rows by R i ↔ Rj and interchange of columns by Ci ↔
Cj
Property 3: If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are identical (all corresponding
elements are same), then value of determinant is zero.
Proof:
If we interchange the identical rows (or columns) of the determinant Δ, then Δ does not change.
However, by Property 2, it follows that Δ has changed its sign.
Therefore Δ = – Δ
or Δ = 0
Let us verify the above property by an example.
3 2 3
Ex1: Evaluate ∆= |2 2 3|
3 2 3
Solution:
Δ = 3 (6 – 6) – 2 (6 – 9) + 3 (4 – 6)
= 0 – 2 (–3) + 3 (–2) = 6 – 6 = 0
Here R1 and R3 are identical.
Property 4: If each element of a row (or a column) of a determinant is multiplied by a constant
k, then its value gets multiplied by k.
Verification:
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
Let ∆= |𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 |
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3
and Δ1 be the determinant obtained by multiplying the elements of the first row by k. Then
𝑘𝑎1 𝑘𝑏1 𝑘𝑐1
∆1 = | 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 |
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3
Δ1 = k a1 (b2 c3 – b3 c2) – k b1 (a2 c3 – c2 a3) + k c1 (a2 b3 – b2 a3)
= k [a1 (b2 c3 – b3 c2) – b1 (a2 c3 – c2 a3) + c1 (a2 b3 – b2 a3)]
= kΔ
Hence,
𝑘𝑎1 𝑘𝑏1 𝑘𝑐1 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
| 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 | = 𝑘 |𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 |
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3
Remarks:
• By this property, we can take out any common factor from any one row or any one column of
a given determinant.
• If corresponding elements of any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are proportional (in
the same ratio), then its value is zero.
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
• ∆= | 1 𝑏 𝑏2 𝑏3 |= 0 (rows R1 and R2 are proportional)
𝑘𝑎1 𝑘𝑎2 𝑘𝑎3
30 24 72
Ex2: Evaluate: ∆= | 2 4 1|
10 8 24
Solution:
30 24 72
∆= | 2 4 1|
10 8 24
3(10) 3(8) 3(24)
=| 2 4 1 |
10 8 24
10 8 24
= 3 | 2 4 1 | = 0 (Using Properties 3 and 4)
10 8 24
Property 5: If some or all elements of a row or column of a determinant are expressed as sum
of two (or more) terms, then the determinant can be expressed as sum of two (or more)
determinants.
𝑎1 + 𝜆1 𝑎2 + 𝜆2 𝑎3 + 𝜆3
| 𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 |
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝜆1 𝜆2 𝜆3
= |𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 | + |𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 |
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3 𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3
Verification:
𝑎1 + 𝜆1 𝑎2 + 𝜆2 𝑎3 + 𝜆3
L.H.S.=| 𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 |
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3
Expanding the determinants along the first row, we get

Δ = (a1 + λ1) (b2 c3 – c2 b3) – (a2 + λ2) (b1 c3 – b3 c1) + (a3 + λ3) (b1 c2 – b2 c1)
= a1 (b2 c3 – c2 b3) – a2 (b1 c3 – b3 c1) + a3 (b1 c2 – b2 c1) + λ1 (b2 c3 – c2 b3) – λ2 (b1c3 – b3 c1) +
λ3 (b1 c2 – b2 c1)
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝜆1 𝜆2 𝜆3
=|𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 | + |𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 |=R.H.S.
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3 𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3
Similarly, we may verify Property 5 for other rows or columns.
Property 6: If the each element of any row or column of a determinant, the equal multiples of
corresponding elements of other row (or column) are added, then value of determinant remains
the same, i.e., the value of determinant remain same if we apply the operation R i → Ri + kRj or
Ci → Ci + k Cj .
Verification:
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
Let ∆= | 2 𝑏2 𝑐2 | and
𝑎
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3
𝑎1 + 𝑘1 𝑎2 + 𝑘2 𝑎3 + 𝑘3
Δ1 = | 𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 |
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3
Where Δ1 is obtained by the operation
R1 → R1 + kR3
Here, we have multiplied the elements of the third row (R 3) by a constant k and added them to
the corresponding elements of the first row (R1).
Symbolically, we write this operation as
R1 → R1 + k R3
Now, again
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑘𝑐1 𝑘𝑐2 𝑘𝑐3
Δ1 = |𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 | + | 𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 |
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3 𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3
(Using Property 5)
= Δ + 0 (since R1 and R3 are proportional)
Hence Δ = Δ1
Remarks
• If Δ1 is the determinant obtained by applying R i → kRi or Ci → kCi to the determinant Δ, then
Δ1 = kΔ.
• If more than one operation like Ri→ Ri + kRj is done in one step, care should be taken to see
that a row that is affected in one operation should not be used in another operation. A similar
remark applies to column operations.
2.3 ADJOINT OF MATRIX
Adjoint of Matrix is defined as transpose of cofactor matrix.
How to Find Adjoint of a 2x2 Matrix:
Let A be the matrix of n×n order, Matrix B = bij to be the matrix whose coefficients are found by
taking the determinant of the (n-1) × (n-1) matrix obtained by deleting the i th row and jth column
of A.
The elements or terms of B ( bij) are known as the co factors of A.
Matrix C, where cij = (-1)i+j bij.
The transpose of C (i.e. C) is called the ad joint of matrix A.

Therefore Ad joint matrix = Transpose of co-factor matrix
Ex3: Find (𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴) for the matrix
1 1 −2
𝐴 = |2 −1 1 |
1 2 −1
Solution:
Co-factor of matrix of A
−1 1 2 1 2 −1
+| | −| | +| |
2 −1 1 −1 1 2
1 −2 1 −2 1 1
= −| | +| | −| |
2 −1 1 −1 1 2
1 −2 1 −2 1 1
[+ |−1 1 | − |2 1 | + |2 −1|]
−1 3 5
= [−3 1 −1]
−1 −5 −3
−1 −3 −1
Adjoint of matrix = [ 3 1 −5]
5 −1 −3
Inverse of Matrix:
For a square matrix A, which is non-singular (i.e. det |A| does not equal zero), then there exists
an n × n matrix A-1 which is called the inverse of A such that:
AA-1 = A-1A = I, where I is the identity matrix.
𝟏
𝑨−𝟏 = (𝒂𝒅𝒋 𝑨)
|𝑨 |
Ex4: Find the inverse of the matrix.
1 1 −2
A = |2 −1 1 |
1 2 −1
Determinant of matrix of A,
|A|=1[1−2]−1[−2−1]+[−2[4+1]]
= -1+3-10= -8
−1 −3 −1
Adjoint of matrix A = [ 3 1 −5]
5 −1 −3
Inverse of the matrix A
1
𝐴−1 = (𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴)
|𝐴 |
1 3 1
−1 −3 −1 8 8 8
1 3 1 5
= −8 [3 1 −5] = − 8 −8 8
5 −1 −3 5 1 3
[− 8 8 8]
2.4 USING MATRICES TO SOLVE A SYSTEM OF EQUATIONS
In this section, we will study how to solve Systems of Equations or Simultaneous Equations
using Matrices.
How to solve Matrix Equations?
Simultaneous equations or system of equations of the form:
ax + by = h
cx + dy = k
can be solved using algebra.
Simultaneous equations can also be solved using matrices.
First, we would look at how the inverse of a matrix can be used to solve a matrix equation.
Given the matrix equation AY = B, find the matrix Y.
If we multiply each side of the equation by A-1 (inverse of matrix A), we get
A-1A Y = A-1B
IY = A-1B (AA -1= I, where I is the identity matrix)
Y = A-1B (IY = Y, any matrix multiply with the identity matrix will be unchanged)
Ex5: Using matrices, calculate the values of x and y for the following simultaneous equations:
2x – 2y – 3 = 0
8 y = 7x + 2
Solution:
Step 1: Write the equations in the form ax + by = c
2x – 2y – 3 = 0 ⇒ 2x – 2y = 3
8y = 7x + 2 ⇒ 7x – 8y = –2
Step 2: Write the equations in matrix form.
2 −2 𝑥 3
( ) (𝑦 ) = ( )
7 −8 −2
Step 3: Find the inverse of the 2 × 2 matrix.
Determinant = (2 × –8) – (–2 × 7) = – 2
1 −8 2 4 −1
Inverse=− 2 ( )=( )
−7 2 3.5 −1
Step 4: Multiply both sides of the matrix equations with the inverse
4 −1 2 −2 𝑥 4 −1 3
( )( ) (𝑦 ) = ( )( )
3.5 −1 7 −8 3.5 −1 −2
1 0 𝑥 14
( )( ) = ( )
0 1 𝑦 12.5
So, x = 14 and y = 12.5
Solution of Linear Equations
System of Linear Equations
A system of equations is a collection of two or more equations with the same set of unknowns.
In solving a system of equations, we try to find values for each of the unknowns that will satisfy
every equation in the system.
One application of matrices is in solving linear equations (or simultaneous equations as they are
often known).
Consider three equations in three unknowns, i.e.
𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + 𝑎13 𝑥3 = 𝑏1
{ 𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + 𝑎23 𝑥3 = 𝑏2 }
𝑎31 𝑥1 + 𝑎32 𝑥2 + 𝑎33 𝑥3 = 𝑏3
i.e In Matrix From.
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑥1 𝑏1
(𝑏21 𝑏22 𝑏23 ) (𝑥2 ) = (𝑏2 )
𝑐31 𝑐32 𝑐33 𝑥3 𝑏3
The system of three linear equations may be rewritten as
AX = B
If B≠0, the system is called a non-homogeneous system of linear equations.

For |A|≠0, A-1 exist.
The system becomes AX=B
X = A−1 B
∴ Three linear equations will have a unique solution. In this case, three linear equations are said
to be linearly independent.
Important Points:
• Let A be a square matrix. If A is a non-singular matrix, i.e. detA≠0, then the system of linear
equations AX=B has a unique solution given by X=A-1B.
• Let A be a n×n matrix. If det A=0, then the linear system Ax=b has no solution or infinitely
many solutions.
Ex6: Solve the given equations
𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 = 6
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 20
4𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 17
This can be written in terms of matrices:
1 1 1 𝑥 6
(2 3 4) (𝑦) = (20)
4 2 3 𝑧 17
or more generally
A×X=R
To solve this we simply need to pre-multiply both sides by the inverse of A
A-1×A×X=A-1×R
X=A-1×R
In this case the answer is
1 1 1
−
3 3 3
1 1 2 6 1
3 − (20) = (2)
3 3 3 17 3
1 2 1
(2 3 3 3 )
Solution of a Homogeneous System of Equations
The solution of non-homogeneous system of n linear equations in n unknowns.
AX=B has 3 possibilities:
• If det A≠0, the system has a unique solution.
• If det A=0, has no solution or infinitely many solutions.
On the other hand, the homogenous system
AX = 0
always has zero solution( trivial solution). Hence, there are only two possible cases for the
solution of a system of homogeneous equations:
• If det A≠0, the system has only zero solution (trivial solution).
• If det A=0, the system has non-zero solutions (non-trivial solution), i.e. it has infinitely
many solutions.
For AX=0
𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + 𝑎13 𝑥3 = 0

{ 𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + 𝑎23 𝑥3 = 0 }
𝑎31 𝑥1 + 𝑎32 𝑥2 + 𝑎33 𝑥3 = 0
x1=x2=x3=0 is the solution of system.
⇒ x1=x2=x3=0 is Trivial Solution
(1) detA≠0 ⇒ A-1 exist
AX=0
X=A-10
X=0
∴ The system has trivial solution.
(2) det A=0 ⇒ the system has non-trivial solution.
Solving a 2×2 system of linear equations by using the inverse matrix method
A system of linear equations can be solved by using our knowledge of inverse matrices.
The steps to follow are:
• Express the linear system of equations as a matrix equation.
• Determine the inverse of the coefficient matrix.
• Multiply both sides of the matrix equation by the inverse matrix. In order to multiply the
matrices on the right side of the equation, the inverse matrix must appear in front of the
answer matrix (the number of columns in the first matrix must equal the number of rows in
the second matrix).
• Complete the multiplication. The solution will appear as:
1 0 𝑥 𝑐1
( ) (𝑦 ) = (𝑐 )
0 1 2
Where c1 and c2 are the solutions
Cramer's Rules for Systems of Linear Equations with Two Variables
Given a linear system
𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 = 𝑐1
𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 = 𝑐2
Assign names for each matrix
𝑎 𝑏1
𝐷=[ 1 ]
𝑎2 𝑏2
𝑐1
Coefficient matrix = [𝑐 ]
2
X – matrix:
𝑐1 𝑏1
𝐷𝑥 = [ ]
𝑐2 𝑏2
Y – matrix:
𝑎1 𝑐1
𝐷𝑦 = [𝑎 𝑐2 ]
2
Solve variable x by
𝑐1 𝑏1
𝐷𝑥 | |
𝑐2 𝑏2
𝑋= =
𝐷 𝑎 𝑏1
| 1 |
𝑎2 𝑏2
Solve variable y by
𝑎1 𝑐1
𝐷𝑦 |𝑎2 𝑐2 |
𝑌= =
𝐷 𝑎 𝑏1
| 1 |
𝑎2 𝑏2
Few points to consider when looking at the formula:
• The coefficients of variables x and y use subscripted a and b, respectively. While the
constant terms use subscripted c.
• Both denominators in solving x and y are the same. They come from the columns of x and y.
• Looking at the numerator in solving for x, the coefficients of x-column are replaced by the
constant column.
• In the same manner, to solve for y, the coefficients of y-column are replaced by the constant
column.
Ex7: Solve the system with two variables by Cramer’s Rule:
4𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 11
6𝑥 + 5𝑦 = 7
Solution:
Start by extracting the three relevant matrices: coefficient, x and y.
Then solve each corresponding determinant.
For coefficient matrix
4 −3
D= [ ]
6 5
4 −3
⇒ |𝐷 | = | | = (4)(5) − (−3)(6)
6 5
= 20 − (−18)
= 20 + 18 = 38
11 −3
For X – matrix 𝐷𝑥 = [ ]
7 5
⇒ |𝐷𝑥 | = (11)(5) − (−3)(7)
= 55 − (−21) = 55 + 21 = 76
For Y – matrix
4 11
𝐷𝑦 = [ ] ⇒ |𝐷𝑦 | = (4)(7) − (11)(6)
6 7
= 28 − 66 = −38
Once all three determinants are calculated, it’s time to solve for the values of x and y using the
above formula.
𝐷𝑥 76
𝑥= = =2
𝐷 38
𝐷𝑦 38
𝑦= =− = −1
𝐷 38
Hence (𝑥, 𝑦) = (2, −1)
To use determinants to solve a system of three equations with three variables (Cramer's Rule),
say x, y, and z, four determinants must be formed following this procedure:
• Write all equations in standard form.
• Create the denominator determinant, D, by using the coefficients of x, y, and z from the
equations and evaluate it.
• Create the x‐numerator determinant, Dx, the y‐numerator determinant, Dy, and the z‐
numerator determinant, Dz, by replacing the respective x, y, and z coefficients with the
constants from the equations in standard form and evaluate each determinant.
The answers for x, y, and z are as follows:
𝐷𝑥 𝐷𝑦 𝐷𝑧
x= ,𝑦 = ,𝑧 =
𝐷 𝐷 𝐷
Ex8: Solve this system of equations, using Cramer's Rule.
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 2
2𝑥 − 𝑦 − 3𝑧 = 13
𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 1
Find the minor determinants.
Solution:
From the given equations
3 2 −1
𝐷 = |2 −1 −3|
1 3 −2
−1 −3 2 −1 2 −1
= 3| | −2| | +1| |
3 −2 3 −2 −1 −3
= 3[2 − (−9)] − 2[−4 − (−3)] + 1(−6 − 1)
= 3(11) + 2 − 7 = 33 + 2 − 7 = 28
2 2 −1
𝐷𝑥 = |13 −1 −3|
1 3 −2
−1 −3 2 −1 2 −1
= 2| | − 13 | |+1| |
3 2 3 −2 −1 −3
= 2[2 − (−9)] − 13[−4 − (−3)] + 1(−6 − 1)
= 2(11) − 13(−1) + 1(−7)
= 22 + 13 − 7 = 28
3 2 −1
𝐷𝑦 = |2 13 −3|
1 1 −2
13 −3 2 −1 2 −1
= 3| | −2| | + 1| |
1 −2 1 −2 13 −3
= 3[−26 − (−3)] − 2[−4 − (1)] + 1[−6 − (−13)]
= 3(−23) − 2(−3) + 1(7)
= −69 + 6 + 7 = −56
3 2 2
𝐷𝑧 = 2 −1 13|
|
1 3 1
−1 13 2 2 2 2
= 3| | −2| | +1| |
3 1 3 1 −1 13
= 3(−1 − 39) − 2(2 − 6) + 1[26 − (−2)]
= 3(−40) − 2(−4) + 1(28)
= −120 + 8 + 28 = −84
𝐷𝑥 28
Therefore, 𝑥 = = 28 = 1
𝐷
𝐷𝑦 56
𝑦= =− = −2
𝐷 28
𝐷𝑧 84
𝑧= =− = −3
𝐷 28
The values of x = 1, y = –2, z = –3.

If the denominator determinant, D, has a value of zero, then the system is either inconsistent or
dependent.
The system is dependent if all the determinants have a value of zero.
The system is inconsistent if at least one of the determinants, Dx, Dy, or Dz, has a value not
equal to zero and the denominator determinant has a value of zero.
Formula Table
FORMULA TABLE
➢ A=𝑎𝑖𝑗 ➢ det(A)= |𝐴| (m=n)
➢ A=[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×1 ➢ adj(A)=Co-factor of matrix of A
1
➢ B=[𝑏𝑖𝑗 ]1×𝑛 ➢ 𝐴− 1 = |𝐴| (𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴)
𝐷𝑥 𝐷𝑦
➢ A=[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑚 ➢ Crammer’s rule, X= , Y= ,𝑍 =
𝐷 𝐷
𝐷𝑧
➢ 𝐴𝑚×𝑛 × 𝐵𝑛×𝑝 = 𝐶𝑚×𝑝
𝐷
➢ AX=B
𝐚 𝐛 𝐜
1. If |𝐥 𝐦 𝐧 | = 𝟐, then what is the value of the determinant
𝐩 𝐪 𝐫
6𝑎 3𝑏 15𝑐
| 2𝑙 𝑚 5𝑛 |?
2𝑝 𝑞 5 𝑟
(a) 10 (b) 20
(c) 40 (d) 60
Solution: (d)
a b c
Let | l m n| = 𝟐,
p q r
a b c 3𝑎 3𝑏 3𝑐
Consider |l m n | = 2 × 5 | 𝑙 𝑚 𝑛 |
p q r 𝑝 𝑞 𝑟
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
= 10 × 3 | 𝑙 𝑚 𝑛 |
𝑝 𝑞 𝑟
2. Consider the following statements
1. If 𝐴′ = 𝐴; then 𝐴 is a singular matrix, where 𝐴′ is the transpose of 𝐴.
2. If 𝐴 is a square matrix such that 𝐴3 = 𝐼,then 𝐴 is non-singular.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct ?
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Solution: (b)
If 𝐴′ = 𝐴 where 𝐴′ is transpose of matrix then |𝐴| = |𝐴′|
But is not necessary that |𝐴| = 0
𝐴is singular matrix
Hence, Statement 1 is wrong.

Given 𝐴3 = 𝐼
|𝐴3 | = |𝐼 | = 𝐼
=>|𝐴| = 1
Thus, 𝐴 is non-singular matrix.
Hence, only statement 2 is correct.
3. If the system of equations 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 7 and 2𝑎𝑥 + (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑦 = 28 has infinitely many solutions,
then which one of the following is correct ?
(a) a=2b (b) b=2a
(c) a=-2b (d) b=-2a
Solution: (b)
The given system of equations has infinitely many solution, then
2 3 7
= = => 𝑎 = 4
2𝑎 𝑎 + 𝑏 28
And 12 = aa +b => a =4
And b=8 => b=2a
4. What is the values of
|𝑐𝑜𝑠15° 𝑠𝑖𝑛15°| × |𝑐𝑜𝑠45° 𝑐𝑜𝑠15°|?
𝑐𝑜𝑠45° 𝑠𝑖𝑛45° 𝑠𝑖𝑛45° 𝑠𝑖𝑛15°
(a) 1/4 (b) 3/2
(c) −1/4 (d) −3/4
Solution: (c)
|𝑐𝑜𝑠15° 𝑠𝑖𝑛15°| × |𝑐𝑜𝑠45° 𝑐𝑜𝑠15°|
𝑐𝑜𝑠45° 𝑠𝑖𝑛45° 𝑠𝑖𝑛45° 𝑠𝑖𝑛15°
= ( sin 45° cos 15° − cos 45° sin 15°)× ( cos 45° sin 15° −sin 45° cos 15°
= - sin (45° − 15° ) × sin (45° − 15° )
Using sin (𝐴 − 𝐵) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵)
1 1 1
=−𝑠𝑖𝑛30° × 30° ) = − 2 × 2 = − 4
5. Let 𝐴 be an𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix. If det(𝜆𝐴) = 𝜆3 det(𝐴), what is the value of s ?
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) -1 (d) 𝑛
Solution: (d)
We know, if 𝐴 is an𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix, then
det(𝜆𝐴) = 𝜆3 det(𝐴),
But given det(𝜆𝐴) = 𝜆3 det(𝐴),
=> s= n
6. If 𝐴 be a real skew-symmetric matrix of order n

that 𝐴2 + 𝐼 = 0, 𝐼 being the identity matrix of the same order as that of 𝐴, then what is the order
of 𝐴?
(a) 3 (b) odd
(c) prime number (d) Even
Solution: (a)
We know if 𝐴 is a real skew-symmetric matrix of order n such that 𝐴2 + 𝐼 = 0, then order of 𝐴 is 3.
1 2
7.Let 𝐴 = [ ] = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ], where 𝑖, 𝑗 = 1,2, if its inverse matrix is [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ], what is 𝑏22 ?
3 4
(a) -2 (b) 1
(c) 3/2 (d) −1/2
Solution: (d)
1 2
Let 𝐴 = [ ]
3 4
|𝐴| = 4 × 1 − 2 × 3 = 4 − 6 = −2
1 4 −2
𝐴−1 = − 2 [ ]
−3 1
−2 1
[𝑏𝑑 ] = [4 − 2] = [ 3 1 ]
1
2 −3 1 −2
2
1
𝑏𝑛 = − 2
1 −3 2
8. If [2 − 8 5] is not an invertible matrix, then what is the value of 𝞴?
4 2 𝜆
(a) -1 (b) 0
(c) 1 (d) 2
Solution: (c)
1 −3 2
Since, the matrix [2 − 8 5] is not an invertible matrix, therefore it’s determinant is zero.
4 2 𝜆
1 −3 2
=>[2 − 8 5] =0
4 2 𝜆
=>1(−8 𝜆 − 10) + 3(2𝜆 − 20) + 2(4 + 32) = 0
=>−8𝜆 − 10 + 6𝜆 − 60 + 72 = 0
=>−2𝜆 + 2 = 0 => 𝜆 = 1
0 1 𝑖 0 0 −𝑖
9. If 𝐴 = [ ],𝐵 = [ ],𝐶 = [ ], then which one of the following is not correct ?
−1 0 0 −𝑖 −𝑖 0
(a) A2=B2 (b) B2=C2
(c) AB=C (d) AB=BA
Solution: (d)
6𝑖 − 3𝑖 1
10. If 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑗 = |4 3𝑖 − 1|, then what is 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦 equal to?
20 3 𝑖
(a) 3+𝑖 (b) 1+3𝑖
(c) 3𝑖 (d) 0
Solution: (d)
11. If |𝐴| = 8, where 𝐴 is square matrix of order 3, then what is |𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴| equal to ?
(a) 16 (b) 24
(c) 64 (d) 512
Solution : (c)
Let |𝐴| = 8, and A is a square matrix of order 3
We know that |𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴| = |𝐴|𝑛−1 𝐼 where
‘n’ is the order of the matrix A.

|𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴| = 83−1 = 82 = 64.
12. Consider the following statements in respect of a square matrix 𝐴 and its transpose 𝐴𝑇 .
1. 𝐴 + 𝐴𝑇 is always symmetric.
2. 𝐴 − 𝐴𝑇 is always anti-symmetric
Which of the statements given above is/are correct ?
Solution: (c)
We know, that A matrix ‘A’ is said to be symmetric
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑇 and anti-symmetric if 𝐴 = −𝐴𝑇
Now, consider (𝐴 + 𝐴𝑇 )𝑇 = 𝐴𝑇 + (𝐴𝑇 )𝑇 − 𝐴𝑇 + 𝐴
=> 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑇 is always symmetric.
Now, consider (𝐴 − 𝐴𝑇 )𝑇 = 𝐴𝑇 − (𝐴𝑇 )𝑇 − 𝐴𝑇 𝐴
=> 𝐴 − 𝐴𝑇 is always anti-symmetric
13. If a matrix 𝐴 is such that 3𝐴3 + 2𝐴2 + 5𝐴 + 𝐼 = 0, Then what is 𝐴−1 equal to ?
(a) – (b) 3𝐴2 +2A+5I
(3𝐴2 +2A+5)
(c) 3𝐴2 -2A-5I (d) (3𝐴2 +2A-5I)
Solution : (a)
Let be a matrix 𝐴 is such that
3𝐴3 + 2𝐴2 + 5𝐴 + 𝐼 = 0,
Post multiply by 𝐴−1 on both sides, we get
3𝐴3 𝐴−1 + 2𝐴2 𝐴−1 + 5𝐴𝐴−1 + 𝐼𝐴−1 = 0,
3𝐴2 + 2𝐴 + 5𝐼 + 𝐴−1 = 0,
𝐴−1 =(3𝐴2 + 2𝐴 + 5𝐼)
14. Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be matrices of order 3 × 3. If 𝐴𝐵 = 0, then which of the following can be
concluded ?[2010-II]
(a) A=0 and B=0 (b) |A|=0 and
|B|=0
(c) Either |A|=0 or (d) Either A=0
|B|=0 or B=0
Solution: (d)
15. If 𝐴 is a square matrix, then what is adj𝐴𝑇 − (𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴)𝑇 equal to ?
(a) 2 𝐴 (b) 2 𝐴𝐼
(c) Null Matrix (d) Unit Matrix
Solution: (c)
We know (adj𝐴𝑇 ) − (𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴)𝑇
=> (adj𝐴𝑇 ) − (𝑎𝑑𝑗𝐴)𝑇 = Null matrix.
1 𝜔 2𝜔2
16. What is the value of | 2 2𝜔2 4𝜔3 | where 𝜔 is the cube root of unity ?
3 3𝜔3 6𝜔4
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) 2 (d) 3
Solution: (a)
1 𝜔 2𝜔2 1 𝜔 2𝜔2
Consider| 2 2𝜔2 4𝜔3 |= | 2 2𝜔2 4𝜔3 |
3 3𝜔3 6𝜔4 3 3𝜔3 6𝜔4
1 𝜔 2𝜔2
=2 × 3 | 1 𝜔 2 |2
1 1 2𝜔
= 6[1(2𝜔 3 − 2) − 𝜔 (2𝜔 − 2) + 2𝜔 2 (1 − 𝜔 2 )]
=6 [ 0−2𝜔 2 − 2𝜔 + 2𝜔 2 − 2𝜔 ] = 0
17. Consider the following statements.
I. The inverse of a square matrix, if it exists, is unique.
II. If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are singular matrices of order 𝑛, then 𝐴𝐵 is also a singular matrix of order 𝑛.
Which of the statements given above is /are correct ?
Solution: (a)
The inverse of a square matrix if it exists, is unique but if 𝐴 and 𝐵 are singular matrices of order
𝑛, then Hence, only statement 1 is correct.
18. What is the value of the determinant
𝑥+1 𝑥+2 𝑥+4
|𝑥 + 3 𝑥+5 𝑥 + 8| ?
𝑥+7 𝑥 + 10 𝑥 + 14
(a) x+2 (b) x2+2
(c) 2 (d) -2
Solution: (d)
𝑥+1 𝑥+2 𝑥+4
|
Let ∆= 𝑥 + 3 𝑥+5 𝑥 + 8|
𝑥+7 𝑥 + 10 𝑥 + 14
By applying 𝐶2 → 𝐶2 − 𝐶1 , 𝐶3 → 𝐶3 − 𝐶1
𝑥+1 1 3
=|𝑥 + 3 2 5|
𝑥+7 3 7
By applying 𝑅2 → 𝑅2 − 𝑅1 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅3 → 𝑅3 − 𝑅2
𝑥+1 1 3
=| 2 1 2|
4 1 2
= (𝑥 + 1)(0) − 1(4 − 8) + (2 − 4)
= 4 − 6 = −2
19. If 5 and 7 are the roots of the equation
𝑥 4 5
|7 𝑥 7| = 0, the what is the third root ?
5 8 𝑥
(a) (a) -12 (b) (b) 9
(c) (c) 13 (d) (d) 14
Solution: (a)
𝑥 4 5
Given, |7 𝑥 7| = 0
5 8 𝑥
=> 𝑥(𝑥 2 − 56) − 4(7𝑥 − 35) + 5(56 − 5𝑥 ) = 0

=> 𝑥 3 − 56𝑥 − 28𝑥 + 140 + 280 − 25𝑥 = 0
=> 𝑥 3 − 109𝑥 + 420 = 0
=> (𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 − 7)(𝑥 + 12) = 0
=> 𝑥 = −12
Hence the third root is -12.
20. Find the value of 𝑘 in which the system of equations 𝑘𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 5 and 3𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1 has no
solution ?
(a) 0 (b) 3
(c) 6 (d) 15
Solution: (c)
𝛼 𝛽
21. If the matrix 𝐴 = [ ] is such that 𝐴2 = 𝐼, then which one of the following is correct?
𝛽 𝛼
(a) 𝛽 = 0, 𝛼 = 1 (b) 𝛽 = 1 , 𝛼 = 1
(c) 𝛽 = 1, 𝛼 = 0 (d) 𝛽 ≠ 1, 𝛼 ≠ 1
Solution: (a)
𝛼 𝛽
Let 𝐴 = [ ]
𝛽 𝛼
𝛼 𝛽 𝛼 𝛽
∴ 𝐴2 = 𝐴 = [ ][ ]
𝛽 𝛼 𝛽 𝛼
𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 2𝛼𝛽
=[ ]
2𝛼𝛽 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2
Now 𝐴2 = 1
𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 2𝛼𝛽 1 0
=> [ ]=[ ]
2𝛼𝛽 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 0 1
𝛼 0 1 0
If A = [ ] and B=[ ]
1 1 2 1
=>𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 = 1, 𝛼𝛽 = 0
=>𝛼 = 0, 𝛽 = 1
Or 𝛽 = 0, 𝛼 = 1
𝛼 0 1 0
22. If 𝐴 = [ ] and B =[ ]
1 1 2 1
Such that 𝐴2 = 𝐵, then what is the value of ?
(a) -1 (b) 1
(c) 2 (d) 4
Solution: (b)
𝛼 0
Let 𝐴 = [ ]
1 1
𝛼 0 𝛼 0
=>𝐴2 = [ ][ ]
1 1 1 1
2
𝐴2 = [ 𝛼 0 ]
𝛼+1 1
But is given that 𝐴2 = 𝐵
2 1 0
=>[ 𝛼 0 ] = [ ]
𝛼+1 1 2 1
=>𝛼 + 1 = 2
=>𝛼 = 1
3 1 1 1
23. 𝐴 = [ ] and 𝐵 = [ ], then which of the following is/are correct ?
0 4 0 2
I. 𝐴𝐵 is defined
II. 𝐵𝐴 is defined
III. 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
(a) Only I (b) Only II
(c) Both I and II (d) I, II and III
Solution: (d)
3 1 1 1
Let 𝐴 = [ ] and 𝐵 = [ ]
0 4 0 2
3 1 1 1
Now ,𝐴𝐵 = [ ][ ] = [3 5]
0 4 0 2 0 8
1 1 3 1
] = [ 5]
3
And 𝐵𝐴 = [ ][
0 2 0 4 0 8
AB=BA
Hence, all the three statements are correct.
EXERCISE
1. The simultaneous equations 3𝑥 + 5𝑦 = 7 and 6𝑥 + 10𝑦 = 18 have

(a) No solution (b) Infinitely many solutions
(c) Unique solution (d) Any finite number of solutions
𝑥 𝛼 1
2. The roots of the equation |𝛽 𝑥 1| = 0 are independent of
𝛽 𝛾 1
(a) 𝛼 (b) 𝛽
(c) 𝛾 (d)𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾
3. What is the value of the determinant
𝑎−𝑏 𝑏+𝑐 𝑎
| 𝑏 − 𝑐 𝑐 + 𝑎 𝑏 |?
𝑐−𝑎 𝑎+𝑏 𝑐
(a) 𝑎3 + 𝑏3 + 𝑐 3 (b) 3bc
(c) 𝑎3 + 𝑏3 + (d) 0
3
𝑐 −3bc
𝑝 −𝑞 0
4. If | 0 𝑝 𝑞 |=0, then which one of the following is correct ?
𝑞 0 𝑝
(a) 𝑝 is one of (b) 𝑞 is one of
the cube roots the cube roots
of unity of unity
𝑝
(c) is one of (d) None of the
𝑞
above
the cube roots
of unity
1+𝑎 1 1
−1 −1 −1 |
5. If 𝑎 +𝑏 + 𝑐 =0 such that 1 1+𝑏 1 | = 𝞴, then what is 𝞴 equal to?
1 1 1+𝑐
(a) –abc (b) abc
(c) 0 (d) 1
6. Consider the following statements in respect of the square matrices 𝐴 and 𝐵of same order :
1. 𝐴and𝐵 are non-zero and 𝐴𝐵 = 0 either |𝐴| = 0 or |𝐵| = 0
2. 𝐴𝐵 = 0 => 𝐴 = 0or𝐵 = 0
Which of the above statements is/are correct ?
7. For what value of x does
1 3 0 0
(1 3 2) (3 0 2) (3) = (0)hold ?
2 0 1 𝑥
(a) -1 (b) 1
(c) 9/8 (d) -9/8
8. Consider the following statements :
1. Every zero matrix is a square matrix.
2. A matrix has a numerical value.
3. A unit matrix is a diagonal matrix.
Which of the above statements is/are correct ?
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3
9. If a matrix 𝐴 has inverses 𝐵 and 𝐶, then which one of the following is correct ?
(a) B may not (b) b should be
be equal to C equal to C
(c) B and C (d) None of the
should be unit above
matrices
1 2 1 0
10. If 𝐴 = ( ) and 𝐵 = ( ) then what is determinant of AB?
2 3 1 0
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) 10 (d) 20
11. A and B are two matrices such that AB = A and BA = B then what is 𝐵2 equal to ?
(a) B (b) A
(c) I (d) –I
12. The sum and product of matrices A and b exist. Which of the following implications are
necessarily true?
1. A and B are square matrices of same order.
2. A and B are non-singular matrices
Select the correct answer using the code given below :

13. If A is a square matrix such that 𝐴2 = 𝐼 where I is the identity matrix, then what is 𝐴−1 equal
to?
(a) 𝐴+𝐼 (b) Null matrix
(c) A (d) Transpose of A
14. If two rows of a determinant are identical, then what is the value of the determinant ?
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) -1 (d) can be any real
value
8 −5 1
15. If | 5 𝑥 1 | = 2 then what is the value of x?
6 3 1
(a) 4 (b) 5
(c) 6 (d) 8
1 2 0−1
16. If A=[ ] and B =[ ] then what is 𝐵−1 𝐴−1 equal to ?
1 1 1 2
(a) 1 −3−1 2 (b) −1 31 −2
(c) 1 3−1 −2 (d) 1 −3−1 −2
17. If each element in a row of a determinant is multiplied by the same factor r, then the value
of the determinant :
(a) is multiplied by (b) is increased
3r by 3r
(c) remains (d) is multiplied
unchanged by r
18. The inverse of a diagonal matrix is a
(a) Symmetric (b) Skew-symmetric
matrix matrix
(c) Diagonal (d) None of the above
matrix
3 4
3 5 7]
19. If A = [ 5 6] and B = [ then which one of the following is correct ?
4 6 8
7 8
(a) B is the inverse (b) B is the
of A adjoint of A
(c) B is the (d)None of the
transpose of A above
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 10
20. If the sum of the matrices [𝑥 ] , [𝑦] and [0] is the matrix [ 5 ] then what is the value of y ?
𝑦 𝑧 0 5
(a) -5 (b) 0
(c) 5 (d) 10
21. If the matrix AB is a zero matrix, then which one of the following is correct?
(a) A must be equal to zero matrix or
B must be equal to zero matrix.
(b) A must be equal to zero matrix
and B must be
(c) It is not necessary that either A is
zero matrix or B is zero matrix.
(d) None of the above
𝛼 2 2
22. If the matrix [−3 0 4] is not invertible then :
1 −1 1
(a) α=-5 (b) α=5
(c) α=0 (d) α=1
𝑥2 1 𝑦2 + 𝑧2
23. The value of the determinant |𝑦 2 1 𝑧 2 + 𝑥 2 | is
𝑧2 1 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
(a) 0 (b) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
(c) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + (d) None of the
𝑧2 − 1 above
24. A square matrix [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] such that 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0 for 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗 and 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑘 when 𝑘 is a constant for𝑖 = 𝑗 is
called:
(a) Diagonal (b) Scalar matrix
matrix, but not
scalar matrix
(c) Unit matrix (d) None of the
above
25. If A and B are two non-singular square matrices such that AB=A, then which one of the
following is correct ?
(a) B is an (b) B =𝐴−1
identity matrix
(c) 𝐵 = 𝐴2 (d) Determinant
of B is zero
ANSWER KEY
1.(a) 2.(a) 3.(c) 4.(c) 5.(b) 6.(a) 7.(d) 8.(b) 9.(b) 10.(a)
11.(a) 12.(a) 13.(c) 14.(a) 15.(d) 16.(b) 17.(d) 18.(c) 19.(c) 20.(b)
21.(c) 22.(a) 23.(a) 24.(b) 25.(a)
3. TRIGONOMETRY
TRIGONOMETRY
• Derived from the Greek words trigonon meaning triangle and metron meaning measure,
trigonometry is a science of measuring triangles.
• A branch of mathematics, trigonometry deals with the measurement of sides and angles of
triangles and the problems related to angles.
3.1 ANGLES AND THEIR MEASURES IN DEGREES AND IN RADIANS
• When a ray is rotated about its end point, the figure that obtained is called an angle.
• This revolving ray is referred to as generating line of the angle.
• The ray rotates about the point which is called the vertex of the angle.
• The initial side is the initial position while the final position is called the terminal side of the angle.
Measure of Angle: The amount of rotation from the initial side to the terminal side is called the
measure of the angle.
Sense of Angle: When the initial side rotates into the terminal side, the direction of this rotation,
determines the sense of angle. This could be
Positive or negative based on how the initial side rotates to get to the terminal side that is
whether it is clockwise or anticlockwise.
Quadrant: Two lines at right angles to each other, divide a plane into four equal parts. Each
part is called a quadrant i.e. first quadrant, second quadrant, third quadrant, fourth quadrant
respectively. The two lines are called the coordinate axes being the x-axis and the y-axis respectively.
Angle in Standard Position:
When the vertex of an angle coincides with the origin and its initial side coincides with the x-
axis’s positive direction (OX in the figure below), then the angle is said to be in standard
position.
Angle in a Quadrant: If the terminal side of angle in a standard position lies in a quadrant, then
the angle is said to be in that quadrant.
Quadrant angle: When one of the axes and the terminal side of an angle coincide then that
angle is said to be quadrant angle.
Triangle of Reference: This is the right angled triangle drawn from a point on the terminal side
of the angle to the x-axis.
Co-Terminal Angles: These are two angles that have the same initial and terminal sides but
with different measures.
Measurement system of Angles: Generally, the three systems for measuring angles are:
• English or Sexagesimal system
• Centesimal or French system
• Circular system
Sexagesimal System: This is the system wherein the right angle is divided equally into 90
parts called degrees, represented as 1°.
Each degree is further divided into minutes which are 60 equal parts denoted by (') i.e. one
minute is 1' and each minute is further divided into 60 more equal parts known as seconds and
one second is denoted as 1".
That is a right angle = 90 degrees =90°; 1° = 60 minutes = 60'; 1' = 60 seconds = 60".
Centesimal System: Here grades, minutes and seconds are used. That is in this system, the
right angle is divided into grades, i.e., 100 equal parts, i.e. one grade is denoted as 1ᶢ.
Each grade is further divided into 100 minutes, i.e. one minute is denoted as 1'. And then each
minute is further divided into 100 seconds, i.e. one second is denoted as 1".
That is a right angle = 100 grades =100 ᶢ; 1 ᶢ= 100 minutes = 100'; 1' = 100 seconds = 100 ".
Circular System: In this system, the radians are used as unit for measurement.
The angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc whose length equals the radius of the
circle is called as a radian.
It is denoted as 1ͨ. There are two theorems related to radians.
Theorem1: Radian is a constant angle.
𝑎𝑟𝑐
Theorem2: The is equal to the number of radians in an angle subtended by an arc of a
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
circle at the centre.
180°
Relation between radians and degrees: One radian is equal to 𝜋 .
In a circle with radius r and centre as O, assume P a point on the circle.
Now let G be another point on the circle such that ∠𝑃𝑂𝐺 = 1 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛.
Now if PO is extended to the other side of the circle to point Q, then ∠𝑃𝑂𝑄 = 2 right angles.
Angles at the centre of the circle are proportional to the arcs subtending them i.e. here it is
given as
∠𝑃𝑂𝐺 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑃𝐺
= 𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑃𝐺𝑄
∠𝑃𝑂𝑄
∠𝑃𝑂𝐺 𝑟 2 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠
= →∠𝑃𝑂𝐺 =
2 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝜋𝑟 𝜋
180°
1 radian = 𝜋
𝜋 radians = 180°
In general, the word radians is not used or is omitted when radians is used to express the angle.
Ex1: -2radian is equal to what degree measure?
Solution:
We have seen that 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 180°
180 180
-2 radians = ( × −2) ° = ( 22 × 7 × (−2)) °
𝜋
6 6 ′
= (−114 ) ° = (-114° ( × 60) )
11 11
8
= -114°(3211)'
8
= -114°(32' (11 × 60)")
= -[114° 32′ 44"]
Ex2: For a circle with diameter of 50 cm, what would be the angle subtended at the centre by
an arc whose length is 11cm.
Solution: s = 11cm, r= 25 cm.
𝑠 11 180
𝜃 = (𝑟)c = (25 × )°
𝜋
11 180
𝜃 = (25 × × 7) °
22
126 1
𝜃=( ) ° = (25 5) °
5
1
𝜃 = 25° (5 × 60) ′
𝜃 = 25° 12'
3.2 TRIGNOMETRIC RATIOS
• Trigonometry is majorly used to find the missing sides and angles of a triangle with the help
of some of the sides and angles that are known.
• This is in general achieved using ratios of sides of a triangle with respect to its acute angles.
• Trigonometric ratios of angles are nothing but such ratios of acute angles. Some of the
trigonometric ratios are sin 𝜃, cos 𝜃, etc.
• Here sin 𝜃, is not a multiplication of sin and 𝜃, it just represents sine of 𝜃 which is the angle.
Theorem: For the same angles, the trigonometric ratios are the same.
Relation between trigonometric ratios: If any one of the trigonometric ratios are known, as
these ratios are very closely connected i.e. the sin 𝜃, cos 𝜃 and tan 𝜃, it is easy to determine the
other ratios also.
The relation can be given using the formula
• Trigonometric ratios of angles are nothing but such ratios of acute angles. Some of the
trigonometric ratios are sin 𝜃, cos 𝜃, etc.
• Here sin 𝜃, is not a multiplication of sin and 𝜃, it just represents sine of 𝜃 which is the angle.
Theorem: For the same angles, the trigonometric ratios are the same.
Relation between trigonometric ratios: If any one of the trigonometric ratios are known, as
these ratios are very closely connected i.e. the sin 𝜃, cos 𝜃 and tan 𝜃, it is easy to determine the
other ratios also.
The relation can be given using the formula
sin 𝜃
tan 𝜃 =
cos 𝜃
Ex3: What would be the value of sin 𝑃 and tan 𝑃 for a right ⊿PQR which is right angled at Q,
and PQ = 12 and QR = 5.
Solution: Using Pythagoras theorem, we can determine the hypotenuse of the triangle i.e. PR
𝑃𝑅2 = 𝑃𝑄2 + 𝑄𝑅2
𝑃𝑅2 = 122 + 52 = 169
=> 𝑃𝑅 = 13
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 5
sin 𝑃 = =
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 13
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 5
tan 𝑃 = =
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 12
As the base tends to become smaller and finally in the case when angle becomes 90°, the base
becomes 0.
So in that case,
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟
tan 𝜃 =
0
and so becomes not defined. It is the similar case with cosec 0° , sec 90°, cot 0°
Ex4: What would be 𝜃 in the case when
cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 1 − √3
=
cos 𝜃 + sin 𝜃 1 + √3
Solution:
Applying componendo, dividendo to the given equation,
(cos 𝜃 –sin 𝜃)+(cos 𝜃 –sin 𝜃)
(cos 𝜃 +sin 𝜃)−(cos 𝜃 –sin 𝜃)
(1−√3)+(1+√3)
= (1−√3)−(1+√3)
2 cos 𝜃 2
→ −2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = −2
√3
1
→ cotθ = → tan 𝜃 = √3
√3
→ tan 𝜃 = tan 60° → 𝜃 = 60°
Values of Trigonometric ratios
The table below provides the different trigonometric ratios for different angles ranging between
0° and 90°.
𝜃 0° 30° 45° 60° 90°

Trigonometric
Ratio
sin 𝜃 0 1 1 √3 1
2 √2 2
cos 𝜃 1 √3 1 1 0
2 √2 2
tan 𝜃 0 1 1 √3 Not defined
√3
cot 𝜃 Not defined √3 1 1 0
√3
cosec 𝜃 Not defined 2 √2 2 1
√3
sec 𝜃 1 2 √2 2 Not defined
√3
Trigonometric ratios of complementary Angles:
The trigonometric ratios of complementary angles that is angles whose sum is equal to 90°, is
generally given as trigonometric ratios of given angles.
So for acute angle𝜃 and (90 − 𝜃) are the complementary angles.
Ex5: What would be the outcome of the below?
sin 47° 2 cos 43° 2
( ) +( ) − 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 45°
cos 43° sin 47°
Solution:
sin 47° 2 cos 43° 2
{ } +{ } − 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 45°
cos 43° sin 47°
2 2
sin(90° − 43°) cos(90° − 47°)
={ } +{ } − 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 45°
cos 43° sin 47°
As we know that sin(90 − 𝜃) = cos 𝜃; cos(90 − 𝜃) = sin 𝜃
cos 43° 2 sin 47° 2
= (cos 43°) + (sin 47° ) − 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 45°
1 2 1
=12 + 12 − 4 ( 2) [∵ cos 45° = ]
√ √2
=0
Compound Angles: The algebraic sum of two or more angles is called compound angles.
The angles which are included in this are called constituent angles.
That is for the constituent angles P, Q, R, the compound angle could be P+Q+R, P±Q, P-Q+R etc.
Theorem: For angles A and B,
cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵
cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 − sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵
Ex6: What is the value of
2𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
cos cos 4 − sin sin 4 ?
3 3
Solution:
2𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
cos cos − sin sin
3 4 3 4
2𝜋 𝜋 11𝜋
=cos ( 3 + 4 ) = cos ( 12 )
=cos 165° = cos(180° − 15°)
= -cos 15°
√3+1
= -( 2 )
√2
3.3 TRIGNOMETRIC IDENTITIES
If for all values of 𝜃 for which trigonometric ratios are defined, are satisfied, then the equation is
called trigonometric identity.
1 1
Example: 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 2 cos 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 (cos 𝜃 − 2)
Note that 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃;
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
In the above, 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 refer to the square of the sine of the angle 𝜃 and square of cosine of
the angle 𝜃 respectively.
Proving results involving Trigonometric Ratios:
Ex7: Prove that 𝑟 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 when 𝑥 = 𝑟 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐶, 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝐴 sin 𝐶, 𝑧 = 𝑟 cos 𝐴
Solution:
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐶+ 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐶 + 𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐴
= 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐶 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐶) + 𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐴
= 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴 + 𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐴
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑟 2 (𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐴)
Hence 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑟 2
[∵ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐴 = 1]
Proving Trigonometric Identities involving Trigonometric ratios of complementary
angles:
Ex8: Evaluate without using trigonometric tables
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 40° + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 50°
cos(40° + 𝜃) − sin(50° − 𝜃) +
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 40° + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 50°
Solution:
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 40° + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (90° − 40°)
sin(90° − (40° + 𝜃)) − sin(50° − 𝜃) +
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 40° + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (90° − 40°)
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 40° + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 40°
= sin(50° − 𝜃) − sin(50° − 𝜃) +
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 40° + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 40°
1
=0+1=1
Values of Trigonometric Ratios in terms of value of one of them
When one of the trigonometric ratios is known, all the remaining trigonometric ratios can be
known.
If sin 𝜃 = 𝑦, then the other trigonometric values are:
cos 𝜃 = √1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 → cos 𝜃 = √1 − 𝑦 2
sin 𝜃 𝑦
tan 𝜃 = → tan 𝜃 =
cos 𝜃 √1−𝑦 2
1 √1−𝑦 2
cot 𝜃 = → cot 𝜃 =
tan 𝜃 𝑦
1 1
cosec θ = sin θ = 𝑦
1 1
sec θ = =
cos θ √1−𝑦 2
If cos 𝜃 = 𝑦, Then the other trigonometric values are:
sin 𝜃 = √1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 → sin 𝜃 = √1 − 𝑦 2
sin 𝜃 √1−𝑦 2
tan 𝜃 = → tan 𝜃 =
cos 𝜃 𝑦
1 𝑦
tan 𝜃 √1−𝑦 2
1 1
cosec θ = sin θ =
√1−𝑦 2
1 1
sec θ = =
cos θ 𝑦
If tan 𝜃 = 𝑦, Then the other trigonometric values are:
sec 𝜃 = √1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 → sec 𝜃 = √1 + 𝑦 2
1 1
tan 𝜃 𝑦
1 1
cos θ = =
sec θ √1+𝑦 2
1
sin 𝜃 = √1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 → sin 𝜃 = √1 − 1+𝑦 2
𝑦
sin 𝜃 =
√1+𝑦 2
1 √1+𝑦 2
cosec θ = sin θ = 𝑦
Similarly given the other values like cosec θ, sec 𝜃 , cot 𝜃, the other values can be obtained from
it.
9
Ex9: What are the values of cosec θ, sec 𝜃 when cot 𝜃 = 40
Solution:
9
cot 𝜃 = 40
cosec θ = √1 + cot 2 θ
9 2
cosec θ = √1 + (40)
81 1681 41
cosec θ = √1 + 1600 = √1600 = 40
9 1
40 tan 𝜃
40
tan 𝜃 = 9
40 2
sec 𝜃 = √1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 → sec 𝜃 = √1 + ( 9 )
1681 41
sec θ = √ = 40
81
3.4 MULTIPLE AND SUB-MULTIPLE ANGLES

Multiple Angles: For an angle P, 2P, 3P, 4P and so on are said to be the multiple angles of P.
𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
Sub-Multiple Angles: For an angle 𝑃, 2 , 3 , 4 etc are called the sub-multiple angles of it.
Trigonometric ratios of angle 2A in terms of angle A: In the following cases, the angle on the
LHS is double of the angle on RHS-
(i) sin 2A = 2 sin A 2cos A
(ii) cos 2A = cos2 A – sin2 A
(iii) cos 2A = 2 cos2 A – 1 or 1+cos 2A = 2 cos2 A
(iv) cos 2A = 1 - 2 sin2 A or 1- cos 2A = 2 sin2 A
𝟐 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝑨
(v) 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝟐𝑨 = 𝟏− 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐𝑨
𝟐 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝑨
(vi) sin 2A = 𝟏+ 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐𝑨
𝟏− 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐𝑨
(vii) cos 2A = 𝟏+ 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐𝑨
Trigonometric ratios of angle 3A in terms of angle A: In the following cases, the angle on the
LHS is thrice of the angle on RHS-
(i) sin 3A = 3 sin A - 4 sin3A
(ii) cos 3A = 4 cos3A – 3 cos A
𝟑 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝑨− 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟑 𝑨
(iii) tan 3A = 𝟏−𝟑 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝑨
Trigonometric ratios of angle A in terms of angle A/2: In the following cases, the angle on the
LHS is double of the angle on RHS-
𝐴 𝐴
(i) sin A = 2 sin ( 2 ) cos ( 2 )
𝐴 𝐴
(ii) cos A = cos2 ( 2 )- sin2 ( 2 )
𝐴 𝐴
(iii) cos A = 2 cos2 ( 2 )- 1 or 1- cosA = 2 cos2 ( 2 )
𝐴 𝐴
(iv) cos A = 1- 2 sin2 ( 2 ) or 1- cos A = 2 sin2 ( 2 )
𝐴
2 tan( )
2
(v) tan A = 𝐴
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 ( )
2
𝐴
2 tan( )
2
(v) tan A = 𝐴
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 ( )
2
𝐴
2 tan ( )
2
(vi) sin A = 𝐴
1+𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 ( )
2
𝐴
1− 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 ( )
2
(vii) cos A = 𝐴
1+ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 ( )
2
Trigonometric ratios of angle A in terms of angle A/3: In the following cases, the angle on the
LHS is thrice of the angle on RHS-
𝐴 𝐴
(i) sin A = 3 sin ( 2 )- 4 sin3 ( 2 )
𝐴 𝐴
(ii) cos A = 4 cos3 ( 2 )3 cos ( 2 )
𝑨 𝑨
𝟑 𝐭𝐚𝐧( )− 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟑( )
𝟐 𝟐
(iii) tan A = 𝑨
𝟏− 𝟑𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 ( )
𝟐
Trigonometric ratios of angle A/2 in terms of angle cos A: Following ratios are very helpful
1° 1° 1°
to find the trigonometric ratios of the angles 22 2 , 7 , 11
2 2
𝑨 𝟏+𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑨
=> 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 = ± √ 𝟐
𝑨 𝟏−𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑨
=> 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐 = ± √ 𝟐
𝑨 𝟏−𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑨
=>𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝟐 = ± √ 𝟏+𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝑨
𝟏°
Ex10: What is the value of cos 𝟐𝟐 𝟐
𝐴 1+cos 𝐴
Solution: cos =±√
2 2
Putting A = 45°, we get

1° 1+cos 45°
cos 22 = ±√
2 2
1°
[∵ cos 22 𝑖𝑠 + 𝑣𝑒]
2
10 1+ 1⁄ √(√2) +1
cos 22 =√ √2
=
2 2 2√2
3.5 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

• In Mathematics, the inverse of the function is correspondingly a trigonometric function which
is also known as cyclometric function.
• Particularly, the inverse functions are the inverses of sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent,
secant and cosecant functions.
• These functions are used to find an angle from any of the angle’s trigonometric ratios.
• Engineering, navigation, physics and geometry are some of the fields where Inverse
trigonometric functions are applied.
Inverse of a function
For every bijection (one-one onto function)
ƒ: P→Q there exists a bijection g:Q→P.
It can be defined by
g(y) =x if and only ƒ(x)=y
g:Q→P is the inverse function of ƒ:P→Q
It is denoted by ƒ ⁻1.
Then, ƒ (x) = y ⇔ ƒ ⁻1(y) =x
And, also
(ƒ ⁻1 of)(x)= ƒ ⁻1{ ƒ (x)}= ƒ ⁻1(y)=x , for all x € P.
And,
(ƒ ⁻1 of)(y)= ƒ { ƒ ⁻1 (y)}= ƒ (x) =y, for all x € Q

Trigonometric functions are also periodic functions. Hence, all trigonometric functions may not
be bijections.
As a result, their inverses do not exist. However, they can be made bijections and obtain their
inverses by restricting their domains and co-domains.
The above concept of inverses of trigonometric functions will be carried out in the next section.
Inverses of other trigonometric functions
The other five trigonometric functions and their principal branches can be defined as the inverse
of sine function and its graphs. The following table shows the domains, ranges and the principal
value branches of all inverse trigonometric functions:
Function Domain Range Principal Value branch

Sin-1 [-1, 1] [-π/2, π/2] -π/2≤y≤π/2, where y=sin-1x
Cos-1 [-1,1] [0, π] 0≤y≤π, where y=cos-1x
Tan-1 R (-π/2, π/2) -π/2<y<π/2, where y=tan-1x
Cosec -1
(-∞, -1) ꓴ (1, ∞) [-π/2, π/2] – Ι0Ι -π/2≤y≤π/2, where y=cosec-1x, y≠0
Sec-1 (-∞, -1) ꓴ (1, ∞) [0, π] – [π/2] 0≤y≤π, where y=sec-1x, y≠π/2
Cot-1 R (0, π) 0<y<π, where y=cot-1x
Note: An inverse trigonometric function with no branch indicates the principal value branch of
that function.
Graphs of inverse trigonometric functions
By interchanging the coordinate axes or by taking its image in the line mirror y = x, the inverse
trigonometric function can be obtained from the graph.
Graph of various trigonometric functions:
(i) Cos x and Cos-1 x
(ii) Tan x and Tan-1 x
(iii) 𝑆𝑒𝑐 𝑥 and Sec-1 x
(iv) Cosec x and Cosec-1 x
(v) Cot x and Cot-1 x
Note: The principal value branch is the graph of the principal values of inverse trigonometric
functions. If there is no branch of an inverse trigonometric function is specified, it indicates the
principal value branch of that function.
2
Ex11: Calculate the Principal values of cosec-1 2 and cosec-1 [− √3]
Solution:
π π
Since 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 : R-(-1,1)→ [− 2 , 0} ∪ {0, 2 ] is a bijection.
π π
Hence, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 a represents an angle in [− 2 , 0} ∪ {0, 2 ] whose cosecant is a.
Therefore,
π π
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 2 = an angle in [− 2 , 0} ∪ {0, 2 ] whose cosecant is 2.
π
⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 2 = 6
Similarly,
2 π π 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 {- √3} = An angle [− 2 , 0} ∪ {0, 2 ] whose cosecant is {- √3}
2 π
⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 {- √3} = - 3
π 2 π
Hence, the Principal values of 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 2 is and 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 {- √3} is - 3 .
6
3.6 APPLICATIONS - HEIGHT AND DISTANCE, PROPERTIES OF TRIANGLES
While there are many applications of trigonometry, the major applications include measuring of
heights and distances.
Some of the example trigonometry applications to measure height and distance are:
• From the sea measuring the distance to the sea shore.
• Calculating the distance between two objects in space.
• Finding the height of mountains or tall towers or skyscrapers.
Line of sight: For an object, the line of sight is the straight line from our eye to the object.
Angle of depression:
• To look at objects below the horizontal line from our eye, the eye has to move down through
a certain angle, which is referred to as the angle of depression.
• In other terms, the angle formed between the horizontal line from the eye and the line of
sight of the object is called angle of depression.
Angle of elevation:
• Similar to the angle of depression, for objects placed above the horizontal line of our eye, we
move our head up to see the object and with that, the eye moves up by a certain angle. This
is the angle of elevation.
• In other terms, the angle of elevation is the angle formed between the line of sight and the
horizontal line of our eye, but here the line of sight is above the horizontal line.
Ex12: What would be the width of the river, across which there exists a bridge making an angle
of 45° with the banks of the river. Also the length of the bridge is 150 m.
Solution:
From this we can get the right ⊿ PQR.
QR width of the river
sin 45° = PR = length of the river
1 QR
=
√2 150
150
QR = = 75√2 m.
√2
So the bridge’s width is 75√2 m
Ex13: Can we prove that the height of centre of balloon having a radius r, subtending at angle δ
δ
at the eye of the observer and with γ as the angle of elevation of its centre is r sin γ cosec 2 .
Solution:
Assuming that for the balloon with radius r, O is the centre. Let A be the observer’s eye. From A
draw two tangents AB and AC to the circle such that ∠BAC is δ.
δ
So ∠CAO = ∠BAO = 2
Drawing a perpendicular OP to the horizontal line from A, then given that ∠OAP = γ,
From the triangle OAB, we have
δ OB r
sin 2 = OA = OA
δ
OA = r cosec 2
From triangle OAL, we have
OP
sin γ = OA
δ
OP = OA sin γ = OA = r cosec sin γ
2
δ
Hence, r cosec 2 sin γ is the height of the centre of the balloon.
Oblique triangle: If none of the three angles of a triangle is the right angle, then such a triangle
is called oblique triangle.
The triangle has three sides and three angles which are commonly referred to as elements of
the triangle.
These elements are not independent. Consider a Δ PQR, here ∠QPR denoted as P, ∠PQR
denoted as Q and ∠QRP denoted as R, sides PQ, QR and RP denoted as r, p and q form the
elements of the triangle.
The elements of the triangle can be given using the relations
• The sum of angles of a triangle is 180° i.e. p + q + r = π.
• Sum of two sides of a triangle is greater than the third side i.e. p + q > r; q + r > p; p + r >
q.
Also, there are other trigonometric relations connecting the elements of a triangle.
The Sine rule or the Law of sines: According to this, in a triangle, its sides are proportional to
the angle opposite to them. That is for Δ PQR,
p q r
= =
sin P sin Q sin R
Thus it could be said that with this rule, the side of the triangle can be expressed in terms of the
sine of the angle and similarly the sine of the angles in terms of the side of the triangle.
p q r
That is, if = = =k
sin P sin Q sin R
Now, we can see that p = k sin P, q = k sin Q, r = k sin R,
sin P sin Q sin R
Similar to that, if = = = γ
p q r
Then sin P = γp, sin Q = γq, sin R = γr
sin P sin(P−Q)
Ex14: Prove that p2 , q2 , r 2 are in A.P., if in a ∆PQR, sin R = sin(Q−R) .
Solution:
sin P sin Q sin R
Suppose, = = = k.
p q r
sin P = pk, sin Q = qk, sin R = rk.
sin P sin(P−Q)
Now, = sin(Q−R)
sin R
sin(Q+R) sin(P−Q)
= sin(Q−R)
sin(P+Q)
sin(Q + R) sin(Q − R) = sin(P + Q) sin(P − Q)
sin2 Q − sin2 R = sin2 P − sin2 Q
k 2 q2 − k 2 r 2 = k 2 p2 − k 2 q2
q2 − r 2 = p2 − q2
2q2 = p2 + r 2
p2 , q2 , r 2 are in A.P.
Law of Cosines: For Δ PQR, as per the law of cosines,
q2 + r 2 − p2
cos P =
2qr
p + r 2 − q2
2
cos Q =
2rp
q + p2 − r 2
2
cos R =
2qp
Projection Formula: According to this for a triangle, the sum of projections of two sides is
equal to the third side of the triangle.
Mathematically it is represented as for Δ PQR:

𝑟 = 𝑞 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑃 + 𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑄
Similarly, q = R cos P + p cos R
And p = q cos R + r cos Q
Examples of Applications of sine rule and the cosine formula:
Ex15: Prove for ∆ PQR,
cos P cos Q cos R p2 +q2 +r2
+ + = .
p q r 2pqr
Solution:
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑄 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑅
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = + +
𝑝 𝑞 𝑟
𝑞2 +𝑟 2−𝑝2 𝑟 2+𝑝2 −𝑞2 𝑝2 +𝑞2 −𝑟 2
= + +
2𝑝𝑞𝑟 2𝑝𝑟𝑞 2𝑝𝑞𝑟
𝑝2 +𝑞2 +𝑟 2
= = 𝑅𝐻𝑆
2𝑝𝑞𝑟
Cosine, sine and projection formula based applications:
𝑅 𝑄
Ex16: Prove for ∆ PQR, 2 (𝑞 cos 2 2 + 𝑟 cos 2 2 ) = 𝑝 + 𝑞 + 𝑟
Solution:
𝑅 𝑄
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 2 (𝑞 cos 2 2 + 𝑟 cos 2 2 )
= [𝑞(1 + cos 𝑅)] + 𝑟(1 + cos 𝑄)
= (𝑞 + 𝑟 + 𝑞 cos 𝑅 + 𝑟 cos 𝑄)
= 𝑞 + 𝑟 + 𝑝 = 𝑝 + 𝑞 + 𝑟 = 𝑅𝐻𝑆
Formula Table
Angles and their Measures in Degrees and in ➢ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐴 + 𝐵) 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐴 − 𝐵) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐴 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐵 =
Radians: 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐵 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴
𝜋
➢ Since 180° = 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠, 1° = 180 radians ➢ sin(A + B + C) = sin A cos B cos C +
cos A sin B cos C + cos A cos B sin C −
➢ 1 radian = 57° 16′ 22” approximately.
sin A sin B cos C
➢ 1° = 0.01746 radian
𝜋 ➢ cos(A + B + C) = cos A cos B cos C −
➢ 30° = 6 radians is the angle between cos A sin B sin C − sin A cos B sin C −
consecutive numbers in a clock. sin A sin B cos C
➢ 30° is the angle of rotation of the hour hand of ➢ 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 ) =
a clock in 1 hour ie. (1/2)° a minute. 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐴+𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐵+ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐶−𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐴 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐵 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐶
1 −𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐴 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐵−𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐵 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐶−𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐶 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐴
➢ 6° is the angle of rotation of the minute hand
Trigonometric Identities Sum and Difference
in a minute.
Formulae:
Trigonometric Ratios:
➢ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
➢ sin 𝜃 = ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 ➢ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 1
➢ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
➢ cos 𝜃 = ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ➢ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 = 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝜃
➢ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 = 1
➢ tan 𝜃 = ➢ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 − 1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝜃
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
➢ cosec 𝜃 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 ➢ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 − 1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝜃
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
➢ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 = 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝜃
➢ sec 𝜃 = ➢ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 − 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝜃 = 1
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 1
➢ cot 𝜃 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 ➢ sec 𝜃 + tan 𝜃 = sec 𝜃−tan 𝜃
1 1 1
➢ cosec 𝜃 = sin 𝜃 or sin 𝜃 = ➢ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 + cot 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃−cot 𝜃
cosec 𝜃
1
➢ sec 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 or cos 𝜃 = sec 𝜃
1 Trigonometric Ratios of some important angles:
√5−1
1
➢ cot 𝜃 = tan 𝜃 or tan 𝜃 = cot 𝜃
1 ➢ sin 18 0= 4
cos 𝜃 √10−2 2√5
➢ cot 𝜃 = sin 𝜃 ➢ cos 180 = 4
➢ cot 𝜃 . tan 𝜃 = 1 √𝟓+𝟏
➢ For acute angle 𝜃, sin(90° − 𝜃) = cos 𝜃 ➢ cos 36 = 0
𝟒
➢ For acute angle 𝜃, cos(90° − 𝜃) = sin 𝜃 √𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝟐√𝟓
➢ For acute angle 𝜃, tan(90° − 𝜃) = cot 𝜃 ➢ sin 36 = 0
𝟒
➢ For acute angle 𝜃, cot(90° − 𝜃) = tan 𝜃 √10−2 2√5
➢ For acute angle 𝜃, sec(90° − 𝜃) = cosec 𝜃 ➢ cos 54 = 0
4
➢ For acute angle 𝜃, cosec(90° − 𝜃) = sec 𝜃 √5+1
0
sin(A + B) sin(𝐴 − 𝐵) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐵 sin 54 = 4
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐵 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐴

1. What is the principal value of 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 (−√2)?
𝜋 𝜋
(a) 4 (b) 2
𝜋
(c) − 4 (d) 0
Solution: (c)
Let the principal value of 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 (−√2) = 𝜃
1
⇒−√2 = cosec 𝜃 ⇒ −√2 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
1 𝜋
⇒ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = − ⇒𝜃= −4
√2
𝜋
Principal value of 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 (−√2) = − 4
5 12 𝜋
2. If 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 = 2 , then what is the value of x?
(a) 1 (b) 7
(c) 13 (d) 17
Solution: (c)
5 12 𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 =
𝑥 𝑥 2
5 √𝑥²−144 𝜋
⇒ 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 =
𝑥 2
−1 −1 𝜋
But we know 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑦 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑦=
2
5 √𝑥² − 144
=
𝑥 𝑥
⇒ 25 =x²-144
⇒ x=13
3. If angles A, B, C are in AP, then what is sin A+2sinB+sinC equal to?

(a) 4 sin B (b) 4 sin B
𝐴−𝐶 𝐴−𝐶
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( )
2 4
(c) 4 sin (d) 4 sin
𝐴−𝐶 𝐴−𝐶
(2B)𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( ) (2B)𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( )
2 4
Solution: (b)
Since A, B, C are in AP.
B-A=C-B
⇒ 2B =A+C
But we know A+B+C =180°
B =60°
Consider sin A+2sinB+sinC
𝐴+𝐶 𝐴−𝐶
= 2 sin 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵
2 2
2 𝐴−𝐶
= 2sinB[2𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 4 )]
2 𝐴−𝐶
= 4sinB 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )
4
4. Statement I: If -1≤x<0, then cos(𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥) = -√1 − 𝑥 2

Statement II: If -1≤x<0, then sin (𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥) = -√1 − 𝑥 2
Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?
(a) Both statements I and II are independently (b) Both statements I and II are independently
correct and statement II is the correct correct, but statement II is not the correct
explanation of statement I. explanation of statement I.
(c) Statement I is correct, but statement II is (d) Statement I is false, but statement II is correct.
false.
Solution: (d)
(I) cos(𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥)= cos(𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 √1 − 𝑥 2 )= √1 − 𝑥²
(II) sin(𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥)= s𝑖𝑛(𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 √1 − 𝑥 2 )= √1 − 𝑥²
5. In a triangle ABC, BC =√39, AC=5 and AB=7. What is the measure of the angle A?
𝜋 𝜋
(a) 4 (b) 3
𝜋 𝜋
(c) 2 (d) 6
Solution: (b)
Let a, b, c be the sides of ∆ ABC and ∠A=𝜃
𝑏²+𝑐²−𝑎² 25+49−39
a = √39 , b = 5 and c=7and cos 𝜃 = 2𝑏𝑐
= 2∗5∗7
1 𝜋
= 2 = cos 3
𝜋
⇒𝜃 = 3
4 1
6. What is the value of 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 5 + 2𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 3 ?
(a) π/3 (b) π/2
(c) π/4 (d) π/6
Solution: (b)
4 1
Consider 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 5 + 2𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 3
4 2
−1 ( 5
) + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 3
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 16
( 1 )
√1− 1−
9
25
4/5 2/3
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (3/5) + 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (8/9)
4 4 𝜋
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (3) + 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (3) = 2
7. ABC is a triangle in which BC =10cm, CA=6cm and AB=8cm. Which one of the following is correct?
(a) ABC is an acute angled triangle (b) ABC is an obtuse angled triangle
(c) ABC is a right angled triangle (d) None of these
Solution: (c)
Given a ∆ABC in which BC= 10cm
CA =6cm and AB= 8cm.
Since, CA²+AB²=36+64 =100=BC²
∆ABC is right angled triangle.
8. In a ∆ABC, if c=2, A= 120°, a=√6, then what is C equal to?
(a) 30° (b) 45°
(c) 60° (d) 75°
Solution: (b)
Let c=2, ∠A =120° and a=√6
By single rule, we have
𝑎 𝑐 √6 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐶
⇒ 𝑠𝑖𝑛120° = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐶
2∗√3 1
⇒ Sin c = =
√6∗2 √2
⇒ Sin c =sin 45°
⇒ ∠c = 45°
DIRECTION (QS. 9-12): Read the following information carefully and given the answer ABC is a triangle
right-angled at B. The hypotenuse (AC) is four times the perpendicular (BD) drawn to it from the
opposite vertex and AD<DC.
9. What is one of the acute angles of the triangle?
(a) 15° (b) 30°
(c) 45° (d) None of these
Solution: (a)
Given AD<DC
C = 4p
We know P²= 𝑐1 𝑐2
𝑐1 + 𝑐2 = c
𝑐2
16
= (c-𝑐1 ) =c𝑐1 -𝑐12
⇒ c = (8±4√3)𝑐1
⇒ p = (2±√3)𝑐1
𝑝
Now tan A = 𝑐 = 2±√3
1
tan 15°= 2- √3
One of acute is 15°
10. What is ∠𝐴𝐵𝐷 ?
(a) 15° (b) 30°
Solution: (a)
∠ABD =15°
11. What is AD: DC equal to?
(a) (7 − 2√3): 1 (b) (7 − 4√3): 1
(c) 1:2 (d) None of these
Solution: (b)
AD: DC = (7-4√3):1
12. What is tan (A-C) equal to?
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) 2 (d) None of these
Solution: (d)
tan 𝐴−tan 𝐶
tan (A-C) = 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐶 = √3
13. Consider the following
2 𝜋
I. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 (− ) = −3
√3
2 𝜋
II. 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 ( 3) =
√ 6
(c) Both I and II (d) Neither I nor II
Solution: (c)
2 𝜋
Consider (I) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 (− ) = −3
√3
2
Let 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 (− )=𝜃
√3
−2 −𝜋
= = cosec 𝜃⇒
√3 3
2 𝜋
Now consider (II) 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 ( 3) =
√ 6
−1 2
𝑠𝑒𝑐 ( 3) = 𝜃
√
2 √3 1
⇒ = sec 𝜃⇒ = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃
√3 2
√3
⇒ = cos 𝜃
2
𝜋
𝜃= 6
1
14. If sin (𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 5 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥) =1, then what is x equal to?
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) 4/5 (d) 1/5
Solution: (d)
1
Let sin (𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 5 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥) =1
1
⇒ 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 5 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 =𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 1
1 𝜋
⇒ 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 5 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 = 2
𝜋 1 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝑥 = 2 −𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 5 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 5
1
𝑥=5
2
15. What is the principal value of𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( 3)
√
𝜋 𝜋
(a) (b)
2 3
𝜋 𝜋
(c) 4 (d) 6
Solution: (d)
2 𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( 3) = y where 0 < y ≤
√ 2
2
⇒ Sec y =
√3
𝜋 𝜋
⇒ Sec y = 6 ⇒ y = 6
2 𝜋
The principal value of 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( 3)= 6
√
16. In any triangle ABC , the sides are 6cm, 10cm and 14cm, then the triangle is obtuse angled with the
obtuse angle to
(a) 150° (b) 135°
(c) 120° (d) 105°
Solution: (c)
Since c=14 is the largest side
Angle C will be obtuse

𝑎²+𝑏²+𝑐²
Cos C = 2𝑎𝑏
6²+10²+14² 1
= = -2
2∗6∗10
−1 𝜋 2𝜋
⇒ C =𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( 2 ) = 𝜋 − 3 = 3
2∗180
= =120
3
17. In a triangle ABC, If A=𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 2 and B=𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 3 , then C is equal to

𝜋 𝜋
(a) 3 (b) 4
𝜋 𝜋
(c) 6 (d) 2
Solution: (b)
We have A= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 2⇒ tan A =2
And B = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 3⇒ tan B =2
A, B, C are angles of a triangle
A+B+C = 𝜋
⇒ C = 𝜋 − (𝐴 + 𝐵)
Now A+B =𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 2 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 3
2+3
= 𝜋 +𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 (1−2.3 )
= 𝜋 +𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 (−1) = 𝜋 +𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (−1)
𝜋 3𝜋
=𝜋−4= 4
18. If the sides of a triangle are in ration 2 : √6 : 1+√3, then what is the smallest angle of the triangle?
(a) 75° (b) 60°
(c) 45° (d) 30°
Solution: (c)
Let ABC be a triangle with sides a =1+√3 , b=2 and c=√6

2 2
𝑎²+𝑐²−𝑏² (1+√3) +(√6) −4
B= =
2𝑎𝑐 2(1+√3)(√6)
3+√3 1
= =
√6+3√2 √2
B = 45° is the smallest angle
19. In a triangle ABC, a=8, b=10 and c=12. What is the angle C equal to?
(a) A/2 (b) 2A
(c) 3A (d) 3A/2
Solution: (b)
𝑎 2 +𝑐 2−𝑏2 164−144 1
Cos C = = =8
2𝑎𝑐 2(8)(10)
𝑏²+𝑐²−𝑎² 3
Cos A = =4
2𝑏𝑐
√7
Sin C = 3√7 and sin A =
4
cos 𝐶 1
= 6< 1 ⇒cos C ⇒cos A ⇒ C>A
cos 𝐴
Cos (C-A) =cos C cos A +sin C sin A
1 3 3 √7 √7 3
= ∗4+ + = 4 = cos A
8 8 4
⇒ C – A = A ⇒ C =2A
20. The sides a, b, c of a triangle ABC are in arithmetic progression and ‘a’ is the smallest side. What is
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴 equal to?
3𝑐−4𝑏 3𝑐−4𝑏
(a) (b)
2𝑐 2𝑏
4𝑐−3𝑏 3𝑏−4𝑐
(c) (d)
2𝑐 2𝑐
Solution: (c)
Given a, b, c are in arithmetic progression
2b = a+c
𝑏²+𝑐²−𝑎² 𝑏²+𝑐²−(2𝑏−𝑐)²
Cos A = =
2𝑏𝑐 2𝑏𝑐
4𝑐−3𝑏
= 2𝑐
4 12
21. What is the value of cos{𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 5 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 13}?
(a) 63/65 (b) 33/65
(c) 22/65 (d) 11/65
Solution: (b)
4
Let 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 5 = 𝐴
4 3
⇒ Cos 𝐴 = 5 ⇒ sin A = 5
12
Let 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 13 = B
4 3
⇒ Cos 𝐵 = 5⇒ sin B = 5
4 12
Now {𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 5 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 13} = cos (A+B)
= cos A cos B – sin A sin B
4 12 3 5 33
= 5 ∗ 13 − 5 ∗ 13 = 65
22. In a triangle ABC if the angle A, B, C is AP, then which one of the following is correct?
(a) c=a+b (b) c²=a²+b²-ab
2
(c) a²=b +c²-bc (d) b²=a²+c²-ac
Solution: (d)
Since A, B, C are in A.P
2B = A + B
Also A+B+C = 180°
⇒ 3B = 180°⇒ B=60°
𝑎²+𝑐²−𝑏²
Cos B = 2𝑎𝑐
𝑎²+𝑐²−𝑏²
⇒cos 60°= 2𝑎𝑐
1 𝑎²+𝑐²−𝑏²
⇒ = ⇒ ac =𝑎² + 𝑐² − 𝑏²
2 2𝑎𝑐
4
23. If 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 5 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥, then what is x equal to?
(a) 3/5 (b) 4/5
(c) 1 (d) 0
Solution: (a)
4
Let 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 5 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 1 = 𝜃⇒ Sin𝜃 =1 ⇒ cos𝜃 =0
4 16
𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 5 = 𝜑⇒ cos 𝜑 = √1 − 25
9 3
= √25 = 5
𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 = 𝜃 + 𝜑
⇒ x = sin (𝜃 + 𝜑) = sin 𝜃 cos 𝜑+cos 𝜃 sin 𝜑
3 4 3
= 1* 5 + 0 ∗ 5⇒ x = 5
24. If 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 2, 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 3 are two angles of a triangle, then what is the third angle?
(a) 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 2 (b) 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 4
(c) 𝜋/4 (d) 𝜋/3
Solution: (c)
Let A = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 2, 𝐵 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 3
And C be the angles of a triangle.
By angle sum property, we have
A = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 3 = 180°
5
⇒ 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 −5 = 180°- C
⇒ 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (−1) = 180°- C
3𝜋
⇒ =𝜋−𝐶
4
3𝜋 𝜋
⇒C=𝜋− =
4 4
5
25. What is the value of 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 11 ?
(a) 121/96 (b) 211/921
(c) 146/121 (d) 267/121
Solution: (c)
5
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 11)
5
= 1+ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 11)
5
= 1+ [tan( 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 )]²
11
5 2 25 146
= 1 + (11) = 1+121 = 121
3 4
26. What is sin [𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 5 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 5]?
(a) 0 (b) 1/2
(c) 1 (d) 2
Solution: (c)
3 4
sin [𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 5 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 5]
3 16 4 9
= sin [𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 { 5 √1 − 25 + 5 √1 − 25 }]
9 16 𝜋
= sin [𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 {25 + 25}]= sin 2 = 1
27. In any triangle ABC, a=18, b=24 and c=30. Then what is sin C equal to:
(a) ¼ (b) 1/3
(c) ½ (d) 1
Solution: (d)
𝑎²+𝑏²−𝑐²
cos C = 2𝑎𝑏
18²+24²−30²
⇒cos C = =0
2∗18∗24
a=18, b=24 and c=30
Sin C =√1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠²𝐶 = 1
Sin C =1
EXERCISE
1. The angle of elevation of the top of a flag post from a point 5m away from its base is 75°. What is the
approximate height of the flag post?
(a) 15 m (b) 17 m
(c) 19 m (d) 21 m
2. Two poles are 10 m and 20 m high. The line joining their tops makes an angle of 15° with the
horizontal. What is the approximate distance between the poles?
(a) 35.3 m (b) 37.3 m
(c) 41 m (d) 44 m
3. From the top of a lighthouse 120m above the sea, the angle of depression of a boat is 15°. What is the
distance of the boat from the lighthouse?
(a) 440 m (b) 421 m
(c) 444 m (d) 460 m
4. A man standing on the bank of a river observes that the angle of elevation of the top of a tree just on
the opposite bank is 60°. The angle of elevation is 30° from a point at a distance y m from the bank of
the river. What is the height of the tree?
(a) y m (b) 2y m
𝑦
√3𝑦 (d) 2 𝑚
(c) 𝑚
2
5. At a point 15m away from the base of a 15m high house, the angle of elevation of the top is
(a) 90° (b) 60°
(c) 45° (d) 30°
6. A tower of height 15m stands vertically on the ground. From a point on the ground the angle of
elevation of the top of the tower is found to be 30°. What is the distance of the point from the foot of
the tower?
(a) 15√3 m (b) 10√3 m
(c) 5√3 m (d) 30 m
2𝑎 𝑏𝑎
7. If 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (1+𝑎2 ) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (1+𝑏2 ) =2𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥, then x is equal to
𝑎−𝑏 𝑎−𝑏
(a) (1+𝑎𝑏 ) (b) (1−𝑎𝑏 )
2𝑎𝑏 𝑎+𝑏
(c) (1+𝑎𝑏 ) (d) (1−𝑎𝑏 )
8. An aero plane flying at a height of 300m above the ground passes vertically above another plane at an
instant when the angles of elevation of two planes from the same point on the ground are 60° and 45°
respectively. What is the height of the lower plane from the ground?
100
(a) 50 m (b) 3 m
√
(c) 100√3 m (d) 150(√3 + 1)m
9. The angle of elevation of the tip of a flag staff from a point 10 m due South of its base is 60°. What is
the height of the flag staff corrects to the nearest meter?
(a) 15 m (b) 16 m
(c) 17 m (d) 18 m
10. Two poles are 10 m and 20 m high. The line joining their tips makes an angle of 15° with the
horizontal. What is the distance between the poles?
(a) 10(√3 − 1)m (b) 5(4 + 2√3)m
(c) 20(√3 + 1)m (d) 10(√3 + 1)m
11. The angle of elevation of a tower at a level ground is 30°. The angle of elevation become 𝜃 when
10m moved towards the tower. If the height of the tower is 5√3 m, then what is 𝜃 equal to?
(a) 45° (b) 60°
(c) 75° (d) None of the above
12. From the top of a building of height h meter, the angle of depression of an object on the ground is 𝜃.
What is the distance (in meter) of the object from the foot of the building?
(a) h cot 𝜃 (b) h tan 𝜃
(c) h cos 𝜃 (d) h sin 𝜃
13. The top of a hill observed from the top and bottom of a building of height h is at angles of elevation
𝛼, 𝛽 respectively. The height of the hill is
ℎ cot 𝛽 ℎ cot 𝛼
(a) 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝛽−𝑐𝑜𝑡𝛼 (b) 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝛼−𝑐𝑜𝑡𝛽
ℎ tan 𝛼 (d) None of the above
(c)
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼−𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
14. From the top of a lighthouse 70 m high with its base at sea level, the angle of depression of a boat is
15°.The distance of the boat from of the lighthouse is:
(a) 70(2 − √3)m (b) 70(2 + √3)m
(c) 70(3 − √3)m (d) 70(3 + √3)m

15. The angle of elevation of the top of a tower of height H from the foot of another tower in the same
plane is 60° and the angle of elevation of the second tower from the foot of the first tower is 30°. If h is
the height of the other tower, then which one of the following is correct?
(a) H = 2h (b) H = √3 h
(c) H = 3h (d) None of the above
16. A man walks 10 m towards a lamp post and notices that the angle of elevation of the post increases
from 30° to 45°. The height of the lamp posts is:
(a) 10m (b) (5√3 + 5)m
(c) (5√3 − 5)m (d) (10√3 + 10)m
17. The shadow of a tower standing on a level plane is found to be 50m longer when the Sun’s elevation
is 30°. The height of the tower is:
(a) 25 m (b) 25√3 m
(c) 50 m (d) None of these
1 1
18. If tan A=2 and tan B= 3, then what is the value of (A+B)?
𝜋
(a) 0 (b) 4
𝜋
(c) 2 (d) 𝜋
sin 𝑥
19. If cos x≠ -1, then what is equal to?
1+cos 𝑥
𝑥 𝑥
(a) –cot 2 (b) cot 2
𝑥 𝑥
(c) tan 2 (d) –tan 2
1+𝑡𝑎𝑛 15°
20. What is the value of 1−𝑡𝑎𝑛 15° ?
1
(a) 1 (b)
√2
1
(c) (d) √3
√3
21. What is the of√3cosec20° - sec 20° ?
(a) 1/4 (b) 4
(c) 2 (d) 1
1
22. What is tan (7 2) ° equal to?
(a) √6 + √3 − (b) √6 + √3 +
√2 + 2 √2 + 2
(c) √6 − √3 + (d) √6 + √3 +
√2 − 2 √2 − 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠15°+𝑐𝑜𝑠45°
23. What is the value of 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 15°+𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 45°?
1 1
(a) 4 (b) 2
1
(c) (d) None of these
3
24. The angle A lies in the third quadrant and it satisfies the equation 4(sin2xcosx)=1. What is the
measure of the angle A?
(a) 225° (b) 240°

sin 𝜃+1
25. What is equal to?
cos 𝜃
sin 𝜃+cos 𝜃−1 sin 𝜃+cos 𝜃+1
(a) (b)
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃+1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃−1
sin 𝜃−cos 𝜃−1 sin 𝜃−cos 𝜃+1
(c) (d)
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃+1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃−1
26. One of the angles of a triangle is 1/2 radian and the other is 99°. What is the third angle in radian
measure?
9𝜋−10 9𝜋−100
(a) (b)
𝜋 7𝜋
90𝜋−10
(c) (d) None of these
𝜋
sec 18° 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 18°
27. What is (sec 144° + ) equal to?
−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 18°
(a) sec 18° (b) cosec 18°
(c) –sec 18° (d) –cosec 18°
𝜋
28. If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are positive angles such that 𝛼 + 𝛽= 4 , then what is (1+tan 𝛼) (1 + tan𝛽) equal to?
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) 2 (d) 3
29. What is the value of (sin 50° -sin70°+sin 10°)?
(a) 1 1
(b) ( )
√2
(c)
√3
(2) (d) 0
30. If cos A + cos B=m and sin A + sin B=n, when m, n≠0, then what is sin (A+B) equal to?
𝑚𝑛 2𝑚𝑛
(a) 𝑚2+𝑛2 (b) 𝑚2+𝑛2
𝑚 2+𝑛 2 𝑚𝑛
(c) (d) 𝑚+𝑛
2𝑚𝑛
𝜋
31. If y= sec2𝜃+ cos2𝜃 , where 0<𝜃< 2 , then which one of the following is correct?
(a) Y=0 (b) 0≤ y ≤2
(c) y≥ 2 (d) None of these
32. If tan A=3/4 and tan B=-12/5, then how many values can cot(A-B) have depending on the actual
values of A and B?
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 4
33. What is the value of sin 15° sin 75°?
(a) 1/4 (b) 1/8
(c) 1/16 (d) 1
sin 𝜃+cos 𝜃−tan 𝜃 3𝜋
34. What is the value of 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐−cot 𝜃, when 𝜃= 4 ?
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) -1 (d) None of these
1
35. What is the value of sin 292 2 °?
1 1
(a) 3 √2 + √3 (b) − 3 √2 − √3
1 1
(c) 2 √2 + √2 (d) − 2 √2 + √2
(a) Sin 1° > sin 1 (b) Sin 1° < sin 1
𝜋
(c) Sin 1° = sin 1 (d) Sin 1° = sin 1 180
37. If in general, the value of sin A is known, but the value of A is not known, then how many values of
𝐴
tan ( 2 ) can be calculated?
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 4
38. If x=sin 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 and y= sin𝜃.cos𝜃, then what is the value of x4 -4x2y-2x2 + 4y2+ 4y +1?
(a) 0 (b) 1
39. If (1+tan 𝜃)(1+ tan 𝑏∅)=2, then what is (𝜃 + ∅) equal to?
(a) 30° (b) 45°
(c) 60° (d) 90°
40. If an angle 𝛼 is divided into two parts A and B such that A-B=x and tan A : tan B=2: 1, then what is
sin x equal to?
(a) 3 sin 𝛼 (b) (2 sin 𝛼)/3
(c) (sin 𝛼)/3 (d) 2 sin 𝛼
ANSWER KEY
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (b)
11. (b) 12. (a) 13. (b) 14. (b) 15. (c) 16. (b) 17. (b) 18. (b) 19. (c) 20. (d)
21. (b) 22. (c) 23. (d) 24. (c) 25. (d) 26. (d) 27. (a) 28. (c) 29. (d) 30. (b)
31. (c) 32. (d) 33. (a) 34. (b) 35. (c) 36. (b) 37. (b) 38. (a) 39. (b) 40. (c)
4. ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY OF TWO AND THREE DIMENSIONS

ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
• In our earlier classes we have learnt that two mutually perpendicular lines known as the coordinate
axes, that is x-axis being the horizontal line and y-axis being the vertical line are needed to
determine a point’s position on the plane.
• Origin is the point of intersection of the x-axis and y-axis. For a point on the plane, x-coordinate, or
abscissa is its distance from the y-axis and the point’s y-coordinate, or ordinate gives its distance
from the x-axis.
• For the points lying on the coordinate of x, they are of form (x, 0), while (0, y) is the form of the
points on y-axis. Also we have learnt how to plot points on a plane when the coordinates are known.
• A straight line is given by the linear equation of two variables.
• Here, we will learn with coordinates of two points given how to determine the distance between the
two points.
• Also when the ratio of division of a line by a point is given, we can determine the coordinates of the
point. We can also get a triangle’s area in terms of the coordinates of its verticles.
4.1 RECTANGULAR CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM
Rectangular Co-ordinate Axes
On the plane of the paper, let O be the point through which two mutually perpendicular lines pass
through.
• Let 𝑋 ′ 𝑂𝑋 and 𝑌 ′ 𝑂𝑌 be the two lines and the point O is called the origin.
• Now on the horizontal line, let us mark points of a certain unit length on both the sides of the Origin
O.
• So these points on the number scale on 𝑋 ′ 𝑂𝑋, line are positive when they are to the right of the
origin O and these points are negative on the scale when they are marked to the left of origin O.
• Similarly, on the vertical line 𝑌 ′ 𝑂𝑌, mark points to the same scale as that of the 𝑋 ′ 𝑂𝑋, line.
• So the points on the vertical line 𝑌 ′ 𝑂𝑌, with are above or upwards of the origin O are positive while
the points marked below the Origin O are negative.
• So the horizontal line 𝑋 ′ 𝑂𝑋 is referred to as the axis of x. It is also called the x-axis.
• The vertical line is called the axis of y i.e. the line 𝑌 ′ 𝑂𝑌 is called the y-axis.
• These two axes, i.e the x-axis and the y-axis are referred to as the co-ordinate axes. At times they are
also called the axes of coordinates.
Cartesian Co-Ordinates of a Point
• In a plane, with the coordinate axes 𝑋 ′ 𝑂𝑋 and 𝑌 ′ 𝑂𝑌 let P be a point.

• Let PM be a perpendicular drawn from point P to the x-axis. Let PN be the perpendicular drawn on y-
axis from the point P.
• Now the length of OM in terms of the chosen scale of units gives the abscissa of the point P, that is
the x-coordinate of point P.
• On the y-axis, the measure of ON to the same scale of unit gives the y-coordinate of the point P. This
is also called the ordinate of point P.
• Now based on the above, if we assign OM=x and ON=y then with respect to the coordinate axes, OM
gives the x position and ON gives the y position of the point P in the plane.
• That is with respect to the coordinate axes is the point P is represented by the ordered (x,y) which is
referred to as Point P’s coordinates.
The abscissa and ordinate provide the y-axis and x-axis distance information of a point respectively.
Rectangular Cartesian coordinate system: This is the system of coordinating every point in a plane with
an ordered pair (𝑥, 𝑦).
Cartesian coordinates:
• Thus, in the Euclidean plane, there exists the cartesian coordinates, that is unique ordered pair of
real numbers (x, y) for every point P. Reversely, with (x, y) known.
• A point in the conversely, when we are given an ordered pair (𝑥, 𝑦) and a point in the Euclidean
plane can be found, having its coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦) as per the Cartesian coordinate system.
• In order to do this, on the x-axis mark a point M such that 𝑂𝑀 = 𝑥.
• Now mark a point on the y axis such that 𝑂𝑁 = 𝑦.
• Perpendiculars drawn at the points M and N to X and Y axes respectively intersect at a point.
• This point of intersection gives the point P having coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦) in the Euclidean space.
This shows that the set of all ordered pairs (𝑥, 𝑦) of real numbers and the points in the Euclidean plane
have a one-to-one correspondence.
Cartesian Plane: Cartesian plane, denoted by 𝑅2 , is the set of all ordered pairs real numbers (𝑥, 𝑦).
Quadrants
• The Euclidean plane is divided into four regions by the coordinate axes i.e. 𝑋 ′ 𝑂𝑋 and 𝑌 ′ 𝑂𝑌. These
four regions are called the quadrants.
• The first quadrant is the region 𝑋𝑂𝑌, the second is the region 𝑋 ′ 𝑂𝑌, the third quadrant is the region
𝑋 ′ 𝑂𝑌 ′ and the region 𝑌 ′ 𝑂𝑋 is the fourth quadrant.
• So, here the positive x-axis is the ray OX, 𝑂𝑋 ′ is the negative x-axis, the positive y-axis is 𝑂𝑌 and 𝑂𝑌 ′
is the negative y-axis.
• Based on this, the signs for the four quadrants are given based on the signs of their corresponding
abscissa and ordinates.
➢ I quadrant : x > 0, y > 0
➢ II quadrant : x < 0, y > 0
➢ III quadrant : x < 0, y < 0

➢ IV quadrant : x > 0, y < 0
• (0, 0) is considered as the coordinates of the origin. For any point on the x-axis, the value of y is 0, so
the coordinates of any point on the x-axis is in the form (x, 0).
• Similarly, when a point lies on the y axis, the x value is 0. So (0, y) is the form of the coordinates of
any point on the y-axis.
• In other terms a point is said to be on the y-axis if the abscissa of the point is zero. Similarly, when a
point’s ordinate is zero, the point would be on x-axis.
From the below solved example, it is further clearer, that the quadrant in which a point belongs to can
be determined from the coordinates of the point.
Ex1:The base PQ of two equilateral triangles PQR and PQR’ lies along the X-axis. And PQ is with 2p. The
origin forms the midpoint of the line PQ. For the two triangles, determine the coordinates of the R and R’.
Solution: O is the midpoint of PQ and PQ = 2p.
∴ OP = OQ = p.
So, the coordinates of P and Q are (p, 0) and (-a, 0) respectively.
It is given that triangles PQR and PQR’ are equilateral triangles. So on the perpendicular bisector of base
PQ, lies the third vertex of the triangle, i.e. R and R’ correspondingly. Now we see that, Y’OY’ is the
perpendicular bisector of PQ. This shows that, R and R’ lie on Y-axis and therefore their x-coordinates
are equal to zero.
In ∆𝑃𝑄𝑅, we have
𝑂𝑃2 + 𝑂𝑅2 = 𝑃𝑅2
𝑝2 + 𝑂𝑅2 = (2𝑝)2
𝑂𝑅2 = 4𝑝2 − 𝑝2
𝑂𝑅2 = 3𝑝2
𝑂𝑅 = √3𝑝[Using Pythagoras theorem]
∴ 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑃𝑅 = 𝑄𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑃𝑄 = 2𝑝 ∴ 𝑃𝑅 = 2𝑝
Similarly, by applying the Pythagoras theorem in ∆𝑃𝑄𝑅′ , we have
𝑂𝑅′ = √3𝑝
4.2 DISTANCE FORMULA
The length of the segment of a line joining two points in the plane gives the distance between the two
points.
The distance between two points
𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) is given by
𝑃𝑄 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2
(𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑒)2 +
i.e., 𝑃𝑄 = √
(𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠)2
Ex2: For two points P (a cos p, a sin p) and Q (a cos q, a sin q) calculate the distance between them.
Solution:
𝑃𝑄 = √(𝑎 cos 𝑞 − a cos 𝑝)2 + (𝑎 sin 𝑞 − 𝑎 sin 𝑝)2
= √𝑎(cos 𝑞 − cos 𝑝)2 + 𝑎2 (sin 𝑞 − sin 𝑝)2

= 𝑎√(cos 𝑞 − cos 𝑝)2 + (sin 𝑞 − sin 𝑝)2
cos 2 𝑞 + cos 2 𝑝 + sin2 𝑞
= 𝑎√
+ sin2 𝑝 − 2 cos 𝑝 cos 𝑞 − 2 sin 𝑝 sin 𝑞
(cos 2 𝑞 + sin2 𝑞 ) + (cos 2 𝑝 + sin2 𝑝)

= 𝑎√
−2(cos 𝑝 cos 𝑞 + sin 𝑝 sin 𝑞 )
= 𝑎√1 + 1 − 2 cos(𝑝 − 𝑞 )
= 𝑎√2|1 − cos(𝑝 − 𝑞 )|
𝑝−𝑞
= 𝑎√2 × 2 sin2 ( )
2
𝑝−𝑞
= 2 𝑎 sin ( )
2
4.3 EQUATIONS OF A LINE IN VARIOUS FORMS
• A straight line is a curve where all the points on the segment of the line connecting any two points
on it lies on it.
• If a line is given by the first degree equation, 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 then this refers to that all the points
on the line of the form (x,y) would satisfy the condition 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0. Here a, b and c are
constants.
Equation of a line parallel to x-axis
• If at a distance of p, we have drawn a straight line parallel to the x-axis, say line PQ, then, for all the
points on the line PQ, p will be their ordinate.
• So, PQ can be said to be the locus of a point from x – axis at a distance p.

• Therefore, for any point M (x, y) on PQ, 𝑦 = 𝑝.
• So a line p distance from the x-axis and parallel to x-axis, can be given by the equation 𝑦 = 𝑝.
• Now we can say that the x–axis is a parallel to itself and the distance here is 0.
• So through an equation, we can say that for x-axis, the equation is 𝑦 = 0.
• If a line is b distance below the x-axis and is parallel to it, then its equation would be 𝑦 = −𝑝.
Equation of a line parallel to y-axis
• If a line PQ is drawn at a distance of q parallel to the y-axis, then for each and every point on the line
PQ, their abscissions would be q.
• So PQ would be the locus of the points which are at q distance from y-axis.
• Now, if we locate any point on PQ say M(x, y), then the x of M would be 𝑥 = 𝑞.
• So 𝑥 = 𝑞 would be the equation of a line q distance from the y-axis and parallel to y-axis.
• So the equation of y-axis which is parallel to itself and is at a spacing of 0 from it, is 𝑥 = 0.
• In the case, when a line is drawn to the left of the y-axis at a distance q and is parallel to the axis, its
equation is given as 𝑥 = −𝑞.
Slope intercepts form of a line
• For a line having a slope and which intercepts the y-axis by c, the line’s equation is given
𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒄
• For a line passing through the origin, i.e. (0,0) the equation becomes 0 = m0 + c => c=0.
• This shows that for line passing through the origin and having slope m, the equation of a line is y =
mx.
• The slope 𝑚 = 0 when the line is parallel to x-axis, so then the equation becomes 𝑦 = 𝑐.
Ex3: Find the equation of a straight line makes a 120𝑜 with x-axis positive direction and cuts off an
intercept of 5 units on negative direction of y-axis. What would be the equation of the line.
Solution:
Now, 𝑚 = tan 120𝑜
= tan(90 + 30𝑜 )
= −cot 30𝑜 = −√3 and 𝑐 = −5
Then the equation of the line would be
Taking the formula: 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑦 = −√3𝑥 − 5
√3𝑥 + 𝑦 + 5 = 0.
Point slope form of a line
For a line having a slope m and passing through point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) its equation is given as
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
Ex4: A line is parallel to x-axis, (-4, -3) is a point on that line. Then what would be the equation of that line.
Solution:
The line is parallel to the x-axis, therefore
𝑚 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 0, 𝑥1 = −4, 𝑦1 = −3.
So, the equation of the line is,
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑦 + 3 = 0(𝑥 + 4)
𝑦+3 =0
Line passing through two points
Say two points (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) are on a line, now the equation of the line in terms of the two points is
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = ( ) (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
Ex5: If a line joins two points (-1, 3) and (4, -2) what would be the equation of the line.
Solution:
The two points on the line are (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (−1, 3) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) = (4, −2).
Now, in two-point form the equation of the line is
3 − (−2)
𝑦−3= (𝑥 + 1)
−1 − 4
𝑦 − 3 = −𝑥 − 1
𝑥+𝑦−2 =0
Intercept form of a line
If a and b are the intercepts made by a line on the x and y axes respectively, the equation of the line in
𝑥 𝑦
the intercept form is 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 1.
Ex6: A line cuts off an intercept 4 on the x-axis positive direction. This line also makes an intercept, on
the y-axis in the negative direction. Determine the equation of the line
Solution:
Now, a = 4 and b = -3
The equation of the line is given as:
𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
+ = 1 𝑜𝑟 +
𝑎 𝑏 4 −3
= 1 𝑜𝑟 3𝑥 − 4𝑦 = 12.
Perpendicular form of a line
If a perpendicular to a straight line makes an angle 𝛼 with x-axis, and the perpendicular’s length from
the origin is p and then the equation of the line is given as 𝑥 cos 𝛼 + 𝑦 sin 𝛼 = 𝑝.
Ex7: From the origin, a line is at a distance of 3. 30° is the angle of the perpendicular from the origin to
the line on the positive direction of the x- axis. What would be the equation of this line?
Solution:
From the data given, 𝑝 = 3, 𝛼 = 30𝑜
So the equation of the line in the normal form is
𝑥 cos 30𝑜 + 𝑦 sin 30𝑜
√3 𝑦
= 3 => 𝑥 +
2 2
= √3𝑥 + 𝑦 = 6
4.4 ANGLE BETWEEN TWO LINES
𝑚2 −𝑚1
If a line has slopes 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 , then the angle 𝜃 of this line is given by tan 𝜃 = ± .
1+𝑚1 𝑚2
Let PQ and RS be two lines with slopes 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 are intersecting at a point M.
If 𝜃1 and 𝜃2 are angles made with the positive direction of x-axis respectively.
Then, 𝑚1 = tan 𝜃1 and 𝑚2 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃2 .
If ∠𝑃𝑀𝑅 = 𝜃 is the angle between the given lines.

Then, 𝜃2 = 𝜃 + 𝜃1
𝜃 = 𝜃2 − 𝜃1
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = tan(𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )
tan 𝐴 − tan 𝐵
[From the formula tan(𝐴 − 𝐵) = ]
1 + tan 𝐴 tan 𝐵
tan 𝜃2 − tan 𝜃1
tan 𝜃 =
1 + tan 𝜃2 tan 𝜃1
𝑚2 − 𝑚1
= tan 𝜃 =
1 + 𝑚1 𝑚2
Since ∠𝑃𝑀𝑆 also the angle between AB and CD is = (𝜋 − 𝜃).
So, tan ∠ 𝑃𝑀𝑆 = tan(𝜋 − 𝜃)
𝑚2 − 𝑚1
= − tan 𝜃 = −
1 + 𝑚1 𝑚2
Based on the above equation, the angle between two lines with slopes 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 is given by
𝑚2 − 𝑚1
tan 𝜃 = ± ( )
1 + 𝑚1 𝑚2
𝑚2 − 𝑚1
𝜃 = tan−1 𝜃 = tan−1 (± )
1 + 𝑚1 𝑚2
The acute angle between the lines is given by
𝑚2 − 𝑚1
tan 𝜃 = | |
1 + 𝑚1 𝑚2
Ex8: For three points P, Q and R are given as P(-2, 1), Q(2, 3) and R(-2, -4), then what is the angle
between QP and QR?
Solution:
For QP and QR, let 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 be their slopes respectively. Then,
3−1 2 1
𝑚1 = = = ,
2 − (−2) 4 2
−4 − 3 7
𝑚2 = =
−2 − 2 4
If 𝜃 is the angle between BA and BC,
𝑚2 − 𝑚1
tan 𝜃 = | |
1 + 𝑚1 𝑚2
7 1
−
=| 4 2 |
7 1
1+4×2
10
2
=| 8 |=±
15 3
8
2
𝜃 = tan−1 ( )
3
4.5 DISTANCE OF A POINT FROM A LINE
When a line passes through (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and makes an angle 𝜃 with the x-axis positive direction, then its
equation is
𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1
= = 𝑟,
cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
From the point 𝑥1, 𝑦1 , r is the distance of the point (x, y) on the line.
In distance form, this is the required equation of the line.
The equation of a line is

𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1
= =𝑟
cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
𝑥 − 𝑥1 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑟 cos 𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑟 sin 𝜃.
At a distance of r from (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), the coordinates of any point on a line is (𝑥1 + 𝑟 cos 𝜃, 𝑦1 + 𝑟 sin 𝜃).
Here r is positive when P is on the right of (𝑥1, 𝑦1 ) and r is negative when P is on the left side of (𝑥1, 𝑦1 ).
This form of the line, where different values of r determine different points on the line, is called the
parametric form or symmetric form of line.
From this, we can find a point’s coordinates on the line, which is at a given distance from the given point
through which it passes. At a given distance r from the point (𝑥1, 𝑦1 ) on the line
𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1
=
cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
There are two points viz. (𝑥1 + 𝑟 cos 𝜃, 𝑦1 + 𝑟 sin 𝜃 ) and (𝑥1 − 𝑟 cos 𝜃, 𝑦1 − 𝑟 sin 𝜃).
Ex9: What are the coordinates of two points which are at a distance 4 from Point P on either side of P, if
a straight line passes through point P(2, 3) and this line makes a 30° angle with the x-axis.
Solution:
Given that (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (2, 3), 𝜃 = 30𝑜 .
Then the equation of the line is
𝑥−2 𝑦−3
𝑜
=
cos 30 sin 30𝑜
𝑥−2 𝑦−3
=
√3 1
2 2
𝑥 − 2 = √3(𝑦 − 3)
=> 𝑥 − √3𝑦 = 2 − 3√3
The two points are at a distance 4 from P(2,3). Then the two points on the line are:
(𝑥1 ± 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃, 𝑦1 ± 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)or
(2 ± 4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 30𝑜 , 3 ± 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛 30𝑜 )or
(2 ± 2√3, 3 ± 2) or (2 + 2√3, 5)
and(2 − 2√3, 1).
4.6 EQUATION OF A CIRCLE IN STANDARD AND IN GENERAL FORM
Equation of a circle in Standard form
To figure out the equation of any circle whose centre and radius are provided?
Assume C to be the centre of the circle and its coordinates be P, Q. Let the radius of the circle be 𝑎 and
let P (x, y) be any point on the circumference. Then
𝐶𝑃 = 𝑎
=> 𝐶𝑃2 = 𝑎2
=> (𝑥 − 𝑝)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑞 )2 = 𝑎2
The above is the relation between the coordinates of any point that fall on the circumference and hence
this is the required equation of the circle having centre at (p, q) and radius equal to a.
Note: The equation above is known as the central form of the equation of a circle.
If the origin is the centre of the circle and radius is a, then as per the above equation of the circle is
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2
Ex10: Find out the equation of a circle whose centre is at the point (2, -3) and radius is 5.
Solution:
The equation of the required circle is
(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 + 3)2 = 52
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 + 6𝑦 − 12 = 0
Equation of a circle in General form
Prove that the following equation
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2 𝑝𝑥 + 2𝑞𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0
always represents a circle whose centre is (-p-q) and radius = √𝑝2 + 𝑞 2 − 𝑐 .
Note: The following equation represents a circle of radius
√𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐.
Equation: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0
• If 𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐 > 0 then the radius of the circle is real and hence the circle is also real.
• If 𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐 = 0 then the radius of the circle comes out to be zero. Such a circle is known as point
circle.
• If 𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐 < 0, then the radius √𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐 of the circle is imaginary, but the center is real.
Such a circle is not possible to draw and is called an imaginary circle.
Note: The general equation x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 of the circle has the following special features:
• In both x and y, it is quadratic.
• Coefficient of x 2 = coefficient of y 2 .
• While solving the problems, it is advised to keep the coefficient of 𝑥 2 and 𝑦 2 unity.
• There is no term containing xy i.e. the coefficient of xy is zero.
• It has three arbitrary constants viz. g, f and c.
Note: The equation ax 2 + ay 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0, a ≠ 0 also represents a circle. This equation can
also be written in the following way
2𝑔 2𝑓 𝑐
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑥+ 𝑦+ =0
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑔2 𝑓2 𝑐
The coordinates of the center are (-g/a,-f/a) and radius =√ + −
𝑎2 𝑎2 𝑎
Note: When the general equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 of the circle is compared with the
general equation of second degree 𝑎𝑥 2 + 2ℎ𝑥𝑦 + 𝑏𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0.
We figure out that it represents a circle if a=b i.e., coefficient of 𝑥 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑦 2 and h=0 i.e.,
coefficient of xy=0.
4.7 STANDARD FORMS OF PARABOLA, ELLIPSE AND HYPERBOLA

Equation of the Parabola in its Standard Form
Suppose S be the focus, ZZ’ be the directrix. Draw a line SK perpendicular from S on the directrix and
bisect SK at A. Then AS = AK.
=> Distance of A from the focus = Distance of A from the directrix.
=>A lies on the parabola [By def.]
Let SK = 2a. Then, AS = AK = a,
Now assume A as the origin, AS as x-axis and AY a line perpendicular to AS as y-axis. Then the
coordinates of S come as (a, 0) and the equation of the directrix ZZ’ is 𝑥 = −𝑎.
Let M(x,y) be any point on the parabola, Join SM and draw MP and PQ perpendiculars on the directrix
ZZ’ and X-axis. Then,
MP = QK = Q + AK = x + a.
Now, M lies on the parabola
=>SM = MP
=>𝑆𝑀2 = 𝑀𝑃2
=>(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 0)2 = (𝑥 + 𝑎)2
=> 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟒𝒂𝒙
This is the equation of the required parabola in its standard form.
Note: The parabola always has two real foci, which are situated on its axis, one is the focus S and the
other lies at infinity. The corresponding directrix is also at infinity.
Ex11: Find the coordinates of the foci for the following parabolas, the equations of the directrices and
the lengths of the latusrectum:
𝑦 2 = 8𝑥
Solution:
The given parabola 𝑦 2 = 8𝑥 is of the form 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥, where 4a = 8 i.e. a = 2.
Of the above equation, the coordinates of the focus are (a, 0) i.e. (2, 0) and the equation of the directrix
is x = -a i.e. x = -2.
Length of the latusrectum = 4a = 8.
Equation of the Ellipse in its Standard Form
Suppose S to be the focus, ZK the directrix and e the eccentricity of the ellipse whose equation is
required. Draw a line SK perpendicular from S on the directrix. Divide SK internally and externally at M
and M’ (on KS produced) respectively in the ratio e : 1.
𝑆𝑀 𝑒
∴ = => 𝑆𝑀 = 𝑒 − 𝑀𝐾
𝑀𝐾 1
and,
𝑆𝑀′ 𝑒
= => 𝑆𝑀 ′ = 𝑒𝑀′ 𝐾
𝑀′ 𝐾 1
These points fall on the ellipse, since M and M’ are such points the distances of these points from the
focus bear constant ratio e (<1) to their respective distances from the directrix.
Let MM’ = 2a and C be the midpoint of MM’. Then, CM = CM’ = a.
On adding (i) and (ii), we get
SM + SM’ = e(AK + A’K)
2a = e(CK – CM + M’C + CK)
2a = 2eCK
𝑎
𝐶𝐾 = [∵ 𝐶𝑀 = 𝑀′ 𝐶 = 𝑎]
𝑒
On subtracting (i) from (ii), we get
SM’ – SM = e(M’K – MK)
(SC + CM’) – (CM – CS) = e(MM’)
2CS = 2ae
CS = ae
Now let us assume C as the origin. CMX as x-axis and a line CY perpendicular to MM’ as y–axis. Hence,
𝑎
the coordinates of the point S are (ae,0) and the equation of the directrix ZK is 𝑥 = 𝑒 .
Let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) be any point on the ellipse. Join SP and draw a line PQ perpendicular to ZK. Then, as per the
definition
𝑆𝑃 = 𝑒𝑃𝑄
𝑆𝑃2 = 𝑒 2 𝑃𝑄2
𝑆𝑃2 = 𝑒 2 (𝑅𝐾 )2
𝑎 2
(𝑥 − 𝑎𝑒)2 + (𝑦 − 0)2 = 𝑒 2 ( − 𝑥)
𝑒
𝑥 2 (1 − 𝑒 2 ) + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎 2 (1 − 𝑒 2 )
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ =1
𝑎 2 𝑎 2 (1 − 𝑒 2 )
𝒙 𝟐 𝒚𝟐
+ =𝟏
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐
where 𝑏2 = 𝑎2 (1 − 𝑒 2 )
This is the standard equation of the ellipse.
Note: We have, e<1. Therefore,
𝑎2 (1 − 𝑒 2 ) < 𝑎2 => 𝑏2 < 𝑎2
Ex12: Find out the equation of the ellipse whose axes fall along the coordinate axes, vertices are
(0, ±10) and eccentricity e = 4/5.
Solution:
Let the equation of the required ellipse be
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ = 1 … … . (𝑖)
𝑎2 𝑏2
Since, the vertices of the ellipse fall on the y-axis. So, the coordinates of the vertices are (0, ±𝑏).
∴ 𝑏 = 10.
16
Now, 𝑎2 = 𝑏2 (1 − 𝑒 2 )=>𝑎2 = 100 (1 − 25) = 36
On substituting the values of 𝑎2 and𝑏2 in (i), we will obtain
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ 100 = 1 as the equation of the required ellipse.
36
Equation of the Hyperbola in its Standard Form
Suppose S to be the focus, ZP be the directrix and e be the eccentricity of the hyperbola whose equation
is required.
Draw a line SP perpendicular from S on the directrix ZP and divide SP internally and externally at M and
M’ (on SP produced) respectively in the ratio e:1.
Then, SM = eMP
and, SM’ = eM’P’
These points lie on the hyperbola, since M and M’ are such points that the distances of these poits from
the focus bear constant ratio M (>1) to their respective distances from the directrix.
Let MM’ = 2 m and c be the middle point of MM’. Then CM = CM’ = a Adding (i) and (ii), we get
𝑆𝑀 + 𝑆𝑀’ = 𝑒(𝑀𝐾 + 𝑀’𝐾 )
𝐶𝑆 – 𝐶𝑀 + 𝐶𝑆 + 𝐶𝑀’
= 𝑒(𝐶𝑀 – 𝐶𝑃 + 𝐶𝑀’ + 𝐶𝑃)
2𝐶𝑆 = 2𝑚𝑒 => 𝐶𝑆 = 𝑎
Subtracting (i) from (ii), we get
𝑆𝑀′ − 𝑆𝑀′ = 𝑒(𝑀′ 𝑃 − 𝑀𝑃)
(𝐶𝑆 ′ + 𝑆𝑀′ ) − (𝐶𝑆 + 𝐶𝑀) = 𝑒(𝐶𝑀 + 𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑀 + 𝐶𝑃)
𝑚
𝑀𝑀 ′ = 2𝑒(𝐶𝐾 ) => 2𝑎 = 2𝑒(𝐶𝑃) => 𝐶𝑃
𝑒
Let C be the origin of the graph, CSX be the axis of x and CY be a straight line through C which is
perpendicular to CX as the axis of Y. Let P(x,y) be any point on the hyperbola and PR, PN be the
perpendiculars from point P on PZ and PX. Now, as per the definition
𝑆𝑃 = 𝑒𝑃𝑅
𝑆𝑃2 = 𝑒 2 𝑃𝑅2
𝑆𝑃2 = 𝑒 2 𝑃𝑁 2
𝑆𝑃2 = 𝑒 2 (𝐶𝑁 − 𝐶𝑃)2

2 2 2
𝑎 2
(𝑥 − 𝑎𝑒) + 𝑦 = 𝑒 (𝑥 − )
𝑒
𝑥 2 (𝑒 2 − 1) − 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 (𝑒 2 − 1)
𝑥2 𝑦2
− =1
𝑎 2 𝑎 2 (𝑒 2 − 1)
𝑥2 𝑦2
− 𝑏2 = 1, where 𝑏2 = 𝑎2 (𝑒 2 − 1)
𝑎2
This is the equation of the required hyperbola in the standard form.
Ex13: Find out the equation of the hyperbola, if the length of whose latusrectum is 8 and eccentricity is
3
.
√5
Solution:
Let the equation of the hyperbola be
𝑥2 𝑦2
− =1
𝑎2 𝑏2
Then, length of the latusrectum = 8
2𝑏2
= 8 => 𝑏2 = 4𝑎
𝑎
𝑎2 (𝑒 2 − 1) = 4𝑎
𝑎 (𝑒 2 − 1) = 4
9
𝑎 ( − 1) = 4
5
=> 𝑎 = 5
Putting a = 5 in 𝑏2 = 4𝑎, we get 𝑏2 = 20.
Therefore, the equation of the required hyperbola is
𝑥2 𝑦2
− =1
25 20
4.8 ECCENTRICITY AND AXIS OF AN AXIS
Suppose 𝑆(𝑎, 𝛽) as the focus, Ax + By + C = 0 be the directrix and e be the eccentricity of a comic.
Let P(h,k) to be any point on the comic. From M, let MP be the perpendicular on the directrix. Then, as
per the definition
𝑄𝑀 = 𝑒𝑀𝑃
𝑄𝑀 2 = 𝑒 2 𝑀𝑃2
𝐴ℎ + 𝐵𝑘 + 𝐶
(ℎ − 𝛼 )2 +(𝑘 + 𝛽)2 = 𝑒 2 ( )
√𝐴2 + 𝐵2
Thus, the locus of (h, k) is
(𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶)2
(𝑥 − 𝛼 )2 + (𝑦 − 𝛽 )2 = 𝑒 2
(𝐴2 + 𝐵2 )
The Cartesian equation of the conic section, can be written in the simplified form as follows.
𝑎𝑥 2 + 2ℎ𝑥𝑦 + 𝑏𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0
Which is the general equation of the second degree.
It is easily visible that the general equation of the second degree is

𝑎𝑥 2 + 2ℎ𝑥𝑦 + 𝑏𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 always represents.
• A pair of straight lines if
∆= 𝑎𝑏𝑐 + 2𝑓𝑔ℎ − 𝑎𝑓 2 − 𝑏𝑔2 − 𝑐ℎ2 = 0
• A circle if ∆≠ 0, 𝑎 = 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ = 0;
• A parabola if ∆≠ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ2 = 𝑎𝑏;
• An ellipse if ∆≠ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ2 < 𝑎𝑏;
• A hyperbola if ∆≠ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ2 > 𝑎𝑏;
• A rectangular hyperbola if
∆≠ 0, ℎ2 > 𝑎𝑏 and 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 0
Ex14: Find the equation of the parabola whose vertex is at (2, 1) and the directrix is x = y – 1.
Solution:
The line perpendicular to the directrix and passing through the vertex is the axis of the parabola. The
equation of a line perpendicular to 𝑥– 𝑦 + 1 = 0 is
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝛾 = 0.
This will pass through (2, 1) if
2 + 1 + 𝛾 = 0 = 𝛾 = −3.
So the equation of the axis is
𝑥 + 𝑦 – 3 = 0………….(i)
The equation of the directrix is
𝑥 – 𝑦 + 1 = 0……………(ii)
Solving (i) and (ii), we get x = 1, y = 2
So, the coordinates of K are (1, 2).
Suppose (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) to be the coordinates of the focus S. Then, A is the midpoint of KS.
𝑥1 + 1
∴ =2
2
and
𝑦1 + 2
∴ =1
2
𝑥1 = 3 and 𝑦1 = 0
So, the coordinates of the focus S are (3, 0).
Let P(x, y) be a point on the parabola, Then,
𝑃𝑆 = 𝑃𝑀
𝑃𝑆 2 = 𝑃𝑀2
𝑥−𝑦+1
(𝑥 − 3)2 +(𝑦 − 0)2 = ( )
√12 + (−1)2
2(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 6𝑥 + 9) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 1 − 2𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑥 − 2𝑦
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 14𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 17 = 0.
This is the equation of the required parabola.
Ex15: Find out the equation of the parabola whose focus is at (-1, -2) and the directrix of the line x – 2y +
3 = 0.
Solution:
Suppose M(x, y) be any point on the parabola whose focus is Q(-1, -2) and the directrix x – 2y + 3 = 0.
Draw a line MP perpendicular from M(x, y) on the directrix x – 2y + 3 = 0. Then by definition,
𝑄𝑀 = 𝑀𝑃
𝑄𝑀 2 = 𝑀𝑃2
2 2
𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 3 2
(
(𝑥 + 1) + 𝑦 + 2 = () )
√1 + 4
5[(𝑥 + 1)2 + (𝑦 + 2)2 ] = (𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 3)2
5(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 5)
= (𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 + 9 − 4𝑥𝑦 + 6𝑥 − 12𝑦)
4𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥𝑦 + 4𝑥 + 32𝑦 + 16 = 0
This is the equation of the required parabola.
4.9 POINT IN A THREE DIMENSIONAL SPACE, DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS
Coordinates of a point in space
• We know that three lines which are mutually perpendicular, divide the space into three planes that
are mutually perpendicular.
• They are said to divide the plane into 8 portions. These 8 portions are called the Octants.
• The 3 perpendicular lines are called the coordinate axes.
• Let O be the origin point through which the 3 mutually perpendicular lines 𝑋 ′ 𝑂𝑋 , 𝑌 ′ 𝑂𝑌, 𝑍 ′ 𝑂𝑍 pass
through.
• That is O is their point of intersection. While 𝑌 ′ 𝑂𝑌, 𝑍 ′ 𝑂𝑍 is on the plane of the paper, the 𝑋 ′ 𝑂𝑋 is
perpendicular to the plane.
Rectangular axes of coordinates:
• The rectangular axes of coordinates are the x-axis, y-axis, z-axis lines i.e. 𝑋 ′ 𝑂𝑋 , 𝑌 ′ 𝑂𝑌 , 𝑍 ′ 𝑂𝑍
respectively.
Rectangular coordinate plane:
• The planes containing the lines 𝑋 ′ 𝑂𝑋, 𝑌 ′ 𝑂𝑌, 𝑍 ′ 𝑂𝑍 gives three mutually perpendicular planes 𝑋𝑂𝑌 ,
𝑌𝑂𝑋, 𝑍𝑂𝑍.
• These are referred to as rectangular coordinate planes. They are also shortly indicated as XY, YZ, ZX.
Let M be a point in a three dimensional plane. Now passing through M, let three lines be drawn to the
coordinate axes. Let the lines meet the x-axis, y-axis and z-axis at points P, Q, R respectively.
Now If OP=x, OQ=y, OZ=z, then these values are determined by the coordinates of the point M and is
denoted as M(x,y,z). The value of x,y and z could be positive or negative depending on whether they are
measured on the positive or the negative side of the axes.
Reversely, we can also locate the point M on the plane knowing the values of x, y and z. And the
procedure to do that is:
• Mark OP =x, OQ= y, OZ=z along the x-axis, y-axis and the z-axis respectively.
• Parallel to the coordinate planes YOZ, 𝑍𝑂𝑋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑋𝑂𝑌 and through the points P,Q and R, then draw
the planes. These planes would intersect at a point M.
In other words, the coordinates of the point M can be explained as:
Through M let us draw three planes which are parallel to the coordinate planes. This represents a
rectangular parallelepiped with rectangular faces MQ'PR', ORP'Q; MP'QR', OPQ'R; MP'RQ', OPR'Q. So,
• x= OP = MP' = RP' = on the YOZ plane, perpendicular from M.
• y= OQ = MQ' = P'R = on the ZOX plane, perpendicular from M.
• z= OR = MR' = P'Q = on the YOZ plane, perpendicular from M.
From the above, we can see that the perpendicular distances from point M to the rectangular planes
YOZ, ZOX, YOZ give the coordinates of the point M.
Also, we see that MP lies in the plane MQ'PR', perpendicular to the line OP. MP is perpendicular to OP.
And also MQ is perpendicular to OQ and MR is perpendicular to OR.
The distance from the origin of the feet of the perpendiculars from the point on the respective
coordinate axes gives the coordinates of the point.
THEOREM: Prove that the distance between the points 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and 𝑄(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 )is
𝑃𝑄 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2
Ex16: Prove by using distance formula that the points P(1, 2, 3), Q(-1, -1, -1) and R(3, 5, 7) are collinear.
Solution: We have,
𝑃𝑄 = √(−1 − 1)2 + (−1 − 2)2 + (−1 − 3)2 = √4 + 9 + 16 = √29
𝑄𝑅 = √(3 + 1)2 + (5 + 1)2 + (7 + 1)2 = √16 + 36 + 64 = √116 = 2√29
and, 𝑃𝑅 = √(3 − 1)2 + (5 − 2)2 + (7 − 3)2
= √4 + 9 + 16 = √29
Since 𝑄𝑅 = 𝑃𝑄 + 𝑃𝑅.
Therefore, the given points are collinear.
4.10 DIRECTION COSINES AND DIRECTION RATIOS
The direction cosines and direction ratios of a line would be introduced here.
Direction Cosines:
• If a line is support for any vector then direction cosine of the vector is said to the direction cosine of
the line.
• For a line l, if P and Q are two points on it, as per the definition above, the direction cosine of the
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , 𝑄𝑃
line l is the direction cosine of vector 𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
• If which the positive direction of the three axes i.e. the x-axis, the y-axis, the z-axis, the line l makes
an angle 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 respectively, then the direction cosines of the line can be either of these
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾 or −𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼, − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 , − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾
• Then say for a line, if their directions cosines are a, b, c, then –a, -b, -c are also direction cosines of
the same line.
So from this, 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 = 1
Let us say that the two points P, Q of a line l has the coordinates P (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and Q (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 )
Then the direction cosines for PQ is given as
𝑥2 −𝑥1 𝑦2 −𝑦1 𝑧2 −𝑧1
𝑃𝑄
,
𝑃𝑄 𝑃𝑄
,
𝑥1 −𝑥2 𝑦1 −𝑦2 𝑧1 −𝑧2
Or 𝑃𝑄
, 𝑃𝑄
, 𝑃𝑄
Direction Ratios
For a line, its direction ratios are proportional to any vector whose support is the line.
For a line with points P, Q whose coordinates are given as P (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and Q (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ), the direction
ratios of the line are proportional to
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 , 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 , 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
Ex17: Find out the direction cosines of the line perpendicular to the lines with direction cosines
proportional to (1,-2,-2) and (0, 2, 1).
Solution:
Suppose l, m, n be the direction cosines of the line required. Since it is perpendicular to those lines
whose direction cosines are proportional to (1,-2,-2) and (0, 2, 1) respectively.
 l-2m-2n=0 …(i)
And, 0l+2m+n=0 ..(ii)
On solving (i) and (ii) by cross-multiplying, we get
l m n
= =
−2 + 4 0 − 1 2
l m n
 = =
2 −1 2
Therefore, the direction ratios of the line required are proportional to (2,-1, 2).
Hence, its direction cosines are,
2 , −1 , 2
2 + (−1) + 2
2 2 2
2 + (−1) + 2
2 2 2
2 + (−1)2 + 22
2
2 1 2
i.e., (3 , − 3 , 3)
4.11 EQUATION OF A PLANE AND A LINE IN VARIOUS FORMS

Equation of a Plane
If two points are taken on a surface, and the line segment joining them lies on it, then the surface is
known as the plane. In other words, every point on the line segment joining any two points lies on the
plane.
Equation of a plane in various forms:-
• Every first degree equation in x, y and z represents a plane i.e.,
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 = 0
is the general equation of the plane.
• a(x-x1)+b(y-y1)+c(z-z1) is the general equation of a plane passing through a point (x1,y1,z1) where a, b,
c are constants.
Ex18: Find out the equation of a plane that passes through the points P(1,1,0), Q(1,2,1)and R(-2,2,-1).
Solution:
The general equation of a plane that passes through P(1,1,0) is
𝑎(𝑥 − 1) + 𝑏(𝑦 − 1) + 𝑐(𝑧 − 0) = 0 …(i)
It will pass through the points 𝑄 (1, 2, 1) and 𝑅(−2, 2, −1), if
𝑎. 0 + 𝑏. 1 + 𝑐. 1 = 0 …(i)
and, 𝑎(−3) + 𝑏. 1 + 𝑐(−1) = 0 …(ii)
On solving (i) and (ii) by cross-multiplying, we have,
a b c
= =
(1)(−1) − (1)(1) (1)(−3) − (0)(−1) (0)(1) − (1)(−3)
a b c
 = = =  (say)
−2 −3 3
 a=-2  , b=-3  and c=3 
On substituting the values of a, b, and c in (i), we get
-2  (x-1)-3  (y-1)+3  z=0
 -2(x-1)-3(y-1)+3z=0
 2x+3y-3z-5=0
• The following is the equation of a plane intercepting length a, b and c with x-axis, y-axis and z-axis
respectively is
x y z
+ + =1
a b c
Ex19: Find out the equation of the plane whose intercepts on the coordinate axes are -4, 2 and 3.
Solution:
We already know that a plane whose intercepts are on the coordinate axes are a, b, and c respectively,
has the following equation
x y z
+ + =1
a b c
Here, a=-4, b=2 and c=3. So, the following equation is the equation of the required plane
x y z
+ + = 1  -3x+6y+4z=12.
−4 2 3
• ( r − a ).n =0 or r.n = a.n is the vector equation of a plane that passes through a point having
position vector a and normal to the vector n .
Ex20: Find out the equation of the plane whose intercepts on the coordinate axes are -4, 2 and 3.
Solution:
We already know that a plane whose intercepts are on the coordinate axes are a, b, and c respectively,
has the following equation
x y z
+ + =1
a b c
Here, a=-4, b=2 and c=3. So, the following equation is the equation of the required plane
x y z
+ + = 1  -3x+6y+4z=12.
−4 2 3
• ( r − a ).n =0 or r.n = a.n is the vector equation of a plane that passes through a point having
position vector a and normal to the vector n .
Ex21: Find out the equation of the plane that passes through the point (1,-1,2) and have (2,3,2) as
direction ratios of normal to the plane.
Solution:
Here the plane that passes through the point having position vector a = iˆ − ˆj + 2kˆ and is normal to the
vector a = iˆ − ˆj + 2kˆ
n = 2iˆ + 3 ˆj + 2kˆ .
So, the vector equation of the plane is
( r − a ).n =0
 r.n = a.n
 r .( 2iˆ + 3 ˆj + 2kˆ )=( iˆ − ˆj + 2kˆ ).( 2iˆ + 3 ˆj + 2kˆ )
 r .( 2iˆ + 3 ˆj + 2kˆ )=2-3+4
 r .( 2iˆ + 3 ˆj + 2kˆ )=3

The following is the Cartesian equation of the plane
( xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ ). ( 2iˆ + 3 ˆj + 2kˆ ) = 3
[putting r = xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ ]

 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 3.
• r - n =d is the vector equation of a plane normal to the unit vector n and at a distance d from the
origin.
• 𝑙𝑥 + 𝑚𝑦 + 𝑛𝑧 = 𝑝 is the equation of the plane, if l, m and n are the direction cosines of the
normal to a given plane which is at a distance p from the origin.
Ex22: Find out the coordinates of the foot of the perpendicular line drawn from the origin to the plane
2x-3y+4z-6=0.
Solution:
The equation of the plane is
2x-3y+4z-6=0
 2x-3y+4z=6
2 3 4 6
 x− y+ z=
29 29 29 29
[Dividing throughout by
(2)2 + (−3)2 + (4)2 = 29 ]
This is a normal form of the given plane. It can be easily seen from this equation that the direction
cosines of the normal drawn from the origin to the given plane are
l= 2 ,m − 3 ,n= 4
29 29 29
d= 6 units
29
is the distance of the plane from the origin. The coordinate of the foot of the perpendicular drawn from
the origin are
12 18 24
(ld, md, nd)i.e., (29 , − 29 , 29 )
Equation of a Line
Equation of a line in various forms:-
• The vector equation of a straight line passing through a fixed point with position a vector and
parallel to given vector is
r = a + b
• The following is the Cartesian equation of a straight line which passes through a fixed point (x1,y1,z1)
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= =
a b c
Ex23: Find out the equation of a line that passes through a point (2,-1,3) and is parallel to the line
r = (i + j ) +  (2i + j − 2kˆ) .
Solution:
The line given is parallel to the vector 2i + j − 2kˆ and the line which is required, is parallel to the given
line.
It is given in the question that the required line passes through the point (2,-1,3). So, the equation of the
line required is
r = (2i − j + 3kˆ) +  (2i + j − 2kˆ)
• Line passing through a point having position vector 𝛼 and is perpendicular to the lines 𝑟 = 𝑎1 +
𝜆𝑏⃗1 and 𝑟 = 𝑎2 + µ𝑏⃗2 is parallel to𝑏⃗1 × 𝑏⃗2 . So it’s vector equation is
𝑟 = 𝛼 + 𝜆(𝑏⃗1 × 𝑏⃗2 )
Ex24: Find out the equation of the line which passes through the point (-1,3,-2) and perpendicular to the
lines
x y z x + 2 y −1 z +1
= = and = =
1 2 3 −3 2 5
Solution:
Let the direction ratios of the required line be a, b, c. Since it is perpendicular to the two given lines.
Therefore,
a+2b+3c=0 …(i)
and,-3a+2b+5c=0 …(ii)
On solving (i) and (ii) by cross multiplying, we get
a b c a b c
= = or, = = = k (say)
4 −14 8 2 −7 4
Therefore, the required line passes through (-1,3,-2) and has direction ratios proportional to 2,-7,4.
So, the equation obtained is
x +1 y − 3 z + 2
= =
2 −7 4
4.12 ANGLE BETWEEN TWO LINES AND ANGLE BETWEEN TWO PLANES
Angle between two lines
Formula to be used:
b1.b2
cos  = or
| b1 || b2 |
cos  = a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2
a + b12 + c12 a2 2 + b2 2 + c2 2
1
2
Ex25: Find out the angle between the following lines
r = 3i + 2 j − 4kˆ +λ( i + 2 j + 2kˆ )

And r =( 5 j − 2 kˆ )+  (3i + 2 j + 6kˆ)
Solution:
Suppose  be the angle between the given lines. The provided lines are parallel to the vector b1 =
i + 2 j + 2kˆ and b2 = 3i + 2 j + 6kˆ respectively. So, the angle  between them is denoted by
b1.b2 ( i + 2 j + 2kˆ ).( 3i + 2 j + 6 kˆ )

cos  = = |
| b1 || b2 | i + 2 j + 2kˆ || 3i + 2 j + 6kˆ |
3 + 4 + 12
 cos  =
1 + 4 + 4 9 + 4 + 36
= 19   = cos −1 (19 )
21 21
Angle between two planes
The angle between the two planes is defined as the angle between their normal.
Angle between two planes, in its various forms:-
The angle θ between the planes r.n1 = d1 and r.n2 = d 2 is given by cosθ = 1 2
n .n
•
| n1 || n2 |
Ex26: Find out the angle between the following planes r.(2i − j + kˆ) = 6 and r.(i + j + 2kˆ) =5
Solution:
We already know that the angle between the planes are r.n1 = d1 and r.n2 = d 2 is denoted by
n1.n2
cosθ =
| n1 || n2 |
Hence, n1 = 2iˆ − ˆj + kˆ and n2 = iˆ + ˆj + 2kˆ
(2i − j + kˆ)(i + j + 2kˆ) 2 −1+ 2 1
 cos  = = =
| 2i − j + kˆ || i + j + 2kˆ | 4 +1+1 1+1+ 4 2
 =  / 3
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = 0 a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d 2 = 0
• The angle θ between the planes and is given by
a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2
cosθ=
a12 + b12 + c12 a2 2 + b2 2 + c2 2
Ex27: Find out the angle between the planes x+y+2z=9 and 2x-y+z=15.
Solution:
We already know that the angle between the planes
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = 0 and a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d 2 = 0 is given by
a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2
a + b12 + c12 a2 2 + b2 2 + c2 2
1
2
Therefore, the angle between x+y+2z=9 and 2x-y+z=15 is given by

Cosθ= (1)(2) + (1)(−1) + (2)(1)
22 + 12 + 12 12 + (−1)2 + 22
2 −1 + 2 1
= =  = / 3
6 6 2
4.13 EQUATION OF A SPHERE
Sphere
• In a 3 dimensional Euclidean space, the set of all points which are at a particular distance from a
point is called a sphere.
• The point is called center of the sphere and the distance is termed as the radius and when the radius
is doubled, it gives the diameter of the sphere.
• Antipodes is the term used to refer to the pairs of points on the opposite sides of the diameter.
• For the meaning of the sphere, the geometers generally refer to the number of coordinates in the
underlying space, thereby a circle is a two dimensional sphere.
• It is referred to as dimensional sphere, i.e. all the points x =(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … . 𝑥𝑛) when satisfy the 𝑥1 2 +
… + 𝑥𝑛+1 2 = 1, so a (n-1) sphere is given as {𝑥 ∈ 𝑅𝑛 | 𝑑(𝑥, 0) = 1} is the meaning given by the
topologists, who refer to the dimension of the surface.
Irrespective of what convention is used, only the surface what is being referred to by the term sphere.
And there it is a 2 dimensional surface.
While in the colloquial terms, the inside of the sphere is called a sphere, but the actual term for it is a
ball.
In the Wolfram Language {𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑟} is used for the sphere.
• The surface area of a sphere with Radius R is given as 4𝜋𝑅2
4
• For a sphere with Radius R, its volume is given as 3 𝜋𝑅3
Archimedes derived the below equation on a sphere and a cylinder, based on the sphere’s circular cross
section, which is known to the first one:
𝑉𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
=2
𝑉𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 − 𝑉𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
Circle is a cross section through the sphere. And the size of it is as its maximum when through the
diameter, the cross section plane passes through.
Using the Cartesian coordinates, for a sphere with radius centered at the origin, its equation is given as :
(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )2 + (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )2 = 𝑅2
Another representation of a sphere centered at origin, with spherical coordinates is
• 𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 is the azimuthal coordinate running from the origin 0 to the longitude.
• 𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜑 is the polar coordinate running from the origin 0 to the colatitude.
• 𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑is the radius.
While interchangeably using the symbols, there is a possibility of having several other notations also.
A solid ball is obtained by running from 0 to the radius.
Say 𝑢 ≡ 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑then a sphere centered at 0 can be denoted as
√𝑟 2 − 𝑢2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
√𝑟 2 − 𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Sphere of radius centered at the origin has the following equation given in Cartesian coordinates by
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = R 2 which is a special case of the ellipsoid
x2 y 2 z 2
+ + =1
a 2 b2 c 2
and spheroid
x2 + y 2 z 2
+ 2 =1
a2 c
( x0 , y0 , z0 ) Sphere centered at the point with radius has the following Cartesian equation
( x − x0 )2 + ( y − y0 )2 + ( z − z0 )2 = R2
Hyper sphere is the generalization of a sphere in dimensions. A dimensional hyper sphere is also known
as an-sphere (in a geometer’s convention), that is centered at the origin can therefore be specified by
the equation.
x12 + x22 + .....xn 2 = r 2
(n-1) of course, instead of describing an-sphere topologists would regard this as equation. V = 4 R / 3
3
Using the integrals, the volume of the sphere, can be found in Cartesian, cylindrical and spherical
coordinates, respectively.
R R2 − x2 R2 − x2 − y 2
  
− R − R2 − x2 − R2 − x2 − y 2
dzdydx (i)
2 R R2 −r 2
 
0 0 − R2 −r 2
rdzdrd (ii)
2  R
  sin  d  d d
2
(iii)
0 0 0
There is moment of inertia tensor in the interior of the sphere of radius and mass.
2
𝑀𝑅2 0 0
5
2
𝐼= 0 𝑀𝑅2 0
5
2
[0 0 𝑀𝑅2 ]
5
Converting to “standard” parametric variables, and given are the coefficients of the first fundamental
form a2sin2 v
Second fundamental form coefficients asin2 v
Area element dA=a2 sin v dudv
ˆ ˆ
Gaussian curvature K=1/a2

And mean curvature
1
𝐻=
𝑎
Given two points on a sphere, an arc of a circle is the shortest path on the surface of the sphere which
connects them (the geodesic). The equation of the sphere with the points) and ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) lying on a
diameter are denoted by
( x − x1 )( x − x2 ) + ( y − y1 )( y − y2 ) + ( z − z1 )( z − z2 ) = 0 Four points are enough to define a sphere uniquely.

Given the points with 2, 3 and 4, the sphere holding them is given by the beautiful determinant
equation
x2 + y2 + z 2 xyz1
x1 + y1 + z1
2 2 2
x1 y1 z11
x2 2 + y 2 2 + z 2 2 x2 y2 z21
x32 + y32 + z32 x3 y3 z31
[ x4 + y 4 + z 4
2 2 2 x4 y4 z41 ]
Formula Table
➢ In a square, all the four sides are equal and the ➢ A point P whose coordinates are (𝑥, 𝑦) is
diagonals are also equal. denoted as 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦).
➢ Four sides of a rhombus are equal. ➢ The perpendicular distance from the y-axis is
➢ In a rectangle, diagonals are equal and the abscissa of the point.
opposite sides are equal. ➢ The perpendicular distance from the x-axis is
➢ In a parallelogram with exception of the the ordinate of the point.
rectangle, the opposite sides are equal, but the ➢ For points positioned at the right of y-axis, the
diagonals are not equal. abscissa is positive, while it is negative when
➢ All the sides are equal, but diagonals are not the point is to the left of y-axis.
equal in a rhombus but not in a square. ➢ For points situated above x-axis, the ordinate is
➢ Sum of distances between two pairs of points positive while it is negative for the points
is equal to the third point for collinear points. below the x-axis.
➢ A midpoint R of a line PQ, divides the line in ➢ On the y-axis, all the points have abscissa as 0.
the ratio of 1:1. So the coordinates of that ➢ On the x-axis, all the points have ordinate as 0.
𝑥1+𝑥2 𝑦1 +𝑦2
point are( , ) ➢ (0,0) is the coordinates of Origin.
2 2
➢ A point which divides a line segment joining For a point 𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦) from the origin O, OM =
2 2
(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) points in the ratio p:q is √𝑥 + 𝑦
𝑝𝑥2 −𝑞𝑥1 𝑝𝑦2 −𝑞𝑦1
given as ( , )
𝑝−𝑞 𝑝−𝑞

1. If the three vertices of the parallelogram 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 are 𝐴(1, 𝑎), 𝐵(3, 𝑎), 𝐶 (2, 𝑏), then 𝐷 is equal to
(a) (3,b) (b) (6,b)
(c) (4,b) (d) (0,b)
Solution: (d)
ABCD is a parallelogram.
AB ⃦ DC, then slope of line AB = slope of line DC
y =b
𝑎−𝑦 𝑎−𝑏
Also, AD ⃦ BC, 1−𝑥 = 3−2
𝑎−𝑏 𝑎−𝑏 𝑎−𝑏 1
= => × =1
1−𝑥 3−2 1−𝑥 𝑎−𝑏
1-x =1
X=0
Then points D are (0,b)
2. The value of 𝑘 for which the lines 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 𝑎 = 0 and 5𝑥 + 𝑘𝑦 + 𝑎 = 0 represent family of parallel
lines is
(a) 3 (b) 4.5
(c) 7.5 (d) 15
Solution: (c)
−2 𝑎
2𝑥 + 3𝑏 + 𝑎 = 0 𝑜𝑟𝑦 = 3 × − 3
−2
Slope = 3
−5 −𝑎
5𝑥 + 𝑘𝑦 + 𝑎 = 0or𝑦 = ×
𝑘 5
−5
Slope = 𝑥
−2 −5
Lines are parallel =
3 𝑘
15
K = 2 = 7.5
3. What is the equation of the line which passes through (4,-5) and is perpendicular to 3𝑥4𝑦 + 5 = 0?
(a) 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 31 = 0 (b) 3𝑥 − 4𝑦 − 41 = 0
(c) 4𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 1 = 0 (d) 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 8 = 0
Solution: (a)
−3 −5
3𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 5 = 0 or y= 4 𝑥 + 4
−3
Slope =
4
−1 4
Slope of required line, m= 3 =3
−
4
Also line passes through (4,-5)
4
Equation of line, 𝑦 + 5 = 3 (𝑥 − 4)
=>3𝑦 + 15 = 4𝑥 − 16
=> 4x-3y-31=0
4. The foci of the hyperbola 4𝑥 2 − 9𝑦 2 − 1 = 0 are
(a) (±√13, 0) √13
(b) (± , 0) 6
(c)
√13
(0, ± 6 ) (d) None of these
Solution: (b)
4𝑥 2 − 9𝑦 2 = 1
𝑥2 𝑦2
− =1
1 2 1 2
( 2) ( 3)
1 2
( ) √13
3
Eccentricity, e = √1 + 1 2
=
( ) 3
2
1 √13 √13
Foci = (± 2 × 3 , 0) = (± 6 , 0)
5. For what value of 𝑘 are the two straight lines 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 1 and 4𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 2𝑘 = 0 equidistant the
point (1,1)?
1
(a) 2 (b) 2
1
(c) -2 (d) -2
Solution: (d)
|3 × 1 × 4 × 1 − 1 |
6
𝑑1 = =
√32 + 42 5
|4 × 1 + 3 × 1 + 2𝑘| 7 + 2𝑘
𝑑2 = =
√32 + 42 5
𝑑1 = 𝑑2
1
7 +2k=6=> K = -2
6. A point P moves such that is distances from (1,2) and (-2,3) are equal. Then the locus of P is
(a) Straight line (b) Parabola
(c) Ellipse (d) Hyperbola
Solution: (a)
Let moving point be p (x,y)
√(𝑦 − 2)2 + (𝑥 − 1)2 = √(𝑦 − 3)2 + (𝑥 + 2)2
=>(𝑦 + 2)2 + (𝑥 − 1)2 = (𝑦 − 3)2 + (𝑥 + 2)2
=>𝑦 2 + 4 + 4𝑦 + 𝑥 2 + 1 − 2𝑥 = 𝑦 2 + 9 − 6𝑦 + 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4
=> 10y-6x-8=0
Locus of P is a straight line.
7. The equation of the locus of a point which is equidistant from the axes is
(a) 𝑦 = 2𝑥 (b) 𝑥 = 2𝑦
(c) 𝑦 = ±𝑥 (d) 2𝑦 + 𝑥 = 0
Solution: (c)
√(𝑥 − 0)2 + (𝑦 + 𝑦)2 = √(𝑥 − 𝑥)2 + (𝑦 − 0)2

=>𝑥 2 = 𝑦 2
=>𝑦 = ±𝑥
8. What angle does the line segment joining (5,2) and (6,-15) subtend at (0,0)?
𝜋 𝜋
(a) 6 (b) 4
𝜋 3𝜋
(c) 2 (d) 4
Solution: (c)
9. The length of latus of the ellipse 4𝑥 2 + 9𝑦 2 = 36 is
4 8
(a) 3 (b) 3
(c) 6 (d) 12
Solution: (b)
4𝑥 2 + 9𝑦 2 = 36
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ =1
32 22
22 8
Length of latus rectum = 2 × 3 = 3
10. What is the equation of the straight line passing through (5,-2) and (-4,7) ?
(a) 5𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 4 (b) −4𝑥 + 7𝑦 = 9

(c) 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 3 (d) 𝑥 − 𝑦 = −1
Solution: (c)
7+2
Equation of line 𝑦 + 2 = −4−5 (𝑥 − 5)
y +2 =-x+5 =>x+y=3
11. What is the angle between the lines 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1 and 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 1 ?
𝜋 𝜋
(a) 6 (b) 4
𝜋 𝜋
(c) 3 (d) 2
Solution: (d)
Slope of x+y=1 is -1
Slope of x-y=1 is 1
Let tan A = -1, tan B =1
3𝜋 𝜋
𝐴= ,𝐵 =
4 4
𝜋
𝐴−𝐵 =
2
12. The axis of the parabola 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 = 0 is
(a) 𝑥 = 0 (b) 𝑦 = 0
(c) 𝑥 = 2 (d) 𝑦 = 2
Solution: (b)
𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 = 0 => −2𝑥, Which is in the form
𝑦 2 = −4𝑎𝑥. Therefore axis of parabola is x-axis.
13. The radius of the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 passing through the origin is
1 1
(a) 4 (b) 2
(c) 1 (d) 2
Solution: (b)
Circle is passing through origin then C = 0
Now, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 = 0
1 2 1 2
(𝑥 + ) + 𝑦 2 = ( )
2 2
1
Radius of given circle is 2 units
14. The centroid of the triangle with vertices (2,3), (-2,-5) and (3,5) is at
(a) (1,1) (c) (2,-1)
(b) (2,-1) (d) (1,2)
Solution: (a)
2−2+3 3−5+5
Centroid = ( , ) =(1,1)
3 3
15. The equation of the line, the reciprocals of whose intercepts on the axes are 𝑚 and 𝑛, is given by
(a) 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑚𝑦 = 𝑚𝑛 (b) 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑛𝑦 = 1
(c) 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑛𝑦 = 𝑚𝑛 (d) 𝑚𝑥 − 𝑛𝑦 = 1
Solution: (b)
𝑥 𝑦
Let line be 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 1
1 1
Given that 𝑎 = 𝑚 and 𝑏 = 𝑛
1 1
𝑎= ,𝑏 =
𝑚 𝑛
Equation of line, mx +ny=1.
16. If 𝜃 is the acute angle between the diagonals of a cube, then which one of the following is correct ?
(a) 𝜃 = 30° (b) 𝜃 = 45°

(c) 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 1 (d) 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 1
Solution: (d)
Diagonals = OP and AD and Acute angle =𝜃

𝑎1 𝑎2 +𝑏1𝑏2 +𝑐1 𝑐2
cos𝜃 = | | =>3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 1
√𝑎12 +𝑏12 +𝑐12√𝑎22 +𝑏22+𝑐22
17. What is the equation of the sphere with unit radius having centre at the origin?
(a) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = (b) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 =
0 1
(c)𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 2 (d) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 =
2 2 2
3
Solution: (b)
(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )2 (𝑦 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧 − 𝑧1 )2 = 𝑟 2
Centre (0,0,0)
And radius =1
(𝑥 − 0)2 + (𝑦 − 0)2 + (𝑧 − 0)2 = (1)2
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 = 1
18. What is the sum of the squares of direction cosines of x-axis ?
1
(a) 0 (b) 3
(c) 1 (d) 3
Solution: (c)
Sum of squares of direction cosines
=(1)2 + (0)2 + (0)2 = 1
19. What is the distance of the line 2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑦 = 3 from the origin?
(a) 1 unit (b) 1.5 units
(c) 2 units (d) 2.5 units
Solution: (a)
2×0+0+0+2×0−3 3
𝑑=| 2 2 2
| = = 1 unit.
√2 +1 +2 3
20. If the projections of a straight line segment on the coordinate axes are 2, 3 and 6, then the length of
the segment is
(a) 5 units (b) 7 units
(c) 11 units (d) 49 units
Solution: (b)
Position vector of line segment = 2𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂ + 6𝑘̂
Length = √22 + 32 + 62 = √49 = 7 units
21. What is the equation of the sphere which has its Centre at (6, -1and 2) and touches the plane 2x – y
+ 2z – 2=0?
(a) x2 + y2 + z2 + 12x – 2y + 4z + 16 = 0 (b) x2 + y2 + z2 + 12x – 2y + 4z - 16 = 0
(c) x2 + y2 + z2 - 12x + 2y - 4z + 16 = 0 (d) x2 + y2 + z2 - 12x + 2y - 4z + 25 = 0
Solution: (c)
given Centre of sphere is (6, -1, 2) and equation of plane is 2x – y + 2z -2 = 0
Since, sphere touches the plane therefore ⊥ distance from Centre to the plane is radius of the sphere.
2(6)−1 (−1)+2(2)−2 15
∴ Radius = = =5
√4+1+4 3
∴ Required equation of sphere is
(𝑥 − 6)2 + ( 𝑦 + 1)2 + (𝑧 − 2)2 = 52
2 2 2
⇒x + y + z – 12x + 2y – 4z + 16 = 0
22. What are the direction ratios of the line determined by the planes x – y + 2z =1 and x + y – z=3?
(a) (-1, 3, 2) (b) (-1,-3, 2)
(c) (2, 1, 3) (d) (2, 3, 2)
Solution: (a)
The intersection of given plane is
X – y + 2z -1 + 𝜆 (x + y – z- 3) = 0
⇒x (1 + 𝜆) + y (𝜆 – 1) + z (2 – 𝜆) -3𝜆 – 1 = 0
DR’s of normal to the above plane is
(1 + 𝜆, 𝜆 – 1, 2 – 𝜆)
By taking option (a)
-1 (1 + 𝜆) + 3(𝜆 – 1) + 2(2 – 𝜆) = 0
⇒ 0 = 0 which is true.
Hence, option (a) is correct.
23. Under what condition do the planes
Bx – ay =n, CY – BZ =1, AZ – cx = m intersect in a line?
(a) a + b + c = 0 (b) a = b= c
(c) al + bm + cn = 0 (d) l + m + n = 0
Solution: (c)
The planes bx – ay = n, cy – bz = 1 and az – cx =m intersect in a line, if al + bm + cn = 0.
𝜋
24. The planes px + 2y + 2z – 3 = 0 and 2x – y + z + 2 = 0 intersect at an angle 4 . What is the value of p2?
(a) 24 (b) 12
(c) 6 (d) 3
Solution: (a)
We know that the angle between the planes a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0 and a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0 is given by
𝑎1𝑎2+𝑏1𝑏2+𝑐1𝑐2
Cos 𝜃 = | |
√𝑎12 +𝑏12 +𝑐12 √𝑎22 +𝑏22 +𝑐22
Given equation of planes are px + 2y + 2z – 3 = 0 and 2x – y + z + 2 = 0
On comparing with standard equations, we get
A1 = p, a2 = 2, b1 = 2, b2 = -1, c1 = 2, c2 = 1
𝜋
Also, 𝜃 = 4 (given)
𝜋 𝑝 ×2+2 ×(−1)+2 ×1
∴cos 4 = | |
√𝑝2 +4+4 √4+1+1
1 2𝑝 1 4𝑝2
⇒ = ⇒ 2 = (𝑝2 +8)6
√2 √𝑝2 +8√6
3 𝑝2
⇒ 4 = 𝑝2 +8
⇒ 3 p2 + 24 = 4 p2 ⇒ p2 =24
𝑥−1 𝑦+2 𝑧−3
25. What is the equation of the plane through z-axis and parallel to the line cos 𝜃 = sin 𝜃= 0 ?
(a) x cot 𝜃 + y = 0 (b) x tan 𝜃 – y = 0
(c) x + y cot 𝜃 = 0 (d) x – y tan 𝜃 = 0
Solution: (b)
Let equation of plane through z-axis is ax + by = 0
It is given that this plane is parallel to the line
𝑥−1 𝑦+2 𝑧−3
= =
cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 0
Since the plane parallel to the line
∴a cos 𝜃 + b sin 𝜃 = 0
⇒a cos 𝜃 = -b sin 𝜃 ⇒ a = -b tan 𝜃
∴ -b tan 𝜃x + by = 0
⇒x tan 𝜃 – y = 0 (∴ b ≠ 0) which is required equation of plane.
26. If the line through the points A(K, 1, -1) and B(2K, 0, 2) is perpendicular to the line through the
points B and C (2 + 2k, k, 1), then what is the value of k?
(a) -1 (b) 1
(c) -3 (d) 3
Solution: (d)
Given points are A(k, 1, -1), B(2k, 0, 2) and C(2 + 2k, k, 1) Let r1 = length of line
AB =√(2𝑘 − 𝑘)2 + (0 − 1)2 + (2 + 1)2 =𝑘 2 + 10
And r2 = length of line BC = √(2)2 + 𝑘 2 + (−1)2
= √𝑘 2 + 5
Now, let l1, m1, n1 be direction-cosines of line AB and l2, m2, n2 be the direction cosines of BC.
Since AB is perpendicular to BC
∴ l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 = 0
𝑘 −1 3
Now, l1, = √𝑘 2 , m1= √𝑘 2 , n1 = √𝑘 2
+ 10 +10 +10
2 𝑘 −1
And l2, = √𝑘 2 , m2= √𝑘 2 , n2 = √𝑘 2
+5 +5 +5
So, l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 = 0
2 𝑘 3
⇒ √𝑘 2 2
- √𝑘 2 2
- √𝑘 2 =0
+10√𝑘 +5 +10√𝑘 +5 +10√𝑘 2 +5
⇒ 2k – k – 3 = 0
⇒k=3
For k = 3, AB is perpendicular to BC.
27. The two planes ax + by + cz +d = 0 and ax + by + cz + d = 0, where d ≠ d1, have
(a) One point only in common (b) Three points in common
(c) Infinite points in common (d) No points in common
Solution: (d)
Two planes ax + by + cz + d = 0 and ax + by + cz + d 1 = 0 are parallel to each other.
∴ They have no common point.
28. What is the distance of the origin form the plane 2x + 6y – 3z + 7 = 0?
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 6
Solution: (a)
2(0)+6(0)−3(0)+7
Required distance = | |
√(2)2 +(6)2+(−3)2
|7| 7
= = |7| = 1
√4+36+9
29. What is the acute angle between the planes x + y + 2z = 3 and -2x + y – z = 11?
(a) 𝜋 / 5 (b) 𝜋 / 4
(c) 𝜋 / 6 (d) 𝜋 / 3
Solution: (d)
The given equation of the planes are x + y + 2z = 3 and -2x + y – z = 11.
We know that, the angle between the planes
A1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0
And a2x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0 is given by
Cos 𝜃 = |√𝑎12 2 2 √𝑎22 2 2 |
+𝑏1 +𝑐1 +𝑏2 +𝑐2
Here, a1 = 1, b1 = 1, c1 = 2, a2 = -2, b2 = 1 , c2 = -1
1 ×(−2)+1 ×1+2 ×(−1)
∴cos𝜃 = | |
√1+1+4 √4+1+1
−2+1−2 3 1 𝜋 𝜋
=| | = | | = = cos ⇒ 𝜃 =
√6 √6 6 2 3 3
30. What is the radius of the sphere
X2 + y2 + z2 – x – y – z = 0?
3 1
(a) √4 (b) √2
1
(c) √2
3 (d) 3
Solution: (a)
The given equation of sphere is
X2 + y2 + z2 –x – y – z = 0
On comparing with
X2 + y2 + z2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0
1 1 1
We get, u= - 2 , v = - 2 , w = - 2 , d = 0
∴Radius of sphere = √𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 + 𝑤 2 − 𝑑
1 1 1 3
= √4 + 4 + 4 = √4
31. Consider the following relations among the angles 𝛼, 𝛽 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 made by a vector with the
coordinate’s axes
I. Cos2𝛼 + cos2𝛽 + cos2𝛾 = -1
II. sin2𝛼 + sin2𝛽 + sin2𝛾 = 1
Solution: (a)
We have,
Cos2𝛼 + cos2𝛽 + cos2𝛾 =1 ……(i)
⇒ 2Cos2𝛼 + 2cos2𝛽 + 2cos2𝛾 =2
⇒ 2Cos2𝛼 − 1 + 2cos2𝛽 − 1 + 2cos2𝛾 − 1 =2 -3
⇒ Cos 2𝛼 + cos 2𝛽 + cos 2𝛾 = -1
Hence statement – I is correct.
And now from (i)
1 - sin2𝛼 + 1- sin2𝛽 + 1- sin2𝛾 =1
⇒ sin2𝛼 + sin2𝛽 + sin2𝛾 =2
32. Which one of the following points lies on the plane 2x + 3y -6z = 21?
(a) (3, 2, 2) (b) (3, 7, 1)
(c) (1, 2, 3) (d) (2, 1, -1)
Solution: (b)
Only point (3, 7, 1) satisfy the equation of plane
2x + 3y – 6z = 21
Hence, (3, 7, 1) lies on the plane.
33. What is the angle between the lines whose direction cosines are proportional to (2, 3, 4) and (1, -2 ,
1) respectively?
(a) 90° (b) 60°
(c) 45° (d) 30°
Solution: (a)
Since, direction cosines are proportional to (2, 3, 4) and (1, -2, 1) respectively.
∴2 x 1 + 3 x (-2) + 4 x 1 = 0
∴Angle between the lines is 90°
34. What is the locus of points of intersection of a sphere and a plane?
(a) Circle (b) Ellipse
(c) Parabola (d) Hyperbola
Solution: (a)
Locus of points of intersection of sphere and a plane is circle
35. What is the angle between two planes 2x – y + z = 4 and x + y + 2z = 6?
𝜋 𝜋
(a) 2 (b) 3
𝜋 𝜋
(c) 4 (d) 6
Solution: (b)
Given equations of two planes are 2x – y + z = 4 and x + y + 2z = 6
So, angle between them is.
2(1)+(−1)(1)+(1)(2)
Cos 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 = | |
√1+1+4 √4+1+1
−2+1−2 3 1
=| |=| |=
√6 √6 6 2
𝜋
⇒𝜃=3
36. What is the equation of the plane passing through the point (1, -1, -1) and perpendicular to each of
the planes x – 2y – 8z = 0 and 2x + 5y – z = 0?
(a) 7x – 3y + 2z = 14 (b) 2x + 5y – 3z = 12
(c) X -7y + 3z = 14 (d) 14x – 5y + 3z =
16
Solution: (d)
Since, the required plane passing through (1, -1, -1) therefore only equation given in option ‘d’ satisfied
by the point (1, -1, -1).
Hence, Required equation of plane is
14x – 5y + 3z = 16
37. The equation to sphere passing through origin and the points (-1, 0 ,0), (0, -2, 0) and (0, 0, -3) is x2 +
y2 + z2 + f(x, y, z) = 0. What is f(x, y, z) equal to?
(a) –x -2y -3z (b) X + 2y + 3z
(c) X + 2y + 3z -1 (d) X + 2y + 3z + 1
Solution: (b)
As we know, general equation of sphere is given as
X2 + y2 + z2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 ………(1)
Given equation of sphere is

X2 + y2 + z2 + f(x, y, z) = 0 ……….(2)
On comparing both the equations (1) and (2), we get f(x, y, z) = 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d
Since, sphere passing through (0, 0, 0), (-1, 0, 0), (0, -2, 0),(0, 0, -3)
∴we have from (1),
1 3
d = 0, 1 - 2𝜇 = 0 ⇒ u = 2 , 4- 4y = 0 ⇒ v = 1, 9 -6w = 0 ⇒ w = 2
1 3
Hence, F(x, y, z) = 2x (2) + 2y (1) + 2z (2) + 0
= x + 2y + 3z
38. If a line makes the angles 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 with the axes, then what is the value of 1 + cos 2𝛼 + cos 2𝛽 + cos 2𝛾
equal to
(a) -1 (b) 0
(c) 1 (d) 2
Solution: (b)
We have Cos2𝛼 + cos2𝛽 + cos2𝛾 =1
Consider 1 + Cos 2𝛼 + cos 2𝛽 + cos 2𝛾
= 1+ (2Cos2𝛼 − 1) + (2cos2𝛽 − 1) + (2cos2 𝛾 − 1)
= 2Cos2𝛼 + 2 cos2𝛽 + 2 cos2𝛾 - 2
= 2 [Cos2𝛼 + cos2𝛽 + cos2𝛾] -2 = 2 (1) – 2 = 0
39. What are the direction ratios of normal to the plane 2x – y + 2z + 1 = 0?
1
(a) 〈2,1,2〉 (b) 〈1, − 2 1〉
(c) 〈1, −2,1〉 (d) None of these
Solution: (b)
Given equation of plane is 2x – y + 2z + 1 =0
⇒ a = 2, b = -1 , c = 2
1
Hence d R〈2, −1, 2〉 𝑖. 𝑒. , 〈1, − , 1〉 2
𝑥−𝑥0 𝑦−𝑦0 𝑧−𝑧0
40. If the straight line 𝑙 = 𝑚 = 𝑛 is parallel to the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 then which one of the
(a) l + m + n = 0 (b) a + b + c = 0
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 (d) al + bm + cn = 0
(c) + + = 0
𝑙 𝑚 𝑛
Solution: (d)
If the line is parallel to the plane then al + bm + cn = 0
41. What is the sum of the squares of direction cosines of the line joining the points (1,2,-3) and (-2,3,1)?
(a) 0 (b) 1
2
(c) 3 (d) 26
√
Solution: (b)
Let the direction cosines be l, m, n.
Let p(x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) be two points which joins a line.
∴x1 = 1, y1 = 2, z1 = -3
X2 = -2, y2 = 3, z2 = 1
𝑥2−𝑥1 −3
Now, l = 2 2 2
= 26
√(𝑥2−𝑥1) +(𝑦2−𝑦1) +(𝑧2−𝑧1) √
𝑦2−𝑦1 1
m = =
√(𝑥2−𝑥1)2 +(𝑦2−𝑦1)2 +(𝑧2−𝑧1)2 √26
4
n=
√26
9 1 16 26
∴ l + m2 + n2 = 26 + 26 + 26 = 26 = 1
2
Always equal to 1
42. What is the diameter of the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 – 4x + 6y – 8z -7 = 0?
Solution: (d)
General equation of sphere is
X2 + y2 + z2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0
On comparing with the given equation we have
U = -2, v=3, w = -4, d = -7
Radius = √𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 + 𝑤 2 − 𝑑
√4 + 9 + 16 + 7 = √36 = 6
Diameter = 2 x 6 = 12
43. If the distance between the points (7, 1, -3) and (4, 5, 𝜆) is 13 units, then what is one of the values of 𝜆?
(a) 20 (b) 10
(c) 9 (d) 8
Solution: (c)
We have,
13 = √(4 − 7)2 + (5 − 1)2 + (𝜆 + 3)2
169 = 9 + 16 + 𝜆2 + 9 + 6𝜆
⇒ 𝜆2 + 6𝜆 – 135 = 0
⇒ 𝜆2 + 15𝜆 – 9𝜆 − 135 = 0
⇒ 𝜆 + (𝜆 + 15) – 9(𝜆 +15) = 0
⇒ (𝜆 + 15) (𝜆 – 9) = 0
⇒ 𝜆 = - 15 or 𝜆 = 9
44. What is distance of the point (1, 2, 0) from yz- plane is:
(a) 1 unit (b) 2 units
Solution: (a)
Equation of plane is x = 0
∴ Required distance from, (1, 2, 0) is
1.1+2.0+0.0−0 1
= √12 2 2 = 1 = 1 unit
+0 +0 √
𝑥−2 𝑦+1 𝑧 +2 𝑥−1 2𝑦+3 𝑧 +5
45. What is the angle between the lines = = and = = ?
1 −2 1 1 3 2
𝜋 𝜋
(a) 2 (b) 3
𝜋
Solution: (a)
The given lines are:-
𝑥−2 𝑦−(−1) 𝑧−(−2)
= = and
1 −2 1
3
𝑥−1 𝑦−(− ) 𝑧−(−5)
2
= 3 =
1 2
2
dr’s of 1st line are:-
a1 = 1, b1=-2, c1 = 1
dr ‘s of 2nd line are:-
a2 = 2, b2 = 3, c2 = 4
Let ′𝜃’ be the angle b/w two lines, then,
Cos 𝜃 = | 2 2 2 2 2
|
2
√𝑎 +𝑏 +𝑐 .√𝑎 +𝑏 +𝑐
1 1 1 2 2 2
𝜋
Cos 𝜃 = 0⇒ 𝜃 = 2
46. What is the equation to the plane through (1, 2, 3) parallel to 3x + 4y – 5z = 0?
(a) 3x + 4y + 5z + 4 = 0 (b) 3x + 4y - 5z + 14 = 0
(c) 3x + 4y - 5z + 4 = 0 (d) 3x + 4y - 5z - 4 = 0
Solution: (c)
The equation of a plane parallel to the plane
3x + 4y – 5z = 0 is given by,
3x + 4y –5z = d ……………(i)
Since plane (i) passes through (1, 2, 3) then, 3 + 8 – 15 = d
⇒ d = -4
∴ From (i), 3x + 4y – 5z + 4 = 0
47. What are the direction ratios of the line of intersection of the planes x = 3z + 4 and y = 2z – 3?
(a) 〈1, 2 ,3〉 (b) 〈2, 1, 3〉
(c) 〈3, 2, 1〉 (d) 〈1, 3, 2〉
Solution: (c)
Let p1 : x – 3z – 4 = 0 and p2 : y – 2z + 3 = 0 be two planes .Let ax + by + cz = d be the equation of line.
Since, the line of intersection will be perpendicular to the normal of both the planes
∴ a(1) + b(0) + c(-3) = 0
⇒ a – 3c = 0 ……(i)
And a(0) + b(1) + c(-2) = 0
⇒ b – 2c = 0 ……(ii)
From (1) and (2) we have
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
= =
3 2 1
Hence, d.Rs = 〈3,2,1〉
48. What is the equation to the straight line passing through (a, b, c) and parallel to z-axis?
𝑥−𝑎 𝑦−𝑏 𝑧−𝑐 𝑥−𝑎 𝑦−𝑏 𝑧−𝑐
(a) 1 = 0 = 0 (b) 0 = 0 = 1
𝑥−𝑎 𝑦−𝑏 𝑧−𝑐 𝑥−𝑎 𝑦−𝑏 𝑧−𝑐
(c) = = (d) = =
0 1 0 0 1 1
Solution: (b)
We know that dr’s of z-axis are (0,0,1)
So, dr’s of the required line are 0, 0 and 1
Now, equation of the line passing through (a, b, c) and having dr’s 0, 0 and 1 is
𝑥−𝑎 𝑦−𝑏 𝑧−𝑐
= 0 = 1
0
49. The sum of the direction cosines of z-axis is
(a) 0 (b) 1/3
(c) 1 (d) 3
Solution: (c)
Direction cosines of z-axis are 0, 0, 1
Sum = 0 + 0 + 1 = 1
50. What is the area of the triangle whose vertices are (0, 0, 0), (1, 2, 3) and (-3, -2, 1)?
(a) 3√5 square unit (b) 6√5 square unit
(c) 6 square unit (d) 12 square unit
Solution: (a)
Let A(0,0,0), B(1,2,3) and C(-3, -2,1) be the vertices of a triangle.
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
1
Area of △ABC = 2 | 1 2 3|
−3 −2 1
1
= 2 [𝑖̂ 2 + 6 − 𝑗̂ 1 + 9) + 𝑘̂(−2 + 6)]
( ) (
1 1
= |8𝑖̂ − 10𝑗̂ + 4𝑘̂| = √64 + 16 + 100
2 2
1
= 2 (6√5) = 3√5
51. What is the distance between the planes x – 2y + x – 1 = 0 and -3x + 6y -3z + 2 =0?
(a) 3 unit (b) 1 unit
Solution: (d)
Given planes are
X – 2y + z = 1 …..(i)
And -3x + 6y – 3z = -2
2
= x – 2y + z = 3 ……(ii)
−2
Since, both planes are parallel and a = 1, b = -2, c = 1 and d1 = -1, d2= 3
𝑑2−𝑑1
∴Distance = |√𝑎2 |
+𝑏2 +𝑐 2
2
1− 1
3
Distance = | |=
√1+4+1 3√6
52. If a line makes 30° with the positive of x – axis, angle 𝛽 with the positive direction of y – axis and
angle 𝛾 with the positive direction of z- axis, then what is cos2𝛽 + cos2𝛾 equal to?
(a) 1/4 (b) 1/2
(c) 3/4 (d) 1
Solution: (a)
Direction cosines are
Cos 30° , cos 𝛽 and cos 𝛾.
Since we know
Cos230 + cos2𝛽 + cos2𝛾 = 1
1 √3
⇒ cos2𝛽 + cos2𝛾 = 4 (∴ cos 30° = )
2
53. What should be the value of k for which the equation 3x 2 + 3y2 + (k + 1)z2 + x – y + z = 0
(a) 3 (b) 2
(c) 1 (d) -1
Solution: (b)
Given equation is
3x2 + 3y2 + (k + 1) z2 + x- y + z = 0
Which will represents a sphere if
Coeff of x2 = coeff of y2 = coeff of z2
⇒ 3= k + 1
⇒ k=2
54. What is the angle between the planes 2x – y -2z + 1 = 0 and 3x – 4y + 5z – 3 = 0?
𝜋 𝜋
(a) 6 (b) 4
𝜋 𝜋
(c) 2 (d) 2
Solution: (d)
Given equation of plane are
2x – y – 2z + 1 = 0
⇒ a1 = 2, b1 = -1, c1 = -2, d1 = 1
And 3x – 4y + 5z -3 = 0
⇒ a2 = 3, b2 = -4, c2 = 5, d2= -3
∴ Required angle is
𝑎1 𝑎2 + 𝑏1 𝑏2 + 𝑐1 𝑐2
𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = ±
√𝑎12 + 𝑏12 + 𝑐12 . √𝑎22 + 𝑏22 + 𝑐22
2(3) + (−1)(−4) + 5(−2)
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = | | = 0
√22 + 12 + 22 . √32 + 42 + 52
⇒ 𝜃 = 𝜋/2
EXERCISE
1. Let O(0,0,0), P(3,4,5), Q(m, n, r) and R(1,1,1) be the vertices of a parallelogram taken in order. What is
the value of m+n+r?
(a) 6 (b) 12
(c) 15 (d) More than 15
2. What is the image of the point (1, 2) on the line 3x + 4y−1=0?
7 6 7 1
(a) (− 5 , 5) (b) (8 , 2)
7 1 7 1
(c) (8 , 2) (d) (− 5 , 2)
3. If (−5, 4) divides the line segment between the coordinate axes in the ratio 1:2, then what is its
equation?
(a) 8x+5y+20=0 (b) 5x+8y−7=0
(c) 8x−5y+60=0 (d) 5x−8y+57=0
𝑥 𝑦
4. What is the equation to the straight line joining the origin to the point of intersection of the lines 𝑎 , 𝑏
𝑥 𝑦
= 1 and 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 1?
(a) X+y=0 (b) X+y+1=0
(c) X−y=0 (d) X+y+2=0
1
5. If the straight lines x−2y=0 and kx+y=1 intersect at the point (1,2), then what is the value of k?
(a) 1 (b) 2
(C) 1/2 (d) −1/2
6. What is the maximum number of straight lines that can be drawn with any four points in a lane such
that each line contains at least two of these points?
(a) 2 (b) 4
(c) 6 (d) 12
7. A square is drawn by joining midpoint of the sides of a square. Another square is drawn inside the
second square in the same way and the process is continued in definitely. If the side of the first square is
16 cm, then what is the sum of the areas of all the square?
(a) 256 sq cm (b) 512 sq cm
(c) 1024 sq cm (d) 512/3 sq cm
𝑥 𝑦
8. What is the slope of the line perpendicular to the line 4 , 3 = 1?
3 3
(a) 4 (b) − 4
4 4
(c) − 3 (d) 3
9. If the area of a triangle with vertices (−3, 0), (3, 0) and (0, k) is 9 sq unit, then what is the value of k?
(a) 3 (b) 6
(c) 9 (d) 12
10. What is the locus of a point which moves equidistant from the coordinate axes?
(a) x±y=0 (b) x+2y=0
(c) 2x+y=0 (d) None of these
11. What is the equation of the line joining the origin with the point of intersection of the lines
4x+3y=12 and 3x+4y=12?
(a) X+y=1 (b) X−y=1
(c) 3y=4x (d) X=y
12. If the sum of the square of the distance of the point (x, y) from the point (a, 0) and (−a, 0) is 2𝑏2 ,
then which one of the following is correct?
(a) 𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 = 𝑏2 + 𝑦 2 (b) 𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 = 2𝑏2 − 𝑦 2
(c) 𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 = 𝑏2 + 𝑦 2 (d) 𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 = 𝑏2 − 𝑦 2
13. The line mx + ny=1 passes through the point (1, 2) and (2, 1). What is the value of m?
(a) 1 (b) 3
(c) 1/2 (d) 1/3
14. What is the equation of the line passing through (2, −3) and parallel to Y axis?
(a)Y = −3 (b) Y=2
(c) X=2 (d) X=−3
15. What is the locus of the point which is at a distance 8 unit to the left of Y-axis?
(a) X=8 (b) Y=8
(c) X=−8 (d) Y=−8
16. Two straight lines x−3y−2=0 and 2x−6y−6=0
(a) never intersect (b) intersect at a single point
(c) intersect at infinite number of points (d) intersect at more than one point
17. If (a, 0) (0, b), (1, 1) are collinear, what is (a + b−ab) equal to?
(a) 2 (b) 1
(c)0 (d) −1
18.What is the cosine of angle between the planes x + y + z + 1 = 0 and 2x – 2y + 2z + 1 =0?
(a) 1/2 (b) 1/3
(c) 2/3 (d) None of these
19. How many diagonal will be there in an n-sided regular polygon?

𝑛(𝑛−1) 𝑛(𝑛−3)
(a) (b)
2 2
2 𝑛(𝑛−1)
(c) 𝑛 −n (d) 2
20. If (p, q) is the point on the x-axis equidistant from the points (1, 2), (2, 3), then which one of the
(a) P=0 q=4
(b) P=4 q=0
𝑥 𝑦
21. If p is the length of the perpendicular drawn from the origin to the line 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 1, then which one of
the following is correct?
1 1 1 1 1 1
(a) 𝑝2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 (b) 𝑝2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏2
1 1 1 1 1 1
(c) 𝑝2 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 (d) 𝑝 = 𝑎 − 𝑏
22. For what value of k, are the line x+2y−9=0 and kx+2y−9=0 parallel?
(a) 2 (b) −1
(c) 1 (d) 0
23. What is the equation of a line parallel to x-axis at a distance of 5 units below x-axis?
(a) X=5 (b) X=−5
(c) Y=5 (d) Y=−5
24. What is the equation of line passing through (0, 1) and making an angle with the y-axis equal to the
inclination of the line x-y=4 with x-axis?
(a) Y=x+1 (b) X=y+1
(c) 2x=y+2 (d) None of the above
25. What is the perimeter of the triangle with vertices A (-4, 2), B (0,-1) and C (3, 3)?
(a) 7+3√2 (b) 10+5√2
(c) 11+6√2 (d) 5+√2
26. If the midpoint between the points (a+b, a-b) and (-a, b) lies on the line ax + by = k, what is k equal
to?
(a) a/b (b) a + b
(c) ab (d) a−b
27. The acute angle which the perpendicular from origin on the line 7x−3y=4 make with the x-axis is
(a) Zero (b) Positive but not 𝜋/4
(c) negative (d) 𝜋/4
28. What is the distance between the line 3x+4y=9 and 6x+8y=18?
(a) 0 (b) 3 unit
(c) 9 unit (d) 18 unit
29. What is the perpendicular distance of the point (x, y) from x-axis?
(a) x (b) y
(c) |x| (d) |y|
30. The line making angle (-120°) with x-axis is situated in the:
(a) First quadrant (b) Second quadrant
(c) Third quadrant (d) Fourth quadrant

31. The locus of an equidistant from the points (1, 0) and (0,-2) is:
(a) a straight line (b) a pair of point
(c) a point (d) the null set
32. The equation to the locus of a point which is always equidistant from point (1, 0) and (0,-2) is:
(a) 2x+4y+3=0 (b) 4x+2y+3=0
(c) 2x+4y−3=0 (d) 4x+2y−3=0
33. The points (5, 1), (1,-1) and (11, 4) are
(a) Collinear (b) Vertices of right angled triangle
(c) Vertices of equilateral triangle (d) Vertices of an isosceles triangle
34. What is the perpendicular distance between the parallel lines 3x=4y=9 and 9x+12y+28=0?
7 8
(a) Units (b) 3 Units
3
10 11
(c) Units (d) Units
3 3
35. Let p, q, r, s be the distance from origin of the point (2, 6), (3, 4), (4, 5), (-2, 5) respectively. Which
one of the following is a whole number?
(a) P (b) q
(c) r (d) s
36. From the point (4, 3) a perpendicular is dropped on the x-axis as well as on the y-axis. If the length of
perpendicular are p, q respectively, then which one of the following is correct?
(a) P = q (b) 3p=4 q
(c) 4p=3 q (d) p+ q=5
37. The line y=0 divides the line joining the points (3,-5) and (-4, 7) in the ratio:
(a) 3:4 (b) 4:5
(c) 5:7 (d) 7:9
38.The equation of a straight line which makes an angle 45° with the x-axis with y intercept 101 units I :
(a) 10x+101y=1 (b) 101x+y=1
(c) X + y−101=0 (d) X − y+101=0
39. If the points (2, 4), (2, 6) and (2+√3, 𝑘) are the vertices of an equilateral triangle, then what is the
value of k?
(a) 6 (b) 5
(c) −3 (d) 1
40. What is the equation of a straight line which passes through (3, 4) and sum of whose x and y
intercepts is 14?
(a) 4x+3y =24 (b) X=y=14
(c) 4x+3y=0 (d) 3x+4y=25
41. The point whose abscissa is equal to its ordinate and which equidistant from A(-1, 0) and B(0, 5) is
(a) (1, 1) (b) (2, 2)
(c) (−2, −2) (d) (3, 3)
42. What is the area of the triangle whose vertices are (3, 0), (0, 4) and (3, 4)?
(a) 6 sq. unit (b) 7.5 sq. unit
(c) 9 sq. unit (d) 12 sq. unit

43. A straight line passes through the point (5, 0) and (0, 3). The length of the perpendicular from the
point (4, 4) on the line is
√17 17
(a) (b) √ 2
2
15 17
(c) (d)
√34 2
44. What is the inclination of the line √3x− y− 1=0?

(a) 30° (b) 60°
(c) 135° (d) 150°
45. Two straight line paths are represented by the equation 2x−y=2 and −4+2y=6.Then the paths will
(a) Cross each other at one point (b) Not cross each other
(c) Cross each other at two points (d) Cross each other at infinitely many points
46. For what value of k, the equation 3x−y=8 and 9x− KY=24 will have infinitely many solutions?
(a) 6 (b) 5
(c) 3 (d) 1
47. What is the area of the triangle bounded by the side x=0, y=0 and x+y=2?
(a) 1 square unit (b) 2 square unit
(c) 4 square unit (d) 8 square unit
48. What is the sum of the squares of direction cosines of the line joining the points (1,2,-3) and (-2,3,1)?
(a) 0 (b) 1
2
(c) 3 (d)
√26
49. What is the diameter of the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 – 4x + 6y – 8z -7 = 0?

50. If the distance between the points (7, 1, -3) and (4, 5, 𝜆) is 13 units, then what is one of the values of 𝜆 ?
(a) 20 (b) 10
(c) 9 (d) 8
ANSWER KEY
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (a) 10. (a)
11. (d) 12. (d) 13. (d) 14. (c) 15. (c) 16. (a) 17. (c) 18. (b) 19. (b) 20. (b)
21. (a) 22. (a) 23. (d) 24. (a) 25. (b) 26. (c) 27. (c) 28. (a) 29. (d) 30. (c)
31. (d) 32. (a) 33. (a) 34. (d) 35. (b) 36. (c) 37. (c) 38. (d) 39. (b) 40. (b)
41. (b) 42. (a) 43. (b) 44. (b) 45. (b) 46. (c) 47. (b) 48. (b) 49. (d) 50. (c)
5. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
Differential Calculus is a subfield of calculus, which studies the relationship between quantity
and rates. It is one of the two divisions of traditional calculus where another one is Integral
calculus.
The Primary Objects of differential calculus are:-
• The derivative of a function,
• Related notions such as the differential, and their applications.
The derivative of a function as a chosen input value that describes the rate of change of the
function near that input value. The process of finding a derivative is known as a Differentiation.
Geometrically, the derivative at a point is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the
function at that point, provided that the derivative exists and is defined at that point.
For a real-valued function of a single real variable, the derivative of a function at a point, in
general, determines the best linear approximation to the function at that point.
5.1 CONCEPT OF A REAL-VALUED FUNCTION-DOMAIN, RANGE AND GRAPH OF A
FUNCTION
Here we discussed the functions which consist of domain and co-domain both as subsets of the
set R of all real numbers.
Such functions are called
• Real functions or
• Real-valued functions of the real variable.
Real-Valued Function
If B is a subset of R (set of all real numbers), a function 𝑔: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is called a real valued function
and if both A and B are subsets of R, 𝑔 is called a real-valued function.
Usually, domain and co-domain are the infinite subsets of R in an instance of real functions of
the real variable.
Hence, there are some general formulas to describe a real function.
In the other sense, some general formula provides the images of various elements in the
domain of a real function.
For example,
• 𝑔: 𝑅 → 𝑅 given by g ( x) = x 2 + x + 1 or
• 𝑔: 𝐴 → 𝐵 given by g ( x) = x2 − 1 etc.
x −4
Practically, Real functions are described by giving the general expression or formula describing
it without mentioning its domain and co-domain.
1 1
Ex1: Prove that [𝑔(𝑥 )]3 = 𝑔(𝑥)3 + 3𝑔 (𝑥) If 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 + 𝑥.
Solution:
1
Here, 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 𝑥
1
∴ g ( x ) = x + 3 and [ g ( x)]3 = ( x + 1 )3
3 3
x x
1
Now, [ g ( x)3 ] = x3 + 3 + 3( x + 1 )
x x
= g ( x3 ) +3 g ( x) and g ( x) = g ( 1 )
x
1
∴ [𝑔(𝑥)]3 = 𝑔(𝑥 )3 + 3𝑔 ( )
𝑥
Domain of Real Function
• One has to provide its domain, co-domain mathematically to define a function and the
images of the elements in its domain, it is mandatory to provide its domain, co-domain
mathematically either by giving a general formula or by listening to them one by one.
• The domain and co-domain of real functions are the subsets of R.
• Hence, to find the images of the elements in the domain, real functions are described by
providing the general formula.
• In such a situation, real function’s domain 𝑔(𝑥) is the set of all those real numbers for which
the expression for 𝑔(𝑥 ) or the formula for 𝑔(𝑥 ) assumes the real values only.
• We can say when 𝑔(𝑥 ) is defined, the domain of 𝑔(𝑥 ) is the set of all those real numbers.
3𝑥−2
For example, a real function 𝑔(𝑥 ) described by the general formula 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 −1 assumes real
3𝑥−2
values for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 except for 𝑥 ± 1, because denominator of 𝑥 2 −1 becomes zero for 𝑥 ± 1.
So, domain of 𝑔(𝑥 )is the set of all real numbers other than -1 and 1 i.e. domain
( g ) = 𝑅 − {−1,1}.
Range of Real Functions
The range of a real function of a real variable is the set of all real values when we take 𝑔(𝑥) at
points in its domain.
Ex2: Figure out the domain and range of the function 𝑔(𝑥) given by
𝑥−2
𝑔(𝑥) =
3−𝑥
Solution:
𝑥−2
Here, 𝑔(𝑥) = 3−𝑥
Domain of 𝑔: Clearly, 𝑔(𝑥) is defined for all x satisfying 3 − x  0 i.e. x  3 .
Hence, Domain (𝑔) = 𝑅 − {3}
Range of g: Let 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥)i.e.
𝑥−2
𝑦=
3−𝑥
 3 y − xy = x − 2
 x ( y + 1) = 3 y + 2
 x = 3y + 2
y +1
Thus, clearly 𝑥 assumes real values for all except y + 1 = 0 i.e. y = -1
Hence, Range (𝑔) = 𝑅 − {−1}.
Graph of a function
For every Domain (f), there are points whose coordinates (x,y) satisfy 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) in the graph of
the real function.
Following are the graphs of some standard real functions.
• As per the definition of a real function f, for a given x in its domain there is only one number
𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) in its range.
• Geometrically, this expresses that any vertical line x=a crosses the graph of g(x) at most
once, not more than that.
This leads to the following useful criterion to check whether a curve in a plane is the graph of a
function or not.
Constant Function
A function 𝑔(𝑥) given by 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑘 for all 𝑥𝜖 𝑅
If k is a fixed real number, is known as a constant function.
Identity Function
The function that associates each real number to itself and is usually denoted by I is known as
identity function.
Therefore, the function I: R-> R is defined by
𝐼(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥𝜖 𝑅
is known as the identity function.
Modulus Function
The function 𝑔(𝑥) defined by
𝑥, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 ≥ 0
𝑔(𝑥)= | x | ={
−𝑥, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 < 0
is known as the modulus function.
5.2 COMPOSITE FUNCTION, ONE TO ONE, ONTO AND INVERSE FUNCTIONS

Composite Functions
• Suppose A, B and C are three non-void sets and let 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐶 be two
functions.
• Since f is a function from A to B, therefore for each x  A there is an existence of unique

element f ( x)  B .
• Again, since g is a function from B to C, therefore corresponding to f ( x)  B there is a unique
element g ( f ( x))  C .
• Therefore, for each x  A there is the existence of a unique element g ( f ( x))  C .
The above discussion follows that f and g define a new function from A to C when considered
together.
This function is considered to be the composition of f and g and is denoted by 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓.
Suppose 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 and 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐶 be the two functions, then a function 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 defined by,

( g f )( x) = g ( f ( x)) , for all x  A is called the composition of 𝑓 and 𝑔.
Remark: It has been clearly defined from the above definition that 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 is defined only if for
each x  A , f(x) there is an existence of element of domain of g so that we can take its g-image.
Hence, to compose 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 to exist, the range of f must be a subset of the domain of g.
Ex3: Let R be the set of real numbers. If 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅; f ( x) = x 2 and 𝑔: 𝑅 → 𝑅; g ( x) = 2 x + 1 . Then, find

𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 and 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓. Also, show that 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔  𝑔 ∘ 𝑓.
Solution: Clearly, the range of f is subset of domain of g and the range of g is a subset of
domain of f. So, 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 and 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 both exist.
Now,( g f ) ( x) = g ( f ( x)) = g ( x 2 ) 2( x 2 ) + 1 = 2 x 2 + 1
And ( f g )( x) = f ( g ( x)) = f (2 x + 1) = (2 x + 1) 2 .
2 x 2 + 1  (2 x + 1) 2 that 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔  𝑔 ∘ 𝑓
One-One Function(Injection)
Function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is said to be an injection or a one-one function if different elements of A have
different images in B.
Thus, 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is one-one
 a  b  f (a)  f (b) for all a, b  A
 f (a) = f (b)  a = b for all a, b  A
For eg: A function which associates to each country in the world, its capital, is one-one because
different countries have their different capitals.
For example: Let A={1,2,3,4}, B={1,2,3,4,5,6} and 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 be a function defined by f(x)=x+2

for all x  A .
We have, f={(1,3),(2,4),(3,5),(4,6)}
It can be clearly seen that different elements in A have different images under function f.
So, 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is an injection.
Onto Function(Surjection)
Function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is said to be a surjection or an onto function if every element of B is the f-
image of some element of A i.e., if 𝑓(𝐴) = 𝐵 or a range of f is the co-domain of f.
Thus, 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is a surjection if f for each b  B , there exists a  A such that 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏.

Ex4: Show that signum function 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅 is given by
1 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 0
𝑓(𝑥 ) = { 0, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 0
−1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
is neither one-one nor onto.
Solution:
Certainly, all positive real numbers have the same image equal to 1.
So, f is a many –one function.
We can see that the range of f is {-1, 0, 1} which is not equal to the co-domain of f. So, f is not
onto.
Into Function
Function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is an onto function or surjection if there is an existence of an element in B
having no pre-image in A.
In the other sense, 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is an into function or an injection if it is not an onto function.
Inverse of a Function
• Suppose A and B are two sets and let 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 be a function.
• If the rule is followed in which elements of B are associated to their pre-images, then we
ascertain that, under such a condition there may exist some elements in B which are not
associated to elements in A.
• This happens when f is an into map. Hence, all the elements in B will be associated with
some elements in A if f is an onto map.
• Also, if it is a many-one function then an element in B may be associated with more than one
element in A.
• Therefore, an element in B will be associated with a unique element in A provided f is an
injective map.
The above conversation chases that

f : A→B is a bijection, a new function can be defined from B to A where each element of 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵
linked to its pre-image 𝑓 −1 (𝑦) ∈ 𝐴. This function is called as the inverse of function f and is
denoted by 𝑓 −1 .
Suppose 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 to be a bijection. Then a function 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐴 which associates every element
y  B to be a unique element x  A such that 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑦 is said to be the inverse of f.
i.e., f ( x) = y  g ( y ) = x
The inverse of f is generally denoted by f −1 .
Thus, if 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is bijection, then𝑓 −1 : 𝐵 → 𝐴 is such that f ( x) = y  f −1 ( y ) = x .
Ex5: If A={1,2,3,4) and B={2,4,6,8} and 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is denoted by f ( x) = 2 x ,then write the 𝑓 and f −1
as a set of ordered pairs.
Solution:
We have, f (1) = 2, f (2) = 4, f (3) = 6 and f (4) = 8
So, f ={(1,2),(2,4),(3,6),(4,8)} is clearly a bijection.
 f −1 ={(2,1),(4,2),(6,3),(8,4)}.
[Interchange the components of ordered pairs in f to get f −1 ]
5.3 NOTION OF LIMIT, STANDARD LIMITS- EXAMPLE
Concept of limit
We regard a function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥. 𝑓(𝑥 ) is a number approaching to the value 2 × 2 = 4 if x is a
number approaching to the number 2
In the following table, 𝑓 (𝑥) for different values of x approaching 2 is shown.
𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)
1.9 3.8
1.99 3.98
1.999 3.998
1.9999 3.9998
2 4
In this case, x approaches 2 from values of x<2 and for x being very close 2𝑓(𝑥) is very close to
4. Such a situation is defined as left hand limit of f(x) as x approaches 2 and is written as lim
f(x)=4 as x → 2 -
Next,
𝒙 𝒇(𝒙)
2.0001 4.0002
2.001 4.002
2.01 4.02
2.0 4
In this case, x approaches 2 from the values of x greater than 2 and for x being very close to
2𝑓(𝑥) is very close to 4.
This situation is said to be defined as the right hand limit of f(x) as x approaches 2 and is written
as lim f(x)=4 as x → 2 +
So we write, lim f(x)= lim f(x)=4
x→2− x→2+
Therefore, lim f(x) exists when both left-hand and right-hand limits have their existence and they
x →a
are equal. We write as,

lim f(x)= lim f(x)= lim f(x)
x →a − x →a + x →a
Thus, if lim f(a+h)= lim f(a-h), (h>0)

h→0 h→0
Then, lim f(x) exists

x →a
We now consider a function define by

2𝑥 − 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 0
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = { 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 0
2𝑥 + 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 > 0
We calculate the limit of f(x) as x tends to be zero. At 𝑥 = 0 => 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 (given).
If x tend to be zero for left-hand side for the value of 𝑥 < 0 𝑓(𝑥) is approaching (2 × 0) − 2 =
−2 which is defined as left-hand limit of f(x) as x → 0 − we write it as
Thus, lim = −2
x→0−
In a similar manner, if x approaches zero from the right-hand side for values of x>0 is
approaching 2 × 0 + 2 = 2. We can say it as lim f(x)=2.
x→0+
In such a case both left-hand and right-hand exist but are not equal.
Conclusion is that lim f(x) doesn’t exist.
x→0
Standard limits and their examples

Let lim f(x)= l and lim g(x)=m
x →a x →a
Where l and 𝑚 are finite quantities

lim lim lim
• x→a {(f(x)+g(x)}= x→a f(x)+ x→a g(x)= l +m.
Therefore, the limit of the sum of two functions is equal to the sum of their limits.
lim lim lim
• x→a {(f(x)-g(x)}= x→a f(x) - x→a g(x)= l - m.
Therefore, the limit of the difference of two functions is always equal to the difference of their
limits.
lim lim lim

• x→a {(f(x).g(x)}= x→a f(x) . x→a g(x)= l m.
Therefore, the limit of the product of two functions is always equal to the product of their limits.
lim lim lim
• x→a {(f(x)/g(x)}= x→a f(x) / x→a g(x)= l /m.
Therefore, limit of the quotient of two functions is equal to the quotient of their limits.
• lim c = c where c is a constant
x →a
Therefore, limit of the constant is a constant.

lim lim
• x →a
c f(x)=c x→a f(x)
lim lim
• x→a F{f(x)}=F{ x→a f(x)}=F( l )
1 1
• lim 𝑥= lim → + (h>0)
x→0+ h →0 h
1 1
• lim 𝑥 = lim → − (h>0)
x→0− h →0 − h
∞ is an extreme large number known as infinity. Thus, lim 1 − x does not exist.
𝑥→0
x − 5x + 6
2
Ex6: Evaluate lim
x→2 x−2
Solution:
The function becomes undefined at x=2 as 2-2=0 and dividing anything by zero is
mathematically undefined. So
𝑥 2 − 5x + 6 lim 𝑥 2 − 5x + 6
𝑥→2
lim =
𝑥→2 𝑥−2 lim 𝑥 − 2
𝑥→2
= lim {(x-2)(x-3)/(x-2)}
x→2
= lim (x-3) ( x-2  0)

x→2
= 2 − 3 = −1
x − 2x +1
2
Ex7: Evaluate lim
x→2
x2 + 2
Solution:
lim ( x 2 − 2 x + 1)
x2 − 2 x + 1 x→2
lim =
x→2
x2 + 2 lim ( x 2 + 2 )
x→2
lim lim
x→2 x 2 + x→2 2x −1
=
lim x 2 + 2
x →2
(2) + 2  2 − 1
2
=
22 + 2
7
=
√6
Some Important Limits
Here are some important limits
lim (e − 1) =1
x
•
x→0 x
lim (a − 1) =loge a (a>0)
x
•
x→0 x
• lim log(1 + x) =1
x→0 x
1
• 1 (1 + x) x
lim (1 + ) x =e or lim =e
x→0 x x→0 x
lim x − a =nan-1
n n
•
x →a x−a
lim (1 + x) − 1 =n
n
•
x→0 x
➢ Number e is called exponential number, which is given by
𝑒 = 2.718281828 … … . . = 2.7183
The number e is one of the usual constants of mathematics.
➢ All logarithms in calculus are taken with respect to base ‘e’ which is
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥 = log𝑒 𝑥
x2 − 6 x + 9
Ex7: Evaluate lim , where
x →3 x −3
f(x)= x − 6 x + 9 . Also find 𝑓(3).

2
x −3
Solution:
The function is undefined at x=3 as division by zero is undefined. While considering the limit as
x → 3 near the number 3, the function is defined because when x → 3 , 𝑥 cannot be exactly
equal to 3 .i.e. 𝑥 − 3 ≠ 0 and apparently division by 𝑥 − 3 is permitted.
x2 − 6 x + 9 ( x − 3) 2
Now, lim = lim
x →3 x −3 x →3 x −3
= lim (𝑥 − 3) = 3 − 3 = 0.
x→3
0
𝑓(3) = 0 is undefined.
You may evaluate the left-hand and the right-hand limits as an exercise.
Ex8: A function is defined as follows
−3𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 < 0
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = {
2𝑥 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 > 0
Test the existence of lim f(x).
x→0
Solution:
For x approaching 0 from the left x<0.
Left-hand limit = lim f(x)= lim (-3x)=0
x→0− x→0−
When x approaches 0 from the right x>0

Right-hand limit = lim f(x)= lim 2x=0.
x→0+ x→0+
Since, L.H limit =R.H limit, the limit exists. Thus, lim f(x)=0.
x→0
5.4 CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS—EXAMPLES, ALGEBRAIC OPERATIONS ON

CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS
Notion of Continuity
• Intuitively, a function is continuous in its domain if the graph of the function is the curve
which continues without breaks or jumps throughout its domain and a function is continuous
at a point in its domain if the graph of the function does not breaks or jumps anywhere
nearby the point.
• Considering the graph of f(x), it is clear from the graph that f(x) is not defined at x=a.
• Hence, there is a gap in the curve y=f(x).
• So f(x) is not continuous at x=a .We can also see that L=R i.e. lim f(x) = lim f(x) and so lim
x →a − x →a + x →a
f(x) exists.
• Thus, the continuity of f(x) at x=a is destroyed, if lim f(x) exists but f(x) is not defined at x=a.
x →a
Algebra of Continuous Functions

Relating to the continuity of the sum, difference, product and quotient of the functions, there are
following theorems.
Theorem: Let f and g be two real functions at x=a. Let α be a real number. Then,
• f+g is continuous at x=a
• f-g is continuous at x=a
• αg is continuous at x=a
• fg is continuous at x=a
𝟏
• is continuous at x=a, provided that f(a)≠0
𝒇
𝒇
• is continuous at x=a, provided that g(a)≠0.
𝒈
Proof:
Since g and f are continuous at x=a. Therefore,
lim f(x)=f(a) and lim g(x)=g(a).
x →a x →a
(i) We have,
lim (f+g)(x)= lim [f(x)+g(x)]
x →a x →a
 lim (f+g)(x)= lim f(x) + lim g(x)

x →a x →a x →a
 lim (f+g)(x)= f(a)+g(a)

x →a
 lim (f+g)(x)=(f+g)(a)
x →a
 f+g is continuous at x=a.

(ii) We have,
lim (f-g)(x)= lim [f(x)-g(x)]
x →a x →a
 lim (f-g)(x)= lim f(x) - lim g(x)

x →a x →a x →a
 lim (f-g)(x)= f(a)-g(a)

x →a
 lim (f-g)(x)=(f-g)(a)
x →a
 f-g is continuous at x=a.

(iii) We have,
lim (αf)(x)= lim αf(x)
x →a x →a
 lim (αf)(x)=α lim f(x)

x →a x →a
 lim (αf)(x)=αf(a)
x →a
αf is continuous at x=a. [ lim f(x)=f(a)]

x →a
5.5 DERIVATIVE OF FUNCTION AT A POINT, GEOMETRICAL AND PHYSICAL

INTERPRETATION OF A DERIVATIVE APPLICATIONS
Geometrical Interpretation of Derivative at a Point
Let us assume 𝑓(𝑥) to be a differentiable function. Consider the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).
Let P(c, f(c)) be a point on the curve y=f(x) and let Q(c+h, f(c+h)) be a nearby point on the curve
y=f(x).
Slope of the chord PQ=tan ∠QPN
= f ( c + h ) − f (c )
𝑄𝑁
=> 𝑃𝑁 h
Taking lim as Q → P as h → 0 , we have lim (slope of chord PQ)= lim f (c + h) − f (c)
Q→P h→0 h
As, Q → P , chord PQ tends to the tangent to y=f(x) at a point P.
Therefore, from (i), we have
Slope of the tangent at P= lim f (c + h) − f (c)
h→0 h
 Slope of the tangent at P= f (c ) i.e., tan ψ = f ' (c )
'
Where ψ shows the tangent inclined to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at the point, (𝑐, 𝑓(𝑐)) with the x-axis.
Therefore, the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) at a point 𝑥 = 𝑐 is the slope of the tangent to the curve 𝑦 =
𝑓(𝑥) at the point (𝑐, 𝑓(𝑐)).
−1 1
Ex9: Find the value of the slope of the tangent to the curve y=x2 at ( 2 , 4).
Solution:
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 . Then 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is the given curve.
−1 1 1
It can be seen clearly, that the slope of the tangent to the curve at ( 2 , 4) is equal to the 𝑓 ′ (2)
−1
which is the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = .
2
1 1
f ( − + h) − f ( − )
Now, f ' ( −1) = lim 2 2
h→0
2 h
1 1
−1 = lim (− 2 + h) − (− 2 )
2 2
 '
f ( )
2 h→0 h
1 1
( − h + h2 ) −
 ' −1 = lim 4 4
f ( )
2 h→0 h
−1 = lim ( h − h) = lim h-1=-1.

2
 f '( )
2 h→0 h h→0
−1 1
Therefore, the slope of the tangent to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 at point ( 2 , 4) equals to -1.
This reflects that the tangent makes the angle of 135 o with the positive direction of the x-axis.
Physical Interpretation of Derivative at a Point
Suppose a particle to be moving from OX in a linear line from the point O to X as demonstrated
in the figure.
Certainly, at any time t, the position of the particle depends upon the elapsed time. In another
sense, the distance between the particle from point O depends on the time, i.e., it is a function f
of time taken ‘t’ by the particle.
Suppose, at any time t0 i.e., at the time t= t0 the particle is at point P and after some time the
particle is at h i.e. at time 𝑡 = 𝑡0 + ℎ, it is at Q.
𝑂𝑃 = 𝑓(𝑡0 ) and 𝑂𝑄 = 𝑓(𝑡0 + ℎ)
Distance covered in time ℎ = 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑂𝑄 − 𝑂𝑃
= 𝑓(𝑡0 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑡0 )
𝑃𝑄
Hence, during the journey the average speed of the particle from P to Q = ℎ
f(𝑡0 +h)−f(𝑡0 )
= ℎ
As h →0, we observe that Q→P
(Instantaneous speed at time t=t0)
f(t0+h)−f(t0)
= lim = f ' (t0 )
h→0 ℎ
Accordingly, if f(t) gives the distance of a moving particle at time t, then f ' (t0 ) i.e., the derivative
of f at t= t0 represents the immediate speed of the particle at time t = t0 or at the point P.
Ex10: The distance f(t) in meters travelled by a particle in a straight line in t seconds is given by
f(t)=t2+3t+4. What will be the speed of the particle at the end of 2 seconds?
Solution:
We have, f(t)=t2+3t+4
The speed of the particle at the end of 2 seconds is given by f ' (2) .i.e., the derivative of f(t) at
t=2.
Now,
f (2 + h) − f (2)
f ' (2) = lim
h→0 h
 f ' (2) = lim {(2 + h) − 3(2 + h) + 4} − {2 + 3  2 + 4}
2 2
h→0 h
(h + 7h + 14) − 14
2
 f ' (2) = lim
h →0 h
 = lim h + 7h
2
h →0 h
 f ' (2) = lim h+7=7
h→0
Therefore, at the end of 2 seconds the speed of the particle is 7 m/sec.

5.6 DERIVATIVES OF SUM, PRODUCT AND QUOTIENT OF FUNCTIONS
➢ Differentiation rules: The derivative of the sum or difference of two functions.
The derivative of the sum of two differentiable functions equals the sum of their derivatives.
The derivative of the difference of two differentiable functions equals the difference of their
derivatives. Then,
𝑑
[𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥 )] = 𝑓′(𝑥) ± 𝑔′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
Ex11: Find out the derivative of the function f(x)=mx+c.
Solution:
f’(x)=(mx)’+c’=mx’+0=m,f’(x)=m
Ex12: Find out the derivative of the function
𝑓(𝑥) = − 2 x3 1
+ x 2 − 3x + 5
3
Solution:
1
f’(x)= −2.3x 2 + .2 x − 3.1 + 0 f’(x)
3
2
=-6x2+3x-√3
The product rule: If x has two functions, u and v then the derivative of the product uv is given
by
𝑑(𝑢𝑣) 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
=𝑢 +𝑣
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
In words, this can be said as “The derivative of a product of two functions is the first times the
derivative of the second plus the second times the derivative of the first.”
Ex13: If we have a product like
Y=(2x2+6x)((2x3+5x2)
We can find out the derivative without even multiplying the expression on the right.
Solution:
We use the substitution u=2x2+6x and v=2x3+5x2
Here, we can apply the product rule.
=𝑢 +𝑣
𝑑𝑣 2
We first find 𝑑𝑥 =6x +10x
𝑑𝑢
And 𝑑𝑥 = 4𝑥 + 6
Then we can write = 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
=(2x2+6x)(6x2+10x)+(2x3+5x2)( 4𝑥 + 6)
=20x4+88x3+90x2
5.7 DIFFERENTIATION OF A FUNCTION WITH RESPECT TO ANOTHER FUNCTION
Let 𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑣 = 𝑔(𝑥) be two functions of x. Then, to find out the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) w.r.t.
𝑑𝑢
(𝑥). i.e., to find 𝑑𝑣 we use the following formula
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢/𝑑𝑥
=
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑥
Thus, to find the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) w.r.t. 𝑔(𝑥), we have to first differentiate the both with respect
to 𝑥 and then divide the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) w.r.t. 𝑥 by the derivative of 𝑔(𝑥) w.r.t. 𝑥
Ex14: Differentiate 1 + x2 − 1 − x2 respect to cos −1 x 2
tan −1{ } with
1+ x + 1− x
2 2
Solution:
Let u= tan −1{ 1 + x − 1 − x } and v= cos −1 x 2

2 2
1 + x2 + 1 − x2
Putting x2=cos  we get
u= tan −1{ 1 + cos  − 1 − cos  }
1 + cos  + 1 − cos 
 u= tan −1{ 2 cos  / 2 − 2sin  / 2}

2 2
2
2 cos  / 2 + 2sin  / 2
2
cos  / 2 − sin  / 2
 u= tan −1{ }
cos  / 2 + sin  / 2
1 − tan  / 2
 u= tan −1{ }
1 + tan  / 2
[Dividing the numerator and denominator by cos / 2 ]
 
 u= tan −1{tan( − )}
4 2
 u=  1 =  1 −1 2
−  − cos x
4 2 4 2
[ x 2 = cos   = cos −1 x ]
du −1 −2 x x
 =  =
dx 2 1 − x4 1 − x4
dv −2 x
And v= cos −1 x 2  =
dx 1 − x4
𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥 1
So, = 𝑑𝑣 = −2
𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑥
5.8 DERIVATES OF COMPOSITE FUNCTION

In this part, we will learn about the differentiation of composition of two functions, then f g is
also differentiable and
( f g )' ( x) = f ' ( g ( x)).g ' ( x)
𝑑
Or, 𝑑𝑥 {( f g )(x)}
𝑑 𝑑
=𝑑𝑔(𝑥){{( f g )(x)}.𝑑𝑥 (g(x))
Ex15: Differentiate the following functions w.r.t. x

log sin x2
Solution:
We have, Let y=log sin x2
Putting v=x2 and u=sin x2=sin v, we get
Y=log u, u=sin v and v=x2
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
 = 𝑢 , 𝑑𝑣 = cos 𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 2𝑥
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
Now, = 𝑑𝑢 × 𝑑𝑣 × 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1 1
 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢 × cos 𝑣 × 2𝑥 = sin 𝑣 cos 𝑣 × 2𝑥
[ u=sin v]
𝑑𝑦
 𝑑𝑥 =cot v .2x=2x cot x2 [ v=x2]
𝑑
Hence, 𝑑𝑥 (Log sin x2 )=2x cot x2
5.9 SECOND ORDER DERIVATIVES
• The second order derivative of a function is the derivative of that function. We write it as
2
f '' ( x) or as d f .
dx 2
• While the first derivative helps us to identify if the function is increasing or decreasing, the
second derivative tells us whether the first derivatives is increasing or decreasing.
• If the second derivative is positive, then the first derivative is increasing, so that the slope of
the tangent line to the function is increasing as x increases.
• We can observe this phenomenon graphically as the curve of the graph is concave up that
is, shaped like a parabola open in the upward direction.
• In the same way, if the second derivative is negative, then the first derivative is reduced. So
that the slope of the tangent line to the function is decreasing as x increases.
• In the graphic representation, we see this as the curve of the graph is concave down that is,
shaped like a parabola open in the downward direction.
• At the point where the second derivative is zero, we do not conclude anything about the
shape of the graph: it may be concave up or concave down, or it may be changing from
concave up to concave down or changing from concave down to concave up.
• So, in short:
2
➢ If d 2f (p)>0 at x=p, then f(x) is concave up at x=p.
dx
2
➢ If d 2f (p)<0 at x=p, then f(x) is concave down at x=p.
dx
2
➢ If d 2f (p)=0 at x=p, then we do not know anything new about the behavior of f(x) at x=p
dx
• Considering an example of figuring out and using the second derivatives of a function take
f(x)=3x3-6x2+2x-1 as above.
• Then, the second derivatives of f’(x)=9x2-12x+2, f’’(x)=18x-12 so at x=0, the second
derivative of f(x) is -12, so we know that the graph of f(x) is concave down at x=0.
• Likewise, at x=1, the second derivative of f(x) is f”(1)=18.1-12 =18 -12=6.
• Therefore, the graph of f(x) is concave up at x=1.
5.10 INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS
In the following chapter, we will study the monotonicity of the functions.
• If the value of 𝑓(𝑥) increase or decrease with the increase or decrease in x, function 𝑓(𝑥) is
said to be montonically increasing on [a, b].
• With an increase in the value of 𝑓 (𝑥 ), the values of 𝑓(𝑥) decrease, then 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be
monotonically decreasing function.
• In function [a, b] the monotonicity is strongly related to the sign of its derivative I[a, b].
• To determine the intervals of monotonicity of a function in its domain, we shall be solving the
inequations f ' ( x) > 0 and f ' ( x) <0. So,
We will first discuss the procedure of solving the inequations in the following portion.
The following are results which help in solving rational algebraic inequations:
➢ ab>0  (a>0 and b>0) or (a<0 and b<0)
➢ ab<0  (a>0 and b<0) or (a<0 and b>0)
➢ ab>0 and a>0  b>0

➢ ab<0 and a<0  b>0
If P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials, then the inequations P ( x ) >0, P ( x ) <0 and P ( x ) ≥0 and P ( x ) ≤0
Q( x) Q( x) Q( x) Q( x)
are known as rational algebraic inequations.
1 4
Ex16: Solve − >0, x≠-1,-2
x + 1 (2 + x) 2
Solution:
1 4
We have, −
x + 1 (2 + x) 2
= (2 + x) − 4( x +21) =
2
x2
( x + 1)(2 + x) ( x + 1)(2 + x)2
1 4 x2
 − >0  >0
x + 1 (2 + x) 2 ( x + 1)(2 + x)2
x 2 1 1
( ) .( ) >0  ( ) >0 and x≠0
2+ x x +1 x +1
x 2
[ ( ) >0 and if a>0, then ab>0  b>0]
2+ x
𝑎
 x+1>0 and x≠0 [ 𝑏
>0 and a>0  b>0]
 x>-1 and x≠0
 x  (−1, 0)  (0, )
Hence, the solution set of the given in equation is (−1, ) .
Strictly Increasing Functions
A function f(x) is said to be strictly increasing function on (a, b), if

x1<x2  f(x1)<f(x2) for all x1, x2  (a, b)
Thus, f(x) is strictly increasing on (a, b) if the values of f(x) increase with an increase in the
values of x.
Graphically, f(x) is increasing on (a, b) if the graph y=f(x) moves up as x moves to the right.
Strictly Decreasing Functions
A function f(x) is said to be strictly decreasing function on (a, b), if

x1<x2  f(x1)>f(x2) for all x1,x2  (a, b)
Thus, f(x) is strictly decreasing on (a, b) if the values of f(x) decrease with an increase in the
values of x.
Graphically, it concludes that f(x) is decreasing on (a, b) if the graph moves in the downward
direction as x moves to the right.
Ex17: Show that the function f(x)=-3x+12 is strictly decreasing function on R.
Solution:
Let x1, x2  R and x1<x2 .Then x1<x2

 - 3x1>-3x2
 - 3x1+12>-3x2+12
 f(x1)>f(x2)
Thus, x1<x2  f(x1)>f(x2) for all x1, x2  R
So, f(x) is a strictly decreasing function in R.
5.11 FIRST DERIVATIVE TEST FOR LOCAL MAXIMA AND MINIMA
In the earlier part, we have identified that an extreme point (point of local maximum and
minimum) either the derivative of the function does not exist or in case if exists, it must be equal
to 0.
We have seen that if point a is of local maximum value of a function f, then there exists a
neighborhood (a −  , a +  ) of a such that
f ' ( x ) >0 for all x  (a −  , a )
And f ' ( x) <0 for all x  (a, a +  )
In such a case, a is a point of the local minimum value of function f, then a neighborhood
( a −  , a +  ) exists of a such that
f ' ( x ) <0 for all x  (a −  , a )
And f ' ( x ) >0 for all x  (a, a +  )
THEOREM 1: (First derivative test)
Let f be a differentiable function defined in an interval I and let a  I. Then,
➢ 𝑥 = 𝑎 is a point of local maximum value of 𝑓, if

• 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = 0 and
• 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) change the sign from positive to negative as x increase through a, i.e., 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) > 0 at
every point which is sufficiently close to and to the left of a, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) < 0 at every point
sufficiently close to and to the right of a.
➢ 𝑥 = 𝑎 is a point of local minimum value of f , if
• 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = 0 and
• 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) change the sign from negative to positive as x increase through a, i.e., 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 )<0 at
every point which is sufficiently close to and to the left of a, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) >0 at every point
sufficiently close to and to the right of a.
• If 𝑓 ′ (𝑎)=0 and 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) do not change the sign as x increase through a, that is 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) has the
same sign in the complete neighborhood of a, then a is neither a point of local maximum
nor a point of local minimum value. In fact, such a point is called a point of inflexion.
Ex18: Find out all the points of local maxima and local minima of the following function:
f(x)=x3-6x2+12x-8.
Solution:
Let y=f(x)=x3-6x2+12x-8. Then,
𝑑𝑦
=3x2-12x+12=3(x-2)2
𝑑𝑥
For a local maximum or a local minimum, we have
𝑑𝑦
= 0  3(x-2)2=0  x=2.
𝑑𝑥
To check whether x=2 is a point of local maximum, let us take two points in the left and the right
neighborhoods of x=2.
We observe that,
𝑑𝑦
> 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑛𝑏𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 = 2
𝑑𝑥
And
𝑑𝑦
> 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑛𝑏𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 = 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Thus, does not change sign as an increase through x=2. Hence x=2, it is neither a point of
𝑑𝑥
local maximum nor a point of local minimum. In reality, it is a point of inflexion.
Higher Order Derivative Test
As we have already seen in the earlier section that figuring out the local maximum or local
minimum by the first derivative test is a time consuming and tedious for the beginners, because
it has been slightly difficult determining the change in the sign of 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) as x increases through
the points given by 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)=0.
We have another test as the higher order derivative test that allows us to find the points of local
maxima or local minima more quickly and conveniently.
THEOREM: (Higher order derivative test)
Let f be a differentiable function on an interval I and let c be an interior point of I such that
f ' (c) = f '' (c) = f ''' (c) = ....... f n −1 (c) = 0 and f (c) exists and is non-zero. Then,
n
• If n is even and 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑐 ) < 0 => x=c is a point of local maximum.

• If n is even and 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑐 ) > 0 => x=c is a point of local minimum.
• If n is odd => x=c, it is neither a point of local maximum nor a point of local minimum.
Ex19: Find out all the points of local maxima and local minima and their corresponding
maximum and minimum values of the function
f(x)=2x3-21x2+36x-20
Solution:
We have, 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 21𝑥 2 + 36𝑥 − 20
=> 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = 6𝑥 2 − 42𝑥 + 36
To find out local maximum or local minimum we must have,
f ' ( x) = 0  6 x 2 − 42 x + 36
 (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 6)= 0 => 𝑥 = 1,6.
Thus 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = 6 are the possible points of local maxima or minima.
Now, we have to test the function at each of these points.
We have, 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥)=12x-42
At 𝑥 = 1: we have 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 12 − 42 = −30 < 0
So, 𝑥 = 1 is a point of local maximum.
The local maximum value is 𝑓(1) = 2 − 21 + 36 − 20 = −3.
At 𝑥 = 6: we have,
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 12(6) − 42 = 30 > 0
So, x=6 is a point of local minimum.
The local minimum value is
𝑓 (6) = 2(6)3 − 21(6)2 + (36 × 6) − 20
= −128
Formula Table
➢ If z=f(y) and y=g(x), then 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑦 . 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦
or ➢ The differentiation of tan-1 x with respect to
𝑑
Derivative of z w.r.t. x=(Derivative of z w.r.t. x is 1 2 i.e., (tan-1 x)= 1 2
1+ x 𝑑𝑥 1+ x
y) × (Derivative of y w.r.t. x) ➢ The differentiation of cot-1 x with respect to
➢ If x  (−1,1) , then the differentiation of sin x
-1
x is −1 2 i.e., 𝑑𝑥 (cot-1 x)= −1 2
𝑑
with respect to x is 1 1+ x 1+ x
1 − x2 ➢ If x  R − [−1,1] , then the differentiation of
𝑑 1
-1
i.e., 𝑑𝑥 (sin x)= for x  ( −1,1) 1
1 − x2
sec-1 x with respect to x is i.e.,
| x | x2 −1
➢ If x  (−1,1) , then the differentiation of cos-1 x 𝑑
(sec-1 x)= 1 ,for x  R − [−1,1]
with respect to x is −1 𝑑𝑥
| x | x2 −1
1 − x2
If x  R − [−1,1] , then the differentiation of cosec-
i.e.,
𝑑 -1
(cos x)= −1 for x  (−1,1)
𝑑𝑥 −1
1 − x2 1
x with respect to x is
| x | x2 −1
1. What is the solution of the differential equation 3𝑒 𝑥 tan y dx + (1+𝑒 𝑥 ) 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 y dy =0?
(a) (1+𝑒 𝑥 ) 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑦 = 𝑐 (b) (1 + 𝑒 𝑥 )3 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑦 = 𝑐
(c) (1 + 𝑒 𝑥 )2 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑦= c (d) (1 + 𝑒 𝑥 )sec 2 𝑦 = 𝑐
Solution: (b)
3𝑒 𝑥 tan y dx + (1+𝑒 𝑥 ) 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 y dy =0

By separating the variable we get
−(1+𝑒 𝑥 )𝑠𝑒𝑐 2y
3𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑑𝑦
tan y
3𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 y
⇒(1+𝑒 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = − tan y dy
Integrate on both sides
3𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 y
⇒∫ (1+𝑒 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ tan y 𝑑𝑦 = 0
⇒ 3 log (1+𝑒 𝑥 ) + log tan y = log c
⇒ Log (1+𝑒 𝑥 )3 tan y = log c
⇒ (1+𝑒 𝑥 )3 tan y = c
2. What is the differential equation for 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑎)?
(a) yy’ – 2xyy’ + y² = 0 (b) yy’ (yy’ + 2x) + y² = 0
(c) yy’(yy’ – 2x) + y² = 0 (d) yy’ – 2xyy’ + y = 0
Solution: (c)
Given curve is 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑎) …. (i)
On differentiating w.r.t x, we get
2yy’ = 4a
𝑦𝑦′
⇒a= 2
On putting the value of a in (i) we get
𝑦𝑦 ′ 𝑦𝑦′
𝑦 2 = 4 ( ) (𝑥 − ) = 𝑦𝑦 ′ (2𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦′)
2 2
⇒yy’ (yy’-2x) + 𝑦 2 =0
3. What is the degree of the differential equation?
𝑑²𝑦 𝑑𝑦 3
√
− 1+( ) =0
𝑑𝑥² 𝑑𝑥
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 6
Solution: (b)
Given differential equation is
√
− 1+( ) =0
𝑑𝑥² 𝑑𝑥
⇒𝑑𝑥² = √1 + (𝑑𝑥 )
On squaring both the sides,
2 3
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑2𝑦
( 2) = 1 + ( 2)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Since, degree of the differential equation is the power of highest order derivative.
Therefore from above it is clear that degree of equation is 2.
𝑑𝑁(𝑡)
4. The growth of a quantity N(t) at any instant t is given by = 𝛼𝑁(𝑡). Given that N(t) =𝑐𝑒 𝑘𝑡 , c
𝑑𝑡
is a constant. What is the value of?
(a) c (b) k
(c) c+k (d) c-k

Solution: (b)
Given N (t) = 𝑐𝑒 𝑘𝑡
Diff. both side w.r.t ‘t’
𝑑𝑁(𝑡) 𝑑
= 𝑑𝑡 𝑐𝑒 𝑘𝑡 = 𝑘(𝑐𝑒 𝑘𝑡 ) = k [N (t)]
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁(𝑡)
But = 𝛼𝑁(𝑡)⇒𝛼 = 𝑘
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
5. What is the solution of the differential equation (𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑦) = 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥 ?
(a) 𝑥 2 = 𝑘𝑦𝑒 𝑦/𝑎 (b) 𝑦𝑥 2 = 𝑘𝑦𝑒 𝑦/𝑎
(c) 𝑦 2 𝑥 2 = 𝑘𝑦𝑒 𝑦²/𝑎 (d) None of the above
Solution: (d)
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Given differential equation (𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑦) = 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
⇒𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = −2𝑎𝑦
𝑑𝑦
⇒ (xy – ax) = 2𝑎𝑦
𝑑𝑥
⇒ X(y – a) dy = 2ay dx
(𝑦−𝑎) 2𝑎
⇒ 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑦 𝑥
𝑎 2𝑎
⇒(1 − 𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
𝑎 2𝑎
dy = 𝑑𝑦 − (𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
Integrate on the both sides
1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑎 ∫ 𝑑𝑦 = 2𝑎 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑦 𝑥
Y – a log y = 2a log x +log c
⇒𝑥 2 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑒 𝑦/𝑎
2
𝑑𝑦 4 𝑑2 𝑦
6. What is the degree of the differential equation (1 + 𝑑𝑥 ) = ( 𝑑𝑥 2 ) ?
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 4 (d) 8
Solution: (b)
The given differential equation is
2
𝑑𝑦 4 𝑑2𝑦
(1 + ) = ( 2 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
From above it is clear that degree of given differential equation is 2.
Because degree is the power of highest order derivative.
7. What is the general solution of (1 + 𝑒 𝑥 )𝑦𝑑𝑦𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ?
(a)𝑦 2 = 𝑙n[𝑐 2 (𝑒 𝑥 + 1)2 ] (b) 𝑦 = 𝑙n[𝑐(𝑒 𝑥 + 1)]
(c) 𝑦 2 = 𝑙n[𝑐(𝑒 𝑥 + 1)] (d) None of these
Solution: (a)
The given differential equation is
(1 + 𝑒 𝑥 )𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
By separating the variable, we get
𝑒𝑥
Ydy = 1+𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Integrating on both the sides,

𝑒𝑥
⇒∫ 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 1+𝑒 𝑥 dx
⇒𝑦 2 = 2 log[𝑐(1 + 𝑒 𝑥 )]
⇒𝑦 2 = log[𝑐 2 (1 + 𝑒 𝑥 )²]
8. Which one of the following is differential equation to family of circles having centre at the
origin?
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
(a) (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑥𝑦 (b) (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑥𝑦
𝑑𝑦 (d) 𝑥𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 0
(c) 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )
Solution: (d)
The equating of family of circles having centers at the origins is
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟2
Where ‘r’ is the radius
Differentiate both side w.r.t. x, we get
𝑑𝑦
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑥
2𝑥𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑥𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑦
9. What does the solution of differential equation 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦 represent?
(a) Family of straight lines through the (b) Family of circles with their centers at the
origin origin
(c) Family of parabolas with their vertices (d) Family of straight lines having slope 1 and
at the origin not passing through the origin
Solution: (a)
𝑑𝑦
𝑥 =𝑦
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
=
𝑦 𝑥
Integrate both the sides, we get
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
∫ =∫
𝑦 𝑥
⇒log y = log x+ log c
⇒ y = xc
𝑑𝑦
10. What does the differential equation 𝑦 + 𝑥 = 𝑘 represents?
𝑑𝑥
(a) A family of circles having centre on (b) A family of circles having centre on the x-axis
the y-axis
(c) A family of circles touching the x-axis (d) A family of ellipses.
Solution: (b)
𝑑𝑦
Given differential equation 𝑦 +𝑥 =𝑘
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
⇒𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 − 𝑥
⇒ydy = (k-x) dx
Integrate on both sides we get
∫ 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = ∫(𝑘 − 𝑥 )𝑑𝑥

𝑦2 𝑐2
⇒ 2 = 𝑘𝑥 − +𝑐
2
⇒𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑘𝑥 − 𝑐 = 0
11. What is the differential equation to family of parabolas having their vertices at the origin and
foci on the x-axis?
(a) y = 2xy’ (b) x = 2yy’
(c) xy = y’ (d) x = yy’
Solution: (a)
Let the equation of parabola is
𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥…..(i)
On differentiating w.r.t, x, we get
2yy’ = 4a’
⇒ (1/2) y = a
Put the value of ‘a’ (i) we get
4
𝑦 2 = 𝑦𝑦′𝑥
2
𝑑𝑦 1−𝑦²
12. What is the solution of the differential equation + √1−𝑥² = 0 ?
𝑑𝑥
(a) 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑦 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 = 𝐶 (b) 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑦 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 = 𝐶
(c) 2𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑦 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 = 𝐶 (d) 2𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑦 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 = 𝐶
Solution: (a)
The differential equation is
𝑑𝑦 1−𝑦 2
+ √1−𝑥 2 = 0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1−𝑦 2
⇒𝑑𝑥 = −√1−𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦 −𝑑𝑦
⇒ = √1−𝑥 2
√1−𝑦 2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
⇒∫ + ∫ √1−𝑥 2 = 0
√1−𝑦 2
⇒𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑦 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 = 𝑐
−1
13. What is the differential equation of all parabolas whose axes are parallel to y axe?
𝑑3 𝑦 𝑑3 𝑥
(a) 𝑑𝑥 3 = 0 (b) 𝑑𝑦 2 = 𝐶
𝑑3 𝑦 𝑑3 𝑦
(c) 𝑑𝑌 3 = 1 (d) 𝑑𝑥 3 = 𝐶
Solution: (a)
The general equation of all parabolas where axes are parallel to y axis is
𝑦 2 = 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 ….. (i)
Where A, B and C are arbitrary constants
On differentiating (i) w.r.t. x, we get
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
= 2𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 …. (ii)
On differentiating (ii) w.r.t. x, we get
𝑑²𝑦
= 2𝐴 ……. (iii)
𝑑𝑥²
On differentiating (iii) w.r.t. x, we get

𝑑3𝑦
=0
𝑑𝑥 3
𝑑𝑦 𝑎𝑥+3
14. If the solution of the differential equation 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑦+𝑓 represents a circle, then what is the
value of a?
(a) 2 (b) 1
(c) -2 (d) -1
Solution: (c)
Given differentiate equation is
𝑑𝑦 𝑎𝑥 + 3
=
𝑑𝑥 2𝑦 + 𝑓
(2y+f) dy = (ax+3) dx
Integrate on both sides,
∫(2𝑦 + 𝑓)𝑑𝑦 = ∫(𝑎𝑥 + 3)𝑑𝑥
𝑎𝑥²
⇒𝑦 2 = 𝑓𝑦 = + 3𝑥
2
This equation represents a circle, if
𝑎
−1 = 2 ⇒ a = -2
15. What is the degree of the following differential equation?
2/3
𝑑3𝑦 𝑑3𝑦 𝑑𝑦
( 3) +4−3 2+5 =0
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 4
Solution: (b)
The given differential equation can be rewritten as
2 3
( 3) = ( 2 − 5 )
Degree of differential equation is 2.
𝑑𝑦
16. What does the differential equation 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 = 𝑎 represent?
(a) A set of circles having centre on the y- (b) A set of circles having centre on the x-
axis axis
(c) A set of ellipses (d) A pair of straight of the differential
equation
Solution: (b)
𝑦𝑑𝑦
+𝑥 =𝑎
𝑑𝑥
⇒Ydy + xdx = adx
Integrate on both sides, we get
⇒∫ 𝑦𝑑𝑦 + ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑎𝑑𝑥
𝑦2 𝑥2
⇒2 + = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
2
Where c is a constant of integration

⇒𝑦 2 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑐
This represents a circle whose centre is on the x –axis.
17. What is the degree of the differential equation?
2/3
( 3) +4−3 2
+5 =0
(a) 3 (b) 2
(c) 2/3 (d) Not defined
Solution: (b)
Degree of an equation is the power to which the highest derivative is raised when it is
expressed as polynomial of derivatives.
2/3
( 3) −3 2+5 +4 =0
2/3
( 3) =3 2
−5 −4
Cube on both sides,
2 3
( 3 ) = [3 2 − 5 − 4]
Hence degree = 2
18. What is the equation of the curve passing through the point (0, 𝜋/3) satisfying the differential
equation
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 𝑑𝑥+ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0?
√3 √3
(a) Cos x cos y = (b) Sin x sin y =
2 2
1 1
(c) Sin x sin y = 2 (d) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑦 = 2
Solution: (d)
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0
sin 𝑥 sin 𝑦
⇒cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cos 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Integrate on both sides
sin 𝑥 sin 𝑦
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑑𝑦
cos 𝑥 cos 𝑦
⇒ - log (cosx) = log (cos y) + log c
C is constant
−log c = log (cosy) +log (cosx)
1
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦 cos 𝑥 … (i)
𝑐
Since this curve passing through (0,𝜋/3)
1 𝜋
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 cos 0
𝑐 3
1 1
= 2 ∗ 1⇒ c=2
𝑐
Required equation of curve is cos x cos y = (1/2)
𝑑𝑦 𝑦
19. What is the solution of the differential equation𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 = 0?
(a) xy = c (b) x = cy
(c) y = cx (d) None of the above
Solution: (a)
𝑑𝑦 𝑦
+ =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 −𝑦 𝑑𝑦 −𝑑𝑥
⇒𝑑𝑥 + ⇒ =
𝑥 𝑦 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 −𝑑𝑥
⇒𝑦 = =0
𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
⇒∫ +∫ =0
𝑦 𝑥
⇒log y + log x =log c
⇒logxy = log c
⇒xy = c
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 −1
20. What is the degree of the differential equation = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + (𝑑𝑥 ) ?
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) -1 (d) Degree does not exist
Solution: (b)
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 −1
𝑦=𝑥 +( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Multiply by 𝑑𝑥 , we get
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2
+𝑥( ) +1 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Since power of highest order derivative is 2
Hence, Degree = 2
21. Which one of the following differential equation is not linear?
𝑑3 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
(a) 𝑑𝑌 2 + 4𝑦 = 0 (b) 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑥 3
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
(c) (𝑥 − 𝑦)² 𝑑𝑥 = 9 (d) 𝑐𝑜𝑠²𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
Solution: (a)
Differential equation given in option (a)
𝑑3𝑦
+ 4𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑌 2
22. Consider a differential equation of order m and degree n. Which one of the following pairs is
not feasible?
(a) (3, 2) (b) (2, 3/2)
(c) (2, 4) (d) (2, 2)
Solution: (b)
Degree of differential equation is always a positive integer.
∴2,32 cannot be the feasible.
23. The differential equation representing the family of curves y = a sin (𝛽𝑥 + 𝛼)
𝑑²𝑦 𝑑²𝑦
(a) 𝑑𝑥² +𝛽²y =0 (b) 𝑑𝑥² − 𝛽²y =0
𝑑²𝑦 (d) None of the above
(c) 𝑑𝑥² +𝛽y =0
Solution: (a)
y = a sin (𝛽𝑥 + 𝛼)
𝑑𝑦
= 𝛽𝑎 cos(𝛽𝑥 + 𝛼)
𝑑𝑥
Again differentiating on both side we get
𝑑²𝑦
= −𝛽²𝑎 sin( 𝛼𝑥 + 𝛼)
𝑑𝑥²
𝑑²𝑦
⇒𝑑𝑥² + 𝛽²𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑦
24. The differential equation 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 = 𝑎 where ‘a’ is any constant represents
(a) A set of straight lines (b) A set of ellipses
(c) A set of circles (d) None of the above
Solution: (c)
𝑑𝑦
𝑦 +𝑥 =𝑎
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
⇒𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 − 𝑥
⇒ydy = (a- x) dx
∫ y dy = ∫(a − x) dx
𝑦² 𝑥²
⇒ 2 = 𝑎𝑥 − +𝑘
2
⇒𝑥² + 𝑦² − 2𝑎𝑥 = 2𝑘
𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
25. For the differential equation (𝑑𝑥 ) − 𝑥 (𝑑𝑥 ) + 𝑦 = 0 which one of the following is not its
solution?
(a) y =x -1 (b) 4y = x²
(c) y = x (d) y = -x -1
Solution: (c)
𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
Given(𝑑𝑥 ) − 𝑥 (𝑑𝑥 ) + 𝑦 = 0
From the options only option (c) does not satisfy the given diff equation.
26. What is the general solution of the differential equation 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 = 0?
(a) x+y=c (b) xy =c
(c) c(x+y) =xy (d) None of the above
Solution: (c)
𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 = 0
⇒𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 = −𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
⇒𝑦2 + 𝑥 2 = 0
⇒∫ 𝑦 −2 + ∫ 𝑥 −2 = 0
𝑦 −2 +1 𝑦 −2+1
⇒ −2+1 + =𝑎
−2+1
−(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑎𝑥𝑦
⇒ C(x+y) =xy
27. What is the general solution of the differential equation 𝑒 𝑥 tan 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + (1 − 𝑒 𝑥 )𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 0?
(a) Sin y = c (1- 𝑒 𝑥 ) (b) Cos y = c (1- 𝑒 𝑥 )
(c) Cot y = c (1- 𝑒 𝑥 ) (d) None of the above
Solution: (d)
𝑒𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑑𝑦
1 − 𝑒𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑦
On integrating both the sides, we get
𝑒𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑦
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑑𝑦
1 − 𝑒𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑦
⇒−log (1 − 𝑒 𝑥 ) = −log (tany) +logc
⇒ Log (tan y) =log [c (1 − 𝑒 𝑥 )]
⇒ tan y = c (1 − 𝑒 𝑥 )
28. What is the degree of the differential equation
2/3
𝑑4 𝑦 𝑑3 𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
( 4) −5 +6 −8 + 5 = 0?
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
(a) 5 (b) 4
(c) 3 (d) 2
Solution: (c)
2/3
𝑑4𝑦 𝑑3𝑦 𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
( 4) −5 3+6 2−8 +5 =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2/3
𝑑4 𝑦 𝑑3 𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
⇒(𝑑𝑥 4 ) = 5 𝑑𝑥 3 − 6 𝑑𝑥 2 + 8 𝑑𝑥 − 5
3 5
𝑑4𝑦 𝑑3𝑦 𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
( 4 ) = (5 3 − 6 2 + 8 − 5)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
So, highest order derivative =4, degree =3
𝑑𝑦
29. The general solution of the differential equation 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦 = 0 is?
(a) xy = c (b) x = cy
(c) x+y = c (d) x²+y²= c
Solution: (a)
𝑑𝑦
Given the equation is 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 = 0
⇒xdy + y dy = 0
⇒xdy = - y dy
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
=−
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
On integrating both side we get
ln 𝑦 = − ln +𝑙𝑛𝑐
⇒ y = (c/x)
EXERCISE
𝑑𝑦 1
1. The degree and order respectively of the differential equation 𝑑𝑥 = are
𝑥+𝑦+1
(a) 1 (b) 1, 2
(c) 2, 1 (d) 2, 2
𝑥+6 𝑥+4
2. What is the value of lim (𝑥+1)
𝑥→∞
(a) 𝑒 (b) 𝑒 2
(c) 𝑒 4 (d) 𝑒 5
3. The differential equation of the curve y = sinx is
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
(a) 𝑑𝑥 2 + 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 = 0 (b) 𝑑𝑥 2 + 𝑦 = 0
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
(c) 𝑑𝑥 2 − 𝑦 = 0 (d) 𝑑𝑥 2 + 𝑥 = 0
(𝑥−1)2
4. What is the value of lim
𝑥→1 |𝑥−1|
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) -1 (d) The limit does not exist
5. Consider the following statements
1. Every function has a primitive.
2. A primitive of a function is unique.
𝑑𝑦
6. The general solution of the differential equation 𝑙𝑛 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 = 0 is?
(a) 𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑐 (b) 𝑦 = −𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑐
(c) 𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑐 (d) 𝑦 = −𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑐
7. The function 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 is
(a) Continuous for all values of 𝑥 (b) discontinuous everywhere
(c) Continuous for all 𝑥 except at 𝑥 = (d) continuous for all 𝑥 except at 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋/2,
𝑛𝜋, where n is an integer where n is an integer
8. Consider the following statements:
I. 𝑓(𝑥 ) = |𝑥 − 3| is continuous at 𝑥 = 0
II. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = |𝑥 − 3| is differentiable at 𝑥 = 0
(a) 1 only (b) II only
cos(𝑎𝑥)−cos(𝑏𝑥)
9. What is the value of lim ?
𝑥→0 𝑥2
(a) a-b (b) a+b
𝑏2 −𝑎 2 𝑏2 +𝑎 2
(c) (d)
2 2
𝑎 𝑥 −𝑏 𝑥
10. What is lim equal to?
𝑥→0 𝑥
(a) ln(𝑎𝑏) ln 𝑎
(b) ln 𝑏
𝑎 𝑏
(c) 𝑙𝑛 (𝑏 ) (d) 𝑙𝑛 (𝑎)
11. If the function

𝑥(𝑥 − 2)
𝑓 (𝑥 ) =
, 𝑥 ≠ ±2
𝑥2 − 4
is continuous at 𝑥 = 2, then what is 𝑓(2) equal to?
(a) 0 1
(b) 2
(c) 1 (d) 2
12. At how many points is the function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = [𝑥] discontinuous?
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) Infinite
2 3
13. If 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 3 𝑥 + 2 , 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅, then what is 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) equal to?
3 2 3 9
(a) 2 𝑥 + 3 (b) 2 𝑥 − 4
3 4 2 2
(c) 2 𝑥 + 9 (d) 3 𝑥 − 3
14. What is the value of 𝑘 for which the following function 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous for all 𝑥?
𝑥 3−3𝑥+2
, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≠ 1
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = { (𝑥−1)2
𝑘 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 1
(a) 3 (b) 2
(c) 1 (d) -1
15. What is the value of 𝑘 for which the following function f(x) is continuous for all x?
𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 2
, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≠ 1
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = { ( 𝑥 − 1)2
𝑘 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 1
(a) 3 (b) 2
(c) 1 (d) -1
16. Which one of the following is correct in respect of the function 𝑓(𝑥 ) = |𝑥 | + 𝑥 2 ?
(a) 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is not continuous at 𝑥 = 0 (b) 𝑓(𝑥 ) is differentiable at 𝑥 = 0
(c) 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is continuous but not differentiable at 𝑥 = 0 (d) None of the above
17. Consider the following in respect of the function f(x) = |𝑥 − 3|:
1. f(x) is continuous at x=3
2. f(x) is differentiable at x=0.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
1
18. What is lim 𝑥 2 sin (𝑥) equal to?
𝑥→0
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) 1/2 (d) Limit does not exist
𝑥+2
19. What is lim (𝑥 3+8) equal to?
𝑥→−2
(a) 1/4 (b) -1/4
(c) 1/12 (d) -1/12
20. If f[xy]=f[x]f[y], then f[t] may be of the form :

(a) t +k (b) ct +k
𝑘
(c) 𝑡 + 𝑐 (d) 𝑡 𝑘
21. Which one of the following functions is differentiable for all real values of x?
𝑥
(a) |𝑥| (b) 𝑥|𝑥 |
1 1
(c) |𝑥| (d) 𝑥
√1+𝑥−1
𝑥→0 𝑥
(a) 0 1
(b) 2
(c) 1 1
(d) − 2
2(1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)
𝑥→0 𝑥2
(a) 0 (b) ½
(c) ¼ (d) 1
24. Consider the following:
1
1. lim 𝑥 exists.
𝑥→0
1
2. lim 𝑒 𝑥 does not exist.
𝑥→0
𝑥2
25. Which one of the following is correct in respect of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| for 𝑥 ≠ 0 and f(0)=0 ?
(a) f(x) is discontinuous every where (b) f(x) is continuous every where
(c) f(x) is continuous at x=0 only (d) f(x) is discontinuous at x=0 only
ANSWER KEY
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (c)
11.(b) 12.(d) 13 (b) 14.(a) 15 (a) 16 (c) 17 (b) 18. (a) 19. (c) 20. (d)
21.(b) 22.(b) 23.(d) 24.(d) 25 (b)
6. INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

6.1 INTEGRATION AS INVERSE OF DIFFERENTIATION
The reverse process of differentiation is integration.
𝑑 𝑥 𝑛+1 (𝑛+1)𝑥 𝑛
We know, ( )= (𝑛+1)
or
𝑑𝑥 𝑛+1
𝑑 𝑥 𝑛+1
( ) = 𝑥𝑛 ……..[1]
𝑑𝑥 𝑛+1
The inverse operation of differentiation is integration and is denoted by the parable ∫
Hence, from equation [1] , It follows that
𝑥 𝑛+1
∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑛+1
𝑥 𝑛+1
i.e. Integral of 𝑥 𝑛 with respect to variable x is equal to 𝑛+1
(𝑥 𝑛+1 )
Thus, if we differentiate we get back 𝑥 𝑛
𝑛+1
(𝑥 𝑛+1)
Again, if we differentiate +c and c inborn a constant we obtain backing the same 𝑥 𝑛
𝑛+1
𝑑 𝑥 𝑛+1
i.e. 𝑑𝑥 [ 𝑛+1 + 𝑐] = 𝑥 𝑛
(𝑥 𝑛+1)
Hence ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛+1 +c and this c is called the constant of Integration.
Primarily, integral Calculus was invented for determining the place bounded by the curves dividing every
portion of the area into an infinite number of infinitesimal little areas and taking the quantity of all
these small areas.
6.2 INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION AND BY PARTS
Integration Methods: Two methods of integration are Integration by substitution and Integration by
parts.
Integration by substitution:
The process of integration is not as simple as the integration process and many times it may not be
possible to integrate many functions.
A given function is suitably substituted and changed to a standard form and this standard result is used
for integrating the function. This substitution while initially would be a guess work, but with lots of
practice, this would be easy to perform.
Ex1: What would be the integration for (5𝑥 + 7)8
Solution:
We shall try to reduce it to the standard form:  xn dx for this, the obvious way is to substitute=(5x+7)
Given integral I=  y8 dx
But ‘dx’ too will have to be changed to ‘dy’ otherwise integration will not be possible.
Since, y=(5x+7)
𝑑𝑦
∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 5
Or, dy = 5 x.dx , dx = dy
5
Therefore, I=  y dx =  y 8 . dy
8
1 1 8+1 9
=5  y8dx =5 y +C= y +C
8 +1 45
Putting back the value of y=5x +7, we get I=
(5𝑥+7)9
+ 𝐶.
45
Integration by Parts:
For two functions U and V, the integration of their products is given as
𝑑
∫ 𝑈. 𝑉𝑑𝑥 = 𝑈 ∫ 𝑉. 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ [ 𝑈 ∫ 𝑉. 𝑑𝑥] 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
That is, it is the difference of the product of the first function and the integral of the second function
from the integral of the product of the differential coefficient of the first function and integral of the
second function.
While either U or V can be considered as the first function, but the first function should be
differentiated and second function should be integrated.
For the above, the following points should be kept in mind.
• Since the second function is to be integrated, it should be an easy to integrate a function.
• The first function is differentiated, so it should be easy to differentiate, this makes the substitution
on the right hand side of the formula, resultant integration easier.
• The differential coefficient of unity is zero. So it can be taken as second function but it cannot be the
first function.
• If needed, the formula product could be applied more times.
Integration by parts is often used. The below integrations of the form
𝑥 𝑝 . sin 𝑞𝑥 ; 𝑥 𝑝 . cos 𝑞𝑥 ; 𝑒 𝑝𝑥 . sin 𝑞𝑥 ;
𝑥 𝑝 . 𝑒 𝑞𝑥 ; 𝑥 𝑝 . log 𝑥 ;
Also rule of integration by parts can be used for expressions having inverse trigonometric functions.
Ex2: Find  a 2 − x 2 dx
Solution:
Multiply and divide the given integral by a 2 − x2
I=  a 2 − x 2 dx =  a − x dx
2 2
2 2
a −x
2
a x2
= dx −  dx
a2 − x2 a2 − x2
=I1-i2
x x
I= a 2 sin −1 ( ) −  x dx
a a − x2
2
Now,  x x (integrate by parts)

dx
a − x2
2
Take x as the first term

x
x
x = x x 𝑑𝑥 −  [1. dx]
a2 − x2 a2 − x2 a2 − x2
[Put t= a 2 − x 2 dt = −2xdx ]
x 1 dt 1
 a2 − x2
dx = − 
2 t
= −  t −1/2 .dt
2
1
= − (−2).t1/2 = t1/2
2
x2
 I 2=  dx=x a 2 − x 2 -  a 2 − x 2 dx
a −x2 2
That is, I=  a 2 − x 2 dx = a 2 sin −1 ( x ) +x. a 2 − x2 -  a 2 − x 2 dx

a
Transferring the integral from left to right hand side, we finally get,
1 2 −1 x x
I=2 a sin ( ) + a 2 − x 2 +C
a 2
(Try directly by using a 2 − x 2 as the first function)
6.3 STANDARD INTEGRALS INVOLVING ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS, TRIGONOMETRIC, EXPONENTIAL
AND HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
Standard Integrals with examples are as follows: -
x n +1 x n +1 1
(i)  x n dx = + c, n  1 (If n=-1 = is not defined)
n +1 n +1 0
x1
(ii)  dx = x,sin ce  1dx =  x dx = = x
n
1
d x
(iii)  e x dx =e x + c, since e = e
x
dx
eax d e ax
(iv)  eax dx = + c, since ( ) = e ax
a dx a
d d 1
(v)  = log x + c , since  log x =
dx dx x
d ax
(vi)  a x dx = a x / log a + c ,since ( ) = ax
dx log a e
(vii)  cf ( x) = c  f ( x)dx where c is a constant
(ix)  { f ( x)  g ( x)} =  f ( x)dx   g ( x)dx
Remark: Since the differentiation of a constant is always zero, so in the answer for all integral sums we
add +c (constant of integration)
Ex3:  xdx
Solution:
x3/2 2 x3/2
 xdx = x + 1 /(1/2+1)=
1/ 2
= +c
3/ 2 3
Important Standard Formulas
dx 1 x−a
a)  2 2 = log
x −a 2a x+a
dx 1 a+x
b)  2 2 = log
a −x 2a a−x
dx
c)  = log( x + x 2 + a 2 )
x +a2 2
dx
d)  = log( x + x 2 − a 2 )
x −a
2 2
e)  e { f ( x) + f '( x)}dx = e x f ( x)
x
x 2 a2 x 2 a2
f)  x + a dx = x + a 2 + log( x + x 2 + a 2 )  x − a dx = x − a − log( x + x 2 − a 2 ) h)
2 2 2
2 2
g)
2 2 2 2
f '( x)
 f ( x) dx = log f ( x)
Example:
ex dz
 e2 x − 4 dx = z 2 − 22
1 ex − 2
where x= e x dz= e x dx = log( )+c
4 ex + 2
Ex4: Find  3x −2 2 x2+ 5 dx
2
  ( x − 1) ( x + 5) 
Solution:
Let 3x −2 2 x2+ 5 = A + Bx2 + C
2
( x − 1) ( x + 5) x − 1 ( x + 5)
So, 3 x 2 − 2 x + 5 = A( x 2 + 5) + ( Bx + C )( x − 1)
Equating the coefficients of x2, x and the constant terms from both sides we get,
A+B=3 ..(i)
C-B=-2 ..(ii)
5A-c=5 ..(iii)
By (i)+(ii)A+C=1 …(iv)
By (iii)+iv)6A=6 ...(v)
Or A=1
Therefore B=3-1=2 and C=0
Thus ,  3x −2 2 x2+ 5 dx
2
  ( x − 1) ( x
+ 5) 
= dx 2 x
x −1  x2 + 5
+ dx = log( x − 1) + log( x 2 + 5)
=log(x2+5)((x-1)+c.
Definite Integration
Suppose F(x)dx=f(x)
As x changes from a to b the value of integral changes from f(a) to f(b). This is as
b
 F ( x)dx = f (b) − f (a)

a
‘b’ is called the upper limit and ‘a’ is called the lower limit of integration. We shall first deal with
indefinite integral and then take up definite integral.
Important Properties
b b
I)

a
f ( x)dx =  f (t )dt
a
b a
II)

a
f ( x)dx = − f ( x)dx
b
b c b
  
III) f ( x)dx = f ( x)dx + f ( x)dx , a<c<b
a b c
a a
IV) f ( x)dx = f (a − x)dx
 
0 0
V) When 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑥) =

na a
 f ( x)dx = n f ( x)dx
0 0
a a
VI)
−a
 f ( x)dx = 2 f ( x)dx if f(-x)=f(x)
0
=0 if 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)
2
x 4 dx
Ex5: Find  a10 − x10 (a>2)
−2
Solution:
x 4 dx = x 4 dx
a10 − x10 (a5 )2 − ( x5 )2
Let x5=t so that 5x4dx=dt
x 4 dx 5 x 4 dx
 (a 5 ) 2 − ( x 5 ) 2 = 5  (a 5 ) 2 − ( x5 ) 2
Now 1
=1 dt
5 (a ) − (t ) 2
5 2
= 1 5 log a 5 + x5
5 5
[by standard formula b]
10a a −x
2 4
Therefore ,  10x dx10
−2
a −x
2 4
x dx
=2
a
0
10
− x10
[by prop.VI]
2
= 2  1 5 log  a5 + x5 
5 5
10a  a − x 0
1  a 5 + 32 
= log  a 5 − 32 
5a 5  
6.4 EVALUATION OF DEFINITE INTEGRALS — DETERMINATION OF AREAS OF PLANE REGIONS
BOUNDED BY CURVES
Area of Plane Region Bounded by Curves
Let us say the curve PRQ, and the curve PSQ are given as 𝑦1 = 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑦2 = 𝜙(𝑥)
Let P and Q be the points of intersection of the two curves. Now draw perpendiculars from P and Q to x-
axis meeting it at M and N respectively. So OM = m and ON =n.
The area between the curves PRQ and PSQ is PRQS area. So this is the difference of the area MPSQN
from the area MPRQN.
𝑛 𝑛
Area of PRQS = ∫𝑚 𝑓 (𝑥 ). 𝑑𝑥 − ∫𝑚 𝜙(𝑥 ). 𝑑𝑥
𝑛
= ∫𝑚[𝑓 (𝑥 ) − 𝜙(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥
Ex6: Find the area included between the two parabolas:

Y2=4x and x2=4y
Solution:
We are given two curves: Y2=4x and x2=4y
Substituting the value of y in the first equation, we obtain:
4
(
x 2 2 =4x
) ;or x − 4 x = 0
4 16
0r x(x3-64)=0
Either x=0 or x= √64=4
Hence the limits are x=0 and x=4, and
4 2
The required area = ( 4 x − x )dx
 0 4
3/2 3
x x 4 64 16
= [2. − ]04 = .(4)3/2 − = = 5.3
3 / 2 12 3 12 3
Ex7: Find the area above the axis of x bounded by 𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 4 = 0, 𝑥 = 3 and 𝑥 = 6
Solution:
We are given: 𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 4 = 0
𝑥
𝑦 = + 2
2
6
 Required area = ( x + 2)dx .
 3
2
2
1 x 33 51
= [ . + 2 x]36 = 21 − = ( ) = 12.75
2 2 4 4
Let start exploring the following question: ‘Evaluate the areas of the segments obtained between the x-
axis and the curve y = x(x − 1)(x − 2).’
To answer this question, we are required to draw a sketch of the curve, as the ordinates are not
mentioned, or values, of x.
To make the sketch, we see first that the curve crosses the x-axis when y = 0, in other words, when x = 0,
x = 1, and x = 2.
After that, when x is large and positive, we see that y is also large and positive.
Finally, when x is large and negative, we can see that y is also large and negative.
So we have to join up these features that we have discovered on the graph.
After that, the required area are obviously the area A between x = 0 and x = 1, and the area B between x
= 1 and x = 2. But in terms of position, there is a marked difference between these two areas. Above the
x axis is area A, whereas the area B is below it. In the earlier units, we have discussed only about the
usage of integration for calculating areas when the curve, and thus the area, is above the x-axis.
In this example, we shall play safe and calculate each area separately. We know that the area A is given
by the integral from x=0 to x=1 of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥;
1
A=  ydx
0
1
=  ( x3 − 3x 2 + 2 x)dx
0
x 4 3x3 2 x 2 1
=[ − + ]0
4 3 2
x4
= [ − x3 + x 2 ]10
4
1 0 1
= [ − 1 + 1] − [ − 0 + 0] = 4
4 4
6.5 DEFINITION OF ORDER AND DEGREE OF A DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION, FORMATION OF A
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION BY EXAMPLES
Order of a differential equation:
In a differential equation, the highest order of the derivative that appears in the equation is said to be
the order of the differential equation.
2
Example: In the equation, d y2 + 3 dy + 2 y = e x the order of highest order derivative is 2. So, it is a
dx dx
differential equation of order 2. The equation
d3y dy
3
− 6( ) 2 − 4 y = 0
dx dx
is of order 3, because the order of highest order derivative in it is 3.

Remark: The order of a differential equation is a positive integer.
Degree of a differential equation:
In a differential equation, when the differential coefficients are made from the fractions and the
radicals, the degree of the highest order derivative is said to be the degree of the differential equation.
When a differential equation is written as a polynomial in differential coefficients, the highest order
derivative’s power is said to be the degree of the differential equation.
Example: In the differential equation
𝑑3 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2
- 6 (𝑑𝑥 ) − 4𝑦 = 0,
𝑑𝑥 3
The highest order derivative’s power is 1. So the degree of this differential equation is 1.
Formation of differential equations
One parameter family of curves: In the family of curves represented by 𝑦 = 𝑃𝑒 𝑥 , different members of
the family of curves can be obtained for different values of the parameter P.
When this is differentiated with respect to x, we get
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑃𝑒 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Now if P is eliminated, considering both the above, i.e. 𝑦 = 𝑃𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑃𝑒 𝑥 , we get
𝑑𝑦
=𝑦
𝑑𝑥
So for the family of curves represented by 𝑦 = 𝑃𝑒 𝑥 , this is the differential equation.
So we get a first order differential equation, eliminating one constant. That is, we can say that first order
differential equation is used to represent the family of curves with one parameter.
Two parameter family of curves:
Let P and Q be two parameters arbitrary constants of a family of curves represented by
𝑦 = 𝑃 cos 2𝑥 + 𝑄 sin 2𝑥
Upon differentiating, it becomes
𝑑𝑦
= −2𝑃 sin 2𝑥 + 2𝑄 cos 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Again differentiating it, it becomes
𝑑2𝑦
= −4𝑦 𝑃 cos 2𝑥 − 4𝑄 sin 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2
Now If P and Q are removed from the above three equations, it becomes
𝑑2𝑦
= −4𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2𝑦
+ 4𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2
From this we can see that when two arbitrary constants are eliminated, a second order differential
equation is obtained.
That is second order differential equations are used to represent the family of curves with two
parameters.
This can be extended to say that the elimination of the three parameters from the family of curves gives
a third order differential equation.
So the third order differential equation represents a family of curves with three parameters.
This can be further extended to say that for a differential equation consisting of n arbitrary constants,
eliminating these n constants gives a nth order differential equation. That is using nth order differential
equation, a family of curves with n parameters can be represented.
Finding a differential equation whose solution is the given equation from an equation representing
family of curves is referred to as formulation of the differential equation.
When a family of curves containing n arbitrary constants is differentiated n times, we get n equations.
When all these equations are used to eliminate the n arbitrary constants, the equation that is formed is
the nth order differential equation for the family of curves with n parameters.
Ex8: Form the differential equation representing the family of curves y=Acos(x+B) where A and B are
parameters.
Solution:
We have y=A cos(x+B) ….(i)
Since the given equation contains two arbitrary constants we shall differentiate it two times and we
shall get a differential equation of second order.
Differentiating (i) w.r.t. x, we get
dy
=-A sin (x+B) ..(ii)
dx
d2y
=-A cos (x+B)
dx 2
d2y
 2 =-y
dx
d2y
 2 +y=0
dx
which is the required differential equation of the given family of curves.
6.6 GENERAL AND PARTICULAR SOLUTION OF A DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Solution of a differential equation
The relation between the variables of a differential equation, such that it satisfies the equation is called
the solution of the differential equation. The left and the right side of the equation equate to each other
when the relation and the derivatives are substituted in the differential equation.
𝑑𝑦
For a differential equation 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦, the solution is 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥
Take the differential equation:
𝑑2𝑦
+𝑦=0
𝑑𝑥 2
Let P and Q be arbitrary constants of a equation given as
𝑦 = 𝑃 cos 𝑥 + 𝑄 sin 𝑥
With respect to x on differentiating this, it becomes
𝑑𝑦
= −𝑃 sin 𝑥 + 𝑄 cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Again differentiating it with respect to x, it becomes
𝑑2𝑦
= −𝑃 cos 𝑥 − 𝑄 sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2𝑦
= −𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2 𝑦
i.e. 𝑑𝑥 2 + 𝑦 = 0
From this we can say that
𝑑2 𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑃 cos 𝑥 + 𝑄 sin 𝑥, satisfies the equation 𝑑𝑥 2 + 𝑦 = 0 and so it is a solution of the equation.
Similarly equations like 𝑦 = 4 cos 𝑥 + 2 sin 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑃 cos 𝑥 , 𝑦 = 𝑄 sin 𝑥 are also possible solutions of
𝑑2 𝑦
the equation 𝑑𝑥 2 + 𝑦 = 0
General Solution:
The general solution of a differential equation is the solution whose number of parameters is equal to
the order of the differential equation
i.e. in the above example,

𝑦 = 𝑃 cos 𝑥 + 𝑄 sin 𝑥
Is a general equation of the differential equation
𝑑2𝑦
+𝑦=0
𝑑𝑥 2
Particular solution:
Particular solutions are those solutions obtained from the general solution by providing values for the
arbitrary constants.
In the above example,
𝑦 = 4 cos 𝑥 + 2 sin 𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑃 cos 𝑥 , 𝑦 = 𝑄 sin 𝑥 are particular solutions of the differential equation
𝑑2𝑦
+𝑦=0
𝑑𝑥 2
Ex9: Show that the function y=(A+Bx)e3x is a solution of the equation
d2y dy
2
− 6( ) + 9 y = 0
dx dx
Solution:
We have, y=(A+Bx)e3x …(i)
Differentiating (i) w.r.t.x, we get
dy
=Be3x+3e3x(A+Bx) ..(ii)
dx
Differentiating (i) w.r.t. x, we get
d2y
2
=6Be3x+9e3x(A+Bx) …(iii)
dx
d2y dy
 2
− 6( ) + 9 y =[6Be3x+9e3x(A+Bx)]-6[Be3x+3e3x(A+Bx)]+[9(A+Bx)e3x0]
dx dx
Thus, y=(A+Bx)e3x satisfies the given differential equation. Hence, it is a solution of the given differential
equation.
6.7 SOLUTION OF FIRST ORDER AND FIRST-DEGREE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF VARIOUS TYPES BY
EXAMPLES
Shown below is the first order and first degree differential equation.
𝑎(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑏(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑦 𝑎(𝑥, 𝑦)
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑏 (𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑑𝑦
or = 𝜙(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑑𝑥
Some equations of such types cannot be solved or in other terms, we cannot always solve this type of
differential equations. Only when the differential equation falls under a standard form, a solution for it
can be obtained.
Solving a first order, first degree differential equation
Let us consider the equations of type
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
Integrate both sides, we get the general solution of equation.
∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑 (𝑥 ) + 𝐶
𝑦 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶
Ex10: Find solution of (e x + e − x ) dy = (e x − e − x )

dx
Solution:
dy (e x − e− x )
=
dx (e x + e− x )
−x
 dy = (e x − e− x ) dx
x
(e + e )
Integrating both sides, we get
(e x − e − x )
 dy = 
(e x + e − x )
dx
dt
  dy =  , where e x + e − x = 1
t
y = log | t | + c
y = log | e x + e− x | +c
Clearly, y = log | e x + e− x | +c is defined for all x  R .
Hence, y = log | e x + e− x | +c , x  R k is a solution of the given differential equation.
dy
Ex11: Find ( x + 2)( ) = x 2 + 4 x − 9, x  −2 Solution:
dx
We have,
dy
( x + 2)( ) = x 2 + 4 x − 9
dx
dy x 2 + 4 x − 9
 =
dx x+2
x + 4x − 9
2
 dy= dx
x+2
Integrating both sides we get,
x2 + 4 x − 9
  x + 2 dx
dy =
13
  dy =  ( x + 2 − )dx
x+2
x2
y= + 2 x − 13log | x + 2 | +C
2
Clearly, it is defined for all x  R , except x=-2.
6.8 APPLICATION IN PROBLEMS OF GROWTH AND DECAY
In this section, we shall discuss some problems on the applications of differential equations in science
and engineering. We shall also discuss the problems on applications to other disciplines.
Applications on Growth And Decay
Ex12: The surface area of a balloon being inflated changes at a constant rate. If initially, its radius is 3
units and after 2 seconds, it is 5 units, find the radius after t seconds.
Solution:
Let r be the radius and S be the surface area of the balloon at any time t.
Then, S=4πr2
dS dr ..(i)
 = 8 r
dt dt
𝑑𝑆 𝑑𝑆
It is given that 𝑑𝑡 =const=k(say),putting 𝑑𝑡 =k in (i),we get
K= 8 r dr
dt
 8 rdr = kdt [By separating the variables]
Integrating both sides, we get
4πr2=kt+C.
We are given that at t=0, r=3 and at t=2,r=5
36π=k(0)+C and 100π=2k+C
 C=36π and k=32π
Substituting the values of C and k in (II), we obtain
4πr2=32π t+36π  r2=8t+9  r= 8t + 9
Ex13: A population grows at the rate of 8% per year. How long does it take for the population to
double? Use differential equation for it.
Solution:
Let P0 be the initial population and let the population after t years be P. Then,
dP 8 P
=
dt 100
dP 2 P
 =
dt 25
dP 2
 = dt [by separating the variables]
P 25
1 2
  dP =  dt [Integrating both sides]
P 25
2
 log P = +C
25
At t=0, we have P=P0
log P0= 2  0 +C
25
 C=log P0
Substituting C=log P0 in (i) ,we get
2
Log P= 25 𝑡+ log P0
P 2
 log = t
P0 25
Ex14: In a college hostel, accommodating 1000 students, one of them came in carrying a flu virus, then
the hostel was isolated. If the rate at which the virus spreads is assumed to be proportional to the
product of the number N of infected students and the number of non-infected students, and if the
number of infected students is 50 after 4 years, then show that more than 95% of the students will be
infected after 10 days.
Solution:
dN =N(1000-N)
dt
 dN =λN(1000-N),where λ is a constant.
dt
1
 𝑁(1000−𝑁)dN=λdt
 1
dN =   dt
N (1000 − N )
 1 1 1
1000  1000 − N N
( + )dN =  dt
 1 (log N ) − log(1000 − N ) = t + C
1000
 1
log(
N
) = t + C ….(i)
1000 1000 − N
At t=0, we have N=1
 1
log(
1
) = 0+C
1000 999
1 1 log 999
C = log( )=
1000 999 1000
Substituting these values in (i), we get
1 N log 999
log( ) =λt-
1000 1000 − N 1000
1 N log 999 = λt
log( )+
1000 1000 − N 1000
1 999 N ..(ii)
log( ) = t
1000 1000 − N
If t=4, then N=50.
Substituting these values in (ii), we get
1 4995 1 999
 = log( )= log( )
4000 95 4000 19
Putting the value of λ in (ii), we get
1 999 N 1 999
log( )= log( )t
1000 1000 − N 4000 19
999 N 999
 4 log = log( )t
1000 − N 19
When t=10, the value of N is given by
999 N 999
 4 log = 10  log( )
1000 − N 19
999 N 5 999
 log = log( )
1000 − N 2 19
log (1000 − 𝑁) 5 999 999 −5/2
=> = − log ( ) = log ( )
999𝑁 2 19 19
1000 − N 999 −5/2
 =( )
999 N 19
1000 1 999 −5/2
 − =( )
999 N 999 19
1000 1 999 −5/2
 = +( )
999 N 999 19
1000
 = 1 + (999) −3/2  (19)5/2
N
1000 N N
N= −3/2
= 952approximately   100 = = 95.2
1 + (999)  (19) 5/2
1000 10
Hence, more than 95% students will be infected after 10 days.
𝜋/2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3 𝑥
1. What is ∫0 dx?
𝑠𝑖𝑛 3 𝑥+𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥
(a) 𝜋 (b) 𝜋/2
(c) 𝜋/4 (d) 0
Solution: (c)
𝜋/2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3 𝑥
Let I = ∫0 dx …. (I)
𝑠𝑖𝑛 3 𝑥+𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥
𝜋
𝜋/2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3 ( −𝑥)
2
= ∫0 𝜋 𝜋 dx
𝑠𝑖𝑛 3 ( −𝑥)+𝑐𝑜𝑠 3( −𝑥)
2 2
𝜋/2
By using the property ∫0 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝑎
= ∫0 𝑓(𝑎 − 𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝜋/2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥
⇒I∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥+𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥 dx
On adding (i) and (ii) we get
𝜋/2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝜋/2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2I ∫0 + ∫0
𝑠𝑖𝑛 3 𝑥+𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3 𝑥+𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥
𝜋/2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3 𝑥+𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= ∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3 𝑥+𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥
𝜋/2
2I = ∫0 1 𝑑𝑥⇒ 2I = [0]𝜋/2
I = 𝜋/4
2. What is the area enclosed between the curves 𝑦 2 = 12𝑥 and the line x=0 and y=6?
(a) 2 sq unit (b) 4 sq unit
(c) 6 sq unit (d) 8 sq unit
Solution: (c)
Equating of given curve is 𝑦 2 = 12𝑥
At y = 6, 36 =12x ⇒ x = 3
3
Required area = ∫0 (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ) dx where 𝑦1 represents the curve.
3 √12∗2∗√27
= ∫0 (6 − √12𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = [6*3] - 3
= 18 -12 =6 sq unit
𝜋/4
3.What is ∫−𝜋/4 𝑡𝑎𝑛3 𝑥 dx equal to?
(a) √3 (b) 1/3
(c) 1/2 (d) 0
Solution: (d)
We know
𝑎 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
∫−𝜋/4 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = { 𝑎 dx
2 ∫0 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
𝜋/4
𝑡𝑎𝑛3 x is an odd function ∫−𝜋/4 𝑡𝑎𝑛 3 𝑥 = 0
𝜋/4 dx
4. What is the value of∫𝜋/6 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 ?
(a) 2 𝑙n√3 (b) 𝑙n√3
(c) 2 𝑙n 3 (d) 4 𝑙n3
Solution: (b)
𝜋/4 dx 𝜋/4 dx
𝐼 = ∫𝜋/6 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 =2 ∫𝜋/6 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥
𝜋/4
= 2 ∫𝜋/6 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑐 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= [log tan𝜋/4 – log tan 𝜋/6]
1 1
= log 1 – log = 0 –log = log √3
√ 3 √3
2 1 1
5. What is the value of (𝑥 − 𝑥 2 )?∫1 𝑒 𝑥
𝑒 (b) e (e-1)
(a) 𝑒 ( − 1) 2
𝑒
(c) e− 2 (d) 0
Solution: (a)
2 1 1
Let 𝐼 = ∫1 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥 − 𝑥 2)dx
2
= ∫1 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑓(𝑥 ) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑥))𝑑𝑥
Where f(x) = 1/x
= 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)| 21
𝑒2 𝑒
= − 𝑒 = e(2 − 1)
2
6. What is the area under the curve f(x) = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 above the x-axis and between the lines x=0 and x=1?
1
(a) 2 Sq unit (b) 1 sq unit
3
(c) Sq unit (d) 2 sq unit
2
Solution: (b)
Given curve is f(x) =𝑥𝑒 𝑥 , x= 0 and x = 1
1 1
So Required area = ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Let x be the first function and 𝑒 𝑥 be the second function then by arts
1
= [𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − ∫0 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ] 10 = [𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 ] 10
= (e –e) – (0 -1) =1 sq unit.
7. What is the area bounded by the curve y = 𝑥 2 and the line y=16?
(a) 32/3 (b) 64/3
(c) 256/3 (d) 128/3
Solution: (c)
Given, the area bounded by the curve
y = 𝑥 2 …..(i)
y=16 ….. (ii)
On solving (i) and (ii) we get
𝑥 2 =16 ⇒ x= 4, - 4
Points of intersection are (4, 16) and (-4, 16)
4
Required area = ∫−4(16 − 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
4
= 2∫0 (16 − 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥³
= 2 [16𝑥 − 3 ] 40 = 2*64 *(2/3)
256
= sq unit
3
𝑥2
8. What is the area of the region bounded by the curve f(x) = 1 − , x𝜖[-2, 2] and the x-axis?
4
8 4
(a) 3 Sq unit (b) 3 Sq unit
2 1
(c) 3 Sq unit (d) 3 Sq unit
Solution: (a)
2 𝑥2
Required area ∫−2 (1 − ) 𝑑𝑥
4
2 2
𝑥2 𝑥2
∫ (1 − ) 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ (1 − ) 𝑑𝑥
−2 4 −2 4
𝑥3 2 2 8
= 2 [𝑥 − ] = 2 (2 − ) = sq unit
12 0 3 3
1
9. What is the value of the integral ∫−1 IxI dx?
(a) 1 (b) 0
(c) 2 (d) -1
Solution: (a)
1
Let 𝐼 = ∫−1 |x| dx
0 1
= − ∫−1 x dx + ∫0 x dx dx
𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0
Since IxI = {
−𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
Therefore |x| = −x when x lies between -1 and 0. And |x| = x when x lies between 0 and 1
0𝑥2 𝑥2
= − [ ] −1 + [ ] 10 = 1
12 12
10. What is the area bounded by the curve y = 𝑒 𝑥 , y = 𝑒 −𝑥 and the straight line x=1?
1 1
(a) (𝑒 + 𝑒) Sq unit (b) (𝑒 − 𝑒) Sq unit
1 1
(c) (𝑒 + 𝑒 − 2) Sq (d) (𝑒 − 𝑒 − 2) Sq
unit unit
Solution: (c)
Given equation of curves are y = 𝑒 𝑥 and y = 𝑒 −𝑥
1
⇒𝑒 𝑥 = − 𝑒 𝑥 ⇒𝑒 2𝑥 = 𝑒 0
X =0
Also equation of straight line gives x=1
1
Required are = ∫0 (𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
= [𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 ] 10 = 𝑒 − 𝑒 −1 − 𝑒 0
1
= (e +𝑒 − 2) sq unit.
𝜋/4
11. If 𝐼𝑛 = ∫0 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 then what is 𝐼𝑛 + 𝐼𝑛−2 equal to?
1 1
(a) (b)
𝑛 (𝑛−1)
𝑛 1
(c) (𝑛−1) (d) (𝑛−2)
Solution: (b)
𝜋/4
𝐼𝑛 = ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋/4 𝜋/4
Consider 𝐼𝑛 + 𝐼𝑛−2 =∫0 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑛−2
∫0 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋/4 𝑛−2
= ∫0 𝑠𝑒𝑐²𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Put tan x=t, then we get 𝑠𝑒𝑐²𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
When x =0 then t=0 and when x = /4 , t=1
𝜋/4
𝐼𝑛 + 𝐼𝑛−2 = ∫0 𝑡 𝑛−2 𝑑𝑡
1 1
= [ 1 − 0] =
𝑛−1 𝑛−1
𝜋 𝑑𝑥
12. What is ∫0 1+2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 equal to?
𝜋
(a) 𝜋 (b) 3
𝜋 2𝜋
(c) √3 (d) √3
Solution: (c)
𝜋
𝑑𝑥 𝜋/2 𝑑𝑥
𝐼 = ∫0 =2 ∫0 1+2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
1+2𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑥
𝜋/2 𝑠𝑒𝑐²𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝜋/2 𝑠𝑒𝑐²𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 2 ∫0 𝑠𝑒𝑐²𝑥+2𝑡𝑎𝑛²𝑥 =2∫0 1+3𝑡𝑎𝑛²𝑥
Put x=t ⇒𝑠𝑒𝑐²𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
∞ 𝑑𝑡
I = 2∫0 1+3𝑡²
2
= [𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 √3𝑡] ∞
0
√3
2 𝜋 𝜋
= ∗ =
√3 √3 √3
𝜋
13. If f(x) is an even function, then what is ∫0 𝑓(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥) dx equal to?
(a) 0 𝜋/2
(b) ∫ 𝑓(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)𝑑𝑥 0
(c) (d) 1
𝜋/2
2 ∫0 𝑓(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)𝑑𝑥
Solution: (c)
Since f(x) is an function therefore
𝜋 𝜋/2
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)
0 0
𝜋 𝜋
Here ∫0 𝑓(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥) = 2 ∫0 𝑓(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥)
𝜋
14. What is the area between the curve y = cos3x, 0≤ 𝑥 ≤ and the co-ordinate axes?
6
1
(a) 1 sq unit (b) Sq unit 2
1 1
(c) 3 Sq unit (d) Sq unit
4
Solution: (c)
𝜋/6
Required area = ∫0 cos 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 𝜋
= 3 sin 3−0
1
= 3Sq unit
15. What is the area enclosed by the equation x²+y² =2?
(a) 4𝜋 sq unit (b) 2𝜋 sq unit
(c) 4𝜋² sq unit (d) 4 sq unit
Solution: (b)
Given equation of circle is
X²+y² =2 ⇒√2 − 𝑥²
Required area = 4* area of shaped portion

√2
= 4 ∫0 √2 − 𝑥² 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 𝑥
= 4 [2 √2 − 𝑥² + 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 √2] √2
0
𝜋
= 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 1 = 4* 2
= 2𝜋 sq unit.
EXERCISE
2
1. If ∫1 {𝑘 2 3}
+ (4 − 4𝑘)𝑥 + 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ≤ 12 then which one of the following is correct?
(a) K=3 (b) 0≤ 𝐾 ≤3
(c) K≤4 (d) K =0
2. What is the area bounded by the curve √𝑥 + √𝑦 = √𝑎 (x, y≥0) and the coordinate axes?
5𝑎² 𝑎²
(a) (b)
6 3
𝑎² 𝑎²
(c) (d)
2 6
𝜋/2
3.What is ∫−𝜋/2 |sinx| 𝑑𝑥 equal to?
(a) 2 (b) 1
(c) 𝜋 (d) 0
4. The area by the curve x = f[y], the axis and the two lines y = a and y = b is equal to
𝑏 𝑏
(a) ∫𝑎 y 𝑑𝑥 (b) ∫𝑎 y² 𝑑𝑥
𝑏
(c) ∫𝑎 x 𝑑𝑥 (d) None of the above
1 tan−1
5. What is ∫0 𝑑𝑥 equal to?
1+x²
𝜋 𝜋
(a) 4 (b) 8
𝜋² 𝜋²
(c) (d) 32
8
1
6. What is ∫−1 x|x| 𝑑𝑥 equal to?
(a) 2 (b) 1
(c) 0 (d) -1
1 tan−1x
7.What is ∫0 𝑑𝑥 equal to?
1+x²
𝜋² 𝜋²
(a) (b) 32
8
𝜋 𝜋
(c) 4 (d) 8
𝜋/2
8. What is ∫0 sin 2𝑥 𝑙𝑛(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 eual to?
(a) 0 (b) 𝜋 𝑙𝑛 2
(c) −𝜋 𝑙𝑛 2 𝜋 𝑙𝑛 2
(d) 2
9. What is the area of the portion of the curve y = sin x, lying between x=0, y=0 and x =2𝜋?
10. What is the area of the region bounded by the lines y=x, and y=0 and x=4?
2 𝑑𝑥
11. What ∫0 equal to?
𝑥²+4
𝜋 𝜋
(a) 2 (b) 4
𝜋
(c) 8 (d) None of the above
𝑎
12. What is ∫−𝑎(𝑥 3 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)𝑑𝑥 equal to?
(a) a (b) 2a
(c) 0 (d) 1
1
13. What is ∫0 (𝑥𝑒 𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 eual to?
(a) 1 (b) -1
(c) 0 (d) e
𝜋/6 𝑠𝑖𝑛 5 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑥
14. What is ∫−𝜋/6 𝑑𝑥 eual to?
𝑥4
𝜋 𝜋
(a) 2 (b) 4
𝜋
(c) 8 (d) 0
15. What is the area of the region enclosed by y = 2IxI and y=4?
ANSWER KEY
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (a) 9. (b) 10. b)
11. (c) 12. (c) 13. a) 14. d) 15. (c)
7. VECTOR ALGEBRA
7.1 VECTOR IN TWO OR THREE DIMENSIONS
Vector in two dimensions:
Components of a Vector in Two Dimensions
Let K(𝑥, 𝑦) be a point in a plane with reference to OX and OY as the coordinate axes as shown in fig.
Then, ON = x and KN = y
Let 𝑖,̂ 𝑗̂ be unit vectors along OX and OY respectively Then,

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑥𝑖̂ and 𝑁𝑃
𝑂𝑁 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑦𝑗̂
Vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑂𝑁 and 𝑁𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are known as the components of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑂𝐾 along 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 and 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 respectively,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Now, 𝑂𝐾 = 𝑂𝑁 +𝑁𝐾 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
=>𝑂𝐾 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝐽̂
Let 𝑂𝐾 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑟
Then, 𝑟 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗̂
Now, OK2 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑂𝑁 +𝑁𝐾 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
=>OK2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 =>OK=√𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
=> |𝑟| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
Thus, if a point K in a Plane has coordinates, (𝑥, 𝑦), than
• ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑂𝐾 = 𝑥𝑖̂+𝑦𝑗̂
• |𝑂𝐾 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | =√𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
• The components of 𝑂𝐾 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ along x-axis is a vector of 𝑥𝑖̂ whose magnitude is |𝑥 | and whose direction is
’
along OX or OX according to 𝑥 is positive and negative.
• The components of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑂𝐾 along Y-axis is a vector of 𝑦𝑖̂ whose magnitude is |𝑦| and whose direction is
’
along OY or OY according as 𝑦 is positive and negative.
Components of a Vector In Terms of Coordinates of Its End Points
Let 𝐴 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and B (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) be the two points in XOY Plane.
Let 𝑖̂ and 𝑗̂ be unit vectors along OX and OY respectively.

From Fig, we have
AF = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 , BF = 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐹 = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝑖̂ and
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )𝑗̂
𝐹𝐵
Now, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐹 + 𝐹𝐵
=> 𝐴𝐵⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝑖̂ + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )𝑗̂
=>Component of 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ along x-axis = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝑖̂
And, Component of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐴𝐵along y-axis = (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )𝑗̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Also, |𝐴𝐵| = AB = √𝐴𝐹 2 + 𝐹𝐵2
=> |𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2
Vector in three dimensions:
Components of a Vector in Three Dimensions
Let P(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be a point in a space with reference to OX, OY and OZ as the coordinate axes.
Let 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂ and 𝑘̂ be unit vectors along OX, OY and OZ respectively. Then,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 = 𝑥𝑖̂, 𝑂𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑦𝑗̂ and 𝑂𝑅 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑧𝑘̂
From the Fig, we have
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝑃
𝑄𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑥𝑖̂, 𝑅𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝑅 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑧𝑘̂
Now, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑂𝑅 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑅𝑃
=> 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑂𝑄 + 𝑂𝑅 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑅𝑃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
=> 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑂𝑄 + 𝑂𝑃 + 𝑂𝑅 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
=> 𝑂𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑂𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑂𝑅⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
=> 𝑂𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + z𝑘̂
𝑂𝑃 = 𝑟. Then, we have 𝑟= 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + z𝑘̂
If ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Thus, the position vector of point P(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) in space is given by
𝑟= 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + Z𝑘̂
Now, OP2 = OR2 + RP2
=>OP2 = (OQ2 + QC2) + RP2
=>OP2 = (OQ2 + OP2) + OR2
=>OP2 = OP2 + OQ2 + OR2
=>OP2 = x2 + y2 + z2
=>OP = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧2
=> |𝑟| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧2
Thus, if a point P in space has coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) than its position vector 𝑟 is 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + z𝑘̂ and |𝑟| =
√𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧2.
The vectors 𝑖̂, 𝑦𝑗̂ and 𝑧𝑘̂ are known as the component vectors of 𝑟 along 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧-axis respectively.
Addition, Subtraction and Multiplication of Vector by a Scalar and Equality in Terms of Components
For any two vectors 𝑝 = p1𝑖̂ + p2𝑗̂ + a3𝑘̂ and 𝑞 = q1𝑖̂ + q2𝑗̂ + q3𝑘̂ we define
• 𝑝 + 𝑞 = (p1+ q1) 𝑖̂ + (p2+ q2) 𝑗̂ + (p3+ q3) 𝑘̂
• 𝑝 - 𝑞 = (p1- q1) 𝑖̂ + (p2- q2) 𝑗̂ + (p3- q3) 𝑘̂
• 𝑚𝑝 = (mp1) 𝑖̂ + (mp2) 𝑗̂ + (mp3) 𝑘̂, where 𝑚 is a scalar
• 𝑝 = 𝑞<=> p1= q1, p2 = q2, and p3 = q3.
Let 𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1, 𝑧1 ) and Q(𝑥2 , 𝑦2, 𝑧2 ) be two points. Then,

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 = Position vector of Q – Position vector of P
𝑃𝑄 = (x2𝑖̂ + y2𝐼̂ + z2𝑘̂) - (x1𝑖̂ + y1𝐼̂ + z1𝑘̂)
=> ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
=> 𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝐼̂ + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )𝑗̂ + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )𝑘̂
PQ = |𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2
Ex1: If the position vector 𝑥 of point (12,n) is such that |𝑥 | = 13, find the value of n.
Solution:
The position vector of point (12, n) is 12𝑖̂ + 𝑛𝑗̂
𝑥= 12𝑖̂ + 𝑛𝑗̂
|𝑥 |= √122 + 𝑛2
𝑁𝑜𝑤, |𝑥 | = 13
=>13 = √122 + 𝑛2 => 169=144+n2=> n2 = 25 => n = ±5.
Ex2: If P, Q and R have some position vectors (2,0,0), (0,1,0) (0,0,2), show that PQR is isosceles.
Solution:
We have, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑃𝑄 = Position vector of Q – Position vector of P
=> 𝑃𝑄 = (0𝑖̂ + 0 𝑗̂ + 0𝑘̂) - (2𝑖̂ + 0 𝑗̂ + 0𝑘̂),
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
= - 2𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 0𝑘̂
=> 𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = |𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |=√(−2)2 + 12 + 02 =√5
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = Position vector of R – Position vector of Q
𝑄𝑅
=> 𝑄𝑅 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (0𝑖̂ + 0 𝑗̂ + 2𝑘̂) - (0𝑖̂ + 𝑗 + 0𝑘̂), = 0𝑖̂ - 𝑗̂ + 2𝑘̂
=> 𝑄𝑅 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = |𝑄𝑅 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √02 + (−1)2 + 22 = √5
Clearly, PQ = QR.
Hence, ∆ PQR is isosceles.
7.2 MAGNITUDE AND DIRECTION OF A VECTOR
A vector is generally characterized using two parameters.
• Magnitude – generally this refers to the quantity or size.
• Direction – generally this signifies that the vector is directed from one point to another or one place
to other.
Magnitude of a Vector:
For a vector whose initial point is M and final point is N, the distance between these two points gives
the magnitude of the vector 𝑀𝑁 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . The |𝑀𝑁
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | denotes the magnitude of the vector 𝑀𝑁
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
The distance formula is used to find the magnitude of a vector for which the initial and end point’s
coordinates are known.
Direction of a Vector:
The measure of the angle that a vector makes with the horizontal line gives the direction of the vector.
The direction of a vector can be determined by using any of these formulae.
If x is the horizontal change and y is the vertical change then
𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
𝑥
If the initial point of vector is (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and its final point is (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ). Then
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
For Example:
In physics, speed is a pure scalar, i.e. when we say 5 m/s, it says 5 meters per second, but it does not say
in which direction.
So here we have magnitude as 5 meters per second, but there is no direction mentioned.
But velocity is a vector that is when we say velocity, we say 5 m/s eastward, that is here 5 meters per
second is the magnitude of the vector and eastward is the direction of the vector.
7.3 UNIT AND NULL VECTORS, ADDITION OF VECTORS
Unit Vector
A vector whose modulus is unity, is called a unit vector. The unit vector in the direction of a vector 𝑃⃗ is
denoted by 𝑃̂, read ‘ p cap’ . Thus ⌈𝑝̂ ⌉ = 1.
Zero or Null Vector
A vector whose initial and terminal points are coincident is called the zero or the null vector.
Thus, the modulus of the null vector is zero, but it can be thought of as having any line it as line of
support. The null vector is called proper vector by ⃗0⃗ .
Vectors other than the null vector called proper vectors.
Addition of Vectors
In this section, we shall learn some properties of addition of vectors.
• Commutatively:
For any two vectors 𝑝 and 𝑞, we have

𝑝+𝑞=𝑞+𝑝
• Associatively:
For any three vectors 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟 , we have
( 𝑝 + 𝑞)+𝑟 = 𝑝 + (𝑞+ 𝑟)
• Existence of additive identity: For every vector 𝑝, we have

𝑝+0 ⃗⃗ = 𝑝 = 0 ⃗⃗ + 𝑝,
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 0 ⃗⃗⃗ is the null vector.
• Existence of additive inverse: For every vector 𝑝, there corresponds a vector - 𝑝 such that 𝑝 + (-
𝑝) = 0 ⃗⃗⃗ = (-𝑝) + 𝑝
Ex3: If the sum of two unit vectors is a unit vector, prove that the magnitude of their difference is√3.
Solution:
Let 𝑝̂ and 𝑞̂ be two unit vectors represented by sides OP and PQ of triangle OPQ.
Then, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 = 𝑝, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 = 𝑞̂ and 𝑂𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =𝑂𝑃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 = 𝑃̂ + 𝑞̂
It is given that ⌈𝑝̂ ⌉ = ⌈𝑞̂ ⌉ = ⌊𝑝̆ + 𝑞̆ ⌉ =1
=> 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑂𝑄 = 1
=> ∆OPQ is an equilateral triangle
Since OP = ⌈𝑝̂ ⌉ = 1 = ⌈−𝑞 ̂ ⌉ = 𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ’
∆OPQ’ is an isosceles triangle
=> ∠𝑃𝑄′𝑂 = ∠POQ’ = 300
=> ∠QOQ’ = ∠QOP + ∠POQ’ = 600 + 300 = 900
In ∆OPQ’ we have QQ2 = OQ2 + OQ2
=> 22 = ⌊𝑝̆ + 𝑞̆ ⌉2 + ⌊𝑝̆ − 𝑞̆ ⌉2
=> 22 = 12 + ⌊𝑝̆ − 𝑞̆ ⌉2
=> ⌊𝑝̆ − 𝑞̆ ⌉ = √3
7.4 SCALAR MULTIPLICATION OF A VECTOR
Let us consider a vector 𝑝 and say m is a scalar. Now if m 𝑝 is another vector with a magnitude of
product of |𝑚| and the magnitude of the vector 𝑝.
The direction of the vector could be either positive or negative depending on the m. That is it could be
same as the vector 𝑝 or opposite direction of 𝑝.
𝑝 = |𝑝|𝑝̂
1
𝑝̂ = 𝑝
|𝑝 |
So we can say that if two vectors 𝑝 and 𝑞 are such that for a non-zero scalar m, 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑞 then the two
vectors are said to be collinear or parallel.
For a given vector 𝑝, we can say that
𝑝=1𝑝
(−1)𝑝 = 𝑝
0𝑝 = 0 ⃗
Then we can say that if 𝑝 is a vector, a vector 5𝑝 is another vector whose magnitude is 5 times that of
the magnitude of 𝑝 and direction of 5𝑝 is same as that of the 𝑝.
Now for a vector -2𝑝, then magnitude of the vector is twice the magnitude of the vector 𝑝 while its
direction is opposite direction of the vector 𝑝.
Ex4: If 𝑟 = 3𝑝 + 4𝑞 and 2𝑟 = 𝑝 - 3𝑞 show that

(i) 𝑟 and 𝑝 have same direction and I 𝑟 I > |𝑝|
(ii) 𝑟 and 𝑞 have opposite direction and I 𝑟 I > |𝑞 |
Solution:
We have, 𝑟= 3𝑝 + 4𝑞 and 2𝑟 = 𝑝 - 3𝑞
⇒ 2((3𝑝 + 4𝑞) = (𝑝 - 3𝑞)
⇒ 6𝑝 + 8𝑞 = 𝑝 – 3𝑞
⇒ 5𝑝 = -11𝑞
⇒𝑝 = - 115
5
𝑞 and 𝑞 = - 11 𝑝
=>𝑟 = 3𝑝 + 4𝑞
5
⇒𝑟 = 3𝑝 + 4(- 11 )𝑝
⇒𝑟 = 3𝑝 - 11𝑝 = 13
20
11
𝑝
This shows that 𝑟 and 𝑝have the same directions
and, 𝑟 = 13 ⃗⃗⃗ = 13|𝑝|⇒|𝑟| > |𝑝|

𝑝⇒ |𝑟|
11 11
7.5 SCALAR PRODUCT OR DOT PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS
Scalar product general interpretation
Assume the two vectors p and q represented by OA and OB respectively. Let the angle between OA and
OB is 𝜃. Draw BL ⊥ OA and AM ⊥OB.
From ∆s OBL and OAM,
we have OL = OBcos𝜃 and OM = OAcos𝜃
Here, OL and OM are known as projections 𝑎 on 𝑏⃗ and 𝑏⃗ on 𝑎 respectively.
Now, 𝑎.𝑏⃗ = |𝑎||𝑏⃗| cos𝜃

𝑎.𝑏⃗ = |𝑎|(OB cos𝜃)
𝑎.𝑏⃗ = |𝑎|OL
𝑎.𝑏⃗ = ( Magnitude of 𝑎) (Projection of 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗)
Again, 𝑎.𝑏⃗ = |𝑎||𝑏⃗| cos𝜃
𝑎.𝑏⃗ = |𝑏⃗|(I 𝑎Icos𝜃)
𝑎.𝑏⃗ = |𝑏⃗| (OA cos𝜃)
𝑎.𝑏⃗ = |𝑏⃗|(OM)
𝑎.𝑏⃗ = ( Magnitude of 𝑏⃗) (Projection of 𝑏⃗ and 𝑎)
Thus the geometrically interpreted, the scalar product of two vectors is the product of modulus of either
vector and the projection of the other in its direction.
Note:
From (i) and (ii) we have
Projection of 𝑏⃗ on 𝑎 = 𝑎⃗I𝑎I
⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
,𝑏
⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗
𝑎
= I𝑎I
⃗⃗⃗⃗
. 𝑏⃗ = 𝑎̂. 𝑏⃗
Projection of 𝑏⃗ on 𝑎 = 𝑎⃗⃗,𝑏 = 𝑎 . 𝑏 = 𝑎 . 𝑏̂
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗
I𝑏I ⃗⃗⃗⃗
I𝑏I
Thus the dot product of 𝑎 with the unit vector along 𝑏⃗ is the projection of 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ is and the dot product
of 𝑏⃗ is the projection for 𝑏⃗ on 𝑎 with the unit vector along 𝑎.
Scalar product in terms of components:
Let𝑎 = a1𝑖̂ + a2𝑗̂ + a3𝑘̂ and 𝑏⃗ = b1𝑖̂ + b2𝑗̂ + b3𝑘̂ Then
𝑎 . 𝑏⃗ = (a1𝑖̂ + a2𝑗̂ + a3𝑘̂ ) . (b1𝑖̂ + b2𝑗̂ + b3𝑘̂)
⇒𝑎 . 𝑏⃗ = a1𝑖̂. (b1𝑖̂ + b2𝑗̂ + b3𝑘̂) + a2𝑗̂. (b1𝑖̂ + b2𝑗̂ + b3𝑘̂) + 𝑎 . 𝑏⃗ = a3𝑘̂ . (b1𝑖̂ + b2𝑗̂ + b3𝑘̂)
(By right distributivity of scalar product)
⇒𝑎 . 𝑏⃗ = (a1b1)(𝑖̂ . 𝑖̂ ) + (a1b2)(𝑖̂ . 𝑗̂ ) + (a1b3)(𝑖̂ . 𝑘̂ ) + (a2b1)(𝑗̂ . 𝑖̂ ) + (a2b2)(𝑗̂ . 𝑗̂ ) + (a2b3)(𝑗̂ . 𝑘̂ ) + (a3b1)(𝑘̂ . 𝑖̂ )
+ (a3b2)(𝑘̂ . 𝑗̂ ) + (a3b3)(𝑘̂ . 𝑘̂ )
(By left distributivity scalar product)
[∴ 𝑖̂ . 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂ . 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂ . 𝑘̂ = 1 and 𝑖̂ . 𝑗̂ = 𝑗̂ . 𝑖̂ = 𝑘̂ . 𝑗̂ = 𝑗̂ . 𝑘̂ = 𝑖̂ . 𝑘̂ = 𝑘̂ . 𝑖̂ = 0]
⇒𝑎 . 𝑏⃗ = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3
Thus the sum of the products is equal to the scalar product of two vectors of their corresponding
components.
Ex5: If 𝑎 = 2𝑖̂ - 𝑗̂ + 2𝑘̂ , 𝑏⃗ = 3𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂. Find 𝑎.𝑏⃗
Solution:
We have, 𝑎.𝑏⃗ = (2𝑖̂ - 𝑗̂ + 2𝑘̂) . (3𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂)
= (2)(3) + (-1)(2) + (2)(3) = 10
Ex6: Let there are two vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ having the same length √2 and their scalar product is -1. Find the
angle between them.
Solution:
Let the angle between vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ be Ө.
We have, I𝑎I = I𝑏⃗I = √2 and 𝑎 . 𝑏⃗ = -1
⃗
𝑎⃗ .𝑏
∴cos Ө = I𝑎⃗II 𝑏⃗I
−1 1
cos Ө = =-2
√2𝑥√2
cos Ө = cos 2 𝜋/3
Ө = 2 𝜋/3
7.6 VECTOR PRODUCT OR CROSS PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS
Vector Product or Cross product
Let 𝑝, 𝑞 be two vectors that are non-zero and that are non-parallel and the angle between them is 𝜃 .
The vector or the cross product of these vectors is denoted by 𝑝 × 𝑞 .
This cross product in that order is given as the vector with magnitude as |𝑝||𝑞| sin Ө.
The direction of this vector is perpendicular to the plane having the vectors 𝑝, 𝑞 and it can be said that
this direction and the vectors 𝑝, 𝑞 form a right handed system.
For Ө → angle between 𝑝𝑞 and 𝑛̂
𝑝 × 𝑞 = |𝑝||𝑞| sin Ө 𝑛̂
Here 𝑛̂ → unit vector which is perpendicular to the plane containing 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗. This unit vector 𝑛̂ and 𝑎
and 𝑏⃗ form a right handed system.
𝑝𝑞 and 𝑛̂ form a right handed system. That is if 𝑝 is rotated into the 𝑞 vector, then similar to how a right
hand screw will move, when it is turned in the same way, the unit vector 𝑛̂ would point in the direction
of perpendicular to the plane of the vectors 𝑝, 𝑞.
Note: If one of 𝑎 or 𝑏⃗ or both is 0
⃗ is defined as 0
⃗ then Ө has no direction and so is not defined. In this
case, we defined 𝑎 x 𝑏⃗ = 0
⃗.
Note: If Ө = 0 or 𝜋 and 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ are collinear then the direction of n is not well defined. So in this case
also we define 𝑎 x 𝑏⃗ = 0
⃗.
Note: The vector is said to be the cross product when 𝑎 x 𝑏⃗ is read as 𝑎 cross 𝑏⃗. Since we are putting the
cross between 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗
Properties of vector product:
Property I: Assume that 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ are any two vectors, then the vector product is not commutative if 𝑎 x
𝑏⃗ = - (𝑏⃗ x 𝑎)
Property II: If m is scalar and 𝑎 , 𝑏⃗ are two vectors , then m 𝑎 x 𝑏⃗ = m(𝑎 x 𝑏⃗) = 𝑎 x m𝑏⃗
Property III: If m, n are scalars and 𝑎, 𝑏⃗ are two vectors, then m 𝑎 x n 𝑏⃗ = m n ( 𝑎 x 𝑏⃗)
= m(𝑎 x n 𝑏⃗ ) = n(m 𝑎 a x 𝑏⃗)
Property IV: (Distributivity of vector product over vector addition). Let 𝑎, 𝑏⃗, 𝑐 be any three vectors.
Then,
• 𝑎 x ( 𝑏⃗ + 𝑐 ) = 𝑎 x 𝑏⃗ + 𝑎 x 𝑐 [Left distributive]
• (𝑏⃗ + 𝑐 ) x 𝑎 = 𝑏⃗ x𝑎 + 𝑐 x 𝑎
Property V: For any three vectors 𝑎, 𝑏⃗, 𝑐 we have
𝑎 x ( 𝑏⃗ - 𝑐 ) = 𝑎 x I 𝑏⃗ + (- 𝑐 ) I
Property VI: The vector product of two non – zero vectors is zero vector if they are parallel (collinear)
i.e. 𝑎 x 𝑏⃗ = 0 ⇔ 𝑎 where 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ are non – zero vectors.
Some important results:
Result I: For the adjacent sides 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗, the area of the parallelogram is I 𝑎 x 𝑏⃗ I
Result II: For the adjacent sides 𝑎 and ⃗𝑏, ⃗ the area of a triangle is 1 I 𝑎 x 𝑏⃗ I
2
1
Result III: The area of a triangle ABC is I𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ I or 1 I 𝐵𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ x 𝐴𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ I or 1 I 𝐶𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ x 𝐵𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ x 𝐶𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ I
2 2 2
1
Result IV: For diagonals 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗, the area of the parallelogram is 2 I𝑎 x 𝑏⃗I
1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ x 𝐵𝐷
Result V: If ABCD is quadrilateral then the area of a plane quadrilateral is 2 I𝐴𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ I, where AC and BD
are its diagonals.
Interpretation of vector product geometrically
Let 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ be two non-zero, then non- parallel vectors will be represented by ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑂𝑃 and 𝑂𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ respectively
and assume that the angle between them is Ө. Complete the parallelogram OPRQ. Draw QL ⊥ OP.
𝑄𝑀
In ∆𝑂𝑄𝑀 we have Sin Ө = 𝑂𝑄
⇒ QM = OQ sin Ө = I 𝑏⃗ I sin Ө
Now, ⇒𝑎 x 𝑏⃗ = I 𝑎 I I 𝑏⃗ I sin Ө ŋ̂
⇒𝑎 x 𝑏⃗ = (OP) (QM) ŋ̂
⇒𝑎 x 𝑏⃗ = (Base x height) ŋ̂
⇒𝑎 x 𝑏⃗ = (Area of parallelogram OPRQ) ŋ̂
⇒𝑎 x 𝑏⃗ = Vector area of the parallelogram OPRQ
Thus the area of the parallelogram having 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ as its adjacent side is equal to the magnitude of
vector 𝑎 x 𝑏⃗ and whose direction ŋ̂ is perpendicular to the plane of 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ such that 𝑎, 𝑏⃗, ŋ̂ form a right
handed system.
In other words, the area of the parallelogram having adjacent sides along vector 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ is 𝑎 x 𝑏⃗
Thus, the area of the parallelogram OPRQ
1
Area of ∆𝑂𝑃𝑄 = 2 Area of the parallelogram OPRQ
1
⇒ Area of ∆𝑂𝑃𝑄 = I 𝑎 x 𝑏⃗ I
2
1
⇒ Area of ∆𝑂𝑃𝑄 = 2 I 𝑂𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ x 𝑂𝑄
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ I
Vector area of a plane figure:
A vector with magnitude equating to the area of a plane figure and direction normal to the plane of the
figure that is having a right handed rotation gives the vector area of the plane figure.
7.7 APPLICATIONS—WORK DONE BY A FORCE AND MOMENT OF A FORCE AND IN GEOMETRICAL
PROBLEMS
System of Forces and Moments
Force, F, with lever arm, D

The moment vector of a force vector 𝐹, with respect to a point, the product of the force magnitude 𝐹is
equal to the product magnitude, and the line of action of the force at the perpendicular direction,
𝐷: 𝑀 = 𝐷𝐹.
The direction of the moment is through the point and perpendicular to the plane containing the point
and the line of action of the force. Its sign is defined by the right-hand rule.
Force components with lever arms

An alternative equivalent for finding the perpendicular distance between the point and the force is to
compute the individual components of the moment vector, 𝑀 ⃗⃗ .
Consider force components in the Y‐Z plane, Fy and Fz. They cause a moment about the X‐axis. The
components of the position vector in that plane are ry and rz.
Note that distance ry is the perpendicular lever arm of component Fz, and likewise for rz and Fy.
However, their turning effects, with respect to the origin, have different signs (counter‐clockwise is
positive). Therefore, you can write the moment component about the X‐axis as
Mx= ryFz - rzFy. ...........(1a)
Note the x‐y‐z sequence of the first three subscripts. The moment vector of other two components
follow a permutation of that pattern
(𝑥‐ 𝑦‐ 𝑧, 𝑦‐ 𝑧‐ 𝑥, 𝑧‐ 𝑥‐ 𝑦).
Namely, My = rzFx – rxFz
Mz = rxFy – ryFx. .........(1b)
The first two terms in each of the x‐y‐z permutation follow the three moment components, and the
subscripts of the prior product reverses the last product in any single component. The above alternative
corresponds to the vector cross product of position vector 𝑟 and force vector 𝐹:
𝑀⃗⃗ = 𝑟 × 𝐹 . ........(2)
The above component sequence permutation applies to any cross product of two vectors:
𝐶 =𝐴×𝐵 ⃗ Cx = AyBz - AzBy
Cy =AzBx – AxBz
Cz=AxBy – AyBx .............(3)
The TK Solver can be easily enter into the form of the moment component calculus. This component
form is used in the presented examples below.
In addition, for finding the portion of that moment you frequently need to find the moment of a force at
a point that acts on a line through the point. That portion is called the moment of a force about a line.
The magnitude of the moment about the line is the perpendicular projection of the total moment
magnitude onto the line.
In other words, it is the dot product of the unit vector and moment vector that defines the direction
cosines of the line:
MLine = 𝑀 ⃗⃗ Point .𝑒Line’ .............(4)

and the full vector moment about the line (including its components signs) is
𝑀⃗⃗ Line = MPoint 𝑒Line. ......(5)
Projecting a moment vector onto a line
In general, Newton’s static equilibrium relations involve both forces and moments.
Specifically, the resultant moment can be vanish by the resultant force, about any arbitrary point, say P:
∑ ⃗𝑭 = 𝟎
⃗ ,∑𝑴
⃗⃗⃗ P = 𝟎
⃗
• Almost all of the future applications will involve the use of moment equilibrium.
• Frequently, the choice of the line of action of the force is taken at a point on the location of the
moment point, P, with the most unknown components.
• Since the lever arm to such forces is zero, those force vector components do not appear in the
equations for the moment vector components. You can write valid moment equations at different
points.
• With TK Solver, it is actually useful to have additional valid equations in the rule set.
• In the past, students were required to solve many different applications to learn by experience, how
to pick points that introduce the minimum number of unknowns into the moment equilibrium.
• Using TK Solver, you just need to count the number of unknowns and write at least that many valid
equilibrium rules by using various FBD’s and/or by selecting various points for calculating the
resultant moments.
• In this chapter, you learn how to calculate forces needed for equilibrium and resultant moments.
• In the next chapter, you will use them in solving equilibrium relations for objects of more
complicated shapes.
Example
• Assume that in compression, the force 𝐶 acts up to the right. Here, there are cable tension
magnitude, and three unknowns forces with magnitude 𝐶𝑥 , 𝐶𝑦 , T (since the pin support force at B
must be equal to the straight cable force there).
• As a two‐dimensional problem, the moment equilibrium gives one equation and force equilibrium
gives two equations (about the axis perpendicular to the plane) per FBD.
• Here, you could draw three FBDs: the system, the inclined bar, the inclined cable.
• With experience, you would note that taking moments about point C would give you the tension
magnitude directly as the single unknown.
• First, note the geometry data. It is clear that points B and C are directly above each other.
• There has a known direction for cable force (and the external force at support B). From the given
coordinates (forming the rare 3:4:5 triangle) you could write the direction cosines of the cable by
inspection.
• Instead, you can construct cable’s unit vector (straight) from those data (𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 ). Also note that the
points A, B, C, with horizontal lever arms of the weight, they can be used directly, without building a
unit vector.
• The given h and v, will be denoted for horizontal and vertical distances respectively here. Invoke
moment equilibrium. Take moments about the z‐axis at point A (with counter‐clockwise taken as the
positive sense), in FBD 1:
∑ 𝑴A= 𝒗̅AC𝑪x - hAWW = 0.
Force equilibrium in FBD 1 gives
∑ 𝑭x= Cx – TexAB = 0.
∑ 𝑭y= 𝑪y + TeyAB - W = 0.
This system of three unknowns equations and three equations can be solved by TK. You can also write a
redundant equation by taking moments about point B (and/or about C):
∑ 𝑴B = 𝑳BC𝑪x – hCWW = 0.
Note that the last equation did not enter the vertical force component C y because its line of action
passed through point B (hBC = 0).
Now you have three unknown and four equilibrium equations.
Especially note that the lengths were given their absolute values.
Thus, the statement is true for the moment calculations.
The signs of the unit vector were determined by inspection. That for more complicated geometries to be
covered later you would use Eqn 1 directly, and supply the algebraic values for the known distance or
force components.
As noted above, you could have originally written a redundant fourth (or fifth) equation of equilibrium.

1. What is the area of the triangle with vertices (0,2,2), (2,0,-1) and (3,4,0)?
15 (b) 15 sq unit
(a) 2 sq unit
7
(c) sq unit (d) 7 sq unit
2
Solution: (a)
Let A= (0, 2, 2), B= (2, 0,-1) and C = (3, 4, 0)
𝐴𝐵 = (2-0, 0-2, -1-2) and 𝐴𝐶 = (3-0, 4-2, 0-2)
⇒𝐴𝐵 = (2,-2,-3) and 𝐴𝐶 = (3, 2,-2)
1
Area of triangle = 2 * magnitude of 𝐴𝐵 ∗ 𝐴𝐶
1
𝑖̂
1
𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
= 2 |𝐴𝐵 ∗ 𝐴𝐶| = 2 |2 −2 −3|
3 2 −2
1
= 2 |[𝑖̂(4 + 6) + 𝑗̂(−4 + 9) + 𝑘̂ (4 + 6) ]|
1
= |10𝑖̂ + 5𝑗̂ + 10𝑘̂ |
2
1 15
= √225 =
2 2
𝜋
2. If the angle between the vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ is 2 , what is the angle between -5𝑎 and 6𝑏⃗ ?
𝜋 2𝜋
(a) 6 (b) 3
2𝜋 3𝜋
(c) 5 (d) 7
Solution: (b)
2𝜋
From the fig. it is clear that the angle between = 6𝑏⃗ and -5𝑎 is 120° or 3 .
𝜋 2𝜋
𝜃= 𝜋−3= 3
1. For any three vectors 𝑎, 𝑏⃗, 𝑐 ;
𝑎 {(𝑏⃗ + 𝑐 ) ∗ (𝑎 + 𝑏⃗ + 𝑐 )} = 0
2. For any three coplanar unit vectors
𝑑 , 𝑒, 𝑓; (𝑑 ∗ 𝑒). 𝑓 = 1
Which of the statement given above is/are correct?
Solution: (a)
Consider statement I
𝑎 {(𝑏⃗ + 𝑐 ) ∗ (𝑎 + 𝑏⃗ + 𝑐 )} = 0
= 𝑎{𝑏⃗ ∗ 𝑎 + 𝑏⃗ ∗ 𝑏⃗ + 𝑏⃗ ∗ 𝑐 + 𝑐 ∗ 𝑎 + 𝑐 ∗ 𝑏⃗ + 𝑐 ∗ 𝑐 }
= 0 + 0 + 𝑎 (𝑏⃗ + 𝑐) + 0 + 𝑎 (𝑐 ∗ 𝑏⃗) + 0
= 𝑎 (𝑏⃗ + 𝑐 ) - 𝑎 (𝑏⃗ + 𝑐 ) = 0
And for any three coplanar vector𝑑 , 𝑒, 𝑓 , (𝑑 + 𝑒).𝑓 = 0
Hence statement (1) is correct and statement 2 is correct.
4. Let 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ be two unit vectors and 𝛼 be the angle between them. If (𝑎 + 𝑏⃗) is also the vectors, then
what is the value of?
𝜋 𝜋
(a) 4 (b) 3
2𝜋 𝜋
(c) 3 (d) 2
Solution: (c)
Let 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏⃗ be two unit vectors
IaI=1 and IbI=1
Since 𝛼 is the angle between 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏⃗
⃗
𝑎⃗ 𝑏 ⃗
𝑎⃗ 𝑏
Cos 𝛼 = IaIIbI Cos 𝛼 = 1
Ia + bI = 1
Squaring both sides
⇒I𝑎 II𝑏⃗I + 2𝑎𝑏⃗ = 1
⇒ 2 cos𝛼 = -1
1 2𝜋
cos𝛼 = − 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 = 3
2𝜋
𝛼=
3
⃗
5. What is the value of λ for which the vectors 𝑖 − 𝑗 +𝑘 , 2𝑖⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑗 -𝑘⃗ and λ𝑖 + 𝑗 − λ𝑘⃗
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 4
Solution:(a)
Given vector is
𝑖 − 𝑗 +𝑘⃗ , 2𝑖
⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑗 -𝑘⃗ and λ𝑖 + 𝑗 − λ𝑘⃗
1 −1 1
|2 1 −1| = 0
λ −1 λ
⇒1(λ − 1) + 1(2λ + λ) + 1(−2 − λ) = 0
⇒ 3 λ =3
=>λ = 1
6. What is the geometric interpretation of the identity ++(𝑎 − 𝑏⃗) ∗ (𝑎 + 𝑏⃗) = 2(𝑎 + 𝑏⃗)
1. If the diagonals of a given parallelogram are used as sides of a second parallelogram, then the area of
the second parallelogram is twice that of the given parallelogram.
2. If the semi-diagonals of a given parallel are used as sides of a second parallelogram, then the area of
the second parallelogram I half that of the given parallelogram.
Select the correct answer using the code given below
Solution: (c)
Both statement (1) and (2) are correct
7. A vector 𝑏⃗ is collinear with the vector 𝑎 = (2, 1,-1) and satisfies the condition 𝑎. 𝑏⃗ =3. What 𝑏⃗ equal
to?
(a) (1,1/2,-1/2) (b) (2/3,1/3,-1/3)
(c) (1/2,1/4,-1/4) (d) (1,1,0)
Solution: (a)
Let 𝑏⃗ = x𝑖 +y𝑗+z𝑘⃗
Since 𝑏⃗ is collinear with vector 𝑎
𝑎 = 𝑘𝑏⃗ Where k is a scalar
Given 𝑎 = (2,1,-1)
(2, 1,-1) = k(x, y, z)
2 1 −1
⇒x=𝑘,y=𝑘,z= 𝑘
𝑎. 𝑏⃗ = 3
⇒ 2x+y-z = 3
2 1 1
⇒ 2(𝑘)+𝑘 + 𝑘 = 3
6
⇒𝑘 = 3⇒ k =2
1 −1
x=1, y = and z =
2 2
1 −1
𝑏⃗= (1, 2 , )
2
8. The vector 𝑎 =𝑥𝑖 ⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑦𝑗 𝑧𝑘 , 𝑏⃗ = 𝑘⃗ ,𝑐 are such that they form a right handed system. What is 𝑏⃗ equal to?
(a) 𝑗̂ (b) y𝑗̂-x𝑘̂
(c) y𝑖̂-x𝑗̂ (d) x𝑖̂-y𝑗̂
Solution: (c)
We know scalar triple product (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏⃗).𝑐 is positive or negative according as 𝑎, 𝑏⃗, 𝑐 form a right handed or
left handed system respectively.
Consider option (a)
Let 𝑐 = 𝑗
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
[𝑎𝑏⃗𝑐 ]= |0 0 1| = x (-1)-y (0) +z (0)
0 1 0
= −𝑥
Option (b)
Let 𝑐 = 𝑦𝑗 − 𝑥𝑘⃗
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
⃗
[𝑎𝑏𝑐 ]= |0 0 1 | = x (-y)-y (0) +z (0)
0 𝑦 −x
= −𝑥𝑦
Option (c)
Let 𝑐 = 𝑦𝑖 − 𝑥𝑗
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
⃗
[𝑎𝑏𝑐 ]= |0 0 1| = x(x)-y (-y) +z (0)
y −𝑥 0
= 𝑥² + 𝑦²
Since, scalar triple product is positive when
𝑐 = 𝑦𝑖 − 𝑥𝑗
Option c is correct.
9. If the position vector of a point P with respect to origin O is 𝑖̂+3𝑗̂-2𝑘̂, and that point Q is 3𝑖̂+3𝑗̂-2𝑘̂,
then what is the position vector of a point on the bisector of the angle POQ?
(a) 𝑖̂-𝑗̂-𝑘̂ (b) 𝑖̂+𝑗̂-𝑘̂
(c) 𝑖̂+𝑗̂+𝑘̂ (d) None of these
Solution: (b)
𝑂𝑃 = 𝑖̂+3𝑗̂-2𝑘̂ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Let ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑂Q =3𝑖̂+3𝑗̂-2𝑘̂
Let 𝑖̂+𝑗̂-𝑘̂ be required position vector of the bisector of the angle POQ since, it is the bisector of
∠POQ therefore. It will make equal angle with ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑂𝑃and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂Q .
̂ ̂
Let Angle between 𝑖̂+3𝑗̂-2𝑘 and 3𝑖̂+3𝑗̂-2𝑘 is
1+3+2
𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( )
√1+9+4 √1+1+1
6
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( )
√14 √3
And angle 3𝑖̂+𝑗̂-2𝑘̂ and 𝑖̂+𝑗̂-𝑘̂ is
1+3+2
𝜑 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( )
√1+9+4 √1+1+1
6
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( )
√14 √3
𝜃=𝜑
10. Let a, b and c be the distinct non-negative numbers. If the vector 𝑎𝑖̂+𝑏𝑗̂+𝑐𝑘̂, 𝑖̂+𝑘̂, 𝑐𝑖̂+c𝑗̂+𝑏𝑘̂ lie on a
plane, then which one of the following is correct?
(a) c is the arithmetic mean of a and b (b) c is the geometric mean of a and b
(c) c is the harmonic mean of a and b (d) c is equal to zero
Solution: (b)
Given 𝑎𝑖̂+𝑏𝑗̂+𝑐𝑘̂ , 𝑖̂+𝑘̂, 𝑐𝑖̂+c𝑗̂+𝑏𝑘̂
⇒ Vectors 𝑎𝑖̂+𝑏𝑗̂+𝑐𝑘̂ , 𝑖̂+𝑘̂, 𝑐𝑖̂+c𝑗̂+𝑏𝑘̂ are coplanar.
𝑎 𝑎 𝑐
|1 0 1| = 0
c 𝑐 b
⇒ a (-c) – a (b-c) +c(c) =0
⇒ c² = ab
11. If 𝑎 = 𝑖̂-𝑘̂ , 𝑏⃗=x𝑖̂+𝑗̂+ (1-x)𝑘̂
𝑐 = y𝑖̂ + x𝑗̂+ (1+x-y)𝑘̂ then𝑎. (𝑏⃗ ∗ 𝑐) depends on
(a) x only (b) y only
(c) Both x and y (d) Neither x nor y
Solution: (d)
Let 𝑎 = 𝑖̂-𝑘̂ , 𝑏⃗=x𝑖̂+𝑗̂+ (1-x)𝑘̂
𝑐 = y𝑖̂ + x𝑗̂+ (1+x-y)𝑘̂
𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
Now (𝑏⃗ ∗ 𝑐 ) = |𝑥 1 (1 − 𝑥) |
𝑦 𝑥 (1 + 𝑥 − 𝑦)
= 𝑖̂ 1 + 𝑥 − 𝑦 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 ) − 𝑗̂(𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦) + 𝑘̂(𝑥 2 − 𝑦)
(
= 𝑖̂(1 − 𝑦 + 𝑥 2 ) − 𝑗̂(𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦) + 𝑘̂(𝑥 2 − 𝑦)
Now 𝑎(𝑏⃗ ∗ 𝑐 ) = 1(1 − 𝑦 + 𝑥 2 ) + 0(𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦) − 1(𝑥 2 − 𝑦)
= 1 − 𝑦 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥2 + 𝑦
= 1 which shows that 𝑎(𝑏⃗ ∗ 𝑐 ) does not depends on x and y.
12. PQRS is a parallelogram, where ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ PQ=3𝑖̂+2𝑗̂-m𝑘̂ , ⃗⃗⃗⃗
PS=𝑖̂+3𝑗̂-𝑘̂ and the area of the parallelogram is √90.
What is the value of m?
(a) 1 (b) -1
(c) 2 (d) -2
Solution: (a)
PQ=3𝑖̂+2𝑗̂-m𝑘̂ , ⃗⃗⃗⃗
Let ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ PS=𝑖̂+3𝑗̂-𝑘̂
Where PQRS is parallelogram?
𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
Area of parallelogram = |3 2 −𝑚|
1 3 1
( ) ( ) ̂
= Iî 2 + 3m − ĵ 3 + m + k(9 − 2)I
= √(2 + 3𝑚)2 + (3 + 𝑚)2 + (7)2
⇒ 90 = 4 + 9𝑚2 +12m+9+𝑚2 +6m+49
⇒10𝑚2 + 18𝑚 − 28 = 0
⇒5𝑚2 + 9𝑚 − 14 = 0
⇒m (5m+14)-1(5m+14) =0
⇒ (5m+14) (m-1) =0
−14
m = 1 or 5
13. What is the vector equality inclined to the vectors 𝑖̂ +3𝑗̂ and 3𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ ?
(a) 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ (b) 2𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂
(c) 2𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ (d) None of these
Solution: (a)
Let the required vector be î + ĵ
Since the vector î + ĵ is equally inclined to the vectors î + 3ĵ therefore
Angle b/w î + ĵ and î + 3ĵ = θ1 is equal to angle between î + ĵ and 3î + ĵ = θ2
Angle between î + ĵ and î + 3ĵ
(1)(1)+(1)(3)
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( )
√1²+1²√1²+3²
1+3 4
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 2 10) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1
−1
( )
√ √ √2 √5
2
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( 5)
√
Angle between î + ĵ and 3î + ĵ
4
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 𝐼 2 10 𝐼
√ √
−1 2
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )
√5
Here required vector is î + ĵ
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ CB
14. ABCD is quadrilateral. Forces AB, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , CD
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , DA
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ act along its sides. What is their resultant?
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(a) 2CD (b) 2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
DA
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(c) 2 BC (d) 2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
CB
Solution: (d)
Let ABCD be a quadrilateral
𝐴𝐵 + 𝐶𝐵 + 𝐶𝐷 + 𝐷𝐴
= 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐶𝐴 + 𝐶𝐵
= 𝐶𝐵 + 𝐶𝐵
= 2𝐶𝐵
15.What is the area of a triangle whose vertices are at (3,-1,2), (1,-1,-3) and (4,-3,1) ?
√165 √135
(a) 2 (b) 2
(c) 4 (d) 2
Solution: (a)
Let the vertices of the ∆ ABC are A (3,-1, 2) B (1,-1,-3) and C (4,-3, 1)
Let 𝑂𝐴⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 3î − ĵ + 2𝑘̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = î − ĵ + 3𝑘̂
𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 4î − 3ĵ + 𝑘̂
𝑂𝐶
1
∆ ABC = IAB ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
ACI
2
𝐴𝐵 = 2î + 5𝑘̂
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −î + 2ĵ + 𝑘̂
𝐴𝐶
𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
1
Required area = 2 | 2 0 5 |
−1 2 1
1
= 2 |[𝑖̂(−10) − 𝑗̂(2 + 5) + 𝑘̂ (4) ]|
1
= |−10𝑖̂ − 7𝑗̂ + 4𝑘̂ |
2
1
= 2
√100 + 49 + 16
1
= 2 √165
16. What is the value of b such that the scalar product of the vector 𝑖̂+𝑗̂+𝑘̂ with the unit vector parallel
to the sum of the vector 2𝑖̂+4𝑗̂-5𝑘̂ and 𝑖̂+2𝑗̂+3𝑘̂ is unity?
(a) -2 (b) -1
(c) 0 (d) 1
Solution: (d)
𝐴 = 𝑖̂+𝑗̂+𝑘̂
⃗ = 2𝑖̂+4𝑗̂-5𝑘̂ and 𝐶 = 𝑖̂+2𝑗̂+3𝑘̂
𝐵
⃗ + 𝐶 = 2𝑖̂+4𝑗̂-5𝑘̂ + 𝑖̂+2𝑗̂+3𝑘̂
𝐵
= (2 + 𝑏)𝑖̂+6𝑗̂+2𝑘̂
̂
(2+𝑏)𝑖̂+6𝑗̂ +2𝑘 ̂
(2+𝑏)𝑖̂+6𝑗̂ +2𝑘
𝑛̂ = =
√(2+𝑏)2 +6²(−2)² √(𝑏)2+4𝑏+44
⇒2 + 𝑏 + 6 − 2√(𝑏)2 + 4𝑏 + 44
⇒ 8b =b
⇒ b =1
17. Let p, q, r and s be respectively the magnitude of the vectors 3𝑖̂-2𝑗̂ , 2𝑖̂+2𝑗̂+𝑘̂, 4𝑖̂-𝑗̂+𝑘̂, 2𝑖̂+2𝑗̂+3𝑘̂.
Which one of the following is correct?
(a) r>s> q>p (b) s>r>p> q
(c) r>s>p> q (d) s>r> q>p
Solution: (c)
Let p = Magnitude of 3𝑖̂ − 2𝑗̂ =√9 + 4 = √13
q = Magnitude of 2𝑖̂ − 2𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ =√4 + 4 + 1 = 3
r = Magnitude of 4𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ =√16 + 1 + 1 = √18 = 3√2
s = Magnitude of 2𝑖̂ − 2𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂ =√4 + 4 + 9 = √17
r>s>p> q
18. If x𝑖̂+y𝑗̂+𝑧𝑘̂ is a unit vector and x: y: z =√3:2:3, then what is the value of z?
(a) 3/16 (b) 3
(c) ¾ (d) 2
Solution: (c)
If x𝑖̂+y𝑗̂+𝑧𝑘̂ is a unit vector
X²+y²+z² =1
and x: y: z =√3:2:3,
x= √3 k, y= 2k and z = 3k
(√3 k )2 + (2k )2 + (3 k )2 = 1
√3 k² + 4k² + 9k² = 1
1 1
k 2 = 16⇒k = 4
3
Z = 3k = 3*(1/4) = 4
19.Which one of the following is the unit vector perpendicular to the vector 4𝑖̂+2𝑗̂ and -3𝑖̂+2𝑗̂ ?
𝑖̂+𝑗̂ 𝑖̂−𝑗̂
(a) 2 (b) 2
√ √
(c) 𝑘̂ (d)
̂̂
𝑖̂+𝑗+𝑘
3 √
Solution: (c)
Let vector x𝑖̂+y𝑗̂+𝑧𝑘̂ be perpendicular to vectors
4𝑖̂+2𝑗̂ and -3𝑖̂+2𝑗̂
Their dot product is zero
4x+2y =0 …..(i)
-3x+2y=0 …..(ii)
From (i) and (ii)

X=0, y=0
Hence required vector is 𝑘̂
20. Consider the following statement in respect of the vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑢1 =(1,2,3), ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑢2 = (2,3,1) , and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑢3 = (1,3,2)
and ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑢4 =(4,6,2)
I. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑢1 is parallel to ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑢4
II. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑢2 is parallel to ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑢4
III. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑢2 is parallel to𝑢⃗⃗⃗⃗3 .
(a) only I (b) only II
(c) only III (d) Both I and III
Solution: (b)
Statement II is correct
21. The point with position vectors 10𝑖̂-3𝑗̂, 12𝑖̂-5𝑗̂ , 𝑎𝑖̂-11𝑗̂ are collinear, if the value of a is
(a) -8 (b) 4
(c) 8 (d) 12
Solution: (c)
Since the point with position vector
10𝑖̂-3𝑗̂ , 12𝑖̂-5𝑗̂ , 𝑎𝑖̂-11𝑗̂ are collinear.
10 3 1
|12 −5 1| = 0
𝑎 11 1
⇒ 10(-5-11)-3(12-a) +1(132+5a) =0
⇒ -60 -36 +3a+132 +5a =0
⇒ 8a =64
⇒ a =8
22. What is the sine of angle between vectors -𝑖̂and 2𝑗̂ and 3𝑘̂?
(a) √3/7 (b) √3/7
(c) 13/√7 (d) None of these
Solution: (b)
We know that, the angle between the vectors
𝑎1 𝑖̂ + 𝑏1 𝑗̂ + 𝑐1 𝑘̂ and 𝑎2 𝑖̂ + 𝑏2 𝑗̂ + 𝑐2 𝑘̂ is given by
𝑎1 𝑎2 +𝑏1𝑏2 +𝑐1 𝑐2
Cos 𝜃 = [ ]
√𝑎1 ²+𝑏1 ²+𝑐1 ²√𝑎2 ²+𝑏2²+𝑐2²
𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂ and −𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂ is given by

1∗(−1)+2∗2+3∗3
Cos 𝜃 = [ ] = 6/7
√1+4+9√1+4+9
36
Sin 𝜃 = √1 − (49 ) = √13/7
23. The vector 𝑎 lies in the lane of vectors 𝑏⃗ and 𝑐 . Which one of the following is correct?
(a) 𝑎. (𝑏⃗ ∗ 𝑐 ) = 0 (b) 𝑎. (𝑏⃗ ∗ 𝑐 ) = 1
(c) 𝑎. (𝑏⃗ ∗ 𝑐 ) = −1 (d) 𝑎. (𝑏⃗ ∗ 𝑐 ) = 3
Solution: (a)
𝑎 . ( 𝑏⃗ * 𝑐 ) =0
24. What is the projection of the vector 𝑖̂-2𝑗̂-𝑘̂ on the vector 4𝑖̂-4𝑗̂+7𝑘̂?
(a) √5/2 (b) 19/9
(c) √5/4 (d) 11/3

Solution: (b)
Let 𝑎 = 𝑖̂ − 2𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ and 𝑏⃗ = 4𝑖
̂ − 4𝑗̂ + 7𝑘̂
⃗a . b ⃗
Projection of 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
IbI
⃗a . ⃗b= 4(1) +4(2)+1(7) = 19
⃗⃗⃗ = √4² + 4² + 7² = 9
IbI
⃗a . b ⃗
Projection of 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 19/9
IbI
25. If the vector -𝑖̂-2x𝑗̂+3y𝑘̂ and 𝑖̂-3𝑗̂-2y𝑘̂ are orthogonal to each other, then what is the locus of the
locus of the point (x, y)?
(a) a straight line (b) an ellipse
(c) a parabola (d) a circle
Solution: (d)
Given vector −𝑖̂ − 2𝑥𝑗̂ − 3𝑦𝑘̂ and 𝑖̂ − 3𝑥𝑗̂ − 2𝑦𝑘̂ are orthogonal to each other
(−𝑖̂ − 2𝑥𝑗̂ − 3𝑦𝑘̂) (−𝑖̂ − 3𝑥𝑗̂ − 2𝑦𝑘̂) = 0
⇒ (-1) (1) + (-2x)(-3x) + (-3y)(-2y) = 0
⇒ 6x² + 6y² = 1
⇒ X² + y² = (1/√6)²
Locus of (x, y) is a circle
EXERCISE
1. If 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ are two vectors such that 𝑎. 𝑏⃗ = 0 and 𝑎 × 𝑏⃗ = 0, then which one of the following is correct?
(a) 𝑎 is parallel to 𝑏⃗ (b) 𝑎 is perpendicular to 𝑏⃗
(c) Either a or 𝑏⃗ is a null vector (d) None of the above
2. If 𝑐 is the unit vector perpendicular to both the vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗, then what is another unit vector
perpendicular to both the vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ ?
(a) 𝑐 ∗ 𝑎 (b) 𝑐 ∗ 𝑏⃗
(a ⃗)
⃗ ∗b (a ⃗)
⃗ ∗b
(c) – ⃗I
(d) ⃗I
Ia
⃗ ∗b Ia
⃗ ∗b
3. For what value of m are the points with position vectors 10𝑖̂-3𝑗̂, 12𝑖̂-5𝑗̂ and m𝑖̂+11𝑗̂ collinear?
(a) -8 (b) 4
(c) 8 (d) 12
4. For what value of m are the vectors 2𝑖̂-3𝑗̂+4𝑘̂ , 𝑖̂-2𝑗̂-𝑘̂, m𝑖̂-𝑗̂+2𝑘̂, coplanar?
(a) 0 (b) 5/3
(c) 1 (d) 8/5
5. What is the area of the triangle with vertices (1, 2, 3), (2, 5,-1) and (-1, 1, 2)?
(a) √155/2sq units (b) √175/2 sq units
(c) √155/4sq units (d) √175/4 sq units
6. What is the area of the rectangle having vertices A, B, C and D with positive vectors?
1 1 1
-𝑖̂+ 𝑗̂+4𝑘̂, 𝑖̂+ 𝑗̂+4𝑘̂, 𝑖̂- 𝑗̂+4𝑘̂
2 2 2
(a) ½ sq units (b) 1 sq units

(c) 2 sq units (d) 4 sq units
7. If 𝑎 = (2,1,-1), 𝑏⃗ = (1,-1,0), 𝑐 =(5,-1,1), then what is the unit vector parallel to 𝑎 + 𝑏⃗ − 𝑐 in the
opposite direction ?
̂
𝑖̂+𝑗̂−2𝑘 ̂
𝑖̂−2𝑗̂−2𝑘
(a) (b)
3 3
2𝑖 ̂
̂ −𝑗̂ −2𝑘 (d) None of the above
(c) 3
8. If the magnitudes of two vectors a and b equal then which one of the following is correct?
(a) (𝑎 + 𝑏⃗ ) is parallel to (𝑎 − 𝑏⃗) (b) (𝑎 + 𝑏⃗ ). (𝑎 − 𝑏⃗) =1
(c) (𝑎 + 𝑏⃗) is perpendicular (𝑎 − 𝑏⃗) (d) None of the above
9. Let O be the origin and P, Q, R be the points such that 𝑃O ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂Q=QO ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ +𝑂𝑅
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . Then which one of the
(a) P, Q, R are the vertices of an equilateral (b) P, Q, R are the vertices of an isosceles triangle
triangle
(c) P, Q, R are collinear (d) None of the above
10. What is the value of m if the vectors 2𝑖̂-𝑗̂+𝑘̂, 𝑖̂+2𝑗̂-3𝑘̂ and 3𝑖̂-m𝑗̂-5𝑘̂ are coplanar?
(a) -2 (b) 2
(c) -4 (d) 4
11. If I𝑎I=10, I𝑏⃗I=2 and 𝑎. 𝑏⃗ =12, then what is the value of I𝑎 ∗ 𝑏⃗I?
(a) 12 (b) 16
(c) 20 (d) 24
12. If the vector 𝑖̂-x𝑗̂-y𝑘̂ and 𝑖̂+x𝑗̂+y𝑘̂ are orthogonal 10 each other, then what is the locus of the point (x,
y)?
(a) a parabola (b) an ellipse
(c) a circle (d) a straight line
13. EFGH is a rhombus such that the angle EFG is 60°. The magnitude of vector 𝐹𝐻 and {m𝐸𝐺} are equal
where m I a scalar. What is the value of m?
(a) 3 (b) 1.5
(c) √2 (d) √3
14. If 𝑎. 𝑏⃗ =0 and 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏
⃗⃗ = 0
⃗ then which one of the following is correct?
(a) 𝑎 is parallel to 𝑏⃗ (b) 𝑎 is perpendicular to 𝑏⃗
⃗ or 𝑏⃗=0
(c) 𝑎=0 ⃗ (d) None of the above
⃗ *a⃗) is coplanar with
15. The vector a⃗ ∗ (b
(a) 𝑎 only ⃗ only
(b) b
(c) Both 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
(d) Neither 𝑎 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑏
16. Consider the following
⃗
1. 4𝑖̂ ∗ 3𝑖̂ = 0
4𝑖̂ 4
2. 3𝑖̂ = 3
Which of the above is /are correct?

17. What is the value of λ for which
(λ𝑖̂+𝑗̂-𝑘̂)*( 3𝑖̂-2𝑗̂+4𝑘̂) = (2𝑖̂-11𝑗̂-7𝑘̂)
(a) 2 (b) -2
(c) 1 (d) 7
18. The magnitude of the scalar P for which the vector P (−3𝑖̂ −2𝑗̂+13𝑘̂) is of unit length is
(a) 1/8 (b) 1/64
(c) √182 (d) 1/√182
18. The vector 2𝑗̂-𝑘̂ lies
(a) In the plane of XY (b) In the plane of YZ
(c) In the plane of XZ (d) along the X-axis
20. ABCD is a parallelogram. If 𝐴𝐵= 𝑎 , 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑏⃗ , then what is 𝐵𝐷 equal to?
(a) 𝑎 + 𝑏⃗ (b) 𝑎 − 𝑏⃗
(c) −𝑎 − 𝑏⃗ (d) −𝑎 + 𝑏⃗
21. If 𝛽 is perpendicular to both 𝛼 and 𝛾 where 𝛼 = 𝑘⃗ and 𝑟 = 2𝑖̂ −3𝑗̂+4𝑘̂ , then what is 𝛽 equal to?
(a) 3𝑖̂ +2𝑗̂ (b) −3𝑖̂ +2𝑗̂
(c) 2𝑖̂ −3𝑗̂ (d) −2𝑖̂ +3𝑗̂
22. For any vector 𝛼 what is (𝛼?𝑖̂)𝑖̂+(𝛼.𝑗̂)𝑗̂+(𝛼.𝑘̂)𝑘̂ equal to?
(a) 𝛼 (b) 3𝛼
(c) -𝛼 ⃗
(d) 0
⃗⃗⃗ equals to𝑎. 𝑏
23. If the 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ⃗⃗ , then which one of the following is correct?
(a) 𝑎 = 𝑏⃗⃗⃗ (b) The angle between 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏⃗⃗ is 45°
⃗⃗⃗
(c) 𝑎 is parallel to 𝑏 ⃗⃗
(d) 𝑎 is perpendicular to 𝑏
24. If I𝑎I=√2, I𝑏⃗I=√3 and I𝑎+𝑏⃗I=√6, then what is I𝑎-𝑏⃗I equal to?
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 4
25. Which one of the following vectors is normal to the vector 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂+𝑘̂ ?
(a) 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ − 𝑘̂ (b) 𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂+𝑘̂
(c) 𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ − 𝑘̂ (d) None of the above
ANSWER KEY
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10.(c)
11.(b) 12.(c) 13.(d) 14.(c) 15.(d) 16.(a) 17.(a) 18.(d) 19.(b) 20.(a)
21.(b) 22.(a) 23.(b) 24.(b) 25.(d)
8. STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY

8.1 CLASSIFICATION OF DATA, FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION, CUMULATIVE
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
Classification of data: Arrangement of data into several groups or classes based on the
characteristics i.e. as per the similarities of observations is called classification or organization
of data.
The main reasons behind classifying the data are:
• It helps the data to be easily understood and interpreted as the data is now kept in a precise,
condensed form neatly.
• When needed data it is now possible to compare the data between various characteristics
and find a relation between them or finding the lack in them.
• Classified data can be statistically analyzed.
• Data is more understandable now as the unwanted details are removed.
Different types of Data are:
➢ Qualitative or Ordinal Data
➢ Quantitative or Cardinal Data
➢ Temporal or Chronological or Time series data
➢ Spatial series data or geographical data
Frequency Distribution:
Classification of statistical data in respect of either variable or an attribute results in the
occurrence of frequency data. It can also be defined as the representation of statistical data.
Ex1: When a book was printed, there were many misprints. Can we get the frequency
distribution of the printing mistakes, if the following mistakes were noted while reviewing the first
30 pages of the book?
0 1 3 3 2 5 6 0 1 0
4 1 1 0 2 3 2 5 0 4
2 3 2 2 3 3 4 6 1 4
Solution:
Here let us say the printing mistakes are p, now from the above data, it is a discrete variable
which can take any of the seven values which are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6.
This shows that there are 7 classes and each class with a single value.
Now drawing the frequency distribution of the misprints, it gives:
Printing Tally No. of Pages
mistakes marks I.e. Frequency
0 |||| 5
1 |||| 5
2 |||| | 6
3 |||| | 6
4 |||| 4
5 || 2
6 || 2
Total - 30
Cumulative Frequency: There are two types of cumulative frequencies- less than cumulative
frequency, more than cumulative frequency.
Less than Cumulative frequency: The number of observations that are less than a value or
that are less than or equal to the class boundary is called the less than cumulative frequency for
the value, for discrete variable and corresponding to the class boundary for the continuous
variable.
More than Cumulative frequency: Similar to the less than Cumulative frequency, the number
of observations which corresponds to the more than the value or more than or equal to the class
boundary is defined as more than cumulative frequency.
Cumulative Frequency distribution:
Example: Table below gives the cumulative frequency distribution of 36 BBA students.
Weight in Cumulative Frequency
Kg (CB) Less than More than
43.50 0 36 or 33 +
3
48.50 0 + 3 or 3 33 or 29 +
4
53.50 3 + 4 or 7 29 or 24 +
5
58.50 7 + 5 or 12 24 or 17 +
7
63.50 12 + 7 or 17 or 8 + 9
19
68.50 19 + 9 or 8 or 8 + 0
28
73.50 28 + 8 or 0
36
8.2 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION – HISTOGRAM, PIE CHART, FREQUENCY POLYGON
• An attractive way of representing the statistical data is diagrammatically or graphically using
charts, pictures and diagrams.
• The main advantages of this method is, when the data is represented by this method, it is
understandable and usable for the uneducated sections of the society, along with the
educated sections.
• Also, with this method, it is possible to see in the given data the hidden trends.
• However, the accuracy of this method of data representation is less when compared to other
methods.
• So in these cases, when accuracy is a priority, it is recommended to use the other
representation methods like the tabulation method.
Histogram
• This is one of the graphical representation methods for the data.
• The frequency distribution can be conveniently represented using the histogram.
• For a variable under study, we can get its frequency curve with the help of a histogram. It is
also possible to compare among the frequencies for the different class intervals.
Drawing a histogram: Here, the class limits are changed to class boundaries. Now series of
rectangles that are adjacent are drawn.
Each of these rectangles is drawn against a class interval such that the breadth of the rectangle
is nothing but the class interval and length or altitude of the rectangle is the frequency or the
frequency density that is when the class intervals are not uniform.
So then the area of each rectangle is proportional to the corresponding class frequency.
We can get an idea about the frequency curve and also mode can be calculated from this.
Ex2: Find the modal value of the below monthly profit data of 100 shops, and also draw the
histogram. The data is in Rupees.
Per 0- 100- 200- 300- 400- 500-
shop 100 200 300 400 500 600
profit
No. of 12 18 27 20 17 6
shops
Solution:
To find the modal value, join the top right corner of the highest rectangle with the top right
corner of the preceding rectangle and on the left side corner of the highest rectangle with the
left corner of the one following it.
Now these two lines intersect at a point and when we draw a perpendicular from this point to the
horizontal base, its foot gives the mode. In this case, from the figure, it comes to approximately
Rs.256.
Frequency Polygon: Generally applied to single frequency distribution, the frequency polygon
can also be used for grouped frequency distribution when the class intervals are of same width.
A limiting form of the frequency polygon is the frequency curve.
Drawing a frequency polygon: The midpoints of the class intervals and their frequencies are
plotted and the points are joined using lines, and the figure is completed by joining the mid
points of two empty classes that were assumed on the two extreme ends of the frequency
distribution to form the polygon.
In similar terms, it can also be got from a histogram when the midpoints of the rectangles are
joined and the polygon is completed using the method prescribed above.
Drawing a frequency curve: Reducing the class width, the number of classes in a frequency
distribution increases and in such scenario, the vertices of the polygon come closer and now it
forms a smooth curve called frequency curve.
Example: Get the frequency polygon for the data given below – distribution of BBA students’
weights.
Mid points Frequency

( No. of
students)
46 3
51 4
56 5
61 7
66 9
71 8
Pie Chart:
Data which is divided into different categories is represented diagrammatically here and thereby
enabling the comparison of data between various components or comparing as a part or whole.
The Pie chart consists of a circle which is divided into areas proportional to the values. These
areas are also proportional to the angle at the centre and thereby the values of different
components. The full circle represents the total value.
Ex3: For the proposed five year plan outlay of the government, given below draw a pie chart.
Items Rupees in crores
Agriculture 12000
Industry and Minerals 9000
Irrigation and Power 6000
Education 8000
Communication 5000
Solution:
Sum of all the values = 12000 + 9000 + 6000 + 8000 + 5000 = 40,000 which is represented as
360°.
So 1,000 is represented by 360 / 40 = 9°
The angle in degrees calculation is therefore:
Agriculture=12 × 1000 →12 × 9 = 108 degrees
Communication = 5 × 1000→5 × 9=45 degrees
So the angle for each of the values is
Items Rupees Angles in

in degrees
crores
Agriculture 12000 12 × 9
= 108
Industry& 9000 9 × 9 = 81
Minerals
Irrigation & 6000 6 × 9 = 54
Power
Education 8000 8 × 9 = 72
Communication 5000 5 × 9 = 45
Total 40000 360
8.3 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY- MEAN, MEDIAN, MODE

For a given set of observations, there is a tendency to cluster around a certain central value
known as the average or measure of central tendency or location and this is known as central
tendency. So a vast data can be condensed by a single representative value which therefore
plays an important role.
For example, in a college, it can be seen that the marks distribution increases from a low
frequency to a certain point reaching the maximum central part and then decreases again, this
helps in judging the college based on the average marks of their students. Also the central
tendency, help provide a basis for comparing various distributions.
Different measures of Central tendency are:
• Arithmetic Mean used as AM,
• Median used as Me.
• Mode used as Mo.
Arithmetic Mean: Denoted by X̅, for n observations of values 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … . , 𝑥𝑛 it is the total of all the
observations to the number of observations.
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + … . + 𝑥𝑛
𝑋̅ =
𝑛
∑ 𝑥𝑖
𝑋̅= 𝑛
Simple frequency distribution is given as
𝑥1 𝑓1 + 𝑥2 𝑓2 + … . + 𝑥𝑛𝑓𝑛
𝑋̅ =
𝑓1 + 𝑓2 + ⋯ + 𝑓𝑛
∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖
𝑋̅= ∑ 𝑓𝑖
∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝑥 𝑖
𝑋̅ = Where N=≤ 𝑓𝑖
𝑁
The above can be applied to grouped frequency distribution, provided all values belonging to i th
interval are equal to 𝑥𝑖
For uniform classification,
if A is Assumed Mean
C is Class length and
𝑥𝑖 −𝐴
𝑑𝑖 = ,
𝐶
∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝑥 =𝐴+ ×𝐶
𝑁
Ex4: What would be the mean wage if the sample daily wages of workers is 58, 62, 48, 53, 70, 52,
60, 84, 75.
Solution:
Here n=9 and 𝑥1 = 58, 𝑥2 = 62,𝑥3 = 48,𝑥4 = 53,𝑥5 = 70,𝑥6 = 52, 𝑥7 = 60, 𝑥8 = 84,𝑥9 = 75
∑ 𝑥𝑖 58 + 62 + 48 + 53 + 70 + 52 + 60 + 84 + 75
𝑋̅ = =
𝑛 9
= Rs. 62.44.
Median: This is the positional average value that is the median depends on how the
observations are placed.
Example: If 72, 85, 56, 80, 65, 52 and 68 are marks of 7 students, then arranging them from
lowest to highest marks, 52, 56, 65, 72, 80, 85. Median now is 4 th term i.e. 68.
Example: Wages of workers is 56, 82, 96, 120,110, 82, 106 and 100.
Now arranging them in ascending order, 56, 82, 82, 96, 100, 106, 110 and 120.
Middle values here are 96, 100. Median could be anywhere between this.
96+100
Actual median is = 98.
2
For grouped frequency distribution,
𝑁
− 𝑁1
𝑀 = 𝑙1 + ( 2 ) ×𝐶
𝑁2 − 𝑁1
N = total frequency,
𝑙1 = lower class boundary of median class,
𝑙2 = upper class boundary of median class,
C= Median class length = 𝑙2 − 𝑙1 ,
𝑁1 = corresponding to 𝑙1 , less than cumulative frequency.
𝑁2 = corresponding to 𝑙2 , less than cumulative frequency.
Ex5: Determine the median for distribution:
Class Interval Frequency
350-369 23
370-389 38
390-409 58
410-429 82
430-449 65
450-469 31
470-489 11
Solution:
Computation of median
Class Boundary Less than cumulative frequency

349.5 0
369.5 23
389.5 61
409.5 (𝑙1 ) 119 (𝑁1 )
429.5 (𝑙2 ) 201 (𝑁2 )
449.5 266
469.5 297
489.5 308
𝑁 308
= = 154 which is between 119 and 201.
2 2
So 𝑁2 = 201, 𝑁1 = 119
and therefore 𝑙2 = 429.5, 𝑙1 = 409.5
So = 𝐶 = 𝑙2 − 𝑙1 = 429.5-409.5 = 20
154 − 119
𝑀 = 409.5 + × 20 = 418.04
201 − 119
Mode: It is that value which has most concentrations around it or which occurs most no. of times in a
set of observations.
Example: 5, 3, 3, 9, 7, here Mode is 3 as it occurs 2 times. There could be multiple modes also and multi-
modal distribution is the term used for such distributions. Similarly there could be also no mode.
For example: There is no mode in 50, 60, 35, 40, 25 marks distribution as all values appear only once.
𝑓 −𝑓
For grouped frequency distribution, 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑒 = 𝑙1 + ( 0 −1 ) × 𝐶
2𝑓0 −𝑓−1 − 𝑓1
𝑙1 = class containing the mode,
𝐶 = modal class length,
𝑓0 = modal classfrequency,
𝑓1 = post modal classfrequency,
𝑓−1 = pre-modal class frequency
Ex6: Determine the mode for distribution:
Class Interval Frequency
350-369 23
370-389 38
390-409 58
410-429 82
430-449 65
450-469 31
470-489 11
Solution:
Computation of mode
Class interval Frequency
350-369 23
370-389 38
390-409 58 (𝑓−1 )
410-429 82 (𝑓0 )
430-449 65 (𝑓1 )
450-469 31
470-489 11
The maximum frequency 𝑓0 = 82, So 𝑓1 = 65 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓−1 = 58

From this, 𝐶 = 429.5 − 409.5 = 20
82 − 58
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑒 = 409.5 + ( ) × 20
2 × 82 − 58 − 65
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑒 = 421.21
8.4 VARIANCE AND STANDARD DEVIATION-DETERMINATION AND COMPARISON
Standard Deviation: In case of measure of dispersion, the mean is not easy to be obtained. So
then the standard deviation denoted by s is used. It is root mean square deviations taken from
the AM for the set of observations i.e. for unclassified values 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … . , 𝑥𝑛 , the standard
deviation is given as
∑(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥 )2
𝑠= √
𝑛
∑ 𝑥𝑖 2
𝑠 = √ − 𝑥2
𝑛
∑ 𝑓1 (𝑥1 − 𝑥 )2
𝑠= √
𝑁
∑ 𝑓1 𝑥1 2
𝑠 = √ − 𝑥2
𝑁
Variance: At times, the measure of dispersion is also the variance which is the square of standard
deviation.
So for unclassified data,
∑(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥 )2
𝑠2 =
𝑛
∑ 𝑓1 (𝑥1 − 𝑥 )2
𝑠2 =
𝑁
Coefficient of Variation: The percentage of ratio of Standard deviation to corresponding arithmetic
mean is the coefficient of variation denoted by v, which is a relative measure of dispersion using the
standard deviation.
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Coefficient of variation= 𝐴𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 × 100
Ex7: For 5, 8, 9, 2, 6, what is the standard deviation and what is the coefficient of variation?
Solution:
𝒙𝒊 𝒙𝒊 𝟐
5 25
8 64
9 81
2 4
6 36
30 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 2 = 210
∑ 𝑥𝑖 2
Applying s = √ − 𝑥2
𝑛
210 30 2
s=√ − ( 5 ) = √42 − 36
5
s= √6
𝑠 = 2.45
𝑆𝐷
Coefficient of variation CV = 100 × 𝐴𝑀
2.45
CV = 100 × = 40.83
6
8.5 CORRELATION AND REGRESSION
In business, one would be interested to know what profit can be obtained for what amount of
investment or students appearing for their final examination may like to know if getting better
scores in the preliminary selection tests would help them score better marks in their final
examination.
In the examples above, there are two variables to be considered that is in the first example
amount to be invested and the profit, etc.
Correlation Analysis and Regression are two analysis that are used for such cases i.e. when
there are more than one variables or multi-variable distribution. The distribution is a bivariate
distribution when it has only two variables.
Correlation analysis helps us determine the presence or absence of an association between two
variables and also finds the association in the former case.
The Product Moment Correlation, Rank Correlation Coefficient, Coefficient of Concurrent
Deviations are some of the measures which provide the amount of correlation between
variables.
The cause and effect relation between variables should be very carefully noted because there
may exist case like while the two variables are independent, but a relationship exists between
them due to a third variable.
Regression analysis aims at calculating the dependent variable’s value corresponding to an
independent variable’s known value assuming there is a mathematical relationship between
them and an average relationship between them.
Correlation Analysis: If a change in one variable causes a direct or inverse change in other
variable then the two are said to be correlated or associated, else they are uncorrelated or
independent.
Correlation has two types:
• Positive correlation
• Negative Correlation
Positive correlation: Two variables are said to be positively correlated if when one part of a
variable is increased/reduced, causes an increase/reduction respectively in part of other
variable.
Example: Weight and height.
Negative correlation: Two variables are said to be negatively correlated if when one part of a
variable is increased/reduced, causes an decrease/increase respectively in part of other
variable, i.e. they move in opposite directions.
Example: For an Insurance company, profit & no. of claims.
Uncorrelated: Two variables are said to be uncorrelated if change in one variable does not
cause any change on the other in a direction. E.g.: Intelligence and shoe-size.
Correlation Measures:
The different measures of correlation are:

• Scatter diagram,
• Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient,
• Karl Pearson’s Product moment correlation coefficient,
• Co-efficient of concurrent deviations are the measures of correlation.
Scatter diagram: Applicable to linear and non-linear correlation, it is a diagrammatic method to
distinguish different types of correlation. However this method does not gives us the extent of
the relationship.
Here, in the rectangular axis of ordinates, each data point is represented as a point. All the
points thus plotted together form the scatter diagram and helps get the nature of the correlation.
In positive correlation, the points are concentrated from the lower left corner to the upper right
corner, while in case of negative correlation they lie from upper left to the lower right. There is
no pattern depicted and the points are equally scattered in case of zero correlation.
Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient: This easy to compute coefficient helps get first hand
impression of correlation between variable and is used to determine correlation between
qualitative characteristics.
Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient 𝑟𝑅 lies between -1 and 1 is given as
6 ∑ 𝑑𝑖 2
𝑟𝑅 = 1 −
𝑛(𝑛2 − 1)
Ex8: What would be the rank correlation coefficient if sum of squares of difference of Math and
stats marks of 8 students is 50?
Solution:
n=8, ∑ 𝑑𝑖 2 = 50
6 ∑ 𝑑𝑖 2
𝑟𝑅 = 1 −
𝑛(𝑛 2 − 1)
6 × 50
𝑟𝑅 = 1 − = 0.40
8(82 − 1)
Karl Pearson’s Product moment correlation coefficient: For variables in linear relationship,
this best method to find correlation, wherein the ratio of covariance between two variables to the
product of their standard deviations gives the Pearson’s correlation coefficient.
Using Karl Pearson, the coefficient of correlation for (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 ) where I =1,2,3….n is:
𝐶𝑂𝑉 (𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑟 = 𝑟𝑥𝑦 =
𝑆𝑥 𝑥𝑆𝑦
∑(𝑥𝑖 −𝑥 )(𝑦𝑖 −𝑦̅) ∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖
Where cov (x, y) = = − 𝑥 𝑦̅
𝑛 𝑛
∑(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥 )2 ∑ 𝑥2
𝑆𝑋 = √ = √ 𝑖 − 𝑥2
𝑛 𝑛
∑(𝑦𝑖 −𝑦̅)2 ∑ 𝑦𝑖2

And 𝑆𝑦 = √ =√ − 𝑦̅ 2
𝑛 𝑛
A single formula for computing correlation coefficient is given by
𝑛 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 − ∑ 𝑥𝑖 × ∑ 𝑦𝑖
r=
2
√𝑛 ∑ 𝑥𝑖2 − (∑ 𝑥𝑖 ) √𝑛 ∑ 𝑦𝑖2 − (∑ 𝑦𝑖 )2
∑𝑖𝑗 𝑥𝑖 𝑦𝑖 𝑓𝑖𝑗
In case of a bivariate frequency distribution, we have 𝐶𝑜𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦) = − 𝑥 × 𝑦̅
𝑁
∑𝑖 𝑓𝑖0 𝑥𝑖2
𝑠𝑋 = √ − 𝑥2
𝑁
∑𝑖 𝑓𝑜𝑗 𝑦𝑗2
And 𝑆𝑌 = √ − 𝑦̅ 2
𝑁
Where 𝑥𝑖 = Mid-value of the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ class interval of x
𝑦𝑗 =Mid – value of the 𝑗𝑡ℎ class interval of y
f𝑖0 =Marginal frequency of x
f0𝑗 =Marginal frequency of y
f𝑖𝑗 =frequency of the (𝑖, 𝑗)𝑡ℎ cell
N = ∑𝑖.𝑗 𝑓𝑖𝑗 = ∑𝑖 𝑓𝑖0 = ∑𝑗 𝑓0𝑗 = Total Frequency
Ex9: Determine the correlation coefficient between x and y from the following data 𝑛 = 10, ∑ 𝑥𝑦 =
220, ∑ 𝑥 2 = 200, ∑ 𝑦 2 = 262
∑ 𝑥 = 40 and ∑ 𝑦 = 50
Solution:
From the given data, we have
𝑛 ∑ 𝑥𝑦 − ∑ 𝑥 × ∑ 𝑦
𝑟=
√𝑛 ∑ 𝑥 2 − (∑ 𝑥 )2 × √𝑛 ∑ 𝑦 2 − (∑ 𝑦)2
10 × 220 − 40 × 50
=
√10 × 200 − (40)2 × √10 × 262 − (50)2
2200 − 2000
=
√2000 − 1600 × √2620 − 2500
200
= = 0.91
20 × 10.9545
Thus there is a good amount of positive correlation between the two variable x and y.
Coefficient of Concurrent Deviation: In this simple and easy method of finding correlation, for
the two variables, for all values except the first, a positive/negative sign is attached if the
previous value is less/greater. When both the deviations have same sign, they are said to be
concurrent.
Coefficient of concurrent deviation for 𝑚 total deviations, c number of concurrent deviations is
(2𝑐 − 𝑚)
𝑟𝑐 = ±√±
𝑚
• When (2𝑐 − 𝑚) > 0, it is positive i.e. both inside and outside of the radical is positive.
• When (2𝑐 − 𝑚) < 0, it is negative. i.e. both inside and outside of the radical is negative.
Regression Analysis: Here on the basis of average mathematical relationship between two
variables, one variable is estimated for a value of other.
Example: Based on the past records, the profit for a certain amount of investment can be
estimated. Based on the performance in the previous selection test, a student would like to
determine the chance of getting a distinction in the final examination of the university.
That is if say a variable y varies based on x, then dependent or regression variable is y and
predictor or independent variable is x.
In the example above, profit is regression variable and investment amount is predictor. In the
second example, performance in university exam is dependent on the performance in the
selection test. So performance in university exam is dependent variable and performance in
selection test is independent variable.
For two constants a, b, if the regression line is given as: 𝑦 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 , then b is known as
regression coefficient of y on x. The symbol used for this is 𝑏𝑦𝑥 .
Ex10: Find the regression equation relating the expenditure on advertisement and sales of a
product
Expenditure 8 10 10 12 15
Sales 18 20 22 25 28
Solution:
Sales depends on expenditure on ad,
so here n=5,
∑ 𝑥 = 8 + 10 + 10 + 12 + 15 = 55,
∑ 𝑦 = 18 + 20 + 22 + 25 + 28 = 113,
∑ 𝑥𝑦 = 8 × 18 + 10 × 20 + 10 × 22 + 12 × 25 + 15 × 28 = 1284,
∑𝑥 2 = 82 + 102 + 102 + 122 + 152 = 633
5 × 1284 − 55 × 113
𝑏=
5 × 633 − 552
205
𝑏 = 140 = 1.4643
𝑎 = 𝑦̅ − 𝑏𝑥
113 55
a = 5 − 1.4643 × 5 = 6.4927
So regression line 𝑦 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥,
𝑦 = 6.4927 + 1.4643𝑥
8.6 RANDOM EXPERIMENT, OUTCOMES AND ASSOCIATED SAMPLE SPACE, EVENTS

Random or probabilistic experiment:
If the outcomes of an experiment are unpredictable or not determinable in advance, then such
experiments are termed as Random experiments.
That is in the same scenario, on repeating several times the experiment gives any of the
possible results and not the same result every time, then it is said to be the probabilistic or
random experiment.
Example: Tossing a coin, we can get a head or tail, which cannot be determined in advance,
picking a card from a pack of shuffled cards we cannot say if we will get a red or black card in
advance.
Elementary event: Elementary events are each of the outcomes obtained after performing a
random experiment. They are also called simple events.
Sample Space: For a random experiment there could be many possible outcomes and the set
of all these is called the sample space. S is used to denote this.
If the elementary events that is the possible outcomes of a random experiment are
𝐸1 , 𝐸2 , 𝐸3 , … , 𝐸𝑛 then Sample space of this is 𝑆 = {𝐸1 , 𝐸2 , 𝐸3 , … , 𝐸𝑛 }.
Example: When tossing a coin, the possible elementary events are
Event 1 →𝐸1 = getting a Head H on the upper face and
Event 2 →𝐸2 = getting a Tail T.
So sample space for this is 𝑆 = {𝐸1 , 𝐸 2 } = {𝐻, 𝑇}.
Event: In terms of sample space of a random experiment, event is a subset of it.
Example: When a dice is thrown, the possible outcomes are 𝑆 = {1,2,3,4,5,6} . From this there
are 26 = 64 subsets possible. So these are the possible events,
Example: E= {2,4,6}, O= {1,3,5}, B={3,6}, A= {1,2,5} etc. These are some of the subsets from
the sample space and so these are events for rolling a dice.
While some of these can be explained like for example E is an event of getting an even number,
O is an event of getting odd number, B is an event of getting multiple of 3, but for A there is no
description possible.
This shows that not all of the events can be described, there could be some events which
cannot be described.
Example: When three coins are tossed, the sample space is S = {TTT, HHH, TTH, THT, HTT,
HHT, HTH, THH}
So some of the possible subsets for the above sample space are
𝐸1 = {𝐻𝐻𝑇, 𝐻𝐻𝐻, 𝐻𝑇𝐻, 𝑇𝐻𝐻},
𝐸2 = {𝑇𝑇𝐻, 𝑇𝐻𝑇, 𝐻𝑇𝑇},
𝐸3 = {𝑇𝑇𝐻, 𝐻𝐻𝐻, 𝐻𝑇𝐻}
Here𝐸1 is an event of getting two or more heads,
𝐸2 is an event of getting two tails.
However there is no description possible for 𝐸3 .
The elementary events are single event subsets of a sample space of random experiment.
8.7 MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE AND EXHAUSTIVE EVENTS
Mutually exclusive events:
If the occurrence of one event of a random experiment prevents the occurrence of the other
events, then the events are mutually exclusive events.
Elementary events are mutually exclusive as at a time only one outcome is possible.
Example: When a dice is rolled, let E, O, M be three events such that E = Getting an even
number = {2, 4, 6}; O = Getting an odd number= {1, 3, 5}; M= Getting multiple of 3 = {3, 6}.
Here we see that
𝐸 ∩ 𝑂 = ∅, 𝐸 ∩ 𝑀 ≠ ∅, 𝑂 ∩ 𝑀 ≠ ∅ , 𝐸 ∩ 𝑂 ∩ 𝑀 = ∅.
That is E and O are mutually exclusive but E, M and O, M are not mutually exclusive. But E, O,
M are together mutually exclusive.
Example: When a pair of dice is thrown, if S = Getting a sum of 8 and E = Getting an even
number on the first dice, then these two events are not mutually exclusive because
𝑆 ∩ 𝐸 = [(6,2), (2,6), (4,4)] ≠ ∅.
Example: From a well shuffled pack of 52 cards, 2 cards are drawn then let the events be
R= Drawing two red cards, B = Drawing two black cards.
Here both the events R and B are mutually exclusive because the cards drawn cannot be red
and black at the same time.
Exhaustive Events:
If the union of two or more events associated with a random experiment results in the sample
space then they are said to be exhaustive events. Say 𝐸1 , 𝐸2 , 𝐸3 , … , 𝐸𝑛 are exhaustive events if
𝐸1 ∪ 𝐸2 ∪ 𝐸3 ∪ … ∪ 𝐸𝑛 = 𝑆
In other words when the random experiment is done, if one of the events occurs then the set of
the events is called exhaustive events. All Elementary events of a random experiment are
exhaustive events as they all form the sample space.
Example: From a well shuffled pack of 52 cards, 1 card is drawn then let the events be R=
Drawing a red card, B = Drawing a black card. Then 𝑅 ∪ 𝐵 = 𝑆 and so R, B are exhaustive
events.
Example: When a dice is thrown, let E, O, M, N be the events such that
E=Getting an even number = {2, 4, 6};
O = Getting an odd number= {1, 3, 5};
M= Getting multiple of 3 = {3, 6},
N = Getting a number more than 3 = {4, 5, 6}.
From this 𝐸 ∪ 𝑂 = 𝑆.
𝐸 ∪ 𝑂 ∪ 𝑀 ∪ 𝑁 = 𝑆.
So E, O, are exhaustive events, E, O, M, N are exhaustive events.
But, 𝐸 ∪ 𝑀 ≠ 𝑆. So E, M are not exhaustive events.
Mutually exclusive and Exhaustive system of events:
Events 𝐸1 , 𝐸2 , 𝐸3 , … , 𝐸𝑛 of a random experiment with sample space of S would be mutually
exclusive and exhaustive events if the following are satisfied:
• 𝐸1 ∪ 𝐸2 ∪ 𝐸3 ∪ … ∪ 𝐸𝑛 = 𝑆 i.e. the events are exhaustive
• 𝐸𝑖 ∩ 𝐸𝑗 = ∅ and 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗 i.e. the events are mutually exclusive.
Elementary events are therefore both mutually exclusive as well as exhaustive.
Example: When a dice is thrown, events E= Getting even numbers, O= Getting odd numbers
are mutually exclusive and exhaustive events.
Example: From a well shuffled pack of 52 cards, 1 card is drawn then let the events be
P = Drawing a spade card,
H = Drawing a hearts card,
C= Drawing a club card,
D= Drawing a diamond card.
These 4 events are mutually exclusive and together all these make the sample space of cards.
So these events P, H, C, D are mutually exclusive and exhaustive events.
Example: When a dice is thrown, let the events be G= Getting number greater than 3 = {4, 5, 6},
L= Getting number lesser than 5 = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Then, 𝐺 ∪ 𝐿 = 𝑆, 𝐺 ∩ 𝐿 = {4} ≠ ∅.
So these events are not mutually exclusive but they are exhaustive.
8.8 IMPOSSIBLE AND CERTAIN EVENTS
Impossible Event
No matter how many times a random experiment is performed if an event never occurs, then
such an event is said to be impossible event.
Example: Let us take the random experiment of rolling a die, Let the event D be getting a
number divisible by 7.
Now the outcomes of the experiment that are possible are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. In this set, none of
the numbers are divisible by 7.
So this means that D does not have any element. That is D is a null set. It is then an impossible
event.
For a Sample Space S of a random experiment, ∅ is a subset of S. No outcome of the
experiment belongs to the subset ∅.
This means that impossible event is an event that is represented by ∅.
Example: Getting a number greater than 8 when a dice is rolled is another example of an
impossible event.
Certain Event
Certain events are those events which are associated with random experiment and that are
sure to occur when an experiment is performed. These events are also called sure event.
Example: When a dice is rolled, the sample space is S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
Here let the event be G= throwing an odd or even number.
This event is certain to occur and can be represented as
G = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} = S.
From the above, say for a random experiment, S is a sample space, now S being a subset of
itself, is an event.
So when the experiment is performed, every outcome of it is present in S.
So every element of S will occur when we do the random experiment.
Then we can say that S is a sure event. That is Sample space is a certain event.
8.9 UNION AND INTERSECTION OF EVENTS
The set theory concept can be applied to probability to give a new dimension to its definition.
For a random experiment, with a sample space of S, in set theory, it is the universal non empty
set that contains all the elementary events as sample points and is denoted as S.
Event G of the experiment would be the non-empty subset of S as depicted in the Following
figure:
Example: When a dice is thrown, the sample space is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Now for events E, O, M
given as :
E= {x: x is even no. of points in S}
O = {x: x is odd no. of points in S}
M = {x: x is multiple of 3 points in S}
So, E = {2, 4, 6}, O = {1, 3, 5}, M = {3, 6}
Let us say n(S) is the finite number of sample points in the finite sample space S and n(E) is the
no. of sample points in event E, which is a subset of S.
So the probability of Event E is given as no. of sample points in event E to no. of sample points
in the finite sample space S.
𝑛(𝐸)
𝑃 (𝐸 ) =
𝑛(𝑆)
Union of two events:
The set containing all the sample points of Event E or Event O or both the events is the union of
the events E and O. We give that 𝐸 Υ O = {x: x ∈ E on x ∈ O}
So from our example,

𝐸 ∪ 𝑀 = {2, 3, 4, 6},
𝐸 ∪ 𝑂 = {1,2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Intersection of two events
The set formed by all the common points of events E and O is said to be the intersection of the
two events E, O.
𝐸 ∩ 𝑂 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐸, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑂}
So in our above example, 𝐸 ∩ 𝑂 = ∅, That is E and O are mutually exclusive events and do not
have any common points between them.
So the intersection of E and O is a null set (∅).
8.10 COMPLEMENTARY, ELEMENTARY AND COMPOSITE EVENTS
Complementary events: Event is the possible outcome that occurs when a random experiment
is performed. The prediction of occurrence of an event is called the probability of the event.
The sum of probabilities of all the possible events of a random experiment equates to unity.
Non-occurrence of a particular event is said to be complementary of that event. The probability
of an event and the probability of the complement of event are not the same.
For an event say E its probability is denoted as P(E). Complement of the event is E is denoted
as 𝐸 𝑐 , 𝐸 ′ , 𝐸̅ and the probability of the complement of E is denoted as 𝑃(𝐸̅ ).
Examples of complementary events: From a basket of apple and mangoes, picking a mango or
picking an apple is a complementary event.
Example: When a dice is thrown, the occurrence of odd or even numbers;
Example: the occurrence of head and tail when a coin is tossed are also complementary
events.
Probability of complement of an event is obtained by reducing the probability of the event from
unity. That is for Event E, the probability of the Event E and the probability of complement of
Event, it is given as:
P(E) + 𝑃(𝐸̅ ) = 1
𝑃(𝐸̅ ) = 1 − P(E)
At times, it is easier to find the probability of an event, by calculating the probability of
complement of the event. For example, the probability of getting a 1 once atleast when a dice is
thrown 5 times, is calculated correctly using complementary method, that is the number of times
1 can occur in every trial is predicted and then complement of it is calculated to find the
probability of getting 1 once atleast.
Ex11: What is the probability of getting a number other than 5 when a dice is rolled?
Solution:
1
Probability of getting 5 is P(5) = 6
1 5
Probability of not getting 5 is P(not 5) = 1-6 = 6
Ex12: What is the probability of not getting king or queen when a card is drawn from its pack?
Solution:
In a pack of 52 cards, there are 4 kings, 4 queens. So Probability of getting king or queen is
8 2
=
52 13
2
Probability of not getting king or queen = 1-13
11
=
13
Ex13: There are 3 red balls in a bag of 6 balls. What would be the probability that we pick
anything other than a red ball?
Solution:
The probability of getting red ball is
3 1
P(E) = 6 = 2
So probability of not getting a red ball is
1 1
1− =
2 2
Elementary Events
In a sample space, any single element or any single outcome is called elementary event. In set
theory, elementary event or simple event is a singleton. For simplicity, these events and their
outcomes are interchangeably written.
Example: When two coins are tossed, outcome {H, H} is an elementary event from the sample
space of {HH, TH, HT, TT}.
Example: All sets (K), where k∈ 𝑁 if objects are being counted and the sample space is S= {0,
1, 2, 3 ….} (i.e. Sample space of natural numbers)
The probability of elementary event is between 0 and 1.
Ex14: From the options below, identify the outcomes where sum of the numbers is 7 when two
dice are thrown simultaneously. Also point out the elementary events.
(a) (1,5),(2,6),(3,3); (1,5)
(b) (4,4), (5,1), (6,3); (4,4)
(c) (1,6),(2,5), (3,4),(4,3), (5, 2), (6,1); (1,6)
(d) None of these
Solution:
The sum of the number is 7 in the outcomes (1,6), (2,5), (3,4),(4,3), (5, 2), (6,1).
The elementary event is (1,6) ⊂ {(1,6),(2,5), (3,4),(4,3), (5, 2), (6,1)}.
So, option (c) is correct.
Compound event/ Composite event
If an event is a disjoint union of two or more elementary events of a random experiment then it
is called compound event. Compound event is an event which has more than one sample
points.
With the exception of elementary events and impossible events, the other events are obtained
by combining two or more elementary events and they are compound events.
For a random experiment with n elementary events, the sample space is n, the possible subsets
of events are 2𝑛 .
Excluding the elementary events and the null set (impossible) event, we get the compound
events
i.e. 2𝑛 − (n+1)
Example: When a die is thrown, there are 6 outcomes possible so 6 elementary events.
But there are 26 = 64 total number of events. The number of compound events is then 64 – (6
+1) = 57.
Example: When 2 dice are thrown at the same time, 36 elementary events are possible. So the
sample space S would be
S = {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3)…(1,6),
(2,1)…(2,6),
(3,1)…(3,6),
….(6,1), …(6,6)}
Consider the event D is getting the same number on both the dice.
So D = {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4), (5,5), (6,6)}.
This shows that D is a compound event consisting of 6 elementary events.
Similarly, T is an event of getting total of two numbers as 9.
T= {(4,5), (5,4), (6,3), (3,6)}.
Which are obtained from 4 elementary events. So T is a compound event.
8.11 DEFINITION OF PROBABILITY—CLASSICAL AND STATISTICAL— EXAMPLES
Classical definition of probability
If n finite equally likely elementary events are possible for a random experiment and then 𝑛𝐸
Events are favorable to Event E, then the probability of Event E is obtained by number of
equally likely events favorable to E to the total number of equally likely events.
𝑛𝐸
𝑃 (𝐸 ) =
𝑛
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝐸 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
=
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
The above probability can also be found from the composite events which are mutually
exclusive, exhaustive and equally likely.
That is for 𝑚 ≤ 𝑛, mutually exclusive, exhaustive, equally likely events, if 𝑚𝐸 ≤ 𝑛𝐸 are such
events more favorable to E, then
𝑚𝐸
𝑃 (𝐸 ) =
𝑚
𝑀𝑢𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒,𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝐸
=
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑢𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒,𝑒𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
Ex15: Determine the probability of getting 2 as difference when a dice is thrown twice.
Solution: There are 6 possible outcomes of throwing dice once, so when it is thrown twice
possible outcomes is 36. Assuming it is unbiased, there are 36 equally likely elementary events.
Event E = Getting a difference of 2
First Second Difference
time time
6 4 2
5 3 2
4 2 2
3 1 2
1 3 2
2 4 2
3 5 2
4 6 2
From the table, number of outcomes possible for getting difference 2 is 8.
8 2
P(E) = 36 = 9
Statistical Definition of Probability:
Developed by a British mathematician for getting the survival probability of people, this helps
overcoming the disadvantage of classical probability as this probability is mainly based on
relative frequency.
If under same set of conditions, n times a random experiment is performed, and Event E occurs
𝑓𝐸 times, then probability of E is the limiting value of ratio of 𝑓𝐸 to n when n tends infinity.
𝐹𝐸
𝑃(𝐸 ) = lim
𝑛→∞ 𝑛
This also holds true when the limit holds true and tends to a finite value.
Ex16: What is the probability of selecting a worker with wage less than Rs. 50 from the entire
group of workers? The distribution of wages of workers is in the table given below.
Wages in Rs. No. of workers
50-60 15
60-70 23
70-80 36
80-90 42
90-110 17
110-120 12
120-130 5
Solution:
The total number of workers is 150
No. of workers with wages less than 50 is 0.
0
Probability of event of workers with wages less than 50 is = 0.
150
8.12 ELEMENTARY THEOREMS ON PROBABILITY—SIMPLE PROBLEMS
Additional Theorem: For three events E, O, M,
𝑃 (𝐸 + 𝑂 ) = 𝑃 (𝐸 ∪ 𝑂 ) = 𝑃 (𝐸 ) + 𝑃 (𝑂 ) − 𝑃 ( 𝐸 ∩ 𝑂 )
𝑃 (𝐸 + 𝑂 + 𝑀 ) = 𝑃 (𝐸 ∪ 𝑂 ∪ 𝑀 )
= 𝑃 (𝐸 ) + 𝑃 (𝑂 ) + 𝑃 (𝑀 ) − 𝑃 (𝐸 ∩ 𝑂 ) − 𝑃 (𝑂 ∩ 𝑀 ) − 𝑃 (𝑀 ∩ 𝐸 ) + 𝑃 (𝐸 ∩ 𝑂 ∩ 𝑀 )
For mutually exclusive events E, O
𝑃 (𝐸 ∪ 𝑂 ) = 𝑃 (𝐸 ) + 𝑃 (𝑂 )
For three mutually exclusive events E, O, M
𝑃 (𝐸 ∪ 𝑂 ∪ 𝑀 ) = 𝑃 (𝐸 ) + 𝑃 (𝑂 ) + 𝑃 (𝑀 )
1 2
Ex17: What is 𝑃(𝐸 ∩ 𝑂) , 𝑃(𝐸 ∩ 𝑂̅) for mutually exclusive events E, O, if P(E) = , P(O) = and
4 5
1
𝑃 (𝐸 ∪ 𝑂 ) = 2
Solution:
By addition theorem, 𝑃 (𝐸 ∪ 𝑂) = 𝑃(𝐸 ) + 𝑃 (𝑂) − 𝑃(𝐸 ∩ 𝑂)
1 1 2
→2 = + 5 − 𝑃 (𝐸 ∩ 𝑂 )
4
1 2 1 3
→𝑃(𝐸 ∩ 𝑂) = +5−2=
4 20
1 3 1
𝑃(𝐸 ∩ 𝑂̅) = 𝑃(𝐸 ) − 𝑃(𝐸 ∩ 𝑂) = − =
4 20 10
For Two events E, O
𝑃(𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐸 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦) = 𝑃(𝐸 − 𝑂)
= 𝑃(𝐸 ∩ 𝑂′) = 𝑃(𝐸 ) − 𝑃(𝐸 ∩ 𝑂)
𝑃(𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑂 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦) = 𝑃(𝑂 − 𝐸 )
= 𝑃(𝑂 ∩ 𝐸′) = 𝑃 (𝑂) − 𝑃(𝑂 ∩ 𝐸 )
𝑃(𝑛𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝐸 𝑜𝑟 𝑂) = 𝑃(𝐸 ′ ∩ 𝑂′ )
= 1 − 𝑃 (𝐸 ∪ 𝑂 )
𝑃(𝑎𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡) = 1 − 𝑃(𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑒)
𝑃( 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 1 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡) = 𝑃(𝐸 − 𝑂) + 𝑃(𝑂 − 𝐸 )
= 𝑃(𝐸 ) + 𝑃(𝑂) − 2𝑃(𝐸 ∩ 𝑂)
Ex18: If E, O events occur simultaneously with probability of 0.2, and the probability that at least
one of them occurs is 0.6, then what is 𝑃(𝐸̅ ) + 𝑃(𝑂̅)?
Solution:
𝑃(𝑎𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐸 𝑜𝑟 𝑂 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠 ) = 0.6 = 𝑃(𝐸 ∪ 𝑂)
𝑃(𝐸, 𝑂 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟 𝑡𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟) = 0.2 = 𝑃(𝐸 ∩ 𝑂)
𝑃 (𝐸 ∪ 𝑂 ) = 𝑃 (𝐸 ) + 𝑃 (𝑂 ) − 𝑃 (𝐸 ∩ 𝑂 )
→0.6 = 𝑃(𝐸 ) + 𝑃 (𝑂) − 0.2
→0.6 = 1 − 𝑃(𝐸̅ ) + 1 − 𝑃(𝑂̅) − 0.2
→0.6 = 1.8 − 𝑃(𝐸̅ ) − 𝑃(𝑂̅)
→𝑃(𝐸̅ ) + 𝑃(𝑂̅) = 1.8 − 0.6
→𝑃(𝐸̅ ) + 𝑃(𝑂̅) = 1.2
Independent events: One event’s probability does not affect the probability of the other event.
𝑃(𝐸 ∩ 𝑂) = 𝑃 (𝐸 ) × 𝑃(𝑂) For independence of 2 events this is the required and sufficient
condition.
𝐸 𝑂
𝑃 ( ) = 𝑃(𝐸 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃 ( ) = 𝑃(𝑂)
𝑂 𝐸
For 3 events E, O, M to be independent,
𝑃 (𝐸 ∩ 𝑂 ) = 𝑃 (𝐸 ). 𝑃 (𝑂 )
𝑃 (𝑂 ∩ 𝑀 ) = 𝑃 (𝑂 ). 𝑃 (𝑀 )
𝑃 (𝐸 ∩ 𝑀 ) = 𝑃 (𝐸 ). 𝑃 (𝑀 )
𝑃(𝐸 ∩ 𝑂 ∩ 𝑀 ) = 𝑃 (𝐸 ). 𝑃(𝑂). 𝑃(𝑀)
Ex19: For three events E, O, M, show that 𝑃 (𝐸 ∩ 𝑀) lies in the range (0.23, 0.48) when
𝑃(𝐸 ∪ 𝑂 ∪ 𝑀) ≥ 0.75,
𝑃 (𝐸 ) = 0.3 , 𝑃(𝑂) = 0.4,
𝑃(𝑀) = 0.8, 𝑃(𝐸 ∩ 𝑂) = 0.08,
𝑃(𝐸 ∩ 𝑀) = 0.28, 𝑃(𝐸 ∩ 𝑂 ∩ 𝑀) = 0.09
Solution:
The probability of occurrence of event is less than or equal to 1.
We know that 𝑃(𝐸 ∪ 𝑂 ∪ 𝑀) ≥ 0.75
So 0.75 ≤ 𝑃(𝐸 ∪ 𝑂 ∪ 𝑀) ≤ 1
→0.75 ≤ 𝑃(𝐸 ) + 𝑃(𝑂) + 𝑃(𝑀 ) − 𝑃(𝐸 ∩ 𝑂) − 𝑃 (𝑂 ∩ 𝑀 ) − 𝑃(𝑀 ∩ 𝐸 ) + 𝑃 (𝐸 ∩ 𝑂 ∩ 𝑀) ≤ 1
→0.75 ≤ 0.3 + 0.4 + 0.8 − 0.08 − 𝑃(𝑂 ∩ 𝑀) − 0.28 + 0.09 ≤ 1
→0.75 ≤ 1.59 − 0.36 − 𝑃(𝑂 ∩ 𝑀) ≤ 1
→0.75 ≤ 1.23 − 𝑃(𝑂 ∩ 𝑀) ≤ 1
→−0.48 ≤ −𝑃 (𝑂 ∩ 𝑀) ≤ −0.23
→0.23 ≤ 𝑃(𝑂 ∩ 𝑀 ) ≤ 0.48
8.13 CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY, BAYES’ THEOREM—SIMPLE PROBLEMS
There are different kinds of probabilities, Unconditional or marginal probability and Conditional
Probability.
There are cases when the more than one event’s probability of occurrence is needed.
Compound probability: is the probability of occurrence of two simultaneous events. It is given
as 𝑃(𝐸 ∩ 𝑂) . It is also called joint probability. So when there are n events of E i.e.
𝐸1 , 𝐸2 , 𝐸3 , … 𝐸𝑛 , the joint probability is given by 𝑃(𝐸1 ∩ 𝐸2 ,∩ 𝐸3 ∩ … ∩ 𝐸𝑛 )
Dependent events: When one event’s occurrence has an impact on the other event, then such
events are termed as dependent events. i.e. Say Two events E, O if occurrence of O depends
on occurrence of E, then they are dependent.
This is generally denoted as 𝑃(O/E) which means the probability of event O when the event E
has occurred previously.
Or is it also read as conditional probability of O given E. That is event O will occur only if the
event E has already occurred. Mathematically this can be denoted as:
𝑃(𝑂∩𝐸) 𝑃(𝐸∩𝑂)
𝑃(O/E)= =
𝑃(𝐸) 𝑃(𝐸)
For this E should not be an impossible event, i.e. Also given as P(E) > 0.
Similar to that when P (O) is greater than 0, and E is dependent on O,
𝑃(𝐸∩𝑂)
𝑃(E/O)= 𝑃(𝑂)
Ex20: What is the probability of getting a 4 in one of the two dices when two dices are thrown
together? 10 is noted to be the sum of points of the two dice.
Solution:
Let us Say Getting 4 on one of the two dice is an event and denote it as E.
Now getting a total 10 points on the two dice is an event and is denoted as O.
1 1 1
SO, 𝑃(E)= × 6 = 12
2
2
The 𝑃(𝐸 ∩ 𝑂) = 36
We can get total of 10 in the following cases (4, 6) or (5,5) or (6,4). But out of these 3, 4 occurs
in 2 of these cases.
𝑃(𝐸∩𝑂)
𝑃(O/E)= 𝑃(𝐸)
2/36 2
𝑃(O/E)= =3
1/12
8.14 RANDOM VARIABLE AS FUNCTION ON A SAMPLE SPACE

A variable which is a function defined on the sample space corresponding to a random
experiment taking any value from R, and the for each and every sample point of the random
experiment a real number is assigned, such variable is said to be a stochastic variable. It is also
called a random variable. In general, a capital letter is used to represent the random variable.
Example: Tossing a coin 3 times, the sample space of this random experiment is given as
S = {HHH, HHT, TTH, HTH, THH, THT, HTT, TTT}

Let us say the number of heads is denoted as K.
Now K can take different values based on the number of heads. K is a random variable.
I.e. K = 0 when the sample point is TTT as there are no heads in this sample point.
For any of the sample points TTH, THT, HTT, the value of K is K=1.
K=2, for any of the sample points HHT, HTH, THH
K= 3 When sample point is HHH
Discrete random variable: We can differentiate a continuous variable and a discrete variable.
When on a discrete sample space, a variable is defined, it is called a discrete random variable.
This variable takes a finite number, or this variable can take a countable infinite number of
values.
Example: In an area, the number of accidents that have occurred, the number of heads and so
on.
Continuous random variable: While discrete random variable is on the discrete sample space,
the variable which is on a continuous sample space such a random variable is defined as
continuous random variable.
These variables can take uncountably infinite number of values as against the discrete random
variable which take a countable number of values.
Example: Height, Weight etc.
Taking the different values taken by random variable and their corresponding probabilities, the
probability distribution of a random variable can be expressed.
Assume K is a random variable and say K can take n finite values i.e. 𝐾1 , 𝐾2 , … . 𝐾𝑛 and say their
probabilities are 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , … . 𝑃𝑛 respectively.
And 𝑃𝑖 ≥ 0 for each i.
And ∑ 𝑃𝑖 = 1 for all the values of i.
Then in such a case, the probability distribution of the random variable K is given as
K: P:
𝐾1 𝑃1
𝐾2 𝑃2
𝐾3 𝑃3
𝐾4 𝑃4
…. ….
𝐾𝑛 𝑃𝑛
Total 1
Example: When a coin is tossed thrice, let K be the number of heads, the value of K varies
based on the number of heads, so K is a random variable. Now the probability distribution is
given as:
K: P:
0 1
8
1 3
8
2 3
8
3 1
8
Total 1
Probability Mass function: The Probability can be given in terms of the variable K, i.e. as a
function of K. That is if f(K) exists for a discrete variable K, then f(K) is said to be the Probability
mass function of K. It is denoted as (Pmf) of K.
However it should satisfy the below conditions:
For each value of 𝐾, 𝑓 (𝐾 ) ≥ 0
And ∑𝐾 𝑓 (𝐾 ) = 1
Here f(K) is also given as: f(K) = P(K = K)
Probability Density function: For continuous variable K, over the interval[𝛾, 𝛿], There could be
infinite number of values for K in that interval. Assigning probability mass function for each point
of K will be very hard, so instead probability is assigned to the intervals of these values.
Such a function of k is referred to as Probability Density Function of k. It is denoted as (Pdf) of
k.
However it should satisfy the below conditions
For k ∈ [𝛾, 𝛿], 𝑓(𝑘) ≥ 0
𝛿
∫ 𝑓(𝑘)𝑑𝑘 = 1
𝛾
The probability that the value of k lies between m and n values specified such that m, n lie
within the range of 𝛾, 𝛿 and m<n that is where 𝛾 ≤ 𝑚 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 𝛿 is given by
𝑛
∫ 𝑓(𝑘)𝑑𝑘
𝑚
8.15 BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION, EXAMPLES OF RANDOM EXPERIMENTS GIVING RISE

TO BINOMINAL DISTRIBUTION
Binomial Distribution: Binomial distribution is the discrete probability distribution that is the
most often used and is very significant. Named after Bernoulli, the famous mathematician, the
Bernoulli process is the random experiment from which the Binomial distribution is derived.
Trial: To obtain a particular outcome, which is not impossible or which is not certain, several
attempts are made. These attempts are referred to as trials.
For the Bernoulli’s trials there are certain characteristics, which are given below:
• For every trial there could be two mutually exclusive and exhaustive outcomes. When one of
it occurs, it is termed as ‘success’ while the non-occurrence is termed as ‘failure’.
• Example: Getting a head when a coin is tossed is a success and non-occurrence of head
that is getting a tail is known as ‘failure’.
• The trials are not related to each other that is they are independent.
• There are finite number of trials and the trial is a positive integer.
• If p is the probability of success, q is the probability of failure then q = 1-p and this does not
keep changing throughout the process.
If k is a discrete random variable, then the Binomial distribution is given as k ~ B(n, p) where n
and p are parameters.
For k, Probability mass function is :
𝑓(𝑘) = 𝑝(𝐾 = 𝑘) = 𝑛∁𝑘 𝑝𝑘 𝑞 𝑛−𝑘 where k = 0, 1,2, …., n

Else 𝑓 (𝑘) = 0
Some more points related to binomial distribution:
• Since 𝑛 > 0, 𝑝, 𝑞 ≥ 0, then 𝑓 (𝑘) ≥ 0 for each and every value of k. And
∑ 𝑓(𝑘) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓 (1) + ⋯ + 𝑓(𝑛) = 1
𝑘
• The binomial distribution is characterized by two parameters n and the p. So this distribution
is also called bi parametric distribution. Knowing the values of n and p the entire distribution
can be known.
• 𝜇 = 𝑛𝑝 gives the mean of the binomial distribution.
• The binomial distribution could be uni-modal or bi-modal. This depends on the values of the
two parameters. That is the mode of a binomial distribution is given as
➢ When (n+1)p is a non-integer, 𝜇𝑜 = 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 (𝑛 + 1)𝑝 = (n+1)p
➢ When (n+1)p is a integer, 𝜇𝑜 = (𝑛 + 1)𝑝 − 1
• 𝜎 2 = 𝑛𝑝𝑞 gives the variance of the binomial distribution. Here p and q are less than unity
numerically. i.e. 𝑛𝑝𝑞 < 𝑛𝑝 .
➢ Binomial variable’s variance is always less than its mean.
➢ When p = q = 0.5, the variance of K is the maximum i.e. it has a value of n/4.
• Binomial distribution’s additive property. For two independent variables Y and z, (𝑌 +
𝑧)~𝛽(𝑛1 + 𝑛2 + P) when 𝑌 ~ 𝛽(𝑛1 , 𝑃) and 𝑧 ~ 𝛽(𝑛2 , 𝑃)
Binomial Distribution Applications:
For trials which are not related to each other i.e. for independent trials and when each trial gives
only two outcomes i.e. a success and a failure, binomial distribution is applicable.
For Example: Binomial application is applied in scenarios like genetic experiments, sampling
inspection points, experiments related to tossing of a single or multiple coins and many more.
Ex21: What is the probability of getting 4 heads when an unbiased coin is tossed 10 times?
Solution:
Since tossing are independent so we can apply binomial distribution. Here, there is only two
outcomes either head or tail.
Suppose, k = no. of heads i.e. 4
n = 10 and p = ½ since the coin is unbiased.
q= 1-1/2 = ½
So, probability mass function
f (x) = 𝑛∁𝑘 𝑝𝑘 𝑞 𝑛−𝑘
= 10(1/2)4 (1/2)10−4
= 105/512
1. Consider the following:
1. 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 ) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶)
2. 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 ) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶)
Solution: (d)
According to ‘Distribution law’ in set theory the given both statements are wrong.
Statement 1 – Distribution law
Statement 2 – Distribution law
2. The mean of 20 observations is 15. On checking, it was found that two observations were
wrongly copied as 3 and 6. If wrong observations are replaced by correct values 8 and 4, then
the correct mean is
(a) 15 (b) 15.15
(c) 15.35 (d) 16
Solution: (b)
Sum of all observations = 20 × 15 = 300
Sum of correct observations
= 300−(3+6) + (8+4) = 303
303
Correct mean = = 15.15
20
3. The arithmetic mean of the squares of the first 𝑛 natural number is
(a) 𝑛𝑛 + 1(2𝑛 + 1)6 (b) 𝑛𝑛 + 12𝑛 + 12
(c) 𝑛 + 1(2𝑛 + 1)6 (d) 𝑛𝑛 + 1(2𝑛 + 1)3
Solution: (c)
Sum of squares of first ‘n’ natural numbers
𝑛(𝑛+1)(2𝑛+1)
=
6
Mean of the squares of first ‘n’ natural numbers
(𝑛+1)(2𝑛+1)×𝑛 (𝑛+1)(2𝑛+1)
= =
6×𝑛 6
1. Both the regression coefficients have same sign.
2. If one of the regression coefficients is greater than unity, the other must be less than unity.
Which of the above statement is /are correct?
Solution: (c)
5. Which one of the following measures is determined after the construction of cumulative
frequency distribution?
(a) Arithmetic mean (b) Mode
(c) Median (d) geometric mean
Solution: (d)
After construction of cumulative frequency distribution, we can find out median easily.
6. Coefficient of correlation is the measure of
(a) central tendency (b) dispersion
(c) both central tendency and dispersion (d) neither central tendency nor dispersion
Solution: (b)
7. If three events 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 are mutually exclusive, then which one of the following is correct?
(a) 𝑃𝐴∪𝐵∪𝐶−0 (𝑏) 𝑃𝐴∪𝐵∪𝐶=1
(c) 𝑃𝐴∩𝐵∩𝐶=0 (𝑑) 𝑃𝐴∩𝐵∩𝐶=1
Solution: (c)
A, B and C are mutually exclusive
A∩B∩C=0
P (A∩B∩C)=0
8. What is the variance of the first 11 natural numbers?

(a) 10 (b) 11
(c) 12 (d) 13
Solution: (a)
112 −1
Variance of 11 natural numbers = = 10
12
1 7
9. If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are independent events such that 𝑃(𝐴) = 5 , 𝑃 (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 10, then, What is 𝑃(𝐵̅)
equal to?
2 3
(a) 7 (b) 7
3 7
(c) (d)
8 9
10. In a binomial distribution, the occurrence and the non-occurrence of an event are equally
likely and the mean is 6. The number of trials required is
(a) 15 (b) 12
(c)10 (d)6
Solution: (b)
1
P = q = 2 , 𝑛𝑃 = 6
𝑛
= 6 => 𝑛 = 12
2
11. A die is tossed twice. What is the probability of getting a sum of 10?
(a) 118 (b) 16
(c) 112 (d) 512
Solution: (c)
Number of possible outcomes =36
When sum is 10, samples are (5,5),(4,6) and (6,4)
3 1
Required probability = 36 = 12
12. Three dice are thrown. What is the probability of getting a triplet?
1 1
(a) 6 (b) 18
1 1
(c) 36 (d) 72
Solution: (c)
Number of possible outcomes =216
Triplets =(1,1,1),(2,2,2),(3,3,3),(4,4,4),(5,5,5),(6,6,6)
6 1
Required probability = 216 = 36
13. Which one of the following may be the parameter of a binomial distribution?
(a) 𝑛𝑝 = 2 (b) 𝑛𝑝𝑞 = 4
(c) 𝑛 = 4 (d) 𝑝 + 𝑞 = 1
Solution: (d)
For binomial distribution
P<1, q<1 and p +q =1
14. What is the number of outcomes when a coin is tossed and then a die is rolled only in case
a head is shown on the coin?
(a) 6 (b) 7
Solution: (b)
Possible outcomes are (Head, 1),(Head, 2),(Head,3),(Head,4),(Head, 5),(Head,6), Tail
15. What is the probability that there are 5 Mondays in month of February 2016?
(a) 0 (b) 17

Solution: (d)
February 2016 has exactly 5 Mondays.
1. Pie diagrams are suitable for categorical data.
2. The arc length of a sector of a pie is proportional to the value of the component represented
by the sector.
Which of the statements given above is /are correct?
Solution: (c)
17. In a relay race, there are six teams 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷, 𝐸 and 𝐹. What is the probability that 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶
finish first, second, third respectively?
(a) 12 (b) 112
(c) 160 (d) 1120
Solution: (d)
1
Probability of A = 6
1
Probability of B = 5
1
Probability of C = 4
1 1 1 1
Hence, required probability = × × =
6 5 4 120
18. The variance of 20 observations is 5. If each observation is multiplied by 2, then what is the
new variance of the resulting observations?
(a) 5 (b) 10
(c) 20 (d) 40
Solution: (c)
Detailed Method:
∑ 𝑑2
Variance = 𝑛
∑ 𝑑2
5 = 20 => ∑ 𝑑 2 = 100
According to question
∑(𝑑1 )2 = ∑(2𝑑 )2 = 4 ∑ 𝑑 2 = 4 × 100 = 400
400
New variance = 20 = 20
Shortcut method:
If each observation is multiplied by 2
New variance = 22 × 5 = 20
19. Which one of the following is the mean of the data given below?
𝑥𝑖 6 10 14 18 24 28 30
𝑓𝑖 2 4 7 12 8 4 3
(a) 17 (b) 18
(c) 19 (d) 20
Solution: (c)
Given table can be written as
𝑥𝑖 𝑓𝑖 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖
6 2 12
10 4 40
14 7 98
18 12 216
24 8 192
28 4 112
30 3 90
Total 40 760
∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖 760
So required = ∑ 𝑓𝑖
= = 19
40
20. Students of three sections of a class, having 30, 30 and 40 students appeared for a test of
100 marks. The arithmetic means of the marks of the three sections are 72.2, 69.0 and 64.1 in
that order. What is the arithmetic mean of the marks of all the students of the three sections?
(a) 66.6 (b) 67.3
(c) 68.0 (d) 70.6
Solution: (c)
Required Arithmetic mean
(30×72.2)+(30×69.0)+(40×64.1)
=
100
6800
= = 68
100
21. If the variance of the data 2, 4, 5,6,17 is v, then what is the variance of the data 4, 8, 10, 12,
34?
(a) 𝑣 (b) 4𝑣
2
(c) 𝑣 (d) 2𝑣
Solution: (d)
Given, variance of the data 2, 4, 5, 6, 17 is 𝑣.
Variance of the data 4, 8, 10, 12, 34 is 2𝑣.
Because when each observation is multiplied by 2, then variance is also multiplied by 2.
22. The mean of 7 observations is 10 and that of 3 observations is 5. What is the mean of all the
10 observations?
(a) 15 (b) 10
(c) 8.5 (d) 7.5
Solution: (c)
Given mean of 7 observations is 5.
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑥7
= 10
7
=>𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + ⋯ 𝑥7 = 70 …. (1)
Also, mean of 3 observations is 5.
𝑥8 + 𝑥9 + 𝑥10
=5
3
𝑥8 + 𝑥9 + 𝑥10 = 15 ….. (2)
So, from (1) and (2)
Required mean
𝑥 +𝑥 +⋯….𝑥7 +𝑥8 +𝑥9 +𝑥10
= 1 2
10
70+15 85
= = 10 = 8.5
10
23. Some measures of central tendency for 𝑛 discrete observations are given below:
1. Arithmetic 2. Geometric mean
3. Harmonic mean 4. Median
A desirable property of a measure of central tendency is if every observation is multiplied by 𝑐,
where 𝑐 > 0. which of the above measures satisfy the property?
(a) 1,2 and 3 only (b) 1,2 and 4 only
(c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1,2,3 and 4
Solution: (b)
If every observation is multiplied by 𝑐, then the measure of central tendency is also multiplied is
also multiplied by 𝑐, where 𝑐 > 0. Arithmetic mean, Geometric mean and median satisfies above
property.
24. A variate 𝑋 takes values 2,3,4,2,5,4,3,2,1. What is the mode?
(a) 2 (b) 3
(c) 4 (d) 5
Solution: (a)
Given data is 2,3,4,2,5,3,2,1
Mode = 2
Directions (for Questions 25 to 32):
Note: Study the following Table and Answer the next 08 (Eight) Questions that follow:
Year Male Female Total
Urban Rural Total Urban Rural Total
1995 280 350 810 1350
1996 370 670 180 450
1997 130 440 190
1998 400 280 290
Total 1060 850
25. What is the total population for the year 1997?
(a) 810 (b) 830
(c) 970 (d) 1030
Solution (For qs.25-32):
The complete table is
Year Male Female Total
Urban Rural Total Urban Rural Total
1995 280 350 630 410 810 720 1350
1996 370 300 670 180 270 450 1120
1997 310 130 440 180 190 370 810
1998 400 280 680 290 80 370 1050
Total 1360 1060 2420 1060 850 1910 4330
Solution: (a) Total population for the year
1997 = 440+370 = 810
26. What is the female urban population in the year 1995?
(a) 390 (b) 410
(c) 430 (d) 470
Solution: (b)
Female urban population in the year 1995 = 410.
27. What is the urban population in the year 1997?
(a) 400 (b) 460
(c) 490 (d) 510
Solution: (c)
Urban population in the year
1997 = 310 +180 = 490.
28. What is the total population in the year 1998?
(a) 1000 (b) 1020
(c) 1040 (d) 1050
Solution: (a)
Total population in the year = 1998 = 1050.
29. What is the difference between the number of females and the number of males in the year
1995?
(a) 90 (b) 100
(c) 110 (d) 120
Solution: (a)
Required difference = 720 – 630 =90.
30. In which year is the male population minimum?
(a) 1995 (b) 1996
(c) 1997 (d) 1998
Solution: (c)
In 1997, the male population is minimum.
31. In which year is the female population minimum?
(a) 1995 (b) 1996
(c) 1997 (d) 1998
Solution: (a)
In 1995, the male population is maximum.
32. What is the percentage of rural male population (over the whole population) in the year
1998?
(a) 803% (b) 1003%
(c) 35% (d) 40%
Solution: (a)
Total rural male population in the year 1998 = 280
280 28
Required % = 1050 × 100% = 105 × 100%
28×20 4×20 80
= %= %= %
21 3 3
Directions (for questions 33 to 36)
Note: Study the pie chart given below and answer the next 04 questions that follow:
The following pie chart gives the
distribution of funds in a five years plan under major heads of development expenditures :
Agriculture (A), Industry (B), Education (C), Employment (D) and Miscellaneous (E)
The total allocation is 36,000(in crores of rupees).
33. Which head is allocated maximum funds?

(a) Agriculture (b) Industry
(c) Employment (d)
Miscellaneous
Solution: (c)
90
Agriculture: 360 × 36000 = 9000
75
Miscellaneous: 360 × 36000 = 7500
45
Industry: 360 × 36000 = 4500
Education: 3000 Employment: 12000
Hence, Employment is allocated maximum funds.
34. How much money (in crores) is allocated to Education?

(a) 3000 (b) 6000
(c) 9000 (d) 10800
Solution: (a)
Education: 3000
35. How much money (in crores) is allocated to both Agriculture and Employment?
(a) 20000 (b) 21000
(c) 24000 (d) 27000
Solution: (b)
Required = 9000 + 12000 = 21000
36. How much excess money (in crores) is allocated to Miscellaneous over Education?
(a) 3600 (b) 4200
(c) 4500 (d) 4800
Solution: (c)
Required = 7500 – 3000 = 4500
37. What is the median of the distribution 3,7,6, 9,5, 4, 2 ?
(a) 5 (b) 6
(c) 7 (d) 8
Solution: (a)
Ascending order is 2,3,4,5,6,7,9
Since, 𝑛 = 7(odd)
𝑛+1 𝑡ℎ
Required Median = ( ) obs
2
𝑡ℎ
= 4 obs = 5
38. What is the arithmetic mean of first 16 natural numbers with weights being the number
itself?
17 33
(a) 2 (b) 2
(c) 11 187
(d) 2
Solution: (a)
Given natural numbers are
1,2,3,4,5, ……. 16
This is an A.P with first term = 1
And common difference =1, n =16
By using sum of 16 natural numbers
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = 2 [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]
16
we have 𝑆16 = [2(1) + 15(1)]
2
= 8(17) = 136
136 17
AM = 16 = 2
39. What is the mode for the data
20,20,20,21,21,21,21,21,22,22,22,22,22,22,22,23,23,23,23,23,24,24,25 ?
(a) 7 (b) 21
(c) 22 (d) 25
Solution (c)
Since observation 22 occurs maximum time.
Mode =22
1. A continuous random variable can take all values in an interval.
2. A random variable which takes a finite number of values is necessarily discrete.
3. Construction of a frequency distribution is based on data which are discrete.

Which of the above, statements are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1,2 and 3
Solution: (b)
Statement 2 and 3 are correct.
1. Two independent variables are always uncorrelated.
2. The coefficient of correlation between two variables X and Y is positive when X decreases.
Which of the above statements is /are correct
Solution: (a)
It is a property.
42. A variate X takes values 2, 9, 3, 7, 5, 4, 3, 2, 10. What is the median?
(a) 2 (b) 4
(c) 7 (d) 9
Solution: (b)
First we arrange the data in ascending order
2,2,3,3,4,5,7,9,10
Since number of observation is odd
9+1 𝑡ℎ
Median = ( ) observation = 5th observation= 4
2
43. The mean of 10 observations is 5. If 2 is added to each observation and then multiplied by
3, then what will be the new mean?
(a) 5 (b) 7
(c) 15 (d) 21
Solution: (d)
Given: Mean of 10 observations is 5.
∑10 𝑥
𝑖
=> 𝑖=1 =5
10
According to the Question
∑10
𝑖=1 3(𝑥𝑖 +2)
= New mean
10
3 ∑10
𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 3×2×10
=> 10 + 10 = new mean
=> 3 × 5 + 6 = new mean
=> 21 = new mean
44. What is the mean of first n odd natural numbers?
(a) 𝑛 (𝑛+1)
(b) 2
𝑛(𝑛+1) (d) 𝑛 + 1
(c) 2
Solution: (a)
Sum of first n odd natural numbers = 𝑛2 .
𝑛2
Now, mean = =𝑛
𝑛
45. The arithmetic mean of numbers a,b,c,d,e is M. What is the value of (a-M) + (b-M)+(c-
M)+(d-M)+(e-M)?
(a) M (b) a+b+c+d+e
(c) 0 (d) 5 M
Solution: (c)
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐+𝑑+𝑒
Given M = 5
a+b+c+d+e=5M
=> a+b+c+d+e – 5M =0
=>(𝑎 − 𝑀) + (𝑏 − 𝑀 ) + (𝑐 −) + (𝑑 − 𝑀) + (𝑒 − 𝑀)=0
Hence, required value =0
46. The algebraic sum of the deviations of 20 observations measured from 30 is 2. What would
be the mean of the observation?
(a) 30 (b) 32
(c) 30.2 (d) 30.1
Solution: (d)
Given ∑20𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖 − 30) = 2
=>∑𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 − ∑20
20
𝑖=1 30 = 2
=>∑𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 = 2 + ∑20
20
𝑖=1 30 = 2 + 30 × 20 = 602
∑20
𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖
Now, mean = 20
602
Mean = = 30.1
20
47. The median of 27 observations of a variable is 18. Three more observations are made and
the values of these observations are 16, 18 and 50. What is the median of these 30
observations?
(a) 18 (b)19
(c) 25.5 (d)cannot be determined due to insufficient data
Solution: (b)
Median is middle of data. Observations are 27 and median is 18. So, sum of all the
Observations.
So, Total = 486 +16+18+50 = 570.
And number of obs. Are 30.
570
Median = 30 = 19
48. Frequency curve may be:
(a) symmetrical (b) positive skew
(c) negative skew (d) all the above
Solution: (d)
Frequency curve may be symmetrical, positive skew and negative skew.
49. The monthly family expenditure (in percentage) on different items are as follows:
Food Rent Cloth Transport Education Others
38 19 18 - 9 6
If the total monthly expenditure is Rs. 9000, then what is the expenditure on transport?
(a) Rs. 180 (b) Rs. 1000
(c) Rs. 900 (d) Rs. 360
Solution: (c)
10
Required expenditure = 9000 × 100
= Rs. 900.
50. If the mean of few observations is 40 and standard deviation is 8, then what is the
coefficient of variation?
(a) 1% (b) 10%
(c) 20% (d) 30%
Solution: (c)
Mean =40, S.D =8
8
Coeft of variation = 40 × 100
1
= 5 × 100 = 20%
EXERCISE
1. The mean and variance of a binomial distribution are 8 and 4 respectively. What is P(X=1)
equal to?
1 1
(a) 212 (b) 28
1 1
(c) 26 (d) 24
2. An observed event B can occur after one of the three events𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , 𝐴3 . If P (𝐴1 ) = P (𝐴2 ) =
0.4, 𝑃(𝐴3 )=0.2 and P (B/𝐴1 ) =0.25, P (B/𝐴2 ) =0.4, P (B/𝐴3 ) = 0.125, what is the probability of
𝐴1 after observing B?
1 6
(a) 3 (b) 19
20 2
(c) 57 (d) 5
3. The probability distribution of random variable X with two missing probabilities 𝑝1 and 𝑝2 is
given below
X P(X)
1 K
2 𝑝1
3 4k
4 𝑝2
5 2k
It is further given that P(X≤2) =0.25 and P(X≥4) =0.35.
Consider the following statement
1.𝑝1 = 𝑝2
2.𝑝1 + 𝑝2 = 𝑃(𝑋 = 3)
1. The Probability that there are 53 Sundays in a leap year is twice the probability that there are
53 Sundays in a non-leap year.
2. The Probability that there are 5 Mondays in the month March is thrice the probability that
there are 5 Mondays in the month of April.
5. In tossing three coins at a time, what is the probability of getting at most one head?
3 7
(a)8 (b) 8
1 1
(c) 2 (d) 8
6. Two balls are selected from a box containing 2 blue and 7 red balls. What is the probability
that at least one ball is blue?
2 7
(a) 9 (b) 8
5 7
(c) 12 (d) 12
7. The probability of guessing a correct answer is (x/12). If the probability of not guessing the
correct answer is (2/3), then
(a) 2 (b) 3
(c) 4 (d) 6
8. Consider the following statement related to a variable X having a binomial distribution 𝑏𝑥 (𝑛, 𝑝)
1
1. If p =2 , then the distribution is symmetrical.
2. P remaining constant P(X=r) increases n increases. Which of the statement given above
is/are correct?
9. What is the probability of having 53 Sundays or 53 Mondays in a leap year?
(a) 2/7 (b) 3/7
(c) 4/7 (d) 5/7
10. Three digital number are formed using the digital 0, 2,4,6,8. A number is chosen at random
out of these numbers. What is the probability that the number has the same digits?
(a) 1/16 (b) 1/25
(c) 16/25 (d) 1/645
11. A lot of 4 white and 4 red balls is randomly divided into two halves. What I the probability
that there will be 2 red and 2 white balls in each half?
(a) 18/35 (b) 3/35
If A and B are independent events, then
1. A and 𝐵̅ are independent.
2. 𝐴 and B are independent.
3. 𝐴 and 𝐵̅ are independent.
Which of the above statement is/are correct?
(a) 3 only (b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 1,2 and 3 (d) None of these
13. An experiment consists of filing a coin and then flipping it a second time if head occurs. If a
tail occurs on the first flip, then a six faced die is tossed once. Assuming that the outcomes are
equally likely, what is the probability of getting one head and one tail?
(a) 1/4 (b) 1/36
(c) 1/6 (d) 1/8
14. A box contains 6 distinct dolls. From this box, 3 dolls are randomly selected one by one with
replacement. What is the probability of selecting 3 distinct dolls?
(a) 5/54 (b) 12/25
(c) 1/20 (d) 5/9
15. If A and B are events such that P(A∪B) =0.5, P(𝑏̅)=0.8 and P(A/B)=0.4, then what is
P(A∩B) equal to ?
(a) 0.08 (b) 0.02
(c) 0.8 (d) 0.2
16. In an examination there are 3 multiple choice questions and each question has 1 choice. If
student randomly selects answer for the entire question, what is the probability that the student
will not answer the entire 3 question correctly?
(a) 1/64 (b) 63/64
(c) 1/12 (d) 11/12
17. If A and B are two mutually exclusive events, then what is P (AB) equal to?
(a) 0 (b) P(A)+P(B)
(c) P(A)P(B) (d) P(A) P(B/A)
18. There are 4 letters and 4 directed envelops. These 4 letters are randomly inserted into the 4
envelopes. What did the probability that the letter is inserted into the corresponding envelops?
(a) 11/12 (b) 23/24
19. Two letters are drawn at random from the word ‘HOME’. What is the probability that both the
letters are vowels?
(a) 1/6 (b) 5/6
(c) 1/2 (d) 1/3
20. A husband and wife appear in an interview for two vacancies in the same post. The
probability of husband’s selection is 1/5 and that of wife’s selection is 1/3. What is the probability
that only one of them will be selected?
(a) 1/5 (b) 2/5
(c) 3/5 (d) 4/5
21. There is a point inside a circle. What is the probability that this point is close to the
circumference than to the centre?
(a) ¾ (b) 1/2
(c) ¼ (d) 1/3
22. In a random arrangement of the letters of the word ‘UNIVERSITY’. What is the probability
that two I’s do not come together?
(a) 4/5 (b) 1/5
(c) 1/10 (d) 9/10
23. In a class of 125 students 70 passed in Mathematics, 55 assed in Statistics and 30 passed
in both. What is the probability that a selected at random from the class has passed in only one
subject?
(a) 13/25 (b) 3/25
(c) 17/25 (d) 8/25
24. Three dice are thrown. What is the probability that the same number will appear on each of
them?
(a) 1/6 (b) 1/18
(c) 1/24 (d) 8/25
25. What is the probability that a leap year selected at random contain 53 Mondays?
(a) 1/7 (b) 2/7
(c) 7/366 (d) 26/183
26. If four dice are thrown together, then what is the probability that the sum of the numbers
appear on them is 25?
(a) 0 (b) 1/2
(c) 1 (d) 1/1296
27. If P (E) denotes the probability of an event E, then E is called certain events if:
(a) P(E)=0 (b) P(E)=1
(c) P(E) is either 0 or 1 (d) P(E)=1/2
28. What is the probability that a leap year selected at random will contain 53 months?
(a) 2/5 (b) 2/7
(c) 1/7 (d) 5/7
29. If A and B are two events such that P(A∪B) =3/4 , p(A∩B)=1/4 , P(𝐴)=2/3 where 𝐴n is the
complement of A, then what is P(B) equal to ?
(a) 1/3 (b) 2/3
(c) 1/9 (d) 2/9
30. Three coins are tossed simultaneously. What is the probability that they will fall two head
and one tail?
(a) 1/3 (b) 1/2
(c) ¼ (d) 3/8
(a) An event having no sample point is (b) An event having one sample point is
called an elementary event. called an elementary event.
(c) An event having two sample points is (d) An event having many sample point
called an elementary event. is called an elementary event.
32. What is the most probable number of success in 10 trials with probability of success 2/3?
(a) 10 (b) 7
(c) 5 (d) 4
For the next two (02) question that follow:
An urn contains one black ball and one green ball. A second urn contains one white and one
green ball. One ball is drawn at random from each urn.
33. What is the probability that both balls are of same colour?
(a) 1/2 (b) 1/3
(c) 1/4 (d) 2/3
34. What is the probability of getting at least one green ball?
(a) 1/2 (b) 1/3
(c) 2/3 (d) 3/4
For the next two (02) question that follow:
Two dice each numbered from 1 or 6 are thrown together. Let A and B two events given by
A: even number on the first die.
B: number on the second die is greater than 4.
35. What is P (A∪B) eual to?
(a) 1/2 (b)1/4
(c) 2/3 (d) 1/6
36. What is P (A∩B) eual to?
(a) 1/2 (b) 1/4
(c) 2/3 (d) 1/6
37. Consider a random experiment of throwing together a die and two coins. The associated
sample space has
(a) 8 points (b) 12 points
(c) 24 points (d) 36 points
38. In throwing a six faced die, let A be the event that an even number occurs, B be the event
that an odd number occurs and C be the event that a number greater than 3 occurs.
Which one of the following is correct?
(a) A and C are mutually exclusive (b) A and B are mutually exclusive
(c) B and C are mutually exclusive (d) A,B and C are mutually exclusive
39. What is the probability of getting a sum of 7 with two dice?
(a) 1/6 (b) 1/3
(c) 1/12 (d) 5/36
40. Four coins are tossed simultaneously. What is the probability of getting exactly 2 heads?
(a) ½ (b) 1/4
(c) 1/8 (d) 3/8
41. A bag contains 5 black and 3 white balls. Two balls are drawn at random one after the other
without replacement. What is the probability that both are white?
(a) 1/28 (b) 1/14
(c) 3/28 (d) None of these above
42. If A and B are any two events such that P (𝐴) = 0.4, P (𝐵̅) =0.3, P (A∪B) =0.9, then what is
the value P (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵̅ ) equal to?
(a) 0.2 (b) 0.5
(c) 0.6 (d) 0.7
43. A fair coin is tossed repeatedly. The probability of getting a result in the fifth toss different
from those obtained in the first four tosses is:
(a) ½ (b) 1/32
(c) 31/32 (d) 1/16
44. If X follows a binomial distribution with parameters n=100 and p=1/3, then P(X=r) is
maximum when
(a) r=16 (b) r=32
(c) r=33 (d) r=34
45. Two numbers are successively drawn from the set U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, the second
being drawn without replacing the first. The number of elementary events in the sample is:
(a) 64 (b) 56
(c) 32 (d) 14
ANSWER KEY
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (b)
11.(a) 12.(c) 13.(a) 14.(c) 15.(a) 16. (b) 17. (a) 18. (c) 19.(c) 20. (b)
21.(b) 22.(a) 23.(a) 24.(d) 25 (b) 26. (a) 27. (b) 28. (b) 29.(b) 30. (d)
31.(d) 32.(b) 33.(c) 34.(d) 35 (c) 36. (d) 37. (c) 38. (b) 39.(a) 40. (d)
41.(c) 42.(c) 43.(d) 44.(c) 45.(b)
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CONTENTS

Practice Question with Explanations

INDIAN AIRFORCE AN INTRODUCTION

INDIAN AIRFORCE: AIRMEN

1. Service Entry Commission

INDIAN AIR FORCE AIRMEN TRADES

• Non Technical Trades

INDIAN AIR FORCE AIRMEN RANKS

2. Group ‘Y’ (Non-Technical) Trades

Education Qualification: Passed Intermediate / 10+2 / equivalent examination

➢ Electrical & Electronics Engineering

GROUP ‘X’: Education Instructor Trade

GROUP ‘Y’Trades (Except Med Asst and Musician)

Note: The upper age limit on date of enrolment is 21 years.

GROUP ‘Y: Med Asst Trade

GROUP ‘Y’: Musician Trade

musical instruments: Trumpet / Bass / Violin / Saxophone / Clarinet / Euphonium / Jazz-Drum /

Visual Standards As per the table given below.

Weight Weight should be proportionate to height and age.

Chest Minimum range of expansion : 5 cm

Health Candidates should be of normal anatomy without loss of any

Sl No. Trade Candidates from

NE & Hill States Other States

(a) Auto Tech 162.5cm 165cm

(b) GTI and PJI 162.5cm 167cm

(c) IAF(P) 175cm 175cm

(d) Musician 162cm 162cm

Workshop 6/12 each Hypermetropia +2.0DMyopia1D CP-II 152.5 Minimum

Education 6/36 each Not exceeding +/- CP-III 152.5 NA

Trade Visual Acuity Maximum limits of Ref Colour Height Leg

Ops Assistant 6/12 each eye Hypermetropia +2.0D CP-II 152.5 cm NA

Environmental 6/36 each eye Not exceeding +/- CP-II 152.5 cm NA

Trade Visual Acuity Maximum limits of Ref Colour Height Leg

Support correctable 3.50Dincluding

Indian Air Force Unaided Visual Not Applicable CP-II 175 cm NA

Indian Air Force Unaided Visual Not Applicablem CP-II 152.5 cm NA

Musician 6/36 each eye Not exceeding +/- CP-III 162 cm NA

NA: Not Applicable

PHYSICAL FITNESS ABILITY (GROUP X AND Y)

AIRMEN GROUP X AND Y: SYLLABUS

Airmen Group X and Y Syllabus: English

• Transformation of Sentences: Compound, Complex, Simple, Negative, Affirmative

• Spelling & Word Formation

• Antonyms and Synonyms

• One Word Substitution

• Correct usage of Articles

• Commonly Confused Words and their Usages

• Idioms and Phrases

• Active and Passive Voice

Airmen Group X Syllabus: Physics

• Work, Energy and Power

• Heat and Thermodynamics

• Magnetic Effect of Current and Magnetism

• Dual Nature of Matter and Radiation

• Physical Quantities and Measurement

• Motion of System of Particles & Rigid Body

• Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current

• Solids and Semiconductors Devices

Airmen Group X Syllabus: Mathematics

• Cartesian System of Coordinates

• Quadratic Equations and Linear Equations

• Sequences and Series

• Permutations and Combinations