Instrument Notes by S.a.S

2015
CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS & INSTRUMENTATION
CLASS NOTES ON
ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS & INSTRUMENTATION

FOR
5TH & 6TH SEMESTER OF
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING & EEE (B.TECH PROGRAMME)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

VEER SURENDRA SAI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
BURLA -768018, ODISHA, INDIA
1
2015
DISCLAIMER
This document does not claim any originality and cannot be used as a substitute for
prescribed
textbooks. The matter presented here is prepared by the author for their respective
teaching
assignments by referring the text books and reference books. Further, this document
is not
intended to be used for commercial purpose and the committee members are not
accountable for
any issues, legal or otherwise, arising out of use of this document.
2
2015
SYLLABUS
ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS & INSTRUMENTATION (3-1-0)
MODULE-I (10 HOURS)
Measuring Instruments: Classification, Absolute and secondary instruments,

indicating instruments,
control, balancing and damping, constructional details, characteristics, errors in
measurement, Ammeters,
voltmeters: (DC/AC) PMMC, MI, Electrodynamometer type
Wattmeters: Electrodynamometer type, induction type, single phase and three phase
wattmeter,
compensation, Energymeters: AC. Induction type siqgle phase and three phase energy
meter,
compensation, creep, error, testing, Frequency Meters: Vibrating reed type,
electrical resonance type
MODULE-II (10 HOURS)
Instrument Transformers: Potential and current transformers, ratio and phase angle
errors, phasor
diagram, methods of minimizing errors; testing and applications.
Galvanometers: General principle and performance equations of D' Arsonval
Galvanometers, Vibration
Galvanometer and Ballistic Galvanometer.
Potentiometers: DC Potentiometer, Crompton potentiometer, construction,
standardization, application.
AC Potentiometer, Drysdale polar potentiometer; standardization, application.
MODULE-III (10 HOURS)
DC/AC Bridges :General equations for bridge balance, measurement of self inductance
by Maxwell�s
bridge (with variable inductance & variable capacitance), Hay�s bridge, Owen�s
bridge, measurement of
capacitance by Schearing bridge, errors, Wagner�s earthing device, Kelvin�s double
bridge.
Transducer: Strain Gauges, Thermistors, Thermocouples, Linear Variable Differential
Transformer
(LVDT), Capacitive Transducers, Peizo-Electric transducers, Optical Transducer,
Torque meters,
inductive torque transducers, electric tachometers, photo-electric tachometers,
Hall Effect Transducer
MODULE-IV (10 HOURS)
CRO: Block diagram, Sweep generation, vertical amplifiers, use of CRG in

measurement of frequency,
phase, Amplitude and rise time of a pulse.
Digital Multi-meter: Block diagram, principle of operation, Accuracy of
measurement, Electronic
Voltmeter: Transistor Voltmeter, Block diagram, principle of operation, various
types of electronic
voltmeter, Digital Frequency meter: Block diagram, principle of operation
TEXT BOOKS
[1]. A Course in Elec. & Electronics Measurements & Instrumentation: A K. Sawhney

[2]. Modern Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques: Helfrick &
Cooper
[3]. Electrical Measurement and Measuring Instruments - Golding & Waddis
3
2015
Model Question Paper: Set-1
Full Marks: 70 Time: 3 hours

Answer any six questions including question No. 1 which is compulsory.
The figures in the right-hand margin indicate marks.
(Answer any six questions including Q.No. 1)
[2X10]
1.
Answer the following questions:
(a) Differentiate between the spring control and gravity control.
(b) Why an ammeter should have a low resistance value.
(c) What are the precautions taken while using a DC voltmeter and DC ammeter.
(d) What is the major cause of creeping error in an energy meter
(e) What are the errors occurs in instrument transformers.
(f) Differentiate the principle of dc potentiometer and ac potentiometer.
(g) What are the sources of errors in AC bridge measurement.
(h) Differentiate between dual trace and dual beam CRO.
(i)
What are active and passive transducers? Give examples.
(j)
What is piezoelectric effect.
2.
(a) With a neat diagram explain in detail the construction of PMMC instrument.
(b)What are the shunts and multiplier? Derive the expression for both, with
reference to
meters used in electrical circuits. [5+5]
3.
(a) Discuss with block diagram, the principle of operation of single phase energy
meter.
(b) An energy meter is designed to make 100 revolutions of the disc for one unit of
energy. Calculate the number of revolutions made by it , when connected to a load

carrying 40 A at 230V and 0.4 p.f. for 1 hour. If it actually makes 360
revolutions, find
the percentage error. [5+5]
4.
(a) Derive expression for actual transformation ratio, ratio error and phasor angle
error of
a P.T.
(b) A current transformer with bar primary has 300 turns in its secondary winding.
The
resistance and reactance of the secondary circuit are 1.5.
and 1.0 .
respectively,
including the transformer winding. With 5A flowing in the secondary winding, the
magnetizing mmf is 100AT and the core loss is 1.2 W. Determine the ratio and phase
angle errors. [5+5]
5.
(a) Derive the equation of balance for Anderson bridge and also draw the phasor
diagram.
(b) An AC bridge is balanced at 2KHz with the following components in each arm:
Arm AB=10KO, Arm BC=100�F in series with 100KO, Arm AD=50KO
Find the unknown impendence R�jX in the arm DC, if the detector is between BD.
6.
(a) What is transducer? Briefly explain the procedure for selecting a transducer.
(b) Derive an expression for gauge factor in terms of Poission�s ration. [5+5]
7.
(a) With a block diagram, explain the working of CRO
(b) With a block diagram, explain in detail the digital frequency meter [5+5]
8.
Write short notes on
(a) Kelvin�s double bridge
(b) D- Arsonaval galvanometer
[5+5]
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2015

[2X10]
Q.1 Answer the following questions:

(a) Why is damping required for an electromechanical measuring instrument?
(b) Why is scale of MI instrument calibrated non- linearly?
(c) What is the difference between analog and digital frequency meter?
(d) Which instrument can be used to measure non-sinusoidal voltage?
(e) What is the major cause of creeping error in an energy meter?
(f) What do you mean by active and passive transducer? Give suitable examples.
(g) Draw a suitable AC bridge used for measurement of frequency.
(h) What are the steps to be taken for minimizing errors in PT?
(i) Discuss briefly the role of ordinary galvanometer?
(j) What is the function of time base generator in CRO?
Q.2 (a) Derive the torque equation of a moving iron instrument? [5]
(b) Sketch and explain the working of moving-coil instrument. [5]
Q.3 (a) Discuss a method for measurement of low resistance. [5]
(b) Explain the operation of a Wagner�s earthing device. [5]
Q.4 Derive the errors of CT and PT, and discuss its preventives. [10]
Q.5 (a) Discuss about a ac bridge used for measurement of capacitance [5]
(b) Discuss about a galvanometer which is used for measurement of frequency. [5]
Q.6 (a) How is the voltmeter calibrated with DC potentiometer ? [5]
(b) What is the use of LVDT? Discuss its basic principle of operation. [5]
Q.7 (a) How are the frequency and phase measured in CRO. [5]
(b)Draw the block diagram of an electronic voltmeter and explain its operation. [5]
8. Write short notes on any two: [5X2]

(a) Owen�s bridge
(b)Digital frequency meter
(c) Hall-effect transducer
5
2015
Full Marks: 70
Time: 3 hours

[2X10]
1.
Answer the following questions:
(k) Why scales of the gravity control instruments are not uniform but are crowded?
(l) Why eddy current damping cannot be used for moving iron instrument?
(m)What is mean by Phantom Load?
(n) Why do we use a multiplier with a voltmeter?
(o) What is the major cause of creeping error in an energy meter?
(p) Why is dynamometer type instrument chiefly used as a wattmeter?
(q) Define gauge factor of a strain gauges how is it related to poisons ratio � ?
(r) Why the secondary of a CT is never left open circuited?
(s) Why there are two conditions of balance in ac bridges, where as there is only
one for
dc bridges?
(t)
How to prevent the loading of a circuit under test when a CRO is used?
2.
(a) Draw the possible methods of connecting the pressure coil of a wattmeter and
compare the errors. Explain the meaning of �compensating winding� in a wattmeter
and
show how they help to reduce the error. [5]
(b) Sketch and explain the working of moving-coil instrument.
[5]
3.
(a) What are the different testing conducted on a single phase energy meter? [5]
(b)The meter constant of 230V, 10A energy meter is 1700. The meter is tested under
half
load and rated voltage at unity p.f. The meter is found to make 80 revolutions in
138 sec.
Find % error. [5]
4.
Differentiate between a C.T. and P.T. Discuss the theory of a P.T with phasor
diagrams.
Derive expression for actual transformation ratio, ratio error and phasor angle
error of a
P.T.
[10]
5.
(a) Describe how an AC potentiometer, can be used for the calibration of wattmeter?
[5]
(b)Explain how LVDT can be used for measurement of displacement. [5]
6. (a) Derive the equation of balance of a Schering Bridge. Draw the phasor diagram
under
null conditions and explain how loss angle of capacitor can be calculated. [5]
(b) Describe the general working principle of a D� Arsonval Galvanometer. [5]
7.
(a) Explain the use of CRG in the measurement of frequency. [5]
(b)Draw the block diagram of an electronic voltmeter and explain its operation. [5]
8. Write short notes on:

[5X2]
(a) Thermo couple
(b)Peizo-Electric Transducers.
6
2015

1. Answer the following questions: [2 x 10]
(a) What are the parameters on which the critical damping of galvanometer depends?
Why critical damping is important?
(b) The current flowing through a resistance of 10.281 k.
is measured as 1.217 mA.
Calculate the voltage drop across the resistor to the appropriate number of
significant
errors.
(c) What are the main advantages and disadvantages of PMMC instruments?
(d) Why an electrodynamometer type instrument is called a �Universal Instrument�?
(e) Write the working principle of resonance type frequency meter.
(f) What are the advantages of electronic voltmeter over electro � mechanical type
voltmeter?
(g) Why Maxwell Bridge is limited to the measurement of medium � Q coils?
(h) What will happen in a current transformer, if the secondary circuit is
accidentally
opened while the primary winding is energized?
(i) Suggest a transducer for the measurement of displacement in the order of one �
tenth
of millimeter and write the basic principle of measurement.
(j) What is the function of delay line in oscilloscope?
Q. 2. [5 + 5]
a) The coil of a measuring instrument has a resistance of 1 .
and the instrument has a full
scale deflection of 250 V when a resistance of 4999 .
is connected with it. Find the
current range of the instrument when used as an ammeter with the coil connected
across a
shunt of (1/499) .
and the value of the shunt resistance for the instrument to give a full
scale deflection of 50 A.
b) Distinguish between gross error, systematic error and random error with
examples. What
are the methods for their elimination/reduction?
Q. 3. [5 + 5]
a)
b)
Draw the circuit diagram of Schering Bridge. Derive the conditions for balancing
the
bridge and draw the phasor diagram during balanced condition.
Describe the theory and method of measurement of low resistance using Kelvin�s
double
Bridge. How the effect of thermo � electric emf is taken into account during
measurement?
7
2015
Q. 4. [10]
A single range student type potentiometer has 20 step dial switch where each step
represents 0.1 V. The dial resistors are 20 O. The slide wire of the potentiometer
is
circular and has 10 turns and a resistance of 10 .
each. The slide wire has 200 divisions
and interpolation can be done to one fourth of a division. The working battery has
a
voltage of 10 V and negligible internal resistance. Draw the circuit diagram and
calculate
i) The measuring range of potentiometer
ii) The resolution
iii) Working current
iv) Resistance of series rheostat
Q. 5. [5 + 5]
a) What is the requirement of �Screening of bridge components�? Draw the circuit
diagram
of Wagner�s earthing device and explain its operation.
b) Define the sensitivity of a strain gauge. Draw the circuit for measurement of
strain and
derive the expression of output voltage in terms of strain.
Q. 6. [5 + 5]
a) Derive the torque equation of moving iron instrument and comment on the shape of
the
scale.
b) Prove that for electrodynamometer type wattmeter
true power = {cos F / [cos F cos (F � �]} x actual wattmeter reading
Where cos F = power factor of the circuit
�
= tan -1 (.L/R) where L and R are the inductance and resistance of the pressure
coil of the circuit.
Q. 7. [5 + 5]
a) Describe the construction and principle of operation of D� Arsonval type
Galvanometer.
b) Discuss the major sources of errors in current transformer. What are the means
to reduce
errors in CT? Explain design and constructional feature to reduce the error.
Q. 8. [6 + 4]
a) Describe the measurement of frequency, phase angle and time delay using
oscilloscope
with suitable diagrams and mathematical expressions.
b) With block diagram explain the operation of �Ramp type� digital voltmeter.
8
2015
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
1.1 Definition of instruments

An instrument is a device in which we can determine the magnitude or value of the
quantity to be measured. The measuring quantity can be voltage, current, power and
energy etc.
Generally instruments are classified in to two categories.
Instrument
Absolute Instrument Secondary Instrument
1.2 Absolute instrument
An absolute instrument determines the magnitude of the quantity to be measured in
terms of the
instrument parameter. This instrument is really used, because each time the value
of the
measuring quantities varies. So we have to calculate the magnitude of the measuring
quantity,
analytically which is time consuming. These types of instruments are suitable for
laboratory use.
Example: Tangent galvanometer.
1.3 Secondary instrument

This instrument determines the value of the quantity to be measured directly.
Generally these
instruments are calibrated by comparing with another standard secondary instrument.
Examples of such instruments are voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter etc. Practically
secondary instruments are suitable for measurement.
Secondary instruments
Indicating instruments Recording Integrating Electromechanically

Indicating instruments
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1.3.1 Indicating instrument

This instrument uses a dial and pointer to determine the value of measuring
quantity. The pointer
indication gives the magnitude of measuring quantity.
1.3.2 Recording instrument

This type of instruments records the magnitude of the quantity to be measured
continuously over
a specified period of time.
1.3.3 Integrating instrument

This type of instrument gives the total amount of the quantity to be measured over
a specified
period of time.
1.3.4 Electromechanical indicating instrument

For satisfactory operation electromechanical indicating instrument, three forces
are necessary.
They are
(a) Deflecting force

(b) Controlling force
(c)Damping force
1.4 Deflecting force
When there is no input signal to the instrument, the pointer will be at its zero
position. To deflect
the pointer from its zero position, a force is necessary which is known as
deflecting force. A
system which produces the deflecting force is known as a deflecting system.
Generally a
deflecting system converts an electrical signal to a mechanical force.
Fig. 1.1 Pointer scale
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1.4.1 Magnitude effect

When a current passes through the coil (Fig.1.2), it produces a imaginary bar
magnet. When a
soft-iron piece is brought near this coil it is magnetized. Depending upon the
current direction
the poles are produced in such a way that there will be a force of attraction
between the coil and
the soft iron piece. This principle is used in moving iron attraction type
instrument.
Fig. 1.2
If two soft iron pieces are place near a current carrying coil there will be a
force of repulsion
between the two soft iron pieces. This principle is utilized in the moving iron
repulsion type
instrument.
1.4.2 Force between a permanent magnet and a current carrying coil

When a current carrying coil is placed under the influence of magnetic field
produced by a
permanent magnet and a force is produced between them. This principle is utilized
in the moving
coil type instrument.
Fig. 1.3
1.4.3 Force between two current carrying coil

When two current carrying coils are placed closer to each other there will be a
force of repulsion
between them. If one coil is movable and other is fixed, the movable coil will move
away from
the fixed one. This principle is utilized in electrodynamometer type instrument.
11
2015
Fig. 1.4
1.5 Controlling force

To make the measurement indicated by the pointer definite (constant) a force is
necessary which
will be acting in the opposite direction to the deflecting force. This force is
known as controlling
force. A system which produces this force is known as a controlled system. When the
external
signal to be measured by the instrument is removed, the pointer should return back
to the zero
position. This is possibly due to the controlling force and the pointer will be
indicating a steady
value when the deflecting torque is equal to controlling torque.
T
(1.1)
d
=
Tc
1.5.1 Spring control

Two springs are attached on either end of spindle (Fig. 1.5).The spindle is placed
in jewelled
bearing, so that the frictional force between the pivot and spindle will be
minimum. Two springs
are provided in opposite direction to compensate the temperature error. The spring
is made of
phosphorous bronze.
When a current is supply, the pointer deflects due to rotation of the spindle.
While spindle is
rotate, the spring attached with the spindle will oppose the movements of the
pointer. The torque
produced by the spring is directly proportional to the pointer deflection.
.
TC
�.
(1.2)
The deflecting torque produced Td proportional to �I�. When T

=
T
, the pointer will come to a
Cd
steady position. Therefore

q.
I
(1.3)
12
2015
Fig. 1.5
Since, .
and I are directly proportional to the scale of such instrument which uses spring
controlled is uniform.
1.6 Damping force

The deflection torque and controlling torque produced by systems are electro
mechanical.
Due to inertia produced by this system, the pointer oscillates about it final
steady position before
coming to rest. The time required to take the measurement is more. To damp out the
oscillation
is quickly, a damping force is necessary. This force is produced by different
systems.
(a) Air friction damping

(b) Fluid friction damping
(c) Eddy current damping
1.6.1 Air friction damping
The piston is mechanically connected to a spindle through the connecting rod (Fig.
1.6). The
pointer is fixed to the spindle moves over a calibrated dial. When the pointer
oscillates in
clockwise direction, the piston goes inside and the cylinder gets compressed. The
air pushes the
piston upwards and the pointer tends to move in anticlockwise direction.
13
2015
Fig. 1.6
If the pointer oscillates in anticlockwise direction the piston moves away and the
pressure of the
air inside cylinder gets reduced. The external pressure is more than that of the
internal pressure.
Therefore the piston moves down wards. The pointer tends to move in clock wise
direction.
1.6.2 Eddy current damping

Fig. 1.6 Disc type
An aluminum circular disc is fixed to the spindle (Fig. 1.6). This disc is made to
move in the
magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet.
14
2015
When the disc oscillates it cuts the magnetic flux produced by damping magnet. An
emf is
induced in the circular disc by faradays law. Eddy currents are established in the
disc since it has
several closed paths. By Lenz�s law, the current carrying disc produced a force in
a direction
opposite to oscillating force. The damping force can be varied by varying the
projection of the
magnet over the circular disc.
Fig. 1.6 Rectangular type
1.7 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) instrument

One of the most accurate type of instrument used for D.C. measurements is PMMC
instrument.
Construction: A permanent magnet is used in this type instrument. Aluminum former
is
provided in the cylindrical in between two poles of the permanent magnet (Fig.
1.7). Coils are
wound on the aluminum former which is connected with the spindle. This spindle is
supported
with jeweled bearing. Two springs are attached on either end of the spindle. The
terminals of the
moving coils are connected to the spring. Therefore the current flows through
spring 1, moving
coil and spring 2.
Damping: Eddy current damping is used. This is produced by aluminum former.

Control: Spring control is used.
15
2015
Fig. 1.7
Principle of operation
When D.C. supply is given to the moving coil, D.C. current flows through it. When
the current
carrying coil is kept in the magnetic field, it experiences a force. This force
produces a torque
and the former rotates. The pointer is attached with the spindle. When the former
rotates, the
pointer moves over the calibrated scale. When the polarity is reversed a torque is
produced in the
opposite direction. The mechanical stopper does not allow the deflection in the
opposite
direction. Therefore the polarity should be maintained with PMMC instrument.
If A.C. is supplied, a reversing torque is produced. This cannot produce a
continuous deflection.
Therefore this instrument cannot be used in A.C.
Torque developed by PMMC
Let
Td
=deflecting torque
TC
= controlling torque
.
= angle of deflection
K=spring constant
b=width of the coil
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2015
l=height of the coil or length of coil

N=No. of turns
I=current
B=Flux density
A=area of the coil
The force produced in the coil is given by

F
=
BIL
sin .
(1.4)
q=
90
When
For N turns, F
=
NBIL
(1.5)
Torque produced T
=F�.
distance (1.6)
dr
Td
=
NBIL
�
b
=
BINA
(1.7)
Td
=
BANI
(1.8)
Td
.
I
(1.9)
Advantages
�
Torque/weight is high
�
Power consumption is less
�
Scale is uniform
�
Damping is very effective
�
Since operating field is very strong, the effect of stray field is negligible
�
Range of instrument can be extended
Disadvantages
�
Use only for D.C.
�
Cost is high
�
Error is produced due to ageing effect of PMMC
�
Friction and temperature error are present
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2015
1.7.1 Extension of range of PMMC instrument

Case-I: Shunt
A low shunt resistance connected in parrel with the ammeter to extent the range of
current. Large
current can be measured using low current rated ammeter by using a shunt.
Fig. 1.8
Let
Rm=Resistance of meter
=Resistance of shunt
Rsh
I
= Current through meter
=current through shunt
Ish
I= current to be measure
\V
=
V
(1.10)
m
sh
IR
=
IR
m
m
sh
sh
I
R
m
=
sh
(1.11)
Ish
Rm
Apply KCL at �P� I

=I
+
I
(1.12)
m
sh
Eqn (1.12) � by I
m
I
=
1+
Ish
(1.13)
Im
Im
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2015
IR
=
1+
m
(1.14)
Im
Rsh
sh
II
(1.15)
=
..
..
.
..
.
Rm
1+
sh
is called multiplication factor
..
.
Shunt resistance is made of manganin. This has least thermoelectric emf. The change
is
resistance, due to change in temperature is negligible.
Case (II): Multiplier
A large resistance is connected in series with voltmeter is called multiplier (Fig.

1.9). A large
voltage can be measured using a voltmeter of small rating with a multiplier.
Fig. 1.9
Let Rm=resistance of meter
R
=resistance of multiplier
se
V
=Voltage across meter
m
V
= Voltage across series resistance
se
V= voltage to be measured
I
=
I
(1.16)
m
se
Vm
Vse
=
(1.17)
Rm
Rse
se
se
\V
=
R
(1.18)
Vm
Rm
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2015
Apply KVL, V
=
V
+V
(1.19)
m
se
Eqn (1.19) � V
se
Vm
Vm
se
Rm
(1.20)
=
=
..
..
Vm
....
\V
se
Rm
(1.21)
=
..
.
....
.
.
.
.
.
se
Rm
+
Multiplication factor
1.8 Moving Iron (MI) instruments

One of the most accurate instrument used for both AC and DC measurement is moving
iron
instrument. There are two types of moving iron instrument.
�
Attraction type
�
Repulsion type
1.8.1 Attraction type M.I. instrument
Construction:The moving iron fixed to the spindle is kept near the hollow fixed
coil (Fig. 1.10).
The pointer and balance weight are attached to the spindle, which is supported with
jeweled
bearing. Here air friction damping is used.
Principle of operation
The current to be measured is passed through the fixed coil. As the current is flow
through the
fixed coil, a magnetic field is produced. By magnetic induction the moving iron
gets magnetized.
The north pole of moving coil is attracted by the south pole of fixed coil. Thus
the deflecting
force is produced due to force of attraction. Since the moving iron is attached
with the spindle,
the spindle rotates and the pointer moves over the calibrated scale. But the force
of attraction
depends on the current flowing through the coil.
Torque developed by M.I
Let �.
� be the deflection corresponding to a current of �i� amp
Let the current increases by di, the corresponding deflection is � q+
d.
�
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2015
Fig. 1.10
There is change in inductance since the position of moving iron change w.r.t the
fixed
electromagnets.
Let the new inductance value be �L+dL�. The current change by �di� is dt seconds.
Let the emf induced in the coil be �e� volt.
d
di
dL
e
=
(Li
) =
L
+
i
(1.22)
dt
dt
dt
Multiplying by �idt� in equation (1.22)
di
dL
e
�
idt
=
L
�
idt
+
i
�
idt
(1.23)
dt
dt
e
�
idt
=
Lidi
+
i2dL
(1.24)
Eqn (1.24) gives the energy is used in to two forms. Part of energy is stored in
the inductance.
Remaining energy is converted in to mechanical energy which produces deflection.
Fig. 1.11
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2015
Change in energy stored=Final energy-initial energy stored

22
=
1(L
+
dL
)( i
+
di
) -
1
Li
22
22 2
=
1
{( L
+
dL
)( i
+
di
+
2idi
) -
Li
}
2
22
=
1
{( L
+
dL
)( i
+
2idi
) -
Li
}
2
22 2
=
1{Li
+
2Lidi
+
i
dL
+
2ididL
-
Li
}
2
1
=
{2Lidi
+
i2dL
}
2
1
=
Lidi
+
i2dL
(1.25)
2
Mechanical work to move the pointer by d.
=
Td
d.
(1.26)
By law of conservation of energy,
Electrical energy supplied=Increase in stored energy+ mechanical work done.
Input energy= Energy stored + Mechanical energy

22
Lidi
+
i
dL
=
Lidi
+
1
i
dL
+
Td
d.
(1.27)
2
2
1
i
dL
=
Td
d.
(1.28)
2
12 dL
Td
=
i
(1.29)
2 d.
At steady state condition T
=
T
dC
1
i
dL
=
K.
(1.30)
2 d.
12 dL
q=
i
(1.31)
2Kd.
q.
i2 (1.32)
When the instruments measure AC, q.
i2
rms
Scale of the instrument is non uniform.
22
2015
Advantages
�
MI can be used in AC and DC
�
It is cheap
�
Supply is given to a fixed coil, not in moving coil.
�
Simple construction
�
Less friction error.
Disadvantages
�
It suffers from eddy current and hysteresis error
�
Scale is not uniform
�
It consumed more power
�
Calibration is different for AC and DC operation
1.8.2 Repulsion type moving iron instrument
Construction:The repulsion type instrument has a hollow fixed iron attached to it
(Fig. 1.12).
The moving iron is connected to the spindle. The pointer is also attached to the
spindle in
supported with jeweled bearing.
Principle of operation: When the current flows through the coil, a magnetic field
is produced by
it. So both fixed iron and moving iron are magnetized with the same polarity, since
they are kept
in the same magnetic field. Similar poles of fixed and moving iron get repelled.
Thus the
deflecting torque is produced due to magnetic repulsion. Since moving iron is
attached to
spindle, the spindle will move. So that pointer moves over the calibrated scale.
Damping: Air friction damping is used to reduce the oscillation.
23
Fig. 1.12
1.9 Dynamometer (or) Electromagnetic moving coil instrument (EMMC)

Fig. 1.13
24
2015
This instrument can be used for the measurement of voltage, current and power. The
difference
between the PMMC and dynamometer type instrument is that the permanent magnet is
replaced
by an electromagnet.
Construction:A fixed coil is divided in to two equal half. The moving coil is
placed between the
two half of the fixed coil. Both the fixed and moving coils are air cored. So that
the hysteresis
effect will be zero. The pointer is attached with the spindle. In a non metallic
former the moving
coil is wounded.
Damping: Air friction damping is used.
Principle of operation:
When the current flows through the fixed coil, it produced a magnetic field, whose
flux density is
proportional to the current through the fixed coil. The moving coil is kept in
between the fixed
coil. When the current passes through the moving coil, a magnetic field is produced
by this coil.
The magnetic poles are produced in such a way that the torque produced on the
moving coil
deflects the pointer over the calibrated scale. This instrument works on AC and DC.
When AC
voltage is applied, alternating current flows through the fixed coil and moving
coil. When the
current in the fixed coil reverses, the current in the moving coil also reverses.
Torque remains in
the same direction. Since the current i1 and i2 reverse simultaneously. This is
because the fixed
and moving coils are either connected in series or parallel.
Torque developed by EMMC
Fig. 1.14
25
2015
Let
L1=Self inductance of fixed coil
L2= Self inductance of moving coil
M=mutual inductance between fixed coil and moving coil
i1=current through fixed coil
i2=current through moving coil
Total inductance of system,
=
L
+
L
+
2M
(1.33)
Ltotal
12
But we know that in case of M.I

1 d
(L)
T=
i2 (1.34) d
2 d.
12 d
Td
=
i
(L1 +
L2 +
2M
) (1.35)
2 d.
The value of L1 and L2 are independent of �.

� but �M� varies with .
12 dM
Td
=
i
�
2 (1.36)
2 d.
2 dM
Td
=
i
(1.37)
d.
If the coils are not connected in series i1 .
i
\T=
ii
dM
(1.38)
d
12
d.
T
=
T
(1.39)
Cd
i1i2 dM
(1.40)
\.
=
Kd.
Hence the deflection of pointer is proportional to the current passing through

fixed coil and
moving coil.
26
2015
1.9.1 Extension of EMMC instrument

Case-I Ammeter connection
Fixed coil and moving coil are connected in parallel for ammeter connection. The
coils are
designed such that the resistance of each branch is same.
Therefore
I
=
I
=
I
12
Fig. 1.15
To extend the range of current a shunt may be connected in parallel with the meter.
The value
is designed such that equal current flows through moving coil and fixed coil.
Rsh
\Td
=
II
dM
(1.41)
12
d.
Or \Td
=
I
dM
(1.42)
d.
TC
=
K.
(1.43)
2
q=
I
dM
(1.44)
Kd.
\q.
I
(Scale is not uniform) (1.45)
Case-II Voltmeter connection
Fixed coil and moving coil are connected in series for voltmeter connection. A
multiplier may be
connected in series to extent the range of voltmeter.
27
2015
Fig. 1.16
I
=
V1, I
=
V2 (1.46)
12
ZZ
12
VV
dM
Td
=
1 �
2 �
(1.47)
Z1 Z2 d.
KV
KVdM
Td
=
1 �
2 �
(1.48)
Z1 Z2 d.
2
KV
dM
Td
=�
(1.49)
Z1Z2 d.
Td
.
V
2 (1.50)
\q.
V
(Scale in not uniform) (1.51)
Case-III As wattmeter
When the two coils are connected to parallel, the instrument can be used as a
wattmeter. Fixed
coil is connected in series with the load. Moving coil is connected in parallel
with the load. The
moving coil is known as voltage coil or pressure coil and fixed coil is known as
current coil.
Fig. 1.17
28
2015
Assume that the supply voltage is sinusoidal. If the impedance of the coil is
neglected in
comparison with the resistance �R�. The current,
vm
sin wt
I
=
(1.52)
Let the phase difference between the currents I1 and I2 is f

I
=
I
sin( wt
-f) (1.53)
1 m
dM
Td
=
I1I
(1.54)
2
d.
Vm
sin wt
dM
T
=
I
sin( wt
-f) �
(1.55)
dm
Rd.
T
=
1(IV
sin wt
sin( wt
-f))
dM
(1.56)
d
mm
Rd.
T
=
1
IV
sin wt
.sin( wt
-f)
dM
(1.57)
d
mm
Rd.
The average deflecting torque

2P
(T
)avg
=
.
Td
�
d(wt)
(1.58)
d
2.
0
2.
11 dM
(Td
)avg
=
.
�
ImVm
sin wt
.sin( wt
-f) �
d
(wt)
(1.59)
2.
0 Rd.
..
VI
1 dM
mm
(Td
)avg
=
��
.
{cos f-
cos(2wt
-f)} dwt
.
(1.60)
2 �
2.
Rd.
..
..
2.
2.
VI
dM
..
mm
(Td
)avg
=�
..cos f.dwt
-
.cos(2wt
-f).dwt
.
(1.61)
4.
d
0
R
.
.
0 .
VI
dM
2
mm
(T
) =
�[cos f[wt
]
P]
(1.62)
d
avg
0
4PRd.
VI
dM
mm
(T
) =
�[cos f(2P-
0)]
(1.63)
d
avg
4PRd.
VI
1 dM
mm
(Td
)avg
=
��
cos f
(1.64)
2 Rd.
1 dM
(Td
)avg
=
Vrms
�
Irms
�
cos f�
�
(1.65)
Rd.
29
2015
(T
) .
KVI
cosf
(1.66)
d
avg
TC
�.
(1.67)
q.
KVI
cos f
(1.68)
q.
VI
cos f
(1.69)
Advantages
�
It can be used for voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter
�
Hysteresis error is nill
�
Eddy current error is nill
�
Damping is effective
�
It can be measure correctively and accurately the rms value of the voltage
Disadvantages
�
�
Power consumption is high(because of high resistance )
�
Cost is more
�
Error is produced due to frequency, temperature and stray field.
�
Torque/weight is low.(Because field strength is very low)
Errors in PMMC
�
The permanent magnet produced error due to ageing effect. By heat treatment, this
error
can be eliminated.
�
The spring produces error due to ageing effect. By heat treating the spring the
error can
be eliminated.
�
When the temperature changes, the resistance of the coil vary and the spring also
produces error in deflection. This error can be minimized by using a spring whose
temperature co-efficient is very low.
1.10 Difference between attraction and repulsion type instrument
An attraction type instrument will usually have a lower inductance, compare to
repulsion type
instrument. But in other hand, repulsion type instruments are more suitable for
economical
production in manufacture and nearly uniform scale is more easily obtained. They
are therefore
much more common than attraction type.
30
2015
1.11 Characteristics of meter

1.11.1 Full scale deflection current( )
IFSD
The current required to bring the pointer to full-scale or extreme right side of
the
instrument is called full scale deflection current. It must be as small as
possible. Typical value is
between 2 �
A to 30mA.
1.11.2 Resistance of the coil( R

)
m
This is ohmic resistance of the moving coil. It is due to .

, L and A. For an ammeter this should
be as small as possible.
1.11.3 Sensitivity of the meter(S)

1 Z
.
S
=
(O
/ volt
), .
S
=
IV
FSD
It is also called ohms/volt rating of the instrument. Larger the sensitivity of an
instrument, more
accurate is the instrument. It is measured in O/volt. When the sensitivity is high,
the impedance
of meter is high. Hence it draws less current and loading affect is negligible. It
is also defend as
one over full scale deflection current.
1.12 Error in M.I instrument

1.12.1 Temperature error
Due to temperature variation, the resistance of the coil varies. This affects the
deflection of the
instrument. The coil should be made of manganin, so that the resistance is almost
constant.
1.12.2 Hysteresis error

Due to hysteresis affect the reading of the instrument will not be correct. When
the current is
decreasing, the flux produced will not decrease suddenly. Due to this the meter
reads a higher
value of current. Similarly when the current increases the meter reads a lower
value of current.
This produces error in deflection. This error can be eliminated using small iron
parts with narrow
hysteresis loop so that the demagnetization takes place very quickly.
1.12.3 Eddy current error

The eddy currents induced in the moving iron affect the deflection. This error can
be reduced by
increasing the resistance of the iron.
31
2015
1.12.4 Stray field error

Since the operating field is weak, the effect of stray field is more. Due to this,
error is produced
in deflection. This can be eliminated by shielding the parts of the instrument.
1.12.5 Frequency error

When the frequency changes the reactance of the coil changes.
Z
=
(R
+
R
)2 +
X
2 (1.70)
mS
L
VV
I
==
(1.71)
Z
(R
+
R
)2 +
X
2
mS
L
Fig. 1.18
Deflection of moving iron voltmeter depends upon the current through the coil.
Therefore,
deflection for a given voltage will be less at higher frequency than at low
frequency. A capacitor
is connected in parallel with multiplier resistance. The net reactance, ( X
-
X
) is very small,
LC
when compared to the series resistance. Thus the circuit impedance is made
independent of
frequency. This is because of the circuit is almost resistive.

L
C
=
2)(
0.41
RS
(1.72)
1.13 Electrostatic instrument
In multi cellular construction several vans and quadrants are provided. The voltage
is to be
measured is applied between the vanes and quadrant. The force of attraction between
the vanes
32
2015
and quadrant produces a deflecting torque. Controlling torque is produced by spring

control. Air
friction damping is used.
The instrument is generally used for measuring medium and high voltage. The voltage
is reduced
to low value by using capacitor potential divider. The force of attraction is
proportional to the
square of the voltage.
Fig. 1.19
Torque develop by electrostatic instrument
V=Voltage applied between vane and quadrant

C=capacitance between vane and quadrant
1
Energy stored= CV
2 (1.73)
2
Let �.
� be the deflection corresponding to a voltage V.
Let the voltage increases by dv, the corresponding deflection is� q+
d.
�
When the voltage is being increased, a capacitive current flows
dq
d
(CV
) dC
dV
i
==
=
V
+
C
(1.74)
dt
dt
dt
dt
V
�
dt
multiply on both side of equation (1.74)
33
2015
Fig. 1.20
dC
dV
Vidt
=
V
2dt
+
CV
dt
(1.75)
dt
dt
Vidt
=
V
2dC
+
CVdV
(1.76)
22
Change in stored energy=

1
(C
+
dC
)( V
+
dV
) -
1
CV
(1.77)
22
11
22 2
=[(C
+
dC
)V
+
dV
+
2VdV
]-
CV
22
2222 2
11
=[CV
+
CdV
+
2CVdV
+
V
dC
+
dCdV
+
2VdVdC
]-
CV
22
1
=
V
dC
+
CVdV
2
22
V
dC
+
CVdV
=
1
V
dC
+
CVdV
+
F
�
rd.
(1.78)
2
Td
�
dq=
1
V
dC
(1.79)
..
.
..
.
Td
=
V
dC
(1.80)
dq
At steady state condition, T

=
T
dC
..
.
..
.
1
=
V
dC
(1.81)
d
..
.
..
.
dC
=
V
(1.82)
d
2K
34
2015
Advantages
�
It is used in both AC and DC.
�
There is no frequency error.
�
There is no hysteresis error.
�
There is no stray magnetic field error. Because the instrument works on
electrostatic
principle.
�
It is used for high voltage
�
Power consumption is negligible.
Disadvantages
�
�
Large in size
�
Cost is more
1.14 Multi range Ammeter
When the switch is connected to position (1), the supplied current I1
Fig. 1.21
IR
1 =
IR
(1.83)
sh
1 sh
mm
IR
IR
m
m
mm
R
==
(1.84)
sh
1
II
-
I
sh
11 m
35
2015
=
sh
R
1 =
-
=
-
m
sh
m
m
m
R
R
I
R
1
1
1
1
,
1
,
1 mI
I1 =
Multiplying power of shunt
mI
12
2 -
=
m
R
R
m
sh
,
mI
I
m
2
2 =
(1.85)
13
3 -
=
m
R
R
m
sh
, m3 =
mI
I3 (1.86)
14
4 -
=
m
R
R
m
sh
,
mI
I
m
4
4 =
(1.87)
1.15 Ayrton shunt
211 sh
sh
RRR
-=
(1.88)
322 sh
sh
RRR
-=
(1.89)
433 sh
sh
RRR
-=
(1.90)
44 Rsh
R
=
(1.91)
Fig. 1.22
Ayrton shunt is also called universal shunt. Ayrton shunt has more sections of
resistance. Taps
are brought out from various points of the resistor. The variable points in the o/p
can be
connected to any position. Various meters require different types of shunts. The
Aryton shunt is
used in the lab, so that any value of resistance between minimum and maximum
specified can be
used. It eliminates the possibility of having the meter in the circuit without a
shunt.
36
2015
1.16 Multi range D.C. voltmeter

Fig. 1.23
1Rs
=
( 1mRm
1)-
2Rs
=
( 2mRm
1)-
(1.92)
3Rs
=
( 3mRm
1)-
m1 =
mV
V1 m2, =
mV
V2 m3, =
mV
V3 (1.93)
We can obtain different Voltage ranges by connecting different value of multiplier

resistor in
series with the meter. The number of these resistors is equal to the number of
ranges required.
1.17 Potential divider arrangement

The resistance R
, R
, R
and is connected in series to obtained the ranges V
,V
,V
and
123 R4 123 V4
37
2015
Fig. 1.24
Consider for voltage V1, (R

+
R
)I
=
V
1 mm
1
VV
11
Rm
-
(1.94)
m
R
Rm
..
.
..
.
mV
Vm
()
Rm
R
=
(m
-1)R
(1.95)
11 m
V
-
1 -
=
ForV2 , R
+
R
+
21
Rm
(1.96)
(
Rm
IV
Im
R
=
V
-
( -1) -
21 m
R
(1.97)
m
.
Vm
..
.
..
.
Rm
R
=
mR
-
R
-
(m
-1)R
22 mm
1 m
=
R(m
-1-
m
+1) (1.98)
m
21
R
=
(m
-
m
)R
(1.99)
2 21 mFor V3 (R
+
R
+
R
+
R
)I
=
V
321 mm
3
V
R
=
3 -
R
-
R
-
R
3 21 m
Im
=
VR
-
(m
-
m
)R
-
(m
-1)R
-
R
m
21 m
1 mm
Vm
=
mR
-
(m
-
m
)R
-
(m
-1)R
-
R
3 m
21 m
1 mm
R
=
(m
-
m
)R
3 32 m
38
2015
For V4 (R
+
R
+
R
+
R
+
R
)I
=
V
4321 mm
4
R4 =
V
-
R
-
R2 -
R
-
Rm
31
Im
.
V4
.
=
..
..
Rm
-
(m3 -
m2)Rm
-
(m2 -
m1)Rm
-
(m1 -1)Rm
-
Rm
.Vm
.
R
=
R
[m
-
m
+
m
-
m
+
m
-
m
+1-1]
4 m
4 3 2 211
R4 =(m
-
m3 )Rm
Example: 1.1
A PMMC ammeter has the following specification
Coil dimension are 1cm�

1cm. Spring constant is 0.15 �10
-6 N
-
m
/ rad
, Flux density is
-32 0
1.5 �10 wb
/ m
.Determine the no. of turns required to produce a deflection of 90when a current
2mA flows through the coil.
Solution:
At steady state condition T
=
T
dC
BANI
=
K.
Kq
.
N
=
BAI
-42
A= 1�10 m
-6 N
-
m
K= 0.15 �10
rad
-32
B= 1.5�10 wb
/ m
-3
I= 2 �10 A
�P
q=
90 =
rad
2
N=785 ans.
Example: 1.2
39
2015
The pointer of a moving coil instrument gives full scale deflection of 20mA. The
potential
difference across the meter when carrying 20mA is 400mV.The instrument to be used
is 200A
for full scale deflection. Find the shunt resistance required to achieve this, if
the instrument to be
used as a voltmeter for full scale reading with 1000V. Find the series resistance
to be connected
it?
Solution:
Case-1
Vm=400mV
Im
=
20 mA
I=200A
Vm
400
R
==
=
20 W
Im
20
Rm
II
..
.
..
.
sh
20
-3
�10
-3
=
2�10 W
Rsh
..
Case-II
V=1000V
200 20
.
.
Rsh
.
Rse
.
+
...
V
Vm
..
.
Rm
.
.
.
.
.
.
-3
se
10
4000 400
=
20
R=
49.98 kW
se
Example: 1.3
A 150 v moving iron voltmeter is intended for 50HZ, has a resistance of 3kO. Find
the series
resistance required to extent the range of instrument to 300v. If the 300V
instrument is used to
measure a d.c. voltage of 200V. Find the voltage across the meter?
Solution:
R=
3kO
,V=
150 V
,V
=
300 V
mm
40
2015
Rse
..
V
Vm
..
Rm
R
150 1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
=O
se
=
R
3k
se
..
.
Rse
V
Vm
Case-II
..
.
Rm
..
.
..
.
1
+
200 Vm
\V=
100 V
m
Ans
Example: 1.4
What is the value of series resistance to be used to extent �0�to 200V range of
20,000O/volt
voltmeter to 0 to 2000 volt?
Solution:
V=
V
-V
=
1800
se
11
==
I
FSD
20000 Sensitivity
FSD
Rse
=
36
MO
VR
se
se
ans.
Example: 1.5
A moving coil instrument whose resistance is 25.

gives a full scale deflection with a current of
1mA. This instrument is to be used with a manganin shunt, to extent its range to
100mA.
Calculate the error caused by a 100C rise in temperature when:
(a) Copper moving coil is connected directly across the manganin shunt.
(b) A 75 ohm manganin resistance is used in series with the instrument moving coil.
The temperature co-efficient of copper is 0.004/0C and that of manganin is

0.000150/C.
Solution:
Case-1
Im
=
1mA
R
=
25 W
41
I=100mA
Rm
II
..
..
sh
..
Rsh
=
25 =
0.2525 O
99
.
.
.
.
11
.
.
.
25
25
99
sh
sh
Instrument resistance for 100C rise in temperature, R

=
25(1+
0.004 �10)
mtR
=
R
(1+.
�t)
to
t
R
�=
26 O
m
/ t
=10
Shunt resistance for 100C, rise in temperature
R
�=
0.2525(1+
0.00015 �10) =
0.2529 O
sh
/ t
=10
Current through the meter for 100mA in the main circuit for 100C rise in
temperature
....
Rm
sh
II
t
=10 C
..
.
..
.
26
..
.
1
100 I
mt
0.2529
=
0.963 mA
mt=10
But normal meter current=1mA

Error due to rise in temperature=(0.963-1)*100=-3.7%
Case-b As voltmeter
Total resistance in the meter circuit= Rm
+
Rsh
=
25 +
75 =
100 O
Rm
II
=
..
.
..
.
sh
100
.
.
.
11
Rsh
100
..
.
Rsh
==
100 -1
1.01 O
42
2015
Resistance of the instrument circuit for 100C rise in temperature
=
25(1 +
0.004 �10) +
75(1 +
0.00015 �10) =
101.11 O
mt
=10
Shunt resistance for 100C rise in temperature
=
1.01(1 +
0.00015 �10) =
1.0115 W
sh
t=10
Rm
II
..
.
..
.
sh
..
.
..
.
101.11
100 I
1.0115
t
=
10 =
0.9905 mA
Im
Error =(0.9905-1)*100=-0.95%
Example: 1.6
The coil of a 600V M.I meter has an inductance of 1 henery. It gives correct
reading at 50HZ and
requires 100mA. For its full scale deflection, what is % error in the meter when
connected to
200V D.C. by comparing with 200V A.C?
Solution:
V
=
600 V
, I
=
100 mA
mm
Case-I A.C.
Vm
600
Z
==
=
6000 W
Im
0.1
XL
=
2PfL
=
314 O
22 22
R
=
Z
-
X
=
(6000) -
(314) =
5990 W
m
mL
V
200
AC
I
==
=
33.33 mA
AC
Z
6000
Case-II D.C
V
200
DC
I
==
=
33.39 mA
DC
Rm
5990
43
2015
I
-
I
33.39 -
33.33
DC
AC
Error= �100 =�100 =

0.18%
I
33.33
AC
Example: 1.7
A 250V M.I. voltmeter has coil resistance of 500O, coil inductance 0f 1.04 H and
series
resistance of 2kO. The meter reads correctively at 250V D.C. What will be the value
of
capacitance to be used for shunting the series resistance to make the meter read
correctly at
50HZ? What is the reading of voltmeter on A.C. without capacitance?
Solution: C
=
0.41
(RS
)2
1.04
=
0.41 �=
0.1�F
(2 �10 3)2
For A.C Z
=
(R
+
R
)2 +
X
2
mSe
L
W=++=2520 )314()2000500 (22Z

With D.C
=
2500 W
Rtotal
For 2500.
.
250V
250
1.
.
2500
250
2520.
��
2520 =
248V
2500
Example: 1.8
The relationship between inductance of moving iron ammeter, the current and the
position of
pointer is as follows:
Reading (A) 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Deflection (degree) 36.5 49.5 61.5 74.5
Inductance ( �H
) 575.2 576.5 577.8 578.8
Calculate the deflecting torque and the spring constant when the current is 1.5A?
Solution:
For current I=1.5A,.

=55.5 degree=0.96865 rad
44
2015
dL
577.65 -
576.5
==
0.11 �H
/ deg ree
=
6.3�H
/ rad
d.
60 -
49.5
1 dL
1
22 -6 -6
Deflecting torque , Td
=
I
=
(1.5) �
6.3�10 =
7.09 �10 N
-
m
2 d.
2
Td
7.09 �10
-6
-6 N
-
m
Spring constant, K
==
=
7.319 �10
.
0.968 rad
Fig. 1.25
Example: 1.9
For a certain dynamometer ammeter the mutual inductance �M� varies with
deflection .
as
�
M
=-6cos( q+
30 )mH
.Find the deflecting torque produced by a direct current of 50mA
corresponding to a deflection of 600.
Solution:
dM
dM
Td
=
II
=
I
2
12
d.
d.
�
M
=-6cos( q+
30 )
dM
=
6sin( q+
30)mH
d.
dM
=
6sin 90 =
6mH
/ deg
q=60
d.
2 -32 -3 -6
Td
=
I
dM
=
(50 �10 ) �
6 �10 =
15 �10 N
-
m
d.
45
2015
Example: 1.10
The inductance of a moving iron ammeter with a full scale deflection of 900 at
1.5A, is given by
23
the expression L
=
200 +
40 q-
4.
-q�H
, where .
is deflection in radian from the zero
position. Estimate the angular deflection of the pointer for a current of 1.0A.
Solution:
23
L
=
200 +
40 q-
4.
-q�H
dL
�=
40 -
8q-
3q�H
/ rad
q=90
d.
dL
P.
2
�=
40 -
8�-
3( ) �H
/ rad
=
20 �H
/ rad
q=90
d.
22
..
.
..
.
=
I
dL
\.
2K
.
1 (1.5) -6
=�
20 �10
22 K
K=Spring constant=14.32 �10
-6 N
-
m
/ rad
2
..
.
..
.
=
I
dL
For I=1A,\.
2K
1 (1)2
2
\q=�
(40 -
8q-
3q)
-6
14.32 �10
3q+
36.64 .
2 -
40 =
0
�
q=
1.008rad
,57.8
Example: 1.11
23
The inductance of a moving iron instrument is given by L

=
10 +
5q-.
-q�H
, where .
is
the deflection in radian from zero position. The spring constant is 12 �10
-6 N
-
m
/ rad
. Estimate
the deflection for a current of 5A.
Solution:
46
2015
dL
�H
=
(5 -
2.
)
d.
rad
..
..
=
I
dL
\.
2K
1 (5)2
-6
\q=
�
(5 -
2.
) �10
-6
2
12 �10
\.
=
1.69rad
,96.8
Example: 1.12
The following figure gives the relation between deflection and inductance of a
moving iron
instrument.
Deflection (degree) 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Inductance ( �H
) 335 345 355.5 366.5 376.5 385 391.2 396.5
Find the current and the torque to give a deflection of (a) 300 (b) 800 . Given
that control spring
constant is 0.4 �10

-6 N
-
m
/ deg ree
Solution:
..
.
..
.
=
I
dL
.
2K
(a) For q=
30
The curve is linear
.
.
335
...
dL
355.5
==
1.075 �H
/ deg ree
=
58.7�H
/ rad
40 -
20
=30
47
2015
Fig. 1.26
Example: 1.13
In an electrostatic voltmeter the full scale deflection is obtained when the moving
plate turns
0 -6
through 90. The torsional constant is 10 �10 N

-
m
/ rad
. The relation between the angle of
deflection and capacitance between the fixed and moving plates is given by
Find the voltage applied to the instrument when the deflection is 90?
Deflection (degree) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Capacitance (PF) 81.4 121 156 189.2 220 246 272 294 316 334
0
Solution:
Fig. 1.27
48
2015
dC
bc
370 -
250
=
tan q==
=
1.82 PF
/ deg ree
=
104.2PF
/ rad
d.
ab
110 -
44
-6 N
-
m
-6
Spring constant K
=
10 �10 =
0.1745 �10 N
-
m
/ deg ree
rad
..
.
K
.
dC
d.
..
.
dC
dq
2K
-6
2 �
0.1745 �10 �
90
V
=
=
549 volt
-12
104.2 �10
Example: 1.14
Design a multi range d.c. mille ammeter using a basic movement with an internal
resistance
Rm=
50O
and a full scale deflection current I=1mA
. The ranges required are 0-10mA; 0-50mA;
0-100mA and 0-500mA.
Solution:
Case-I 0-10mA
I
10
Multiplying power m
=
==
10
Im
1
Rm
50
.
Shunt resistance Rsh
1 ==
=
5.55 O
m
-1 10 -1
Case-II 0-50mA
50
m
==
50
1
Rm
50
Rsh
2 ==
=
1.03 O
m
-1 50 -1
100
Case-III 0-100mA, m
==
100 O
Rsh
=
Rm
=
50 =
0.506 W
3
m
-1 100 -1
500
Case-IV 0-500mA, m
==
500 O
1
Rm
50
Rsh
4 ==
=
0.1O
m
-1 500 -1
Example: 1.15
49
2015
A moving coil voltmeter with a resistance of 20.

gives a full scale deflection of 1200, when a
potential difference of 100mV is applied across it. The moving coil has dimension
of
30mm*25mm and is wounded with 100 turns. The control spring constant is
0.375 �10
-6 N
-
m
/ deg ree
.Find the flux density, in the air gap. Find also the diameter of copper
wire of coil winding if 30% of instrument resistance is due to coil winding. The
specific
resistance for copper= 1.7 �10
-8Wm
.
Solution:
Data given
Vm
=
100 mV
R
=
20 W
q=
120
N=100
K
=
0.375 �10
-6 N
-
m
/ deg ree
=
30%ofR
RC
m
-8
r=
1.7 �10 Wm
Vm
-3
Im
==
5 �10 A
Rm
-6 -6
T
=
BANI
,T
=
Kq=
0.375 �10 �120 =
45 �10 N
-
m
dC
-6
T
45 �10
B
=
d
==
0.12 wb
/ m
-6 -3
ANI
30 �
25 �10 �100 �
5�10
RC
=
0.3�
20 =
6O
Length of mean turn path =2(a+b) =2(55)=110mm
..
.
rl
..
.
RC
=
N
-8 -3
N
�r�
(l
) 100 �1.7 �10 �110 �10
A
==
R
6
50
2015
-82
=
3.116 �10 m
-32
=
31.16 �10 mm
.
2
0.2
mm
Ad
Example: 1.16
A moving coil instrument gives a full scale deflection of 10mA, when the potential
difference
across its terminal is 100mV. Calculate
(1) The shunt resistance for a full scale deflection corresponding to 100A
(2) The resistance for full scale reading with 1000V.
Calculate the power dissipation in each case?
Solution:
Data given
Im
=
10 mA
Vm
=
100 mV
I
=
100 A
Rm
1+
sh
...
.
I
=
Im
..
.
10
-3
100 10
10
=
..
.
..
.
sh
Rsh
=
1.001 �10
-3O
R=
??, V
=
1000 V
se
Vm
100
R
==
=
10 W
Im
10
V
=
Vm
....
..
.
Rse
+
Rm
..
.
..
.
-3
se
10
1000 100
10
.
R
=
99.99 KW
se
Example: 1.17
51
2015
Design an Aryton shunt to provide an ammeter with current ranges of 1A,5A,10A and
20A. A
basic meter with an internal resistance of 50w and a full scale deflection current
of 1mA is to be
used.
Solution: Data given
-3
I
=
1�10 A
m
Rm
=
50 O
R
=
m
=
sh
1
m1 -1
Rm
I
=
1A
1
I
=
5A
2
I
=
10 A
3
I
=
20 A
50
m
==
1000 A
Im
m
==
5000 A
Im
I
m
==
10000 A
Im
m
==
20000 A
Im
=
0.05 O
1000 -1
50
R
==
0.01 W
sh
2
m
-1 5000 -1
2
Rm
50
Rsh
3 ==
=
0.005 O
m3 -1 10000 -1
Rsh
4 =
R
=
50 =
0.0025 O
m4 -1 20000 -1
\The resistances of the various section of the universal shunt are

R
=
R
-
R
=
0.05 -
0.01 =
0.04 W
1 sh
1 sh
2
R
=
R
-
R
=
0.01 -
0.005 =
0.005 W
2 sh
2 sh
3
R
=
R
-
R
=
0.005 -
0.025 =
0.0025 W
3 sh
3 sh
4
R
=
R
=
0.0025 W
4 sh
4
Example: 1.18
A basic d� Arsonval meter movement with an internal resistance R

=100O
and a full scale
mcurrent of I=1mA
is to be converted in to a multi range d.c. voltmeter with ranges of 0-10V, 0
50V, 0-250V, 0-500V. Find the values of various resistances using the potential
divider
arrangement.
Solution:
Data given
52
V
10
m
==
=
100
-3
Vm
100 �10
R
=
100 W
V
50
I
=
1mA
m
==
=
500
m
2
-3
m
100 �10
V
=
I
�
R
mmm
V
250
-3 m
==
=
2500
V
=
100 �1�10 -3
mV
m
100 �10
V
=
100 mV
mV
500
m
==
=
5000
-3
Vm
100 �10
R
=
(m
-1)R
=
(100 -1) �100 =
9900 W
11 m
R
=
(m
-
m
)R
=
(500 -100) �100 =
40 KW
2 21 m
R
=
(m
-
m
)R
=
(2500 -
500) �100 =
200 KW
3 32 m
R
=
(m4 -
m
)Rm
=
(5000 -
2500) �100 =
250 KW
43
53
2015
AC BRIDGES
2.1 General form of A.C. bridge

AC bridge are similar to D.C. bridge in topology(way of connecting).It consists of
four arm
AB,BC,CD and DA .Generally the impedance to be measured is connected between �A�
and �B�.
A detector is connected between �B� and �D�. The detector is used as null
deflection instrument.
Some of the arms are variable element. By varying these elements, the potential
values at �B� and
�D� can be made equal. This is called balancing of the bridge.
Fig. 2.1 General form of A.C. bridge
At the balance condition, the current through detector is zero.
..
\I1 =
I
3
..
I
2 =
I
4
..
I1 I
3
\=
(2.1)
..
I
2 I
4
54
2015
At balance condition,
Voltage drop across �AB�=voltage drop across �AD�.
..
E1 =
E
2
.. ..
.
I1 Z1 =
I
2 Z
2 (2.2)
Similarly, Voltage drop across �BC�=voltage drop across �DC�
..
E
3 =
E
4
.. ..
.
I
3 Z
3 =
I
4 Z
4 (2.3)
..
I1 Z
2
From Eqn. (2.2), we have \=

(2.4)
..
I
2 Z1
..
I
3 Z
4
From Eqn. (2.3), we have \=

(2.5)
..
I
4 Z
3
From equation -2.1, it can be seen that, equation -2.4 and equation-2.5 are equal.
..
Z
2 Z
4
\=
..
Z1 Z
3
.. ..
.
Z1 Z
4 =
Z
2 Z
3
Products of impedances of opposite arms are equal.
�q1
�q4 =
�q2
�q3
2
3
�q1 +q4 =
�q2 +q3
q1 +q4 =q2 +q3
55
2015
*
For balance condition, magnitude on either side must be equal.
*
Angle on either side must be equal.
Summary
For balance condition,
... .
�
I1 =
I
3, I
2 =
I
4
�
�
q+.
=.
+q
14 23
.. ..
�
E1 =
E
2& E
3 =
E
4
2.2 Types of detector
The following types of instruments are used as detector in A.C. bridge.
�
Vibration galvanometer
�
Head phones (speaker)
�
Tuned amplifier
2.2.1 Vibration galvanometer
Between the point �B� and �D� a vibration galvanometer is connected to indicate the
bridge
balance condition. This A.C. galvanometer which works on the principle of
resonance. The
A.C. galvanometer shows a dot, if the bridge is unbalanced.

2.2.2 Head phones
Two speakers are connected in parallel in this system. If the bridge is unbalanced,
the
speaker produced more sound energy. If the bridge is balanced, the speaker do not
produced
any sound energy.
2.2.3 Tuned amplifier

If the bridge is unbalanced the output of tuned amplifier is high. If the bridge is
balanced,
output of amplifier is zero.
56
2015
2.3 Measurements of inductance

2.3.1 Maxwell�s inductance bridge
The choke for which R1 and L1 have to measure connected between the points �A� and
�B�. In this method the unknown inductance is measured by comparing it with the
standard
inductance.
Fig. 2.2 Maxwell�s inductance bridge
L2 is adjusted, until the detector indicates zero current.
Let R1= unknown resistance

L1= unknown inductance of the choke.
L2= known standard inductance
R1,R2,R4= known resistances.
57
2015
Fig 2.3 Phasor diagram of Maxwell�s inductance bridge

.. ..
At balance condition, Z1 Z
4 =
Z
2 Z
3
(R
+
jXL
)R
=
(R
+
jXL
)R
1 142 23
(R
+
jwL
)R
=
(R
+
jwL
)R
1 142 23
RR
+
jwL
R
=
RR
+
jwL
R
14 1423 23
Comparing real part,
RR
=
RR
14 23
RR
23
.
R
=
(2.6)
4
Comparing the imaginary parts,
wL
R
=
wL
R
14 23
LR
L
=
2 3 (2.7)
WL
WL
RR
1 234
Q-factor of choke, Q
==
R
RRR
1 423
WL
Q
=
2 (2.8)
R
2
58
Advantages
�
Expression for R1 and L1 are simple.
�
Equations area simple
�
They do not depend on the frequency (as w is cancelled)
�
R1 and L1 are independent of each other.
Disadvantages
�
Variable inductor is costly.
�
Variable inductor is bulky.
2.3.2 Maxwell�s inductance capacitance bridge
Unknown inductance is measured by comparing it with standard capacitance. In this
bridge,
balance condition is achieved by varying �C4�.
Fig 2.4 Maxwell�s inductance capacitance bridge
59
2015
At balance condition, Z1Z4=Z3Z2 (2.9)

1
R
�
1 jwC
Z
=
R
|| =
4
44
jwC
41
R
+
jwC
RR
Z
=
4 =
4 (2.10)
4
jwR
C
+11+
jwR
C
44 44
.
Substituting the value of Z4 from eqn. (2.10) in eqn. (2.9) we get
R
(R
+
jwL
)�
4 =
RR
11 23
1+
jwR
C
44
Fig 2.5 Phasor diagram of Maxwell�s inductance capacitance bridge

(R
+
jwL
)R
=
RR
(1+
jwR
C
)
1 14 23 44
RR
+
jwL
R
=
RR
+
jwC
RRR
14 14 23 4423
Comparing real parts,
RR
=
RR
14 23
60
2015
2
3
.
R1 =
RR
(2.11)
R
4
Comparing imaginary part,
wL
R
=
wC
RRR
14 4423
L
=
CRR
(2.12)
1 423
Q-factor of choke,
WL
R
Q
=
1 =
w�CRR
�
4
4
23
R
RR
1
23
Q
=
wC4R
(2.13)
4
Advantages
�
Equation of L1 and R1 are simple.
�
They are independent of frequency.
�
They are independent of each other.
�
Standard capacitor is much smaller in size than standard inductor.
Disadvantages
�
Standard variable capacitance is costly.
�
It can be used for measurements of Q-factor in the ranges of 1 to 10.
�
It cannot be used for measurements of choke with Q-factors more than 10.
We know that Q =wC4R4
For measuring chokes with higher value of Q-factor, the value of C4 and R4 should
be
higher. Higher values of standard resistance are very expensive. Therefore this
bridge cannot be
used for higher value of Q-factor measurements.
61
2.3.3 Hay�s bridge

Fig 2.6 Hay�s bridge
�
E1 =
IR
+
jI
X
11 11
.. .
�
E
=
E1 +
E
3
..
I
�
E
4 =
I4 R4 +
4
jwC
4
.
�
E3 =
I3R3
11+
jwR
C
44
Z
=
R
+=
4
4
jwC
jwC
44
62
2015
Fig 2.7 Phasor diagram of Hay�s bridge

At balance condition, Z1Z4=Z3Z2
1+
jwR
C
(R
+
jwL
)( 44) =
RR
11 23
jwC
4
(R
+
jwL
)(1+
jwR
C
) =
jwR
C
R
1 1 44 243
R
+
jwC
RR
+
jwL
+
j2 w
2LC
R
=
jwC
RR
1 441 1 144 423

2
(R
-
w
LC
R
) +
j(wC
R
R
+
wL
) =
jwC
R
R
1 144 441 1 423

Comparing the real term,
R
-
w
2LC
R
=
0
1 144
R
=
w
2LC
R
(2.14)
1 144
63
2015
Comparing the imaginary terms,
wC
R
R
+
wL
=
wC
R
R
441 1 423
CRR
+
L
=
CRR
441 1 423
L
=
CRR
-
CRR
(2.15)
1 423 441
Substituting the value of R1 fro eqn. 2.14 into eqn. 2.15, we have,
L
=
CRR
-
CR
�
w
2LC
R
1 423 44 144
2 22
L
=
CRR
-
wLC
R
1 423 14 4
2 22
L
(1+
wLC
R
) =
CRR
1 14 4 423
CRR
423
L
=
(2.16)
2 22
1+
wLC
R
14 4
Substituting the value of L1 in eqn. 2.14 , we have
22
wC
RRR
4 234
R
=
(2.17)
222
1+
wC
R
44
222
wL
w�CRR
1+
wC
R
1 423 44
Q
==
�
222 22
11+
wCR
wCRRR
44 4423
1
Q
=
(2.18)
wC
R
44
64
Advantages
�
Fixed capacitor is cheaper than variable capacitor.
�
This bridge is best suitable for measuring high value of Q-factor.
Disadvantages
�
Equations of L1and R1 are complicated.
�
Measurements of R1 and L1 require the value of frequency.
�
This bridge cannot be used for measuring low Q-factor.
2.3.4 Owen�s bridge
Fig 2.8 Owen�s bridge
�
E
=
IR
+
jI
X
1 11 11
�
I4 leads E4 by 900
65
2015
.
..
�
E
=
E1+
E3
.
I
�
E
2 =
IR
+
2
22
jwC
Fig 2.9 Phasor diagram of Owen�s bridge

.. ..
Balance condition, Z1 Z
4 =
Z
2 Z
3
1 jwC
R
+1
22
Z
=
R
+=
2
2
jwC
jwC
22
1 (1+
jwR
C
) �
R
22 3
\(R
+
jwL
)�=
11
jwC
jwC
42
C
(R
+
jwL
) =
RC
(1+
jwR
C
)
21 134 22
RC
+
jwL
C
=
RC
+
jwR
C
RC
12 12 34 2234
Comparing real terms,
RC
=
RC
12 34
66
RC
34
R
=
Comparing imaginary terms,
wL
C
=
wR
C
RC
12 2234
L
=
R
RC
1 234
WL
wR
RCC
1 2342
Q-factor = =
R
RC
1 34
Q
=
wR2C
Advantages
�
Expression for R1 and L1 are simple.
�
R1 and L1 are independent of Frequency.
Disadvantages
�
The Circuits used two capacitors.
�
Variable capacitor is costly.
�
Q-factor range is restricted.
67
2.3.5 Anderson�s bridge

Fig 2.10 Anderson�s bridge
�
1111
.
)( rRIE
++=
11jI
X
�
ECE
=
3
�
CC
ErIE
+=
.
4
.
�
ICII
+=
42
�
---
=+
EEE
42
�
---
=+
EEE
31
68
Fig 2.11 Phasor diagram of Anderson�s bridge
Step-1 Take I1 as references vector .Draw I1R11 in phase with I1
R1 =
(R1 +
r1) , I1X1 is ^r
to I1R1
E
=
IR1 +
jI
X
1 11 11
Step-2 I
=I
, E3 is in phase with I3 , From the circuit ,
13
E
=
EC
, IC
leads EC
by 900
Step-3 E
=
Ir
+
E
4 CC
-
--
Step-4 Draw in phase with , By KCL , I

=
I
+
I4 E4 24 IC
Step-5 Draw E2 in phase with I2
---
---
Step-6 By KVL , E
+
E
=
E
or E
+
E
=
E
13 24
69
Fig 2.12 Equivalent delta to star conversion for the loop MON
R
�
r
jwCR
r
44
Z
==
7 11+
jwC
(R
+
r)
R
+
r
+
jwc
R
�
jwC
R
Z
==
11+
jwC
(R4 +
r)
R
+
r
+
jwc
R
jwCR
r
14 4
(R
+
jwL
)�=
R
(R
+
)
11 32
1+
jwC
(R
+
r)1+
jwC
(R
+
r)
44
.
.
R
(1+
jwC
(R
+
r)) +
jwCrR
24 4
(R
+
jwL
)R
1 14
=
R
.
.
+
jwC
R
+
+
jwC
R
+
4
R1R
+
jwL
R
=
RR
+
jCwR
R
(r
+
R
) +
jwCrR
R
14 1423 234 43
70
Fig 2.13 Simplified diagram of Anderson�s bridge
Comparing real term,
RR
=
RR
14 23
(R
+
r
)R
=
RR
1 14 23
23
R1 =
RR
-
r1
4
Comparing the imaginary term,
wL
R
=
wCR
R
(r
+
R
) +
wcrR
R
14 234 34
R
RC
L
=
23 (r
+
R
) +
R
rC
1 43
2(r
+
R
) +
L
RC
13
.
.
.
.
Advantages
�
Variable capacitor is not required.
�
Inductance can be measured accurately.
�
R1 and L1 are independent of frequency.
�
Accuracy is better than other bridges.
71
2015
Disadvantages
�
Expression for R1 and L1 are complicated.
�
This is not in the standard form A.C. bridge.
2.4 Measurement of capacitance and loss angle. (Dissipation factor)
2.4.1 Dissipation factors (D)
A practical capacitor is represented as the series combination of small resistance
and
ideal capacitance.
From the vector diagram, it can be seen that the angle between voltage and current
is slightly less
than 900. The angle �d
� is called loss angle.
Fig 2.14 Condensor or capacitor
Fig 2.15 Representation of a practical capacitor
72
Fig 2.16 Vector diagram for a practical capacitor

A dissipation factor is defined as �tand
�.
IR
R
.
tand=
==
wCR
IX
X
CC
D
=
wCR
D
=
sin dd
D
=
tan d=
.
For small value of �d
� in radians
cos d
1
D
@d
.
Loss Angle (�d
� must be in radian)
2.4.2 Desauty�s Bridge

C1= Unknown capacitance
At balance condition,
11
�
R
=�
R
43
jwC
jwC
12
RR
43
CC
12
42
.
C1 =
RC
R
73
Fig 2.17 Desauty�s bridge
Fig 2.18 Phasor diagram of Desauty�s bridge
74
2015
2.4.3 Modified desauty�s bridge

Fig 2.19 Modified Desauty�s bridge
Fig 2.20 Phasor diagram of Modified Desauty�s bridge
75
R1 =
(R
+
r
)
1 11
R1 =
(R
+
r
)
2 22
11
At balance condition, (R1 +

)R
=
R
(R1 +
)
1 432
jwC
jwC
12
RR
14 13
RR
+=
RR
+
)
14 32
jwC
jwC
12
Comparing the real term, R1R
=
RR1
14 32
1
RR
1 32
R
=
4
(R
+
r
)R
2 23
R
+
r
=
4
Comparing imaginary term,
RR
43
wC
wC
12
RC
42
C
=
R
3
Dissipation factor D=wC1r1
Advantages
�
r1 and c1 are independent of frequency.
�
They are independent of each other.
�
Source need not be pure sine wave.
2.4.4 Schering bridge
E
=
I1r1 -
jI
X
1 14
C2 = C4= Standard capacitor (Internal resistance=0)
C4= Variable capacitance.
C1= Unknown capacitance.
r1= Unknown series equivalent resistance of the capacitor.
76
R3=R4= Known resistor.
Fig 2.21 Schering bridge
1 jwC
r
+1
11
Z
=
r
+=
11
jwC
jwC
11
1
R
�
jwC
R
44
Z
==
11+
jwC
4R4
R
+
jwC
4
77
Fig 2.22 Phasor diagram of Schering bridge
.. ..
4 =
Z
2 Z
3
1+
jwC
rR
R
114 3
�=
jwC
1+
jwC
R
jwC
1 442
(1+
jwC
r
)RC
=
RC
(1+
jwC
r
)
1142 31 44
RC
+
jwC
rR
C
=
RC
+
jwC
RRC
22 1142 31 4431
Comparing the real part,
RC
\C1 =
42
3
Comparing the imaginary part,
wC
rR
C
=
wC
RRC
1142 4341
CR
43
r
=
2
Dissipation factor of capacitor,
78
2015
RC
CR
42 43
D
=
wC
r
=
w��
11
RC
32
\D
=
wC4R4
Advantages
�
In this type of bridge, the value of capacitance can be measured accurately.
�
It can measure capacitance value over a wide range.
�
It can measure dissipation factor accurately.
Disadvantages
�
It requires two capacitors.
�
Variable standard capacitor is costly.
2.5 Measurements of frequency
2.5.1 Wein�s bridge
Wein�s bridge is popularly used for measurements of frequency of frequency. In this
bridge, the
value of all parameters are known. The source whose frequency has to measure is
connected as
shown in the figure.
1 jwC
r
+1
11
Z
=
r
+=
11
jwC
jwC
11
Z
=
21+
jwC
R
22
.. ..
4 =
Z
2 Z
3
jwC
r
+1 R
11 2
�
R
=�
R
jwC
41+
jwC
R
3
1 22
(1+
jwC
r
)(1+
jwC
R
)R
=
RR
�
jwC
11 22423 1
RR
2 23
[1+
jwC
R
+
jwC
r
-
w
CC
rR
]=
jwC
22111212 1
79
2015
Fig 2.23 Wein�s bridge
Fig 2.24 Phasor diagram of Wein�s bridge
80
2015
Comparing real term,

1-
w
2CC
rR
=
0
1 21 2
2
w
CC
rR
=
1
1 212
w
=
CC
rR
1 212
11
w
=
, f
=
CC
rR
2.
CC
rR
1 212
1 212
NOTE
The above bridge can be used for measurements of capacitance. In such case, r1 and
C1 are
unknown and frequency is known. By equating real terms, we will get R1 and C1.
Similarly by
equating imaginary term, we will get another equation in terms of r1 and C1. It is
only used for
measurements of Audio frequency.
A.F=20 HZ to 20 KHZ
R.F=>> 20 KHZ
Comparing imaginary term,
RR
23
wC
R
+
wC
r
=
wC
22 11 1
CR
R
123
CR
+
Cr
=
��..(2.19)
22 11
4
1
C
=
w
C
rR
21 2
Substituting in eqn. (2.19), we have
r
RR
1 23
CR
+=
C
22 1
w
C
rR
4
21 2
Multiplying
R4 in both sides, we have
RR
23
R
1 R
44
CR
�+
�=
C
22 1
RR
RR
23 wCR
23
22
81
CR
R
24 4
C
=+
22
3 wCRR
22 3
2
w
CrC
R
=
1
11 2 2
11
r
==
C
RC
21
CR
R
24 4
w
2
.
..
.
..
22
3 wCR
R
223
CR
.
..
.
..
22
wCRR
R
224 4
R
RR
3 23
1
\r1 =
22
.
.
.
.
R
2
.
.
.
..
.
.
.
..
\r1 =
22
2
R
2.5.2 High Voltage Schering Bridge

Fig 2.25 High Voltage Schering bridge
82
2015
(1) The high voltage supply is obtained from a transformer usually at 50 HZ.
2.6 Wagner earthing device:
Fig 2.26 Wagner Earthing device
Wagner earthing consists of �R� and �C� in series. The stray capacitance at node
�B� and �D� are
CB, CD respectively. These Stray capacitances produced error in the measurements of
�L� and
�C�. These error will predominant at high frequency. The error due to this
capacitance can be
eliminated using wagner earthing arm.
Close the change over switch to the position (1) and obtained balanced. Now change
the
switch to position (2) and obtained balance. This process has to repeat until
balance is achieved
in both the position. In this condition the potential difference across each
capacitor is zero.
Current drawn by this is zero. Therefore they do not have any effect on the
measurements.
What are the sources of error in the bridge measurements?
�
Error due to stray capacitance and inductance.
�
Due to external field.
�
Leakage error: poor insulation between various parts of bridge can produced this
error.
�
Eddy current error.
�
Frequency error.
83
2015
�
Waveform error (due to harmonics)
�
Residual error: small inductance and small capacitance of the resistor produce this
error.
Precaution
�
The load inductance is eliminated by twisting the connecting the connecting lead.
A.
0.
r
�
In the case of capacitive bridge, the connecting lead are kept apart.( Q
C
=
)
d
�
In the case of inductive bridge, the various arm are magnetically screen.
�
In the case of capacitive bridge, the various arm are electro statically screen to
reduced
the stray capacitance between various arm.
�
To avoid the problem of spike, an inter bridge transformer is used in between the
source
and bridge.
�
The stray capacitance between the ends of detector to the ground, cause difficulty
in
balancing as well as error in measurements. To avoid this problem, we use wagner
earthing device.
2.7 Ballastic galvanometer
This is a sophisticated instrument. This works on the principle of PMMC meter. The
only
difference is the type of suspension is used for this meter. Lamp and glass scale
method is used
to obtain the deflection. A small mirror is attached to the moving system.
Phosphorous bronze
wire is used for suspension.
When the D.C. voltage is applied to the terminals of moving coil, current flows
through it. When
a current carrying coil kept in the magnetic field, produced by permanent magnet,
it experiences
a force. The coil deflects and mirror deflects. The light spot on the glass scale
also move. This
deflection is proportional to the current through the coil.
Q
i
=
, Q
=
it
=
.
idt
q.
Q
, deflection .
Charge
84
2015
Fig 2.27 Ballastic galvanometer
2.8 Measurements of flux and flux density (Method of reversal)

D.C. voltage is applied to the electromagnet through a variable resistance R1 and a
reversing
switch. The voltage applied to the toroid can be reversed by changing the switch
from position 2
to position �1�. Let the switch be in position �2� initially. A constant current
flows through the
toroid and a constant flux is established in the core of the magnet.
A search coil of few turns is provided on the toroid. The B.G. is connected to the
search
coil through a current limiting resistance. When it is required to measure the
flux, the switch is
changed from position �2� to position �1�. Hence the flux reduced to zero and it
starts increasing
in the reverse direction. The flux goes from + f
to -f
, in time �t� second. An emf is induced in
the search coil, science the flux changes with time. This emf circulates a current
through R2 and
B.G. The meter deflects. The switch is normally closed. It is opened when it is
required to take
the reading.
85
2015
2.8.1 Plotting the BH curve

The curve drawn with the current on the X-axis and the flux on the Y-axis, is
called
magnetization characteristics. The shape of B-H curve is similar to shape of
magnetization
characteristics. The residual magnetism present in the specimen can be removed as
follows.
Fig 2.28 BH curve
Fig 2.29 Magnetization characteristics
86
2015
Close the switch �S2� to protect the galvanometer, from high current. Change the
switch
S1 from position �1� to �2� and vice versa for several times.
To start with the resistance �R1� is kept at maximum resistance position. For a
particular value of
current, the deflection of B.G. is noted. This process is repeated for various
value of current. For
each deflection flux can be calculated.( B

=
)
Magnetic field intensity value for various current can be calculated.().The B-H
curve can be
plotted by using the value of �B� and �H�.
2.8.2 Measurements of iron loss:

Let
RP= pressure coil resistance
RS = resistance of coil S1
E= voltage reading= Voltage induced in S2
I= current in the pressure coil
VP= Voltage applied to wattmeter pressure coil.
W= reading of wattmeter corresponding voltage V
W1= reading of wattmeter corresponding voltage E
W
�V
WE
E
�W
1 =
.
W
=
W1 .
EP
WV
1
V
W1=Total loss=Iron loss+ Cupper loss.
The above circuit is similar to no load test of transformer.
In the case of no load test the reading of wattmeter is approximately equal to iron
loss. Iron loss
depends on the emf induced in the winding. Science emf is directly proportional to
flux. The
voltage applied to the pressure coil is V. The corresponding of wattmeter is �W�.
The iron loss
WE
corresponding E is E
=
. The reading of the wattmeter includes the losses in the pressure
coil and copper loss of the winding S1. These loses have to be subtracted to get
the actual iron
loss.
87
2015
2.9 Galvanometers
D-Arsonval Galvanometer
Vibration Galvanometer
Ballistic C
2.9.1 D-arsonval galvanometer (d.c. galvanometer)

Fig 2.30 D-Arsonval Galvanometer
Galvanometer is a special type of ammeter used for measuring �

A or mA. This is a
sophisticated instruments. This works on the principle of PMMC meter. The only
difference is
the type of suspension used for this meter. It uses a sophisticated suspension
called taut
suspension, so that moving system has negligible weight.
Lamp and glass scale method is used to obtain the deflection. A small mirror is
attached
to the moving system. Phosphors bronze is used for suspension.
88
2015
When D.C. voltage is applied to the terminal of moving coil, current flows through
it.
When current carrying coil is kept in the magnetic field produced by P.M. , it
experiences a
force. The light spot on the glass scale also move. This deflection is proportional
to the current
through the coil. This instrument can be used only with D.C. like PMMC meter.
The deflecting Torque,

TD=BINA
TD=GI, Where G=BAN
TC=KS.
=S.
At balance, TC=TD .
S.
=GI
GI
\.
=
Where G= Displacements constant of Galvanometer

S=Spring constant
2.9.2 Vibration Galvanometer (A.C. Galvanometer )

The construction of this galvanometer is similar to the PMMC instrument except for
the moving
system. The moving coil is suspended using two ivory bridge pieces. The tension of
the system
can be varied by rotating the screw provided at the top suspension. The natural
frequency can be
varied by varying the tension wire of the screw or varying the distance between
ivory bridge
piece.
When A.C. current is passed through coil an alternating torque or vibration is

produced. This
vibration is maximum if the natural frequency of moving system coincide with supply
frequency.
Vibration is maximum, science resonance takes place. When the coil is vibrating ,
the mirror
oscillates and the dot moves back and front. This appears as a line on the glass
scale. Vibration
galvanometer is used for null deflection of a dot appears on the scale. If the
bridge is unbalanced,
a line appears on the scale
89
2015
Fig 2.31 Vibration Galvanometer
Example 2.2-In a low-Voltage Schering bridge designed for the measurement of

permittivity, the branch �ab� consists of two electrodes between which the specimen
under
test may be inserted, arm �bc� is a non-reactive resistor R3 in parallel with a
standard
capacitor C3, arm CD is a non-reactive resistor R4 in parallel with a standard
capacitor C4,
arm �da� is a standard air capacitor of capacitance C2. Without the specimen
between the
electrode, balance is obtained with following values , C3=C4=120 pF, C2=150 pF,
R3=R4=5000O.With the specimen inserted, these values become C3=200 pF,C4=1000
pF,C2=900 pF and R3=R4=5000O. In such test w=5000 rad/sec. Find the relative
permittivity of the specimen?
capacitance measured with given medium
Sol: Relative permittivity( e

)=
capacitance measured with air medium
90
2015
Fig 2.32 Schering bridge
C
=
C
( 4)
12
3
Let capacitance value C0, when without specimen dielectric.
Let the capacitance value CS when with the specimen dielectric.
R
5000
C
=
C
( 4) =
150 �=
150 pF
02
R
5000
3
R
5000
CS
=
C2( 4) =
900 �=
900 pF
R
5000
3
CS
900
e==
=
6
C
150
Example 2.3-A specimen of iron stamping weighting 10 kg and having a area of 16.8
cm2 is
tested by an episten square. Each of the two winding S1 and S2 have 515 turns. A.C.
voltage
of 50 HZ frequency is given to the primary. The current in the primary is 0.35 A. A
voltmeter connected to S2 indicates 250 V. Resistance of S1 and S2 each equal to 40

O.
Resistance of pressure coil is 80 kO. Calculate maximum flux density in the
specimen and
iron loss/kg if the wattmeter indicates 80 watt?
91
Soln-E
=
4.44 ff
N
m
E
B==
1.3wb
/ m
2
4.44 fAN
2
RE
Iron loss= W
(1+
) -
R
(R
+
R
)
P
SP
40 250
= 80(1+
) -=
79.26watt
80 �10 3 (40 +
80 �10 3)
Iron loss/ kg=79.26/10=7.926 w/kg.
92

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CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS & INSTRUMENTATION

ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS & INSTRUMENTATION

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS & INSTRUMENTATION

CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS & INSTRUMENTATION

ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS & INSTRUMENTATION (3-1-0)

MODULE-I (10 HOURS)

Measuring Instruments: Classification, Absolute and secondary instruments,

MODULE-II (10 HOURS)

MODULE-III (10 HOURS)

MODULE-IV (10 HOURS)

CRO: Block diagram, Sweep generation, vertical amplifiers, use of CRG in

[1]. A Course in Elec. & Electronics Measurements & Instrumentation: A K. Sawhney

CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS & INSTRUMENTATION

Model Question Paper: Set-1

Full Marks: 70 Time: 3 hours

energy. Calculate the number of revolutions made by it , when connected to a load

CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS & INSTRUMENTATION

Model Question Paper: Set-2

Full Marks: 70 Time: 3 hours

Answer any six questions including question No. 1 which is compulsory.

Q.1 Answer the following questions:

8. Write short notes on any two: [5X2]

CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS & INSTRUMENTATION

Model Question Paper: Set-3

Answer any six questions including question No. 1 which is compulsory.

8. Write short notes on:

CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS & INSTRUMENTATION

Model Question Paper: Set-4

Full Marks: 70 Time: 3 hours

Answer any six questions including question No. 1 which is compulsory.

CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS & INSTRUMENTATION

CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS & INSTRUMENTATION

1.1 Definition of instruments

1.3 Secondary instrument

secondary instruments are suitable for measurement.

Indicating instruments Recording Integrating Electromechanically

CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS & INSTRUMENTATION

1.3.1 Indicating instrument

1.3.2 Recording instrument

1.3.3 Integrating instrument

1.3.4 Electromechanical indicating instrument

(a) Deflecting force

Fig. 1.1 Pointer scale

CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS & INSTRUMENTATION

1.4.1 Magnitude effect

1.4.2 Force between a permanent magnet and a current carrying coil

1.4.3 Force between two current carrying coil

CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS & INSTRUMENTATION

1.5 Controlling force

1.5.1 Spring control

The deflecting torque produced Td proportional to �I�. When T

steady position. Therefore

CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS & INSTRUMENTATION

1.6 Damping force

(a) Air friction damping

CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS & INSTRUMENTATION

1.6.2 Eddy current damping

CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS & INSTRUMENTATION

Fig. 1.6 Rectangular type

1.7 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) instrument

Damping: Eddy current damping is used. This is produced by aluminum former.

CLASS NOTES ON ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS & INSTRUMENTATION