31/07/2018

BUSINESS DATA Outline

COMMUNICATIONS & • Transport Layer Protocols
NETWORKING • Network Layer Protocols
• Transport Layer Functions
– Linking to the application layer
Chapter 5 – Segmenting
Network and Transport Layers – Session Management
• Network Layer Functions
– Addressing
– Routing
• TCP/IP Examples
FitzGerald ● Dennis ● Durcikova • Implications for Management

Prepared by Taylor M. Wells: College of Business Administration, California State University, Sacramento 5-1 5-2
Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Network and Transport Layers Protocols

Internet Model
• Transport Layer • TCP/IP
– Layer 4 in the Internet model Application – Originally developed as a single internetworking
– Links application and network
layers protocol by Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn in 1974
– Responsible for segmentation Transport – Later divided into the TCP and IP protocols
and reassembly
– Most common protocols of the Internet and in LANs,
– Session management
– Responsible for end-to-end
Network WANs, and backbone networks
delivery of messages
• Network Layer Data Link
– Layer 3 in the Internet model
– Responsible for addressing and
routing of messages Physical

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Transport Layer Protocols

Protocol Data Unit (PDU)

• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) • PDU contains layer-specific information necessary for a
– Most common transport layer protocol message to be transmitted through a network
– PDU called a segment – Each layer adds a PDU
– Used for reliable transmission of data – PDUs act like nested envelopes
– 160 - 192 bits (20 -24 bytes) of overhead – Encapsulation occurs when a higher level PDU is
• Options field is not required placed inside of a lower level PDU

Source Destination Sequence ACK Header Flow Urgent

Unused Flags CRC-16 Options User Data
Port Port Number number Length Control Pointer
(6 bits) (6 bits) (16 bits) (32 bits) (varies)
(16 bits) (16 bits) (32 bits) (32 bits) (4 bits) (16 bits) (16 bits)

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Transport Layer Protocols Transport Layer Protocols

• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) • User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

– Most common transport layer protocol – Operates at the transport layer
– PDU called a segment – PDU called a segment
– Used for reliable transmission of data – Used in time-sensitive situations, for control messages,
– 160 - 192 bits (20 -24 bytes) of overhead or when reliability is handled by the application layer
• Options field is not required – 32-64 bits (4-8 bytes) of overhead
• Source port is optional in IPv4 and IPv6, Checksum
is optional in IPv4
Source Destination Sequence ACK Header Flow Urgent
Unused Flags CRC-16 Options User Data
Port Port Number number Length Control Pointer
(6 bits) (6 bits) (16 bits) (32 bits) (varies)
(16 bits) (16 bits) (32 bits) (32 bits) (4 bits) (16 bits) (16 bits)

Source Destination Length Checksum

User Data
Port Port
(varies)
(16 bits) (16 bits) (16 bits) (16 bits)

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Network Layer Protocols Network Protocols

• Internet Protocol (IP) • IPv4 Packet

– IP version 4 (IPv4) – 160-192 bits (20-24 bytes) of overhead
• Most common version of IP used – Options field rarely used
• 32-bit addresses (232 or ~4.29 billion possible)
• Exhaustion of address space
– IP version 6 (IPv6) Version Header Type of Total IDs Flags Packet Time to Protocol CRC-16 Source Destination Options User
number length service length Offset Live / Address Address Data

• 128-bit addresses (2128 or ~3.4 × 1038 possible) (4 bits) (4 bits) (8 bits) (16 bits) (16 bits) (3 bits) (13 bits)
Hop Limit
(8 bits) (8 bits) (16 bits) (32 bits) (32 bits) (32 bits) (varies)

• Slowly being adopted due to IPv4 exhaustion

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Network Protocols Transport Layer Functions

Optional
Headers
1. Linking to the application layer
• IPv6 Packet
– TCP/UDP may serve multiple application layer protocols
– Fixed Header – Ports used to identify application (2-byte numbers)
– 320 bits (40 bytes) of overhead – Many source/destination ports follow standards
– Common port standards
Version
number
Traffic
Class /
Flow
Label
Payload
length
Next
Header
Hop
Limit
Source
Address
Destination
Address
User • HTTP: TCP port 80
Data
(4 bits)
Priority
(8 bits) (20 bits) (16 bits) (8 bits) (8 bits) (128 bits) (128 bits)
(varies) • HTTPS: TCP port 443
• FTP: TCP ports 20 and 21
Optional Headers • SMTP: TCP port 25
• Hop-by hop options
• Destination options (with routing options)
• IMAP: TCP port 143
• Routing • POP3: TCP port 110 (more commonly TCP port 995
• Fragment secure version)
• Authentication • DNS: TCP or UDP port 53 (most commonly UDP)
• Encapsulation Security Payload
• Destination options
• Mobility
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Transport Layer Functions Transport Layer Functions

2. Segmenting
– Breaking up large files into smaller segments (and
putting them back together)
– Segments may be passed individually to application
layer or after reassembly
– How large are the segments?
• Size depends on the network and data link layer protocols
• Maximum Segment Size (MSS) is negotiated during TCP handshake
• e.g., if the maximum size of the data in an Ethernet frame is 1,500
bytes and TCP and IP use 20 byte headers, the maximum segment size
is 1460 bytes
IPv4 header
Ethernet
Frame Data
Size 1500 – 20 – 20 = 1460 bytes
TCP header
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Transport Layer Functions

Transport Layer Functions
Sender PDU Receiver
3. Session management
– A session can be thought of as a conversation between
Application
Packet two computers or creating a virtual circuit
– Using a session to send data is also called connection-
oriented messaging (TCP)
– Sending messages without establishing a session is
Transport Segment connectionless messaging (UDP)
– TCP connections are opened using a three-way
handshake
Network Packet
• SYN
• SYN-ACK
• ACK
Data – Sessions provide reliable end-to-end connections
Frame
Link

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Transport Layer Function Network Layer Functions

• Quality of Service (QoS) • Addressing
– Connection oriented connection with assigned level of – Used to direct messages from source to destination
priorities – Addresses are assigned in various ways (e.g., by
– Differently defined classes of service system administrators, ICANN, hardware vendors,
Examples: etc.)
- Video conference packets, Email packets, Network optimisation packets, – Addresses exist at different layers
Routeing table updates, DNS requests, etc.
– Addresses may be translated (resolved) from one
- QoS Protocols
layer to another (e.g., DNS, ARP)
- Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP)
Address Type Example Example Address
- Real-Time Streaming Protocol (RTSP)
Application layer Uniform Resource Locator (URL) www.indiana.edu
- Real Time Transport Protocol (RTP)
Network layer IP address 129.79.78.193 (4 bytes)
Data link layer MAC address 1C-6F-65-F8-33-8A (6 bytes)

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CopyrightCorporation
© 2015 Johnfor Assigned
Wiley Names
& Sons, and
Inc. All Numbers
rights reserved.

Network Layer Functions Network Layer Functions

• Addressing
• Addressing – A portion of an IP address represents the network and the
– IPv4 addresses are 32 bits rest identifies the host
– Most common way to write is using dot-decimal • 129.79.78.193
notation – Classful addressing
• Uses the first bits to determine number of hosts
• Easier for people to read and remember
• Discontinued, but nomenclature still used
• Breaks the address into four bytes and writes each – Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR)
byte in decimal notation instead of binary
• Uses subnet masks to more flexibly divide address
• Example: 129.79.78.193 space into subnets
– IP address: 129.79.78.193
– Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
10000001 01001111 01001110 11000001

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Network Layer Addressing Network Layer Functions

• Static addressing
– Assign manually by the network administrator using the
appropriate software
• Servers and permanent network devices; routers, switches,
printers, gateways, etc.
• Dynamic addressing
– Configuring each device manually is time consuming
– Assigning addresses permanently can be inefficient when devices
are not connected to network
– A server(software implemented) can supply IP addresses
automatically – DHCP Server
• Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
• Most common protocol for dynamic addressing
• Device sends out broadcast message
• DHCP responds with IP settings
• Addresses are “leased” for a length of time
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• Layers addressing – all these conform to defined standards
1. Application layer address – domain name address
2. Network layer address – IP address
3. Datalink layer address – MAC address
• Address resolution -
– Server Name resolution
• Translate server (host) name to IP address
– Requires a Domain Name Service (DNS) Server
» Houses a database of domain names and corresponding IP
addresses
• e.g., www.indiana.edu → 129.79.78.193
– Uses a DNS request (handled by DNS protocol) sent from the
sender to the DNs server for the corresponding IP address
– Data Link Layer address resolution
• Translate IP address to MAC address
– MAC address resolution; e.g. 00-E1-09-B1-FF-C3
• Uses a broadcast message using Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
– Switches in a multipoint network may respond (address table)
– Specific devices with the IP address may also respond
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DNS Server function Network Layer Functions

• Routing
– Process of identifying what path to have a
packet take through a network from
sender to receiver
– Routing Tables Dest. Next
• Used to make routing decisions B B
• Shows which path to send packets on to reach a given
C B
destination
• Kept by computers making routing decisions D D
E D
– Routers
• Special purpose devices used to handle routing decisions F D
on the Internet G B
• Maintain their own routing tables

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10.10.51.x 10.10.52.x
What are the possible
Routing paths from A to G?
1
2
4
1
2
4 3
• ABCG 3

• ABEFCG 10.10.53.x
• ADEFCG BN 10.10.250.x 1
2
INTERNET
• ADEBCG

Simplified Routing 2
Simplified Routing Table
Table for A
1
Dest. Next Destination Interface
10.10.34.x 2
B B 10.10.70.x 1
C B 0.0.0.0 2
Note: This is just for illustration. Switches 1 10.10.70.x
exists in a LAN and therefore required also D D
in this decision process. E D
F D
G B

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10.10.51.x 10.10.52.x
1
2
4
1
2
Routing
4 3
3
• Centralized Routing
10.10.53.x
BN 10.10.250.x
2
1 – Routing decisions made by one computer
INTERNET
– Not common anymore
• Decentralized Routing
2
Simplified Routing Table – Decisions made by each node independently of one
Destination Interface 1 another
10.10.51.x 1 10.10.34.x 2
10.10.52.x 2
– Information needs to be exchanged to prepare routing
10.10.34.x 3 tables
10.10.53.x 2 1 10.10.70.x
10.10.70.x 2
• Devices share and update their routing tables
10.10.250.34 3 – Used by the Internet
10.10.250.x 2
0.0.0.0 4

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Routing Routing

• Static • Dynamic routing algorithms

– Fixed routing tables – Distance vector: based on the number of “hops”
– Manually configured by network managers between two devices
– Local adjustments when computers added or removed – Link state: based on the number of hops, circuit
• Dynamic speed, and traffic congestion
– Routing tables updated periodically • Provides more reliable, up to date paths to
destinations
– Routers exchange information using protocols to
update tables

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Routing Protocols Routing Protocols

• Routing Information Protocol (RIP) • Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)

– Dynamic distance vector protocol used for interior – Dynamic link state protocol used for interior routing
routing – Most widely used interior routing protocol on large
– Operation enterprise networks
• Network manager builds the routing table – More reliable paths
• Routing tables broadcast periodically (e.g., every – Less burdensome to the network because only updates
minute or so) sent
• When new computers are added, router counts
“hops” and selects the shortest route
– Useful in smaller, less complex networks

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Routing Protocols Routing Protocols

• Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
(EIGRP)
– A dynamic link state protocol (developed by Cisco)
– Records transmission capacity, delay time, reliability and load for
all paths
– Keeps the routing tables for its neighbors and uses this
information in its routing decisions as well
• If each network uses a different protocol internally, how
are they able to communicate?
• Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
– Dynamic distance vector protocol used for exterior
routing
– Far more complex than interior routing protocols
– Provide routing info only on selected routes (e.g.,
preferred or best route)

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Multicasting
• Unicast - one computer to another computer
• Broadcast - one computer to all computers in the network
• Multicast - one computer to a group of computers (e.g.,
videoconference)
– Same data needs to reach multiple receivers and avoid
transmitting it once for each receiver
• Particularly useful if access link has bandwidth
limitations
• Many implementations at different layers
• In IP multicast, hosts dynamically join and leave
multicast groups using Internet Group Management
Protocol (IGMP)

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TCP/IP Example
Known Addresses, Same Subnet

• Required network addressing information:

1. Device’s own IP address
2. Subnet mask
3. IP address of default gateway (most commonly the
router)
4. IP address of at least one DNS server
• Obtained from a configuration file or DHCP

• Suppose we have an HTTP request from Client in building A to Server in building B.

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TCP/IP Examples TCP/IP and Layers

1. A Client (128.192.98.130) requests a Web page from a server • Host Computers

(www1.anyorg.com) – Packets move through all layers
– Client knows the server’s IP • Gateways, Routers
2. A Client (128.192.98.130) requests a Web page from a server – Packet moves from Physical layer to Data Link Layer
(www2.anyorg.com) on a different subnet
through the network Layer
– Client knows the server’s IP
• At each stop along the way
3. A Client (128.192.98.130) requests a Web page from a server
(www1.anyorg.com) – Ethernet packets is removed and a new one is created
– Client does not know server’s IP for the next node
– IP and above packets never change in transit (created
by the original sender and destroyed by the final
receiver)

Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Inc

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Implications for Management

• Organizations standardizing on TCP/IP
– Decreases costs of equipment and training
– Network providers are also moving towards
standardization
• Network design
– Slow transition to IPv6
– Addressing
– Appropriate protocols
• Servers
– DNS, DHCP,
• Devices
– Routers, switches, gateways
• Etc.
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