ZOO 102.

1: Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates

EXPLORING THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM AND ITS DERIVATIVES

University of the Philippines Visayas Tacloban College, Tacloban City, Leyte

Myrabelle B. Lopez

Abstract. One of the complex system comprising an organism is the integumentary which can
be found among majority of organisms and takes many forms other than that of the skin such as
hairs, nails, sweat and sebaceous glands. This system develops from surface ectoderm,
mesoderm and neural crest cells. The integumentary system acts as a barrier to protect the body
from the outside world, retains body fluids, protect against disease, eliminate waste products, and
regulate body temperature. To study this system the students conducted an exercise which further
aims to describe the components of the integument, their functions, structures from keratinization
and to understand the formation, function of glands and how the dermis contributes to the system
and finally to determine the composition of various types of fish scales. The students utilized
prepared slides and preserved specimens which they have observed. It was found out that the
integumentary system is more than just the skin rather it takes form from different keratin
structures, glands, dermal bone and fish scales of animals which serves specific functions that aid
the organism in various aspects such as deterring predation, retaining moisture and for feeding
puposes.

INTRODUCTION

An organism wouldn’t be considered complete without any of its fundamental structures

which are the organ system that enables them to effectively function and survive especially when
exposed during circumstances that are characterized by pressure and sudden toxic conditions.
Commonly, it is known that organisms may or may not possess all of this organ system such as
circulatory, nervous, respiratory, digestive, excretory and others which explains how such
species live and interact with others. One of the organ systems as cited by Boundless. (n.d.), is
the integumentary which can be found among majority of organisms and takes many forms. This
includes the skin and its specialized derivatives, including the hairs, nails, sweat and sebaceous
glands likewise the mammary glands and teeth are also considered as components of the
integumentary system. This system develops from surface ectoderm, mesoderm and neural crest
cells. The integumentary system acts as a barrier to protect the body from the outside world,
retains body fluids, protect against disease, eliminate waste products, and regulate body
temperature. It was emphasized on an article of Science Net Links (n.d.),the skin is one of the
first defense mechanisms in your immune system.Tiny glands in the skin secrete oils that
ZOO 102.1: Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates

enhance the barrier function of the skin. Immune cells live in the skin and provide the first line of
defense against infections.

The students were tasked to conduct an exercise that will help them describe the
components of the integument and their basic functions, to describe the structures that are
produced from keratinization of the epidermis, to understand the formation and function of
glands, to understand how the dermis contributes to the integument and to determine the
composition of the various types of fish scales.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The students used prepared slides of the following which they observed under the electric
microscope: amphioxus integument c.s. ,frog skin c.s., human scalp c.s. different type of scales
namely ganoid, placoid, cycloid scales and ctenoid. While the following are the preserved or
dried specimen examined: skin of frog, snake bird legs and feet, cat claws, hooves of pig, horns
of cow or carabao, bird beaks and feathers.

In order to fully understand the component of the integumentary system the students
utilized the aforementioned prepared slides and they observe it closely under the electric
microscope while the preserved or dried specimen were just examined without any tools. The
students noted all their observations and captured vital images of all the subjects for this
exercise.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSSION

I. Epidermis and its Derivatives

Figure 1. Amphioxus integument c.s. (100x)

ZOO 102.1: Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates

Derived from the somatic ectoderm, the epidermis is the exterior-most covering of the
chordates which provides protection against the invasion of microorganisms, provides flexibility
in motion, and seals in moisture. Shown in figure 1 is considered to be the simplest form of
epidermis which can be seen on an Amphioxus’ integument. It is characterized by a layer of
columnar epithelium tissue covered with cuticle.

I. Epidermal Derivatives of the Integument

A. Keratin Structure

A study of Bragulla, H. H., & Homberger, D. G. (2009) defines the keratin as the proteins
extracted from skin modifications, such as horns, claws and hooves which are defined as certain
filament-forming proteins with specific physicochemical properties and is extracted from the
cornified layer of the epidermis which are produced in any vertebrate epithelia. Likewise it is a
highly durable protein" based on Keratin (2019) that provides structure to several types of living
tissue that provides a tough, fibrous matrix to these tissues.

Epidermal scales

skin

legs and
feet

Figure 2. Preserved Figure 3. Preserved bird

Hydrophis spiralis

An important quality of keratin is its ability to flex in multiple directions without tearing
which can be perceived in both Figure 2 and 3 that shows preserved specimen of snake and bird.
This type of keratin structure is the epidermal scale which are horny, tough extensions of the
stratum corneum. This are well-developed in reptiles,as seen in Figure 2 and they are also
ZOO 102.1: Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates

common on exposed skin in birds which are confined to the lower legs, feet, and base of the bill
such as Figure 3 and mammals. This scales are periodically molted or shed gradually along with
the rest of the stratum corneum. According to Reptiles,(n.d)., among reptiles epidermal scales are
used for protection, to seal body from environment and to reduce water loss whereas for avian
species it helps to keep out pathogens and other potentially harmful substances, retain vital fluids
and gases, and serve as a sensory organ. The continual renewal of the skin acts to repel parasitic
microorganism (Bonser,1996).

Claws and Talons

Figure 5. Preserved
Figure 4. Preserved claw of bird talons
Photo courtesy
Felis domesticus https://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~millen/vertebrate/Bio204_Labs/Lab_2__Integum
ent..html

Figure 4 and 5 shows the structure of another keratin structure which are claws and talons
that can be found in animals where in this case is the cat and eagle respectively. Claw, as defined
by Britannica, (n.d.) is also called Talon is a narrow, arched structure that curves downward
from the end of a digit in birds, reptiles, many mammals, and some amphibians. It is a hardened
modification of the epidermis. Claws may be adapted for scratching, clutching, digging, or
climbing. By analogy, the appendages of other lower animals are frequently called claws. The
claw’s shape is ordinarily suited to the food-getting habit of the animal. Eagles have long, curved
talons for grasping prey; the claws of cats are used to catch and hold prey but may also be used
for such purposes as digging, climbing trees, self-defense, and grooming.
ZOO 102.1: Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates

Hooves

Figure 6. Preserved
hooves of horse
Photo courtesyhttps://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~millen/vertebrate/Bio204_Labs/Lab_2__Integument..html

The hoof consists of the hoof wall, the bars of the hoof, the sole and frog and soft tissue
shock absorption structures.The weight of the animal is normally borne by both the sole and the
edge of the hoof wall. Hooves perform many functions, including supporting the weight of the
animal, dissipating the energy impact as the hooves strike the ground or surface, protecting the
tissues and bone within the hoof capsule, and providing traction for the animal (O'Grady, 2008).

Nails

Figure 7. Nails of human

Photo courtesy
https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mcgill.ca%2Foss%2Ffiles%2Foss%2Fstyles%2Fhd%2Fpublic%2Fnai
l_ridge.jpg%3Fitok%3DsFGc-
qR6%26timestamp%3D1499877688&imgrefurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mcgill.ca%2Foss%2Farticle%2Fquirky-science-you-
asked%2Fwhy-do-nails-have-ridges&docid=gbI_cYxUaWRa8M&tbnid=4SBJweF-
ZOO 102.1: Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates

Based on Ashish. (2019),the nails are keratinized epithelial cells are produced at the nail
base and push the existing nail forward. They provide protection from mechanical injury and
stabilize skin for better grasping. Fingernails primarily serve as a cover for the top surface of our
fingers and offer some degree of protection. The primary function of a fingernail is to shield the
fingertip, the distal phalanx and the surrounding soft tissues from injuries. It increases the
sensitivity of the finger by acting as a counter force when the pulp of the finger touches an
object. Furthermore, it helps in certain cutting or scraping actions, and acts as an extended
precision grip for the finger.

Horns

Figure 8. Preserved Horns

Figure 8 shows preserved horns which are characterized as tough, cornified layer of the
integument covers horns. Their core, however, is bone, which is of dermal origin. Horns are
found in bovines (cattle, antelope, sheep, goats, bison, wildebeest). They are retained year-round
and grow throughout the animal’s lifetime. Its function is for competition whether it be between
males for mating rights or between females for foraging rights. Horns are also used to ward of
predators and other unwanted intruders. Females also use their horns to help establish their place
in the herd. It has also been found that horns in some species also have a thermoregulatory
function manly in Bovine (cows) ,Ovis (sheep) and Capra (goats).The thermoregulatory function
is not greatly understood in how it effects size and growth of the horns. In some species of sheep
there is a clear correlation in the size of the core and the ambient temperature the sheep live in
but in other cases there are too many variables to accurately measure and compare such things.
(Pough, H., C, Janis.,J, Heiser, 2009).
ZOO 102.1: Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates

Baleen

Figure 8. Preserved Baleen

Photo courtesy
https://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~millen/vertebrate/Bio204_Labs/Lab_2__Integument..html

Found in some whales, the baleen as defined by Biomimicry (n.d.),is a series of

keratinized plates that arise from oral epithelium. These sheets hang from the palate along its
length and sieves prey and for filter-feeding process especially small organisms. These structures
replace the bony teeth that are found in toothed whales. When a baleen whale consumes a huge
mouthful of krill, small fish, and water, it partially shuts its jaws and then presses its tongue
against its upper jaw to force the water through the baleen, leaving the krill and fish on the inside
of the filter for the whale to swallow.

Beaks

Figure 9. Preserved Bird

ZOO 102.1: Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates

The figure above shows another keratin structure which is the beaks which is commonly
used to defend territory, attack competitors, groom feathers, communicate, and to forage or
capture food and for respiration.( Rehabber. n.d.).

Feathers

Figure 9. Bird’s feather

Photo courtesy
https://www.google.com/search?q=parts+of+a+feather+bird&source=lnms&tbm
=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwibxbrGi6DkAhVZAogKHY9NARMQ_AUIESgB
&biw=908&bih=810#

Based on an article of American Museum and Natural History, feathers perform a number
of functions such as for insulation and protection from UV light, flight, camouflage, display for
attracting a mate, deter predation, waterproofing and protection for eyes and mouth.

Hair

Figure 9. Human scalp c.s.

Photo courtesy
https://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~millen/vertebrate/Bio204_Labs/Lab_2__Integument..html
ZOO 102.1: Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates

The hair is one of the characteristic of mammals. Its functions as emphasized by

Swenson. (n.d.). includes protection, regulation of body temperature, and facilitation of
evaporation of perspiration; hairs also act as sense organs. Hairs develop in the fetus as
epidermal down growths that invade the underlying dermis.

B. Glands

Glands are specialized structure that secrete specific products and are derived by an
infolding of the epidermis. In many cases they retain a connection to the stratum corneum
whereby their secretions can be released at the skin surface.

Figure 10. Frog integument c.s.

Photo courtesy
https://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~millen/vertebrate/Bio204_Labs/Lab_2__Integument..html

The figure above shows the two glands present in the integument of frogs. The mucus
gland secretes mucus which helps the skin retain moisture, which the frog needs to breathe and
stay hydrated whereas the other gland, poison gland which is mainly for deterring prey
(Masters,2017).

Figure 11. Human scalp c.s.

Photo courtesy
https://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~millen/vertebrate/Bio204_Labs/Lab_2__Integument..html
ZOO 102.1: Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates

According to Biology (2017),in the skin of a human, the sebaceous and sweat glands can
be perceived. The main function of sweat glands is to control body temperature. and to help with
gripping, by slightly moistening the palms. The sebaceous gland on the other hand, is an oil-
producing gland that releases sebum which waterproofs and lubricates the skin and the hair.

II. The Dermis and its Derivatives

The dermis is thicker than the epidermis and lies more deeply which is made of collagen
originated from the mesoderm. It may directly produce dermal (membrane) bone. It is important
in defense against injury and in the maintenance of body heat. Its deeper regions contain fatty
deposits, smooth muscle, blood vessels and nerves (Zoology, n.d.).

A. Dermal Bone

Figure 13. Placoderm fossil

Figure 12. Ostracoderm fossil Photo courtesy
Photo courtesy https://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~millen/vertebrate/Bi
https://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~millen/vertebrate/Bio204_Labs/Lab_2__ o204_Labs/Lab_2__Integument..html
Integument..html

Figure 12 and 13 shows the extinct species which had dermal bones. Ostracoderms had a
complete head shield, while Placoderms had a broken head shield and body armor. Now dermal
bone is present in turtle dermal bone, antlers, and in the dermal armor of armadillo. In antlers the
velvet is epidermal in origin and shapes and provides blood to the dermal bone. Once grown, the
velvet is shed and only the bone remains. Antlers are found in deer, elk, moose and their
ZOO 102.1: Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates

relatives, often only in males. They are shed annually. In most modern vertebrates, dermal bone
(membrane bone) is formed from embryonic mesenchyme by intramembranous ossification, and
contributes to the skull and skeleton, rather than being manifested externally. An exception is
teeth, which are partly derived from dermal bone (Zoology (n.d.).

B. Fish Scales

This are small plate or shield forming part of the outer skin layers of certain animals.
Scales provide protection from the environment and from predators. Fish scales are formed of
bone from the deeper, or dermal, skin layer.

1. Cosmoid scale

Figure 14. Cosmoid scale

Photo courtesy
https://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~millen/vertebrate/Bi
o204_Labs/Lab_2__Integument..html

The cosmoid scale s defined by Jha (2016), is a plate-like structure and consists of three
layers! An outermost layer is thin, hard and enamel like, called vitreodentine. The innermost
layer is composed of vascularized perforated bony substance, called isopedine. The middle layer
is made up of hard non-cellular and a characteristic material, called cosmine and is provided with
many branching tubules and chambers. These types of scales grow at the edges from beneath by
addition of new isopedine material. This are commonly found in Lungfish.
ZOO 102.1: Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates

2. Ganoid scale

Figure 15. Ganoid scale w.m. (40x)

The ganoid scales are thick and rhomboid shown in the figure above. They consist of an
outer layer of hard inorganic substance called ganoine, which is different from vitreodentine of
placoid scales. The ganoid layer is followed by a cosmine-like layer provided with many
branching tubules. A bony layer of isopedine occupies the innermost layer. These scales, not
only grow at the edges but also grow at the surface. The growth takes place by the addition of
new layers of isopedine (Jha, 2016).

3. Placoid scales

Figure 16. Placoid scale w.m. (40x)

ZOO 102.1: Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates

The placoid scales as described by Jha (2016) can be found among the sharks and other
Elasmobranches. They are small denticles that remain embedded in the skin. Each scale has two
parts, an upper part, known as ectodermal cap or spine which t is made of enamel, like substance,
known as vitreodentine similar to human tooth.

4. Telecost (bony fish) scales

This are thin scales of derma bone with thin covering of epidermal tissue which is from
the reduction or loss of parts of a ganoid scale.

4a.) Cycloid scales

Figure 17. Cycloid scale w.m. (40x)

According to Jha (2016), the cycloid scales as shown above are devoid of teeth or spines,
hence seem cyclic (Fig. 3.3e). They are found in soft-rayed teleost and modern lobe-finned
fishes. But some spiny-rayed fishes, i.e., Lepidosteius show presence of cycloid scales.

4b.) Ctenoid scales

Figure 18. Ctenoid scale w.m. (40x)

ZOO 102.1: Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates

They have characteristic teeth at its posterior. Ctenoid scales are found in spiny-rayed
teleost. They are arranged obliquely in such a manner that the posterior end of one scale overlaps
the anterior edge of the scale present behind. The chromatophores are present at the posterior
part of these scales (Jha,2016).

CONCLUSION

The integumentary system is not just the skin but it also comes in variety of forms such
as those made of keratin structures, glands, dermal bone and fish scales which functions to
protect the organism from any damage and even serve as an adapative mechanism. The students
learned that upon keratinization the epidermal scales, claws, talons, hooves, nails,horns and such
are being produced whereas it was found out that glands are derived from the infolding of the
epidermis which secretes specific products. Moreover, aside from the epidermis, the dermis also
plays a vital role in the integumentary system as it helps to strengthen the defense against injury
and maintaining body heat of the species. Lastly, the students learned that there are also different
types of fish scales namely: cosmoid, ganoid,placoid and teleost which originated from different
materials.

REFERENCES

American Museum and Natural History (n.d.). Functions of Feathers: AMNH. Retrieved from
https://www.amnh.org/learn-teach/curriculum-collections/dinosaurs-activities-and-lesson-
plans/functions-of-feathers
Ashish. (2019). Why Do We Have Toenails? Retrieved from
https://www.scienceabc.com/humans/why-do-humans-have-fingernails-toenails-evolutionary-
reason.html
Biology (2017). Sebaceous Glands - Definition, Function, Development. Retrieved from
https://biologydictionary.net/sebaceous-glands/
Biomimicry. (n.d.). Baleen plates filter food : Blue Whale. Retrieved from
https://asknature.org/strategy/baleen-plates-filter-food/
ZOO 102.1: Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates

Bonser, B.( 1996). Comparative mechanics of bill, claw and feather keratin in the Common
Starling Sturnus vulgaris. Journal of Avian Biology 27: 175-177.
Boundless. (n.d.). Boundless Anatomy and Physiology. Retrieved from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ap/chapter/functions-of-the-integumentary-system/
Bragulla, H. H., & Homberger, D. G. (2009). Structure and functions of keratin proteins in
simple, stratified, keratinized and cornified epithelia. Journal of anatomy, 214(4), 516–559.
doi:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2009.01066.x
Britannica, (n.d.). Claw. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/science/claw
Jha, S. (2016). Skin and Scales of Fishes (With Diagram). Retrieved from
http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/fish/anatomy-and-physiology/skin-and-scales-of-fishes-with-
diagram/88199
"Keratin.". (2019). Keratin. Retrieved from https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-
technology/biochemistry/biochemistry/keratin
Masters, M. (2017). What Produces the Slimy Feeling on a Frog? Retrieved from
https://animals.mom.me/produces-slimy-feeling-frog-3382.html
O'Grady, S. (2008). Basic Farriery for the Performance Horse. Retrieved from
https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S074907390700096X
Pough, H., C, Janis.,J, Heiser. (2009) “Vertebrate Life”, 9th edition.Stankowich, T. & Caro, T.
2009 The evolution of weaponry in female bovids. Proc. R. Soc. B 276, 4329–
4334.(doi:10.1098/rspb.2009.1256)
Rehabber. (n.d.). Beak Function. Retrieved from https://wildliferehabber.com/rehab-data/beak-
function
Reptiles (n.d.). Reptiles. Retrieved from
http://www.sfu.ca/biology/courses/bisc316/outlines/Scaleegg.html
Science Net Links (n.d.). Integumentary System. Retrieved from
http://sciencenetlinks.com/student-teacher-sheets/integumentary-system/
Swenson. (n.d.). Basic Human Anatomy. Retrieved from
https://www.dartmouth.edu/~humananatomy/part_1/chapter_4.html
Zoology (n.d.). The Integument and its Derivatives. Retrieved from
https://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~millen/vertebrate/Bio204_Labs/Lab_2__Integument..html
ZOO 102.1: Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates

ANSWERS TO STUDY QUESTIONS

1. What are the possible functions of claws and talons?

Claws and talons are adapted for scratching, clutching, digging, or climbing, grasping
prey but may also be used for such purposes as digging, climbing trees, self-defense, and
grooming (Boundless, n.d.).

2. Which is the living layer of the epidermis in the human scalp?

According to Boundless. (n.d.),it is the granular layer of the stratum granulosum.

3. Which is the non-living layer of the epidermis?

The non-living layer is the stratum corneum (Boundless, n.d.).

4. What is the primary function of each epidermal layer?

 Stratum Corneum- composed of the many dead skin cells that you shed into the
environment—as a result, these cells are found in dust throughout your home. This layer
helps to repel water.

 Stratum Lucidum found only on the palms of the hands, fingertips, and the soles of the
feet.
 Stratum Granulosum- part of keratin production occurs. Keratin is a protein that is the
main component of skin.
 Stratum Spinosum- gives the skin strength as well as flexibility.
 Stratum Basale- the skin’s most important cells, called keratinocytes, are formed before
moving up to the surface of the epidermis and being shed into the environment as dead
skin cells. This layer also contains melanocytes, the cells that are largely responsible for
determining the color of our skin and protecting our skin from the harmful effects of UV
radiation. These harmful effects include burns in the short term and cancer in the long run
(Boundless. n.d.).

5. What do you think is responsible for the slimy feeling of fish skin?

As cited by Zoology (n.d.). ,fish secretes a glyco-protein slime from the cells in their skin
to make it harder for parasites to attach.
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