COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY MULTIPLEXING

Electronics Communication System  The process of mixing two or more signals on one
carrier wave.
1. Telegraph
2. Wireless telegraph NOISE
3. Telephone
4. Radio  An undesired electric disturbances or sound that
5. Public address system tends to interface with the normal reception or
6. Disk Recorders processing of a desired signal.
7. Tape Recorders PAD
8. Facsimile (FAX)
 A system of communication in which a  An arrangement of fixed resistors used to reduce the
photograph, map, or other fixed graphic material strength of an RF or AF signals to a desired fixed
is scanned. amount without introducing appreciable distortion.
9. Television
10. Motion pictures RADIO COMMUNICATION
11. Radar  Transmission of signals through space by
12. Konar electromagnetic waves.
13. Loran
14. Shoran RECEIVER
15. Telemetry
 The complete equipment required for receiving
16. Cellphone
modulated radio waves and converting through into
History the original.

1835 – Telegraph (Samuel Morse) SOURCE

1837 - Telegram marketed  Circuits or device that supplies signal power or

electric energy to a transducer or load circuit.
1838 – Demonstration innovation of telegraph
SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
1843 – FAX machine (potential) (Alexander Bain)
 Involves the use of an active or passive satellite to
1861 – USA starts pony express delivery extend the range of a radio tv or other transmitter by
1876 – Electric Telephone (Alexander G. Bell) returning signals to earth from an orbiting satellite.

1877 – 1st moving pictures (Edward Maybridge) TELEGRAPHY

1895 – Radio (Guglielmo Marconi)  A communication system employing signals for

transmitting messages produced by the opening and
1901 – Wire communication closing of an electric circuit by means of a lever or key.

1906 – Wireless communication TELEMETRY

1910 – Motion Picture (demonstration)  Also called telemetering or remote metering that
deals with transmitting the readings of instruments to
1911 – Loading services data communication a remote location by wires, radio waves or other
means.

COMMUNICATION TELEPHONY

 The transmission of intelligence between two or more
points over wires or by radio. The terms
telecommunication and communication are often
used, but telecommunication is used when long
distances are involved.
FIBER OPTICS
 The technique of transmitting light through long thin,
flexible fibers of glass, plastic or other transparent
material.
 A communication system employing telephone
apparatus for conveying speech over distances by
converting sound into electric impulses sent through
a wire.
TRANSMITTER
 Equipment used for generating and amplifying an RF
carrier signal, modulating the carrier signal with
intelligence and feeding the modulated carrier to an
antenna for radiation into space as electromagnetic
waves.
IMAGE FREQUENCY
 An undesired carrier frequency that differs from the
frequency to which super heterodyne receiver is
turned by twice the intermediate frequency.
NOISE FIGURE
 Ratio of the input and output signal-to-noise ratios for
a device.
NOISE TEMPERATURE
 Equivalent temperature of a passive system having
the same noise power output as a given system.
PASSBAND
 A frequency band in with the attenuation of a filter is
essentially zero.
RADIO FREQUENCY INTTERFERENCE
 An undesired energy that tends to interfere with the
radio frequency spectrum at which coherent EM
radiation of energy is useful for communication
purposes.
SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO
 Ratio of signal to noise power at a given point in a
system.
SINAD “SIGNAL INCLUDING NOISE DISTORTION”
 It is used for FM receivers

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

1. INFORMATION SOURCE
 Represents the person or devices generating the original information to be transmitted by the communication system.
2. TRANSMITTER
 This process and possibly encode the incoming information so as to make it suitable for transmission and subsequent
reception.
3. CHANNEL/NOISE
 Channel is often used to refer to the frequency range allocated to a particular service or transmission as a TV channel.
 Noise is an unwanted energy usually of random character preset in any transmission system due to any cause.
4. RECEIVER
▰ The most important function is demodulation or decoding.

GROUP 2

What is LIGHT? Light is a kind of energy

• Huygen’s Principle “Light can behave as light or
particle.”
• Isaac Newton “Light is a particle.”
• Robert Hooke “Light is a wave.”
• Albert Einstein “Light is both particle and wave”
• The energy travels in the form of waves (similar to the
waves on the sea but about 100 million times
smaller)—a vibrating pattern of electricity and
magnetism that we call electromagnetic energy.
• Light is an energy beam that moves in wavelengths. It
is made up of tiny photons, each contains a lot of
energy. The strength of the light depends upon the
amount of energy each photon contains.
 • The power of a light source can be measured in watts.
A watt is the rate of energy of one joule per second.
Light is an electromagnetic wave
Light arrives on our planet from the Sun, 149 million km (93
million miles away). Light travels at 186,000 miles (300 km/s)
 Light doesn’t travel as fast when it has to pass through
mediums that are different, such as air, water or glass.
These mediums cause the light to ‘refract’ and that
slows the light down. The refractive index of glass is
1.5, slowing the speed of light down to 200,000 km
per second (124,000 miles per second). Water has a
refractive index of 1.3 and the refractive index of air
is 1.0003. Air slows light down only a small amount.
 Space does not have any light. We can see things in
space due to light bouncing off of the objects in space.
Light can be controlled and produced in so many ways. A
camera can control the amount of light that comes into the
camera lens. We also use light in televisions, medical
systems, copy machines, telescopes and satellites
Light is used by plants to convert the light into energy as their
‘food’. The process is called ‘photosynthesis’ and converts
carbon dioxide through the energy of the light.
Electromagnetic wave
An electromagnetic wave is a transverse wave consisting of
mutually perpendicular oscillating electric and magnetic fields.
Electromagnetic waves are ultimately produced by an
accelerating charge. A changing electric field produces a
changing magnetic field which in turn produces a changing
electric field and so on. Because of this relationship between
the changing electric and magnetic fields, an electromagnetic
wave is a self propagating wave that can travel through a
vacuum or a material medium since electric and magnetic
fields can exist in either one.
• All electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light.
Electromagnetic waves are distinguished from each
other by their differences in wavelengths and
frequencies (wavelength is inversely related to
frequency).
• c=fλ λλ λ c = speed of light = 3.0 x 10^8 m/s in a
vacuum = 300,000 km/s = 186,000 miles/s
• A light year is the distance that light travels in one
year in a vacuum.
THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
• Radio waves - have wavelengths from about 1 m
upwards. They are produced by connecting an
electronic oscillator to an antenna. The oscillating
electrons in the antenna then lose energy in the form
of electromagnetic waves. Radio waves are used for
radio and television broadcasting and long-distance
communications.
• Microwaves - short radio waves with wavelengths
down to about 1 mm. They can be produced
electronically by methods analogous to the
production of sound waves. Microwaves are also used
extensively for communications but they require
direct line-of-sight paths from transmitter to receiver
so that microwave stations are located on top of hills
and tall structures.
• Infrared radiation - the part of the spectrum
comprises wavelengths from 0.1 mm (far-infrared)
down to about 700 nm. Infrared radiation is emitted
by excited molecules and hot solids.
• Visible light - light is that part of the electromagnetic
spectrum which we can see. Visible light is emitted
by excited atoms and molecules and by very hot
solids.
• Ultraviolet radiation - ultraviolet 'light' has
wavelengths less than 400 nm. It is emitted by excited
atoms. The 'black light' used to produce fluorescence
in light shows is ultraviolet. Much of the ultraviolet
radiation from the sun is absorbed by the atmosphere
but that which gets through can cause sunburn and
skin cancers. Ultraviolet light can also be harmful to
the eyes. The irradiance of ultraviolet light increases
at high altitudes where the atmosphere is thinner.
• X rays and gamma rays - the wavelengths of x rays
and gamma rays overlap, but the different names
indicate different ways of producing the radiation. X
rays are produced in processes involving atoms and
electrons. For example they can be produced by
bombarding a metal target with high energy
electrons. They are also emitted in some high-energy
atomic energy level transitions. X rays usually have
wavelengths less than 10 nm. Gamma radiation
 generally has wavelengths less than 0.1 nm. It is
emitted by excited nuclei of atoms
FREQUENCY, WAVE & COLOR
• a continuum of all electromagnetic waves arranged
according to frequency and wavelength. Visible light
is only a small portion of the entire electromagnetic
spectrum.
Optical Illusions
Optical Illusions can use color, light and patterns to
create images that can be deceptive or misleading to our
brains. The information gathered by the eye is processed by
the brain, creating a perception that in reality, does not match
the true image. Perception refers to the interpretation of what
we take in through our eyes. Optical illusions occur because
our brain is trying to interpret what we see and make sense of
the world around us. Optical illusions simply trick our brains
into seeing things which may or may not be real.
PROPAGATION OF LIGHT
Refers to the manner in which an
electromagnetic wave transfer it’s energy from one point to
another.
Effects of Materials on Light Materials can be classified based
on how it responds to light incident on them
 Opaque objects absorb and/or reflect all light - light
cannot get through.
 Transparent objects allows light to travel through in
straight lines. Objects can be transparent to some
colors or frequencies of light and opaque to others.
Regular standard glass is transparent to visible light,
but is opaque to UV and IR light.
 Translucent substances or objects scatter light in all
directions as it passes through. Our atmosphere is
translucent to visible light.
Reflection
The turning back of an electromagnetic wave at the
surface of a substance. The Law of Reflection states that the
angle of incidence = angle of reflection. Typically the angles are
measured with respect to the normal. The normal is a line
drawn perpendicular to the surface at the point of incidence.
• Specular (regular) reflection occurs when light is
incident on a “smooth” surface and the rays are
reflected parallel to each other.
• Diffuse reflection occurs when light is incident on a
“rough” surface and the rays are reflected in many
different directions
Refraction
The refraction of light when it passes from a fast
medium to a slow medium bends the light ray toward the
normal to the boundary between the two media. The amount
of bending depends on the indices of refraction of the two
media.
Diffraction
Diffraction is the bending or spreading of light
through an opening or around an obstacle.
Interference
When two or more light waves having the same
frequency, same wavelength and same amplitude meet
together in a medium at a point, they cancel or enhance the
effect of each other at that point. This phenomenon is called
interference of light waves.”
 Constructive interference
When two light waves superpose with each
other in such a way that the crest of one wave falls on
the crest of the second wave, and trough of one wave
falls on the trough of the second wave, then the
resultant wave has larger amplitude and intensity.
 Destructive interference
 When two light waves superpose with each
other in such a way that the crest of one wave
coincides the trough of the second wave, then the
amplitude and intensity of resultant wave become
zero.

GROUP 3

The first example of an electrical resonance curve published in

1887 is by Henrich Hertz.
APPLICATION OF TUNING CIRCUITS
One of the first demonstrations of resonance between tuned
▰ Tuning radio transmitters and receivers.
was Lodge’s “syntonic jars.” in 1889
▰ Amplifiers
TUNING CIRCUITS
▰ Oscillators
It is an electric circuit consisting of an inductor, represented by
the letter L, and a capacitor, represented by the letter C, ▰ Filters
connected together. The circuit can act as an
electrical resonator, an electrical analogue of a tuning fork, ▰ Tuners
storing energy oscillating at the circuit's resonant frequency. ▰ Mixers

▰ Foster-Seeley discriminator

▰ Contactless cards

▰ Graphics tablets

▰ Electronic article surveillance (security tags)

TYPES OF TUNED CIRCUITS
SERIES CIRCUIT
The total voltage V across the open terminals is simply the sum
of the voltage across the inductor and the voltage across the
capacitor. The current I into the positive terminal of the circuit
is equal to the current through both the capacitor and the
inductor.
COUPLING CIRCUITS
Coupling is the desirable or undesirable transfer of energy
from one medium, such as a metallic wire or an optical fiber,
to another medium. Coupling is also the transfer of electrical
energy from one circuit segment to another.
TYPES OF COUPLING CIRCUITS
DIRECT COUPLING

▰ With direct coupling, or DC coupling, two components

are connected directly to each other. In the diagram,
the collector of Q1 is wired direct to the base of Q2.
The bias level of Q1 is calculated first, and this will also
be the bias for the base of Q2. The advantages are,
minimum parts and a good low frequency response,
down to dc.

PARALLEL CIRCUITS

The voltage V across the open terminals is equal to both the

voltage across the inductor and the voltage across the
capacitor. The total current I flowing into the positive terminal
of the circuit is equal to the sum of the current flowing through
the inductor and the current flowing through the capacitor : v
CAPACITIVE COUPLING
▰ With capacitive coupling, two stages are connected
using a coupling capacitor,Cc in the diagram. Using
this method, the bias levels on the first stage, F1 are
isolated from the next stage. Here resistor Rb would
be used to bias this stage. The capacitor Cc and Rb and
 the input impedance at Q1 form a high pass filter,
allowing AC current to pass, but blocking DC.
TRANSFORMER COUPLING
▰ The two stages are isolated with a transformer. Bias
for the second stage is via a biasing network. The
advantage of this method, is that the turn’s ratio of
the transformer can be used to provide gain, and also
a frequency selective response can be obtained. This
technique is used widely in RF applications.
APPLICATION OF COUPLING CIRCUITS
▰ A beam coupling - also known as helical coupling, is a
flexible coupling for transmitting torque between two
shafts while allowing for angular misalignment,
parallel offset and even axial motion, of one shaft
relative to the other.
▰ Bush pin type flange coupling - this is used for slightly
imperfect alignment of the two shafts. This is
modified form of the protected type flange coupling.
This type of coupling has pins and it works with
coupling bolts.
▰ Disc couplings - transmit torque from a driving to a
driven bolt tangentially on a common bolt circle.
Torque is transmitted between the bolts through a
series of thin, stainless steel discs assembled in a
pack. Misalignment is accomplished by deforming of
the material between the bolts.
FILTER CIRCUITS
A filter circuit is a device to remove the A.C components
of the rectified output, but allows the D.C components to
reach the load.
TYPES OF FILTER CIRCUITS
▰ LOW PASS FILTER
It is a filter that passes signals with a frequency lower than
a selected cutoff frequency and attenuates signals with
frequencies higher than the cutoff frequency.
▰ HIGH PASS FILTER
It is an electronic filter that passes signals with a frequency
higher than a certain cutoff frequency and attenuates
signals with frequencies lower than the cutoff frequency.
▰ BAND PASS FILTER
Band pass filter or BPF, is a device that passes frequencies
within a certain range and rejects (attenuates) frequencies
outside that range.
▰ NOTCH FILTER
It is also known as a Band Stop filter or Band Reject Filter.
These filters reject/attenuate signals in a specific
frequency band called the stop band frequency range and
pass the signals above and below this band.
FUNCTION OF FILTER CIRCUIT
Filter (signal processing) in signal processing, a filter is a
device or process that removes some unwanted
components or features from a signal. Filtering is a class of
signal processing, the defining feature of filters being the
complete or partial suppression of some aspect of the
signal.
OSCILLATOR CIRCUITS
It is an electronic circuit that produces a periodic,
oscillating electronic signal, often a sine wave or a square
wave. Oscillators convert direct current (DC) from a power
supply to an alternating current (AC) signal.
TYPES OF OSCILLATOR CIRCUITS
▰ CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR
It is an electronic oscillator circuit which is used for the
mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of
piezoelectric material. It will create an electrical signal
with a given frequency.
▰ ARMSTRONG OSCILLATOR
It uses an inductor and capacitor to generate an
oscillation. It is the earliest oscillator circuit, invented by
US engineer Edwin Armstrong in 1912 and independently
by Austrian engineer Alexander Meissner in 1913, and was
used in the first vacuum tube radio transmitters.

▰ WIEN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR

A type of electronic oscillator that generates sine waves.

It can generate a large range of frequencies. The oscillator
is based on a bridge circuit originally developed by Max
▰ HARTLEY OSCILLATOR Wien in 1891 for the measurement of impedances.
Which the oscillation frequency is determined by a tuned
circuit consisting of capacitors and inductors, that is, an LC
oscillator. The circuit was invented in 1915 by American
engineer Ralph Hartley.

▰ TRI-TET OSCILLATOR

A crystal-controlled vacuum tube electronic oscillator

circuit. It is a type of electron-coupled oscillator (ECO),
which uses a tetrode or pentode tube. It was introduced
by James J. Lamb in the June 1933 issue of QST magazine.
▰ COLPITTS OSCILLATOR

Invented in 1918 by American engineer Edwin H. Colpitts,

is one of a number of designs for LC oscillators, electronic
oscillators that use a combination of inductors (L) and
capacitors (C) to produce an oscillation at a certain
frequency.

▰ DYNATRON OSCILLATOR

Invented in 1918 by Albert Hull at General Electric, is an

obsolete vacuum tube electronic oscillator circuit which
uses a negative resistance characteristic in early tetrode
vacuum tubes, caused by a process called secondary
emission.

▰ RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR

A linear electronic oscillator circuit that produces a sine

wave output. It consists of an inverting amplifier element
such as a transistor or op amp with its output fed back to
its input through a phase-shift network consisting of
resistors and capacitors in a ladder network.
FUNCTION OF FILTER IN CIRCUITS

Active filters can be used to design high-order filters without

the use of inductors; this is important because inductors are
problematic in the context of integrated-circuit manufacturing
techniques. However, active filters are less suitable for very-
high-frequency applications because of amplifier bandwidth
limitations. Radio-frequency circuits must often utilize passive
filters.