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title=Battery_Sizing

Battery Sizing
From Open Electrical

Contents
1 Introduction
1.1 Why do the calculation?
1.2 When to do the calculation?
2 IEEE Definitions
3 Battery Characteristics and Types
3.1 Battery Components
3.2 Battery Lifespan
3.3 Battery Charging Stages
3.3.1 Depth of Discharge (DOD)
3.4 Determining battery state of charge
3.5 Amp-Hour rating & Capacity
3.6 Renewable Applications
3.6.1 Maintenance & Monitoring
3.6.2 Future Trends
4 Calculation Methodology
4.1 Step 1: Collect the battery loads
4.2 Step 2: Construct the Load Profile
4.3 Step 3: Select Battery Type
4.4 Step 4: Number of Cells in Series
4.5 Step 5: Determine Battery Capacity
5 Worked Example
5.1 Step 1 and 2: Collect Battery Loads and Construct Load Profile
5.2 Step 3: Select Battery Type
5.3 Step 4: Number of Cells in Series
5.4 Step 5: Determine Battery Capacity
6 Computer Software
6.1 Android App
7 What Next?

Introduction
This article looks at the sizing of batteries for stationary applications (i.e. they don't move). Batteries are
used in many applications such as AC and DC uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems, solar power
systems, telecommunications, emergency lighting, etc. Whatever the application, batteries are seen as a
mature, proven technology for storing electrical energy. In addition to storage, batteries are also used as a
means for providing voltage support for weak power systems (e.g. at the end of small, long transmission
lines).

Why do the calculation?

Sizing a stationary battery is important to ensure that the loads being supplied or the power system being

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supported are adequately catered for by the battery for

the period of time (i.e. autonomy) for which it is
designed. Improper battery sizing can lead to poor
autonomy times, permanent damage to battery cells from
over-discharge, low load voltages, etc.

When to do the calculation?

The calculation can typically be started when the

following information is known:

Battery loads that need to be supported

Nominal battery voltage
Autonomy time(s)

IEEE Definitions Figure 1. Stationary batteries on a rack (courtesy of

Power Battery)
IEEE Std. 485-1997 provides some definitions related to
the battery sizing terminology:

battery duty cycle: The loads a battery is expected to supply for specified time periods.

cell size: The rated capacity of a lead-acid cell or the number of positive plates in a cell.

equalizing charge: A prolonged charge, at a rate higher than the normal float voltage, to correct any
inequalities of voltage and specific gravity that may have developed between the cells during service.

full float operation: Operation of a dc system with the battery, battery charger, and load all connected in
parallel and with the battery charger supplying the normal dc load plus any charging current required by the
battery. (The battery will deliver current only when the load exceeds the charger output.)

period: An interval of time in the battery duty cycle during which the load is assumed to be constant for
purposes of cell sizing calculations.

rated capacity (lead-acid): The capacity assigned to a cell by its manufacturer for a given discharge rate, at
a specified electrolyte temperature and specific gravity, to a given end-of-discharge voltage.

valve-regulated lead-acid (VRLA) cell: A lead-acid cell that is sealed with the exception of a valve that
opens to the atmosphere when the internal gas pressure in the cell exceeds atmospheric pressure by a
preselected amount. VRLA cells provide a means for recombination of internally generated oxygen and the
suppression of hydrogen gas evolution to limit water consumption.

vented battery: A battery in which the products of electrolysis and evaporation are allowed to escape freely
to the atmosphere. These batteries are commonly referred to as “flooded.”

Battery Characteristics and Types

Battery Components

Battery technology has not changed much in the last 100 years. The standard construction method involves
flooding lead plates in sulfuric acid. The chemical reaction between the positively charged lead plate and the
negatively charged acid allows the battery to store and “give” electricity. The thickness of the lead plate is
closely related to the lifespan of the battery because of a factor called “Positive Grid Corrosion”. The

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positive lead plate gradually wears away over time. Thicker plates are used in deep cycle batteries. This
usually translates to a longer battery life. Although plate thickness is not the only factor related to longer
lifespan, it is the most critical variable.

Battery Lifespan

Most of the loss incurred in charging and discharging batteries is due to internal resistance, which is
eventually wasted as heat. Efficiency ratios are relatively high considering that most lead acid batteries are
85 to 95 percent efficient at storing the energy they receive. Deep cycle batteries used in renewable energy
applications are designed to provide many years of reliable performance with proper care and maintenance.
Proper maintenance and usage play a major role in battery lifespan. Toiling over your battery bank daily with
complex gadgets and a gallon of distilled water, however, is not necessary. The most common causes of
premature battery failure include loss of electrolyte due to heat or overcharging, undercharging, excessive
vibration, freezing or extremely high temperatures, and using tap water among other factors

Battery Charging Stages

There are three basic stages in charging a battery: bulk, absorption, and float. These terms signify different
voltage and current variables involved in each stage of charging.

Bulk Charge: In the first stage of the process, current is sent to the batteries at the maximum safe
rate, batteries will accept it until voltage is brought up to nearly 80-90 percent full charge level. There
are limits on the amount of current the battery and/or wiring can take.

Absorption Charge: In the second stage, voltage peaks and stabilizes and current begins to taper off
as internal resistance rises. The charge controller puts out maximum voltage at this stage.

Float Charge: This can also be referred to as trickle charging or a maintenance charge. In this stage,
voltage is reduced to lower levels in order to reduce gassing and prolong battery life. The main
purpose of this stage is basically to maintain the battery’s charge in a controlled manner. In Pulse
Width Modulation (PWM) the charger sends small, short charging cycles or “pulses” when it senses
small drops in voltage.

Depth of Discharge (DOD)

The Depth of Discharge (DOD) is used to describe how deeply the battery is discharged. If the battery is
100% fully charged, it means the DOD of this battery is 0%. If the battery has delivered 30% of its energy,
here are 70% energy reserved, the DOD of this battery is 30%. And if a battery is 100% empty, the DOD of
this battery is 100%. DOD always can be treated as how much energy that the battery delivered.

Determining battery state of charge

There are a few ways to determine the state of charge on a battery, each with their own level of accuracy. As
there is no direct method to measure a battery’s state of charge, there are numerous ways to go about it. One
way to gauge a battery is by measuring its static voltage and comparing it to a standardized chart. This is the
least accurate method, but it only involves an inexpensive digital meter. Another method of gauging the
battery involves measuring the density or specific gravity of the sulfuric acid electrolyte. This is the most
accurate test, yet it is only applicable to the flooded types. This method involves measuring the cell’s
electrolyte density with a battery hydrometer. Electrolyte density is lower when the battery is discharged and
higher as the cells are charged. The battery’s chemical reactions affect the density of the electrolyte at a
constant rate that is predictable enough to get a good indication of the cell’s state of charge. Using an
amp-hour meter one can also obtain an accurate indication of the battery’s state of charge. Amp-hour meters
keep track of all power moving in and out of the battery by time, and the state of charge is determined by

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comparing flow rates.

Amp-Hour rating & Capacity

All deep cycle batteries are classified and rated in amp-hours. Amp-hours is the term used to describe a
standardized rate of discharge measuring current relative to time. It is calculated by multiplying amps and
hours. The generally accepted rating time period for most manufacturers is 20 hours. This means that the
battery will provide the rated amperage for about 20 hours until it is down to 10.5 volts or completely dead.
Some battery manufacturers will use 100 hours as the standard to make them look better, yet it can be useful
in long-term backup calculations.

Renewable Applications

There are three main types of batteries that are commonly used in renewable energy systems, each with their
own advantages and disadvantages. Flooded or “wet” batteries are the most cost efficient and the most
widely used batteries in photovoltaic applications. They require regular maintenance and need to be used in
a vented location, and are extremely well suited for renewable energy applications. Sealed batteries come in
two varieties, the gel cell and Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) type. The gel cell uses a silica additive in its
electrolyte solution that causes it to stiffen or gel, eliminating some of the issues with venting and spillage.
The Absorbed Glass Mat construction method suspends the electrolyte in close proximity with the plate’s
active material. These batteries are sealed, requiring virtually no maintenance. They are more suitable for
remote applications where regular maintenance is difficult, or enclosed locations where venting is an issue.

a) Flooded Lead Acid (FLA)

Flooded lead acid batteries are the most commonly used batteries, and have the longest track record in solar
electric systems. They usually have the longest life and the lowest cost per amp-hour of any of the other
choices. The downside is that they do require regular maintenance in the form of watering, equalizing
charges and keeping the terminals clean. These cells are often referred to as “wet” cells, and they come in
two varieties: the serviceable, and the maintenance-free type (which means they are designed to die as soon
as the warranty runs out). The serviceable wet cells come with removable caps, and are the smarter choice,
as they allow you to check their status with a hydrometer.

b) Gelled Electrolyte Sealed Lead Acid (GEL)

Gel sealed batteries use silica to stiffen or “gel” the electrolyte solution, greatly reducing the gasses, and
volatility of the cell. Since all matter expands and contracts with heat, batteries are not truly sealed, but are
"valve regulated". This means that a tiny valve maintains slight positive pressure. AGM batteries are slowly
phasing out gel technology, but there still are many applications for the gel cells. The recharge voltage for
charging Gel cells are usually lower than the other styles of lead acid batteries, and should be charged at a
slower rate. When they are charged too fast, gas pockets will form on the plates and force the gelled
electrolyte away from the plate, decreasing the capacity until the gas finds its way to the top of the battery
and recombines with the electrolyte.

c) Sealed Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM)

Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) is a class of valve-regulated lead acid battery (VLRA) in which the electrolyte
is held in glass mats as opposed to freely flooding the plates. This is achieved by weaving very thin glass
fibers into a mat to increase surface area enough to hold sufficient electrolyte for the lifetime of the cell. The
advantages to using the AGM batteries are many, yet these batteries are typically twice the cost of their
flooded-cell counterpart. On the plus side, these cells can hold roughly 1.5 times the amp hour capacity of a
similar size flooded battery due to their higher power density. Another factor that improves their efficiency is
the higher lead purity used in AGM cells. Because of their sandwich construction, each plate no longer has
to support its own weight. Their low internal resistance allows them to be charged and discharged much

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faster than other types. AGM cells function well in colder temperatures and are highly resistant to vibration.
There are many advantages to using the AGM cells over their flooded counterpart that are beyond the scope
of this article.

Maintenance & Monitoring

Proper maintenance and monitoring will greatly extend the life of your batteries. Flooded batteries need to
be checked regularly to make sure electrolyte levels are full. The chemical reaction releases gases, as water
molecules are split into hydrogen and oxygen. This, in turn, consumes water and creates the need to replace
it regularly. Only distilled water should ever be used in batteries, and you should never add any kind of acid
solution. The connections from battery to battery and to the charging and load circuits should always be kept
clean and free of corrosion. Corrosion is created upon charging, when a slight acid mist forms as the
electrolyte bubbles. Corrosion buildup will create a good deal of electrical resistance, eventually contributing
to a shortened battery life and malfunctions. A good way to keep up on the terminals is to regularly clean
them with a baking soda solution

Future Trends

Companies world-wide are quickly adjusting to the increased global market for solar systems by developing
batteries that are better suited for photovoltaic systems. At some distant point in the future, it is likely that
lead-acid batteries will become extinct, as newer technologies in lithium ion and Nickel metal hydride
continue to evolve. Because lead-acid batteries are under the hood of virtually every car, advancements in
lead-acid technology, however are still being made. New developments in lead-acid technology usually
originate in the auto industry. Efficiency ratings are constantly going up, as new sensors and improved
materials are helping batteries achieve longer lifespan.

Calculation Methodology
The calculation is based on a mixture of normal industry practice and technical standards IEEE Std 485
(1997, R2003) (http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/mostRecentIssue.jsp?punumber=4899) "Recommended
Practice for Sizing Lead-Acid Batteries for Stationary Applications" and IEEE Std 1115 (2000, R2005)
(http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/mostRecentIssue.jsp?punumber=6976) "Recommended Practice for Sizing
Nickel-Cadmium Batteries for Stationary Applications". The calculation is based on the ampere-hour
method for sizing battery capacity (rather than sizing by positive plates).

The focus of this calculation is on standard lead-acid or nickel-cadmium (NiCd) batteries, so please consult
specific supplier information for other types of batteries (e.g. lithium-ion, nickel-metal hydride, etc). Note
also that the design of the battery charger is beyond the scope of this calculation.

There are five main steps in this calculation:

1) Collect the loads that the battery needs to support

2) Construct a load profile and calculate the design energy (VAh)
3) Select the battery type and determine the characteristics of the cell
4) Select the number of battery cells to be connected in series
5) Calculate the required Ampere-hour (Ah) capacity of the battery

Step 1: Collect the battery loads

The first step is to determine the loads that the battery will be supporting. This is largely specific to the
application of the battery, for example an AC UPS System or a Solar Power System.

Step 2: Construct the Load Profile

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Refer to the Load Profile Calculation for details on how to construct a load profile and calculate the design
energy, , in VAh.

The autonomy time is often specified by the Client (i.e. in their standards). Alternatively, IEEE 446, "IEEE
Recommended Practice for Emergency and Standby Power Systems for Industrial and Commercial
Applications" has some guidance (particularly Table 3-2) for autonomy times. Note that IEEE 485 and IEEE
1115 refer to the load profile as the "duty cycle".

Step 3: Select Battery Type

The next step is to select the battery type (e.g. sealed lead-acid, nickel-cadmium, etc). The selection process
is not covered in detail here, but the following factors should be taken into account (as suggested by IEEE):

Physical characteristics, e.g. dimensions, weight, container material, intercell connections,

terminals
application design life and expected life of cell
Frequency and depth of discharge
Ambient temperature
Charging characteristics
Maintenance requirements
Ventilation requirements
Cell orientation requirements (sealed lead-acid and NiCd)
Seismic factors (shock and vibration)

Next, find the characteristics of the battery cells, typically from supplier data sheets. The characteristics that
should be collected include:

Battery cell capacities (Ah)

Cell temperature
Electrolyte density at full charge (for lead-acid batteries)
Cell float voltage
Cell end-of-discharge voltage (EODV).

Battery manufacturers will often quote battery Ah capacities based on a number of different EODVs. For
lead-acid batteries, the selection of an EODV is largely based on an EODV that prevents damage of the cell
through over-discharge (from over-expansion of the cell plates). Typically, 1.75V to 1.8V per cell is used
when discharging over longer than 1 hour. For short discharge durations (i.e. <15 minutes), lower EODVs of
around 1.67V per cell may be used without damaging the cell.

Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd) don't suffer from damaged cells due to over-discharge. Typical EODVs for Ni-Cd
batteries are 1.0V to 1.14V per cell.

Step 4: Number of Cells in Series

The most common number of cells for a specific voltage rating is shown below:

Rated
Lead-Acid Ni-Cd
Voltage
12V 6 9-10
24V 12 18-20
48V 24 36-40

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125V 60 92-100
250V 120 184-200

However, the number of cells in a battery can also be calculated to more accurately match the tolerances of
the load. The number of battery cells required to be connected in series must fall between the two following
limits:

(1)

(2)

where is the maximum number of battery cells

is the minimum number of battery cells

is the nominal battery voltage (Vdc)
is the maximum load voltage tolerance (%)
is the minimum load voltage tolerance (%)
is the cell charging voltage (Vdc)
is the cell end of discharge voltage (Vdc)

The limits are based on the minimum and maximum voltage tolerances of the load. As a maximum, the
battery at float voltage (or boost voltage if applicable) needs to be within the maximum voltage range of the
load. Likewise as a minimum, the battery at its end of discharge voltage must be within the minimum voltage
range of the load. The cell charging voltage depends on the type of charge cycle that is being used, e.g. float,
boost, equalising, etc, and the maximum value should be chosen.

Select the number of cells in between these two limits (more or less arbitrary, though somewhere in the
middle of the min/max values would be most appropriate).

Step 5: Determine Battery Capacity

The minimum battery capacity required to accommodate the design load over the specified autonomy time
can be calculated as follows:

where is the minimum battery capacity (Ah)

is the design energy over the autonomy time (VAh)

is the nominal battery voltage (Vdc)
is a battery ageing factor (%)
is a temperature correction factor (%)
is a capacity rating factor (%)
is the maximum depth of discharge (%)

Select a battery Ah capacity that exceeds the minimum capacity calculated above. The battery discharge
rate (C rating) should also be specified, approximately the duration of discharge (e.g. for 8 hours of
discharge, use the C8 rate). The selected battery specification is therefore the Ah capacity and the discharge

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rate (e.g. 500Ah C10).

An explanation of the different factors:

Ageing factor captures the

decrease in battery
performance due to age.

The performance of a
lead-acid battery is
relatively stable but drops
markedly at latter stages of
life. The "knee point" of its
life vs performance curve is
approximately when the
battery can deliver 80% of
its rated capacity. After this
point, the battery has
reached the end of its useful
life and should be replaced.
Therefore, to ensure that
battery can meet capacity
throughout its useful life, an
ageing factor of 1.25 should Table 1. Temperature correction factors for vented lead-acid cells (from
be applied (i.e. 1 / 0.8). IEEE 485)
There are some exceptions,
check with the
manufacturer.

For Ni-Cd batteries, the principles are similar to lead-acid cells. Please consult the battery
manufacturer for suitable ageing factors, but generally, applying a factor of 1.25 is standard. For
applications with high temperatures and/or frequent deep discharges, a higher factor of 1.43
may be used. For more shallower discharges, a lower factor of 1.11 can be used.

Temperature correction factor is an allowance to capture the ambient installation

temperature. The capacity for battery cells are typicall quoted for a standard operating
temperature of 25C and where this differs with the installation temperature, a correction factor
must be applied. IEEE 485 gives guidance for vented lead-acid cells (see figure right), however
for sealed lead-acid and Ni-Cd cells, please consult manufacturer recommendations. Note that
high temperatures lower battery life irrespective of capacity and the correction factor is for
capacity sizing only, i.e. you CANNOT increase battery life by increasing capacity.

Capacity rating factor accounts for voltage depressions during battery discharge. Lead-acid
batteries experience a voltage dip during the early stages of discharge followed by some
recovery. Ni-Cds may have lower voltages on discharge due to prolonged float charging
(constant voltage). Both of these effects should be accounted for by the capacity rating factor -
please see the manufacturer's recommendations. For Ni-Cd cells, IEEE 1115 Annex C suggests
that for float charging applications, Kt = rated capacity in Ah / discharge current in Amps (for
specified discharge time and EODV).

Worked Example
Step 1 and 2: Collect Battery Loads and Construct Load Profile

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The loads and load profile from the simple

example in the Energy Load Profile
Calculation will be used (see the figure
right). The design energy demand
calculated for this system is Ed = 3,242.8
VAh.

Step 3: Select Battery Type

Vented lead acid batteries have been

selected for this example.

Step 4: Number of Cells in Series

Suppose that the nominal battery voltage is

Vdc = 120Vdc, the cell charging voltage is
Figure 2. Load profile for this example
Vc = 2.25Vdc/cell, the end-of-discharge
voltage is Veod = 1.8Vdc/cell, and the
minimum and maximum load voltage tolerances are Vl,min = 10% and Vl,max = 20% respectively.

The maximum number of cells in series is:

cells

The minimum number of cells in series is:

cells

The selected number of cells in series is 62 cells.

Step 5: Determine Battery Capacity

Given a depth of discharge kdod = 80%, battery ageing factor ka = 25%, temperature correction factor for
vented cells at 30 deg C of kt = 0.956 and a capacity rating factor of kc = 10%, the minimum battery
capacity is:

Ah

Computer Software

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Some battery manufacturers (such as Alcad (http://www.alcad.com/) ) also provide software programs to
size batteries using basic input data such as load profiles, autonomies, etc. The software will size the
batteries and will often also provide details regarding different battery rack (or enclosure) dimensions.

Android App

If you have an android phone then we suggest using our app "Battery Sizing Tool (https://play.google.com
/store/apps/details?id=com.altersource.batterysizing&hl=en|) ".

What Next?
Using the results of the battery sizing calculation, the approximate dimensions of the batteries can be
estimated based on typical vendor information. This will assist in determining the size, number and
dimensions of the battery racks or cabinets required, which can then be used as input into the equipment /
room layouts. Preliminary budget pricing can also be estimated based on the calculation results.

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Category: Calculations

This page was last modified on 16 February 2014, at 17:29.

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