PRACTICAL WINTER TRAINING

UNDERTAKEN AT

DEFENCE LABORATORY
JODHPUR

From : 15th December, 2017 To : 31st January, 2018

TRAINING REPORT
ON

VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVE

& MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

Under Supervision of: Submitted by:

ALOK BASITA VIJAY SINGH RATHORE
SCIENTIST ‘D’ B. TECH (IIIrd YEAR)
DEFENCE LABORATORY EE (JIET-JODHPUR)
JODHPUR
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr. Vijay Singh Rathore, student of B. Tech.

(Electrical Engg.), IIIrd Year, JIET, Jodhpur has undergone training on
“Variable Frequency Drive & Motor Speed Control”, conducted at
Defence Laboratory, Jodhpur under my supervision. He completed
his Training Tenure successfully with effect from 15th Dec 2017 to 31st
Jan, 2017.

DATE: ALOK BASITA

05th MARCH, 2018 SCIENTIST ‘D’
DEFENCE LABORATORY
JODHPUR
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express sincere thanks to Defence Research

and Development Organization, which has given us the
opportunity to work for this project.

We would like to acknowledge the support of Dr. S. R. Vadera,

Director, Defence Laboratory, Jodhpur and Dr. Prashant
Vasistha, Scientist ‘F’.

We would like to thank our guide Mr. Alok Basita, Scientist ‘D’
for his integral view on the project has helped us a lot and for
his benevolent help and support throughout the training
period, without which things could not have proceeded as
smoothly as they did.

We are extremely grateful to JIET, Jodhpur for its continual

assistance and support.

Finally, we would like to express our deepest gratitude to all

the individuals who contributed in one way or another to our
study in general and this project in particular.

Vijay Singh Rathore

B. Tech (IIIrd Year)
EE (JIET-JODHPUR)
 PREFACE

This project report has been made for partial fulfillment of our
training project.
Speed controlling of various electrical machines have always
been a very important and tedious task for industry. During the
fluctuation of supply the controlling of speed is very difficult.
There is various method of speed controlling are present like
changing the current and voltage across the armature but there
efficiency is low. Other methods involve constructional feature
of motor but once a motor is built they cannot be changed. So
by changing the frequency of supply we can control the drive
operation efficiently

The blend of learning and knowledge acquired during our

practical studies at the institute is presented in this Project
Report. The Project Report starts with the description about
the components used and their specifications. Circuit Diagram,
flow charts have also been included. Future modifications will
give an insight to the further work that can be done in this
field.
 INDEX

 About the organization

 Introduction
 About VFD
 Purpose of the VFD
 Why Use a VFD?
 Additional Benefits of VFDs
 Types of VFD
 CIRCUIT VIEW OF VFD
 WORKING OF VFD
 VFD BLOCK DIAGRAM
 Switching Frequency
 APPLICATIONS CONSIDERATION
 ABOUT THE ORGANIZATION

Defence Research & Development Organization (DRDO) works

under Department of Defense Research and Development of
Ministry of Defence. DRDO is dedicatedly working towards
enhancing self-reliance in Defence Systems and undertakes
design & development leading to production of world class
weapon systems and equipment in accordance with the
expressed needs and the qualitative requirements.
DRDO is working in various areas of military technology which
include aeronautics, armaments, combat vehicles, electronics,
instrumentation engineering systems, missiles, materials, naval
systems, advanced computing, simulation and life sciences.
DRDO while striving to meet the Cutting edge weapons
technology requirements provides ample spinoff benefits to
the society at large thereby contributing to the nation building.
Vision

Make India prosperous by establishing world-class science and

technology base and provide our Defence Services decisive
edge by equipping them with internationally competitive
systems and solutions.

Mission

Design, develop and lead to production state-of-the-art

sensors, weapon systems, platforms and allied equipment for
our Defence Services.
Provide technological solutions to the Defence Services to
optimise combat effectiveness and to promote well-being of
the troops.
Develop infrastructure and committed quality manpower and
build strong technology base.
 INTRODUCTION
ABOUT VFD
A variable-frequency drive (VFD; also termed adjustable-frequency drive,
“variable-voltage/variable-frequency (VVVF) drive”, variable speed drive, AC
drive, micro drive or inverter drive) is a type of adjustable-speed drive used
in electro-mechanical drive systems to control AC motor speed and torque by
varying motor input frequency and voltage.
VFDs are used in applications ranging from small appliances to large compressors.
About 25% of the world's electrical energy is consumed by electric motors in
industrial applications, which can be more efficient when using VFDs in
centrifugal load service;[5] however, VFDs' global market penetration for all
applications is relatively small.
Over the last four decades, power electronics technology has reduced VFD cost
and size and has improved performance through advances in semiconductor
switching devices, drive topologies, simulation and control techniques, and
control hardware and software.
VFDs are made in a number of different low- and medium-voltage AC-AC and DC-
AC topologies.
This technology has several names such as
 Variable sped drives
 Adjustable speed drives
 Adjustable frequency drives, Frequency Convert

er
 Purpose of the VFD
 VFDs help to limit demand and electrical consumption of motors by reducing the
amount of energy they consume.
 Standard motors are constant speed and when they are energized they run at a
100% nomatter the load.
 Only use energy you need

Why Use a VFD?

Primary function of a VFD in aquatic applications is to provide energy savings. By
controlling speed of a pump rather than controlling flow through use of throttling
valves, energy savings can be substantial. By way of example, a speed reduction
of 20% can yield energy savings of 50%. The following included document
(IS5893A) describes speed reduction and corresponding energy savings. In
addition to energy savings, impeller, bearing and seal life is greatly improved.
Additional Benefits of VFDs
In addition to energy savings and better process control, VFDs can provide other
benefits:
• A VFD may be used for control of process temperature, pressure or flow
without use of a separate controller. Suitable sensors and electronics are used to
interface driven equipment with VFD.
• Maintenance costs can be lowered, since lower operating speeds result in
longer life for bearings and motors.
• Eliminating throttling valves and dampers also does away with maintaining
these devices and all associated controls.
• A soft starter for motor is no longer required.
• Controlled ramp-up speed in a liquid system can eliminate water hammer
problems.
• Ability of a VFD to limit torque to users elected level can protect driven
equipment that cannot tolerate excessive torque.

Comparison of VFD AND Conventional drives

CIRCUIT VIEW OF VFD

TYPES OF VFDS
Basic Configuration
This configuration, sometimes referred to as a “shoebox on the wall” is the least
expensive option of the three major types. It features a basic drive connected
between the line and the load. Speed control is generally operator initiated either
through a front panel keypad or speed potentiometer. Functionality and features
on this type of drive are generally limited. It should be noted that an external
disconnect is required and that this type of drive may not be suitable for filter
room applications due to the harsh environment and the lack of a secondary
enclosure. One major issue with this type of drive is that being the sole load

Fig 3

driving component, a failure of the drive will bring the entire system down until
the drive is removed from service for repair.

Two Contactor Bypass

This configuration is a step up from basic “shoe box”. It generally features a
secondary enclosure (NEMA 1 or 12) with additional control circuitry and (2)
contactors which can bypass drive circuitry allowing manual control of load
through conventional across the line motor starter control in many cases. It
should be noted that while the output sections of the drive are isolated from the
load, the drive input sections are not and that failure of input section
components may still prevent manual system operation. This type of drive may or
may not include a service disconnect and additional load protection.
Three Contactor Bypass
A three contactor bypass features a secondary enclosure (NEMA 1 or 12),
additional control circuitry and (3) contactors which in bypass mode completely
isolate the drive unit ensuring functionality in case of drive failure. In addition,
virtually all of this type of unit feature a code compliant service disconnects and
“rapid trip” input circuit breaker which affords the drive substantial protection in
the event of power surges and lightning strikes.
 WORKING OF VFD

SYSTEM DESCRIPTION AND COMPONETS

AC MOTOR

 Torque is produced as the induction motor generates flux in its rotating field.
 This flux must remain constant to produce full-load torque.
 The speed of the rotating electric field within the induction motor

Synchronous speed = (120 x Frequency)/no. of motor poles

The AC electric motor used in a VFD system is usually three-phase induction

motor. Some types of single-phase motors or synchronous motors advantageous
in some situations can be used, but three-phase induction motors are generally
preferred as the most economical motor choice. Motors that are designed for
fixed-speed operation are often used. Elevated-voltage stresses imposed on
induction motors that are supplied by VFDs require that such motors be designed
for definite-purpose inverter-fed duty in accordance with such requirements as
Part 31 of NEMA Standard MG-1.
INDUCTION MOTOR

Three-phase totally enclosed fan-cooled (TEFC) induction motor with end cover
on the left, and without end cover to show cooling fan. In TEFC motors, interior
heat losses are dissipated indirectly through enclosure fins, mostly by forced air
convection.

An induction motor or asynchronous motor is an AC electric motor in which

the electric current in the rotor needed to produce torque is obtained
by electromagnetic induction from the magnetic field of the stator winding.[1] An
induction motor can therefore be made without electrical connections to the
rotor. An induction motor's rotor can be either wound type or squirrel-cage type.

Three-phase squirrel-cage induction motors are widely used as industrial drives

because they are rugged, reliable and economical. Single-phase induction motors
are used extensively for smaller loads, such as household appliances like fans.
Although traditionally used in fixed-speed service, induction motors are
increasingly being used with variable-frequency drives (VFDs) in variable-speed
service. VFDs offer especially important energy savings opportunities for existing
and prospective induction motors in variable-torque centrifugal fan, pump and
compressor load applications. Squirrel cage induction motors are very widely
used in both fixed-speed and variable-frequency drive (VFD) applications.
Stator
Stator of three phase induction motor is made up of numbers of slots to
construct a 3 phase winding circuit which is connected to 3 phase AC source. The
three phase winding are arranged in such a manner in the slots that they produce
a rotating magnetic field after 3Ph. AC supply is given to them.

Rotor
Rotor of three phase induction motor consists of cylindrical laminated core with
parallel slots that can carry conductors. Conductors are heavy copper or aluminum
bars which fits in each slots & they are short circuited by the end rings. The slots are
not exactly made parallel to the axis of the shaft but are slotted a little skewed
because this arrangement reduces magnetic humming noise & can avoid stalling of
motor.

CONTOLLER

The VFD controller is a solid-state power electronics conversion system consisting

of three distinct sub-systems: a rectifier bridge converter, a direct current (DC)
link, and an inverter. Voltage-source inverter (VSI) drives (see 'Generic topologies'
sub-section below) are by far the most common type of drives. Most drives
are AC-AC drives in that they convert AC line input to AC inverter output.
However, in some applications such as common DC bus or solar applications,
drives are configured as DC-AC drives. The most basic rectifier converter for the
VSI drive is configured as a three-phase, six-pulse, full-wave diode bridge. In a VSI
drive, the DC link consists of a capacitor which smooths out the converter's DC
output ripple and provides a stiff input to the inverter. This filtered DC voltage is
converted to quasi-sinusoidal AC voltage output using the inverter's active
switching elements. VSI drives provide higher power factor and lower harmonic
distortion than phase-controlled current-source inverter (CSI) and load-
commutated inverter (LCI) drives (see 'Generic topologies' sub-section below).
The drive controller can also be configured as a phase converter having single-
phase converter input and three-phase inverter output.

Controller advances have exploited dramatic increases in the voltage and current
ratings and switching frequency of solid-state power devices over the past six
decades. Introduced in 1983, the insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) has in
the past two decades come to dominate VFDs as an inverter switching device.
In variable-torque applications suited for Volts-per-Hertz (V/Hz) drive control, AC
motor characteristics require that the voltage magnitude of the inverter's output
to the motor be adjusted to match the required load torque in a linear V/Hz
relationship. For example, for 460 V, 60 Hz motors, this linear V/Hz relationship is
460/60 = 7.67 V/Hz. While suitable in wide-ranging applications, V/Hz control is
sub-optimal in high-performance applications involving low speed or demanding,
dynamic speed regulation, positioning, and reversing load requirements. Some
V/Hz control drives can also operate in quadratic V/Hz mode or can even be
programmed to suit special multi-point V/Hz paths.

The two other drive control platforms, vector control and direct torque
control (DTC); adjust the motor voltage magnitude, angle from reference, and
frequencyso as to precisely control the motor's magnetic flux and mechanical
torque.

Although space vector pulse-width modulation (SVPWM) is becoming increasingly

popular, sinusoidal PWM (SPWM) is the most straightforward method used to
vary drives' motor voltage (or current) and frequency. With SPWM control (see
Fig. 1), quasi-sinusoidal, variable-pulse-width output is constructed from
intersections of a saw-toothed carrier signal with a modulating sinusoidal signal
which is variable in operating frequency as well as in voltage (or current).

Operation of the motors above rated nameplate speed (base speed) is possible,
but is limited to conditions that do not require more power than the nameplate
rating of the motor. This is sometimes called "field weakening" and, for
AC motors, means operating at less than rated V/Hz and above rated nameplate
speed. Permanent magnet synchronous motors have quite limited field-
weakening speed range due to the constant magnet flux linkage. Wound-rotor
synchronous motors and induction motors have much wider speed range. For
example, a 100 HP, 460 V, 60 Hz, 1775 RPM (4-pole) induction motor supplied
with 460 V, 75 Hz (6.134 V/Hz), would be limited to 60/75 = 80% torque at 125%
speed (2218.75 RPM) = 100% power. At higher speeds, the induction motor
torque has to be limited further due to the lowering of the breakaway torque of
the motor. Thus, rated power can be typically produced only up to 130-150% of
the rated nameplate speed. Wound-rotor synchronous motors can be run at even
higher speeds. In rolling mill drives, often 200-300% of the base speed is used.
The mechanical strength of the rotor limits the maximum speed of the motor.
 Fig. 1: SPWM carrier-sine input & 2-level PWM output

An embedded microprocessor governs the overall operation of the VFD

controller. Basic programming of the microprocessor is provided as user-
inaccessible firmware. User programming of display, variable, and function block
parameters is provided to control, protect, and monitor the VFD, motor, and
driven equipment.
The basic drive controller can be configured to selectively include such optional
power components and accessories as follows:

 Connected upstream of converter -- circuit breaker or fuses,

isolation contactor, EMC filter, line reactor, passive filter
 Connected to DC link -- braking chopper, braking resistor
 Connected downstream of inverter—output reactor, sine wave filter, dV/dt filter.

OPERATOR INTERFACE

The operator interface provides a means for an operator to start and stop the
motor and adjust the operating speed. Additional operator control functions
might include reversing, and switching between manual speed adjustment and
automatic control from an external process control signal. The operator interface
often includes an alphanumeric display or indication lights and meters to provide
information about the operation of the drive. An operator interface keypad and
display unit is often provided on the front of the VFD controller as shown in the
photograph above. The keypad display can often be cable-connected and
mounted a short distance from the VFD controller. Most are also provided
with input and output (I/O) terminals for connecting push buttons, switches, and
other operator interface devices or control signals. A serial
communications port is also often available to allow the VFD to be configured,
adjusted, monitored, and controlled using a computer.
 DRIVE OPERATION

Electric motor speed-torque chart

Referring to the accompanying chart, drive applications can be categorized as

single-quadrant, two-quadrant, or four-quadrant; the chart's four quadrants are
defined as follows:

 Quadrant I - Driving or motoring, forward accelerating quadrant with positive

speed and torque
 Quadrant II - Generating or braking, forward braking-decelerating quadrant with
positive speed and negative torque
 Quadrant III - Driving or motoring, reverse accelerating quadrant with negative
speed and torque
 Quadrant IV - Generating or braking, reverse braking-decelerating quadrant with
negative speed and positive torque.

Most applications involve single-quadrant loads operating in quadrant me, such

as in variable-torque (e.g. centrifugal pumps or fans) and certain constant-torque
(e.g. extruders) loads.
Certain applications involve two-quadrant loads operating in quadrant I and II
where the speed is positive but the torque changes polarity as in case of a fan
decelerating faster than natural mechanical losses. Some sources define two-
quadrant drives as loads operating in quadrants I and III where the speed and
torque is same (positive or negative) polarity in both directions.

Certain high-performance applications involve four-quadrant loads (Quadrants I

to IV) where the speed and torque can be in any direction such as in hoists,
elevators, and hilly conveyors. Regeneration can occur only in the drive's DC link
bus when inverter voltage is smaller in magnitude than the motor back-EMF and
inverter voltage and back-EMF are the same polarity.

In starting a motor, a VFD initially applies a low frequency and voltage, thus
avoiding high inrush current associated with direct-on-line starting. After the start
of the VFD, the applied frequency and voltage are increased at a controlled rate
or ramped up to accelerate the load. This starting method typically allows a
motor to develop 150% of its rated torque while the VFD is drawing less than 50%
of its rated current from the mains in the low-speed range. A VFD can be adjusted
to produce a steady 150% starting torque from standstill right up to full
speed. However, motor cooling deteriorates and can result in overheating as
speed decreases such that prolonged low-speed operation with significant torque
is not usually possible without separately motorized fan ventilation.

With a VFD, the stopping sequence is just the opposite as the starting sequence.
The frequency and voltage applied to the motor are ramped down at a controlled
rate. When the frequency approaches zero, the motor is shut off. A small amount
of braking torque is available to help decelerate the load a little faster than it
would stop if the motor were simply switched off and allowed to coast. Additional
braking torque can be obtained by adding a braking circuit (resistor controlled by
a transistor) to dissipate the braking energy. With a four-quadrant rectifier (active
front-end), the VFD is able to brake the load by applying a reverse torque and
injecting the energy back to the AC line

HOW DOES VFD WORKS?

The first stage of a Variable Frequency AC Drive, or VFD, is the Converter. The
converter is comprised of six diodes, which are similar to check valves used in
plumbing systems. They allow current to flow in only one direction; the direction
shown by the arrow in the diode symbol. For example, whenever A-phase voltage
(voltage is similar to pressure in plumbing systems) is more positive than B or C
phase voltages, then that diode will open and allow current to flow. When B-
phase becomes more positive than A-phase, then the B-phase diode will open
and the A-phase diode will close. The same is true for the 3 diodes on the
negative side of the bus. Thus, we get six current “pulses” as each diode opens
and closes. This is called a “six-pulse VFD”, which is the standard configuration for
current Variable Frequency Drives.
Let us assume that the drive is operating on a 480V power system. The 480V
rating is “rams” or root-mean-squared. The peaks on a 480V system are 679V. As
you can see, the VFD dc bus has a dc voltage with an AC ripple. The voltage runs
between approximately 580V and 680V.
We can get rid of the AC ripple on the DC bus by adding a capacitor. A capacitor
operates in a similar fashion to a reservoir or accumulator in a plumbing system.
This capacitor absorbs the ac ripple and delivers a smooth dc voltage. The AC
ripple on the DC bus is typically less than 3 Volts. Thus, the voltage on the DC bus
becomes “approximately” 650VDC. The actual voltage will depend on the voltage
level of the AC line feeding the drive, the level of voltage unbalance on the power
system, the motor load, the impedance of the power system, and any reactors or
harmonic filters on the drive.

The diode bridge converter that converts AC-to-DC is sometimes just referred to
as a converter. The converter that converts the dc back to ac is also a converter,
but to distinguish it from the diode converter, it is usually referred to as an
“inverter”. It has become common in the industry to refer to any DC-to-AC
converter as an inverter.

Note that in a real VFD, the switches shown would actually be transistors.
When we close one of the top switches in the inverter, that phase of the motor is
connected to the positive dc bus and the voltage on that phase becomes positive.
When we close one of the bottom switches in the converter, that phase is
connected to the negative dc bus and becomes negative. Thus, we can make any
phase on the motor become positive or negative at will and can thus generate
any frequency that we want. So, we can make any phase be positive, negative, or
zero.

The blue sine-wave is shown for comparison purposes only. The drive does not
generate this sine wave.
Notice that the output from the VFD is a “rectangular” wave form. VFD’s do not
produce a sinusoidal output. This rectangular waveform would not be a good
choice for a general purpose distribution system, but is perfectly adequate for a
motor.
If we want to reduce the motor frequency to 30 Hz, then we simply switch the
inverter output transistors more slowly. But, if we reduce the frequency to 30Hz,
then we must also reduce the voltage to 240V in order to maintain the V/Hz ratio
(see the VFD Motor Theory presentation for more on this). How are we going to
reduce the voltage if the only voltage we have is 650VDC?

This is called Pulse Width Modulation or PWM. Imagine that we could control the
pressure in a water line by turning the valve on and off at a high rate of speed.
While this would not be practical for plumbing systems, it works very well for
VFD’s. Notice that during the first half cycle, the voltage is ON half the time and
OFF half the time. Thus, the average voltage is half of 480V or 240V. By pulsing
the output, we can achieve any average voltage on the output of the VFD.
 VFD BLOCK DIAGRAM

 All VFD’s need power section that converts AC power into DC power. This is called
Converter Bridge.
 Sometimes the front end of the VFD, the converter is commonly a three-phase,
full wave Diode Bridge.
 The DC bus is the true link between the converter and inverter sections of the
drive.

RECTIFIER or CONVERTER

Rectifier is that converter which converts AC to DC.

 DC BUS

 The DC link is an important section of the drive as it provides much of the

monitoring and protection of the drive and motoring circuit.
 Any ripple must be smoothed out before any transistors switches on.
 If not this distortion will show up in the output to the motor.
 The DC bus voltage and current can be viewed through the bus terminals.

INVERTER

Ours are sometimes called AC drives, Variable Speed Drive (VSD) or Variable
Frequency Drives (VFD). The correct term is frequency converter. They sit
between the electrical supply and the motor. Power from the electrical supply
goes into the drive. The drive then regulates the power which is then fed to the
motor. Inside the drive, the input power is run through a rectifier that converts
the incoming AC power to DC power.

DC power is then fed into capacitors inside the drive to smooth out the electrical
wave form which provides a clean power supply for the next step. Power then
flows from a capacitor to an inverter which changes the DC power to the output
AC power that goes to the motor. This step allows the drive to adjust the
frequency and voltage that is supplied to the motor based on your current
process demands. This means the AC power is run to the speed or the torque of
the demands needed. This is why you can save large amounts of money using our
AC drives.
FREQUENCY VARIATION IN VFD
 APPLICATIONS CONSIDERATION
AC LINE HARMONICS
While harmonics in the PWM output can easily be filtered by carrier-frequency-
related filter inductance to supply near-sinusoidal currents to the motor load, the
VFD's diode-bridge rectifier converts AC line voltage to DC voltage output by
super-imposing non-linear half-phase current pulses thus creating harmonic
current distortion, and hence voltage distortion, of the AC line input. When the
VFD loads are relatively small in comparison to the large, stiff power system
available from the electric power company, the effects of VFD harmonic
distortion of the AC grid can often be within acceptable limits. Furthermore, in
low-voltage networks, harmonics caused by single-phase equipment such as
computers and TVs are partially cancelled by three-phase diode bridge harmonics
because their 5th and 7th harmonics are in counter phase. However, when the
proportion of VFD and other non-linear load compared to total load or of non-
linear load compared to the stiffness at the AC power supply, or both, is relatively
large enough, the load can have a negative impact on the AC power waveform
available to other power company customers in the same grid.

When the power company's voltage becomes distorted due to harmonics, losses
in other loads such as normal fixed-speed AC motors are increased. This condition
may lead to overheating and shorter operating life. Also, substation transformers
and compensation capacitors are affected negatively. In particular, capacitors can
cause resonance conditions that can unacceptably magnify harmonic levels. In
order to limit the voltage distortion, owners of VFD load may be required to
install filtering equipment to reduce harmonic distortion below acceptable limits.
Alternatively, the utility may adopt a solution by installing filtering equipment of
its own at substations affected by the large amount of VFD equipment being
used. In high-power installations, harmonic distortion can be reduced by
supplying multi-pulse rectifier-bridge VFDs from transformers with multiple
phase-shifted windings.
It is also possible to replace the standard diode-bridge rectifier with a bi-
directional IGBT switching Device Bridge mirroring the standard inverter which
uses IGBT switching device output to the motor. Such rectifiers are referred to by
various designations including active infeed converter (AIC), active rectifier, IGBT
supply unit (ISU), active front end (AFE), or four-quadrant operation. With PWM
control and a suitable input reactor, an AFE's AC line current waveform can be
nearly sinusoidal. AFE inherently regenerates energy in four-quadrant mode from
the DC side to the AC grid. Thus, no braking resistor is needed, and the efficiency
of the drive is improved if the drive is frequently required to brake the motor.
Two other harmonics mitigation techniques exploit use of passive or active filters
connected to a common bus with at least one VFD branch load on the bus.
Passive filters involve the design of one or more low-pass LC filter traps, each trap
being tuned as required to a harmonic frequency (5th, 7th, 11th, 13th, . . . kq+/-1,
where k=integer, q=pulse number of converter).
It is very common practice for power companies or their customers to impose
harmonic distortion limits based on IEC or IEEE standards. For example, IEEE
Standard 519 limits at the customer's connection point call for the maximum
individual frequency voltage harmonic to be no more than 3% of the fundamental
and call for the voltage total harmonic distortion (THD) to be no more than 5% for
a general AC power supply system.

SWITCHING FREQUENCY
SWITCHING FREQUENCY FOLDBACK
One drive uses a default switching frequency setting of 4 kHz. Reducing the
drive’s switching frequency (the carrier-frequency) reduces the heat generated by
the IGBTs.

A carrier frequency of at least ten times the desired output frequency is used to
establish the PWM switching intervals. A carrier frequency in the range of 2,000
to 16,000 Hz is common for LV [low voltage, under 600 Volts AC] VFDs. A higher
carrier frequency produces a better sine wave approximation but incurs higher
switching losses in the IGBT, decreasing the overall power conversion efficiency.

NOISE SMOOTHING
Some drives have a noise smoothing feature that can be turned on to introduce a
random variation to the switching frequency. This distributes the acoustic noise
over a range of frequencies to lower the peak noise intensity.

LONG-LEAD EFECTS
The carrier-frequency pulsed output voltage of a PWM VFD causes rapid rise
times in these pulses, the transmission line effects of which must be considered.
Since the transmission-line impedance of the cable and motor are different,
pulses tend to reflect back from the motor terminals into the cable. The resulting
voltages can produce overvoltage equal to twice the DC bus voltage or up to
3.1 times the rated line voltage for long cable runs, putting high stress on the
cable and motor windings, and eventual insulation failure. Insulation standards
for three-phase motors rated 230 V or less adequately protect against such long-
lead over voltages. On 460 V or 575 V systems and inverters with 3rd-generation
0.1-microsecond-rise-time IGBTs, the maximum recommended cable distance
between VFD and motor is about 50 m or 150 feet. Solutions to over voltages
caused by long lead lengths include minimizing cable distance, lowering carrier
frequency, installing dV/dt filters, using inverter-duty-rated motors (that are
rated 600 V to withstand pulse trains with rise time less than or equal to
0.1 microsecond, of 1,600 V peak magnitude), and installing LCR low-pass sine
wave filters. Regarding lowering of carrier frequency, note that audible noise is
noticeably increased for carrier frequencies less than about 6 kHz and is most
noticeable at about 3 kHz. Selection of optimum PWM carrier frequency for
AC drives involves balancing noise, heat, motor insulation stress, common-mode
voltage-induced motor bearing current damage, smooth motor operation, and
other factors. Further harmonics attenuation can be obtained by using an LCR
low-pass sine wave filter or dV/dt filter.

MOTOR BEARING CURRENTS

Carrier frequencies above 5 kHz are likely to cause bearing damage unless
protective measures are taken.

PWM drives are inherently associated with high-frequency common-mode

voltages and currents which may cause trouble with motor bearings. When these
high-frequency voltages find a path to earth through a bearing, transfer of metal
or electrical discharge machining (EDM) sparking occurs between the bearing's
ball and the bearing's race. Over time, EDM-based sparking causes erosion in the
bearing race that can be seen as a fluting pattern. In large motors, the stray
capacitance of the windings provides paths for high-frequency currents that pass
through the motor shaft ends, leading to a circulating type of bearing current.
Poor grounding of motor stators can lead to shaft-to-ground bearing currents.
Small motors with poorly grounded driven equipment are susceptible to high-
frequency bearing currents.

Prevention of high-frequency bearing current damage uses three approaches:

good cabling and grounding practices, interruption of bearing currents, and
filtering or damping of common-mode currents for example through soft
magnetic cores, the so-called inductive absorbers. Good cabling and grounding
practices can include use of shielded, symmetrical-geometry power cable to
supply the motor, installation of shaft grounding brushes, and conductive bearing
grease. Bearing currents can be interrupted by installation of insulated bearings
and specially designed electrostatic-shielded induction motors. Filtering and
damping high-frequency bearing can be done though inserting soft magnetic
cores over the three phases giving a high frequency impedance against the
common mode or motor bearing currents. Another approach is to use instead of
standard 2-level inverter drives, using either 3-level inverter drives or matrix
converters.

Since inverter-fed motor cables' high-frequency current spikes can interfere with
other cabling in facilities, such inverter-fed motor cables should not only be of
shielded, symmetrical-geometry design but should also be routed at least 50 cm
away from signal cables.

DYNAMIC BREAKING
Torque generated by the drive causes the induction motor to run
at synchronous speed less the slip. If the load drives the motor faster than
synchronous speed, the motor acts as a generator, converting mechanical power
back to electrical power. This power is returned to the drive's DC link element
(capacitor or reactor). A DC-link-connected electronic power switch or braking DC
chopper controls dissipation of this power as heat in a set of resistors. Cooling
fans may be used to prevent resistor overheating.

Dynamic braking wastes braking energy by transforming it to heat. By contrast,

regenerative drives recover braking energy by injecting this energy into the AC
line. The capital cost of regenerative drives is, however, relatively high.

REGENERATIVE DRIVES
Regenerative AC drives have the capacity to recover the braking energy of a load
moving faster than the designated motor speed (an overhauling load) and return
it to the power system.
Cycloconverter, Scherbius, matrix, CSI, and LCI drives inherently allow return of
energy from the load to the line, while voltage-source inverters require an
additional converter to return energy to the supply.
Regeneration is useful in VFDs only where the value of the recovered energy is
large compared to the extra cost of a regenerative system, and if the system
requires frequent braking and starting. Regenerative VFDs are widely used where
speed control of overhauling loads is required.
 Line regenerative variable frequency drives, showing capacitors (top cylinders)
and inductors attached, which filter the regenerated power.

Simplified Drive Schematic for a Popular EHV

Some examples:

 Conveyor belt drives for manufacturing, which stop every few minutes. While
stopped, parts are assembled correctly; once that is done, the belt moves on.
 A crane, where the hoist motor stops and reverses frequently, and braking is
required to slow the load during lowering.
 Plug-in and hybrid electric vehicles of all types.

VFD Model Used under Training

In our project Training we have used VFD of FRENIC-Ace Global model of Fuji Electric
company. The basic circuit connection is given below with the specification of the components
used. This product is designed to drive a three-phase induction motor or a three-phase
permanent magnet synchronous motor under variable speed control.
This manual provides all the information on the FRENIC-Ace (Global model) series of inverters
including its operating procedure and selection of peripheral equipment. Before use, carefully
read this manual for proper use. Improper handling might result in incorrect operation, a short
life, or even a failure of this product as well as the motor.
Basic connection diagram
Running or stopping the motor

By factory default, pressing the key starts running the motor in the forward direction and
pressing the key decelerates the motor to stop. The key is enabled only in running mode

When the inverter is running, the RUN LED lights. To run the motor in the reverse direction or
to run it reversibly, change the data of function code F02 to “3” or “0,”respectively.

RUN KEY

STOP KEY

Data for F02 Pressing the key runs the motor:

0 in the direction commanded by terminal

[FWD]/ [REV
1 Disable key (The motor is driven by
terminal [FWD]/ [REV] command.)

2 In the forward direction

3 In the forward direction

Test Run Procedure Flowchart

Make a test run of the motor using the flowchart given below.
For IM
VFD Operation

For understanding the basic principles behind VFD operation requires understanding three
basic section of VFD: the Rectifier unit, DC Bus and the Inverter unit. The supply voltage is
firstly pass through a rectifier unit where in gets converted into AC to DC supply, the three
phase supply is fed with three phase full wave diode where it gets converts into DC supply.
The DC bus comprises with filter section where the harmonics generated during the Actor DC
conversion are filtered out. The last section consists of an inverter section which comprises
with six IGBT
(Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) where the filtered DC supply is being converted to quasi
sinusoidal wave of ACsupply which is supply to the induction motor connected to
It. As we know that the synchronous speed of motor (rpm) independent upon frequency.
Therefore by varying the frequency of the power supply through VFD we can control
The synchronous motor speed:

120 * Frequency
Speed (rpm) =
Pole
Where;
Frequency = Electrical Frequency of the power supply in Hz.
No. of Poles = Number of electrical poles in the motor stator.

Thus we can conveniently adjust the speed of a motor by changing the frequency applied to
the motor. There is also another way to change the speed of the motor by changing
The no. of poles, but this change would be a physical change of the motor. As the drive
provides the frequency and voltage of output necessary to change the speed of a motor,
This is done through Pulse Width Modulation Drives. Pulse width modulation (PWM) inverter
produces pulses of varying widths which are combined to build the required
Waveform. As the frequency can easily variable as compared with the
Poles of the motor therefore speed control drive is termed as Variable Frequency Drive (VFD).
 Constant V/F Ratio Operation
All Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs) maintain the output voltage – to – frequency (V/f) ratio
constant at all speeds for the reason that follows. The phase voltage V, frequency f and
The magnetic flux ϕ of motor are related by the equation:-
V = 4.444 f N ϕm
or V/f = 4.444×N ϕm
Where N = number of turns per phase.

If the same voltage is applied at the reducing frequency, the magnetic flux would increase
and saturate the magnetic core, significantly distorting the motor performance. The magnetic
saturation can be avoided by keeping the ϕm constant. Moreover, the motor torque is the
product of stator flux and rotor current. For maintaining the rated torque at all speeds
the constant flux must be maintained at its rated value, which is basically done by keeping
the voltage – to – frequency (V/f) ratio constant. That requires the lowering the motor
voltage in the same proportion as the frequency to avoid magnetic saturation due to high
flux or lower than the rated.
torque due to low flux.
How Drive Changes Motor Speed
As the drive provides the frequency and voltage of output necessary to change the speed of a
motor, this is done through Pulse Width Modulation Drives. Pulse width modulation (PWM)
inverter produces pulses of varying widths which are combined to build the required
waveform. A diode bridge is used in some converters to reduce harmonics. PWM produce a
current waveform that more closely matches a line source, which reduces undesired
heating. PWM drive have almost constant power factor at all speeds which is closely to unity.
PWM units can also operate multiple motor on a single drive.
-
Thus the carrier frequency is derived from the speed of the power device switch remains ON
and OFF. It is also called switch frequency. Therefore higher the carrier frequency higher the
resolution for PWM (Pulse Width Modulation)
contains. The typical carrier frequency ranges from 3KHz to 4 KHz or 3000 to 4000 times per
second as compared with older SCR based carrier frequency which ranges from 250 to 500
times per second. Thus it is clear as much as higher the
Carrier frequency higher will be the resolution of output waveform. It is also noted that the
carrier frequency decreases the efficiency of the drive because it led to increase the heat of
the drive circuit.
 Simulation Circuit

For variable speed control of AC electrical machines several power electronics switches such
as IGBTs, MOSFETs and GTO use as forced – commutation method. Earlier techniques such as
the DC motor and Thyristor Bridge which are replaced with new techniques such as Voltage
Sourced

Converters (VSC) are fed by Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) to the asynchronous machine. As
the flexibility of speed and torque control with DC machine, the same can be
Obtained by the combination of pulse width modulation technique with modern control
technique such as Field Oriented Technique or Direct Torque Control methods. In
This section a simulation of AC drive controlling an asynchronous machine is been described.
Waveform Analysis

Result
The simulation result is being calculated from a 4 pole Asynchronous motor of 3 HP and the
Harmonics analysis using FFT tool of simulation of maximum frequency 5000 Hz.

It is clear that THD (V) level increases with as the value of fundamental frequency increases
from 0Hz and also the fundamental frequency decreases 45 Hz or below. Thus the
range of variations of fundamental frequency should be kept in between 70 to 45 Hz. It is
also seen that the values of THD (V) in case of 70Hz, 60Hz and 45Hz is quit high as
Compared to other frequency presents in between them, this is because of presence of ODD
Harmonics in these frequencies, as we know that the ODD harmonics is more
harmful for the promotion of Distortion in the circuit than the VEN Harmonics. Since the
maximum frequency is set as5000Hz therefore it can be easily calculated the order of
Harmonics. Thus the consumption of electrical energy is depends on the load requirement.
The variation of frequency leads to the harmonics distortion which can be mitigating by
several techniques of harmonics mitigation.
 The variation of THD in between the fundamental frequencies is keep changing therefore
there are variation for distortion which leads to the calculation of energy savings is
Quite possible as well as speed control of the motor. Further the introduction of filter
techniques can lead to the mitigation of harmonics level in the circuit. Basically the
application of Band Pass Active Filter is quite suitable for mitigation of harmonics in this level.
It can be introduced as a future

Conclusion
Thus from the analysis of table it is clear that the frequency variation leads to the harmonics
change in the machine also as the speed decreases the Total Harmonics Distortion in voltage
as well as in current increases and THD in voltage is lower than THD in current. It is also to be
noted that too much variation in frequency also leads to increase in the THD voltage as well as
THD current levels. Thus the Variable Frequency Drive can serve both in case of Speed Control
of Motor as well as energy savings. Sources are reduced that leads to the conservation of
energy.
For high performance providing by the Variable Frequency Drive for maximum process
productivity always required a complex engineering consideration. However rapid
Improvements in AC control technology combined with ready availability of standard fixed
frequency of AC motor have increased the number of possible solution. With the
Process of pulse width modulation, the frequency given to the induction motor can be set in
order to control the speed of the induction motor. Thus the consumption of electrical
Energy is depends on the load requirement. However the variation of frequency leads to the
harmonics distortion which can be mitigate by several techniques of harmonics
Mitigation of the inverter application of active filters is required into the circuit such as Band
Pass Active Filter.
The elimination techniques of harmonics are generally applied to lowest harmonic because
as the filtering is more practical at higher harmonics, the filtering component can be
Smaller and less expensive. Also application of several multilevel inverters provides another
approach to harmonics cancellation. For the mitigation of harmonics from the circuit.
Thus after the study of Variable Frequency Drive, it becomes possible to control the speed of
electric motor as well as to conserve the electrical energy, as we know that the energy
conservation has become an important subject to all over the world. Increase in efficient
energy use, decrease in energy consumption and/or consumption from conventional energy