Theory of Machines Lab: Department of Mechanical Engineering University of Engineering & Technology Lahore, Pakistan

Theory of Machines Lab
Submitted by:
M. Asjad Aamir 2016-ME-10
Lab Supervisor:
Engr. Rashid Sajid
Department of Mechanical Engineering

University of Engineering & Technology Lahore, Pakistan
Table of Contents
University of Engineering & Technology Lahore, Pakistan ........................................................... 1
Experiment:1 ................................................................................................................................... 5
Apparatus: ....................................................................................................................................... 5
Procedure: ....................................................................................................................................... 5
Theoretical Background: ................................................................................................................. 5
Balancing: ................................................................................................................................... 5
Static Balancing: ......................................................................................................................... 6
Balancing of a Single rotating mass by a single mass rotating in the Same Plane: ................ 6
Significance of Balancing: .............................................................................................................. 7
Applications: ................................................................................................................................... 7
Observations and Calculations:....................................................................................................... 8
Comments: ...................................................................................................................................... 8
Experiment:2 ................................................................................................................................... 9
Apparatus: ....................................................................................................................................... 9
Procedure: ....................................................................................................................................... 9
Observations and Calculations:....................................................................................................... 9
Sample Calculations: .................................................................................................................. 9
Comments: .................................................................................................................................... 10
Experiment:3 ................................................................................................................................. 11
Apparatus: ..................................................................................................................................... 11
Procedure: ..................................................................................................................................... 11
Observations and Calculations:..................................................................................................... 11
Sample Calculations: ................................................................................................................ 11
Comments: .................................................................................................................................... 12
Experiment: 4 ................................................................................................................................ 13
Apparatus: ..................................................................................................................................... 13
Procedure: ..................................................................................................................................... 13
Comments: .................................................................................................................................... 14
Experiment:5 ................................................................................................................................. 15
Apparatus: ..................................................................................................................................... 15
Procedure: ..................................................................................................................................... 15
Comments: .................................................................................................................................... 17
Experiment:6 ................................................................................................................................. 18
Apparatus: ..................................................................................................................................... 18
Procedure: ..................................................................................................................................... 18
Comments: .................................................................................................................................... 20
Experiment:7 ................................................................................................................................. 21
Apparatus: ..................................................................................................................................... 21
Procedure: ..................................................................................................................................... 21
Related Theory: ............................................................................................................................. 21
Friction: ..................................................................................................................................... 21
Kinetic Friction: ........................................................................................................................ 22
Laws of Kinetic Friction: ...................................................................................................... 23
Derivation: .................................................................................................................................... 23
Comments: .................................................................................................................................... 25
Experiment:8 ................................................................................................................................. 26
Apparatus: ..................................................................................................................................... 26
Related Theory: ............................................................................................................................. 26
Worm and worm gears: ............................................................................................................. 26
Advantages:........................................................................................................................... 26
Disadvantages: ...................................................................................................................... 26
Mechanical Advantage: ............................................................................................................ 27
Velocity Ratio: .......................................................................................................................... 27
Mechanical Efficiency: ............................................................................................................. 27
Procedure: ..................................................................................................................................... 27
Comments: .................................................................................................................................... 28
Experiment:9 ................................................................................................................................. 29
Apparatus: ..................................................................................................................................... 29
Related Theory: ............................................................................................................................. 29
Cams: ........................................................................................................................................ 29
Uses: .......................................................................................................................................... 29
Cam motion analysis: ................................................................................................................ 29
Forward Stroke: .................................................................................................................... 29
First Dwell: ........................................................................................................................... 29
Return Stroke: ....................................................................................................................... 29
Second Dwell: ....................................................................................................................... 30
Procedure: ..................................................................................................................................... 30
Observations: ................................................................................................................................ 30
Comments: .................................................................................................................................... 31
Experiment:1
To balance a rotating mass with a same mass rotating at same radii in the same plane.
Apparatus:
Balancing apparatus, weights & nuts etc.
Procedure:
1. First of all apparatus was levelled.
2. Disturbing mass was attached with the help of nut and bolt to the wheel at a specified
distance rd from center of wheel, and at a certain position 𝜃𝑑 .
3. Wheel was rotated through power from the motor.
4. It was observed that apparatus started vibrating due to disturbing mass which exerted
centrifugal force on the apparatus.
5. Motor was powered off.
6. A balancing mass equal to disturbing mass was attached opposite to the disturbing mass
i.e. 𝜃𝑏 = 180 + 𝜃𝑑 to the wheel at different distance rd from center of wheel.
7. Motor was powered on.
8. It was observed that apparatus was balanced due to opposite force exerted by balancing
mass which cancels the effect of disturbing force.
9. The experiment was repeated by changing mass, distance from center of wheel.
Theoretical Background:
Balancing:
Balancing means that cancelling of disturbing forces which cause vibrations in rotating bodies.
These disturbing forces in rotating bodies are generated due to non-uniform distribution of masses
in rotating bodies.
Figure 1.1
Figure 1.1 depicts that when there is non-uniform distribution of mass on a rigid body, it will
produce a resultant force which will cause vibrations or shaking of body when it rotates. The
inertial forces in a a mechanism or a rotating machine part are entirely due to mass and motion
characteristics of machine members. These forces can be reduced by reducing the mass or moment
of inertia, and by reducing linear or angular acceleration. The mass can be reduced by lighter
materials. Acceleration can be reduced by moving center of mass towards point of zero rotation.
This is done by adding mass in the form of balanced weights to move overall center of mass of a
given member to a location of reduced acceleration.
There are two types of balancing. One is static and other is dynamic. In this experiment, only
static balancing will be discussed.
Static Balancing:
It is also called single plane balancing. The masses which are generating the inertia forces are in,
or nearly in, the same plane. Some examples of common devices which meet this criterion, and
thus can successfully be statically balanced, are: a single gear or pulley on a shaft, a bicycle or
motorcycle tire and wheel, a thin flywheel, an airplane propeller, an individual turbine blade-
wheel.
Balancing of a Single rotating mass by a single mass rotating in the Same Plane:
Figure 1.2 (a), (b)
Figure 1.2 (a) shows a link in the shape of a vee which is part of a linkage. We want to statically
balance it. We can model this link dynamically as two point masses 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 concentrated at the
local CGs of each "leg" of the link as shown in Figure 1.2 (b).These point masses each have a mass
equal to that of the "leg" they replace and are supported on massless rods at the position (𝑟1 or 𝑟2 )
of that leg's CG. We can solve for the required amount and location of a third "balance mass" 𝑚𝑏 to
be added to the system at some location 𝑟𝑏 . Assume that the system is rotating at some constant
angular velocity 𝜔. The accelerations of the masses will then be strictly centripetal (toward the
center), and the inertia forces will be centrifugal (away from the center). A coordinate system is
established with its origin at the center of rotation and resolve the inertial forces into components
in that system. A vector equation is written as:
−𝑚𝑏 . 𝜔2 . 𝑟𝑏 − 𝑚1 . 𝜔2 . 𝑟1 − 𝑚2 . 𝜔2 . 𝑟2 = 0
Or,
𝑚𝑏 𝑟𝑏 = −𝑚1 𝑟1 − 𝑚2 𝑟2
Resolving to x and y components;
(𝑚𝑏 𝑟𝑏 )𝑥 = −(𝑚1 𝑟1 + 𝑚2 𝑟2 )𝑥
(𝑚𝑏 𝑟𝑏 )𝑦 = −(𝑚1 𝑟1 + 𝑚2 𝑟2 )𝑦
(𝑚1 𝑟1 + 𝑚2 𝑟2 )𝑦
𝜃𝑑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
(𝑚1 𝑟1 + 𝑚2 𝑟2 )𝑥
Or,
Significance of Balancing:
When an unbalanced system is rotating, periodic linear and/or torsional forces are generated which
are perpendicular to the axis of rotation. The periodic nature of these forces is commonly
experienced as vibration. These off-axis vibration forces may exceed the design limits of
individual machine elements, reducing the service life of these parts. For instance, a bearing may
be subjected to perpendicular torsion forces that would not occur in a nominally balanced system,
or the instantaneous linear forces may exceed the limits of the bearing. Such excessive forces will
cause failure in bearings in short time periods. Shafts with unbalanced masses can be bent by the
forces and experience fatigue failure.
Applications:
Rapidly rotating masses such as electric motors, generators, steam and gas turbines, vehicle wheels
and many other situations can generate significant fluctuating forces with even tiny amounts of
unbalance. Rotating masses are also found in internal combustion engines, pumps and
compressors. When a part or component is machined, cast or forged, there may be some variations
in its dimensions or variations in inhomogeneity of material. This contributes to offsetting center
of mass; and so balancing is applied in such situations
Observations and Calculations:

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑚𝑑
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑟𝑑
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝜃𝑑
𝐵𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑚𝑏
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑟𝑏
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝜃𝑏
𝑚𝑑 𝑟𝑑 𝜃𝑑 𝑚𝑑 . 𝑟𝑑 𝑚𝑏 𝑟𝑏 𝜃𝑏 𝑚𝑏 . 𝑟𝑏
(lb) (in) (deg) (lb-in) (lb) (in) (deg) (lb-in)
1.75 3 60 5.25 1.75 3 240 5.25

1.5 4 90 5 1.5 4 270 5
0.75 5 160 3.75 0.75 5 340 3.75
Comments:
• The product “𝑚1 . 𝑟1” may be split up in any convenient way. But the radius of rotation of
the balancing mass is generally made larger to reduce the balancing mass.
• The centrifugal forces are proportional to the product of the mass and radius of rotation
of respective masses, because 𝜔2 is same for each mass.
Experiment:2
To balance a disturbing mass with a balancing mass rotating at different radii in the same plane.
Apparatus:
Procedure:
2. Disturbing mass was attached with the help of nut and bolt to the wheel at a specified
distance rd from center of wheel, and at a certain position 𝜃𝑑 .
6. A balancing mass equal to disturbing mass was attached opposite to the disturbing mass
i.e. 𝜃𝑏 = 180 + 𝜃𝑑 to the wheel at different distance 𝑟𝑑 from center of wheel.

Sample Calculations:
𝑚1 . 𝜔2 . 𝑟1 = 𝑚2 . 𝜔2 . 𝑟2
𝑚1 . 𝑟1 = 𝑚2 . 𝑟2 𝑒𝑞(1)
Let disturbing mass = 𝑚1 = 0.25 lb, 𝑟𝑑 = 𝑟1 = 4𝑖𝑛, 𝑚𝑏 = 𝑚2 = 0.5𝑙𝑏

From eq(1), 𝑟𝑏 = 𝑟2 = 2𝑖𝑛
𝑚𝑑 𝑟𝑑 𝜃𝑑 𝑚𝑑 . 𝑟𝑑 𝑚𝑏 𝑟𝑏 𝜃𝑏 𝑚𝑏 . 𝑟𝑏
(lb) (in) (deg) (lb-in) (lb) (in) (deg) (lb-in)
0.25 4 70 1 0.5 2 250 1

1 2 10 2 0.5 4 190 2
Comments:
• The product “𝑚1 . 𝑟1” may be split up in any convenient way. But the radius of rotation of
the balancing mass is generally made larger to reduce the balancing mass.
• The centrifugal forces are proportional to the product of the mass and radius of rotation
of respective masses, because 𝜔2 is same for each mass.
Experiment:3
To balance two rotating disturbing masses with a single balancing mass rotating at same radii in
the same plane.
Apparatus:
Procedure:
2. Two disturbing masses 𝑚1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚2 were attached with the help of nut and bolt to the
wheel at a specified distance rd from center of wheel, and at certain positions 𝜃1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃2 .
6. Resultant of two disturbing masses were calculated, and 𝜃𝑑 was also determined.
7. A balancing mass, equal to resultant of two disturbing masses, was attached opposite to
the disturbing mass i.e. 𝜃𝑏 = 180 + 𝜃𝑑 to the wheel at same distance 𝑟𝑑 = 𝑟𝑏 from
center of wheel.

𝐻 = 𝑚𝑑1 𝑟𝑑1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑1 + 𝑚𝑑2 𝑟𝑑2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑2 eq(1)
𝑉 = 𝑚𝑑1 𝑟𝑑1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑1 + 𝑚𝑑2 𝑟𝑑2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑2 eq(2)
𝐹 = √𝐻 2 + 𝑉 2 eq(3)
𝑉
𝜃𝑑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝐻) eq (4)
Let
𝑚𝑑1 =1 lb
𝑚𝑑2 = 0.75lb
𝑟𝑑1 =𝑟𝑑2 = 3𝑖𝑛
𝑟𝑏 = 3𝑖𝑛
𝜃𝑑1 = 10 degree
𝜃𝑑2 =90 degree
From eq (1)
H=2.95442 lb-in
V= 2.770945 lb-in
From eq (3)
F=5.289 lb-in
From eq (4)
𝜃𝑑 = 43.16𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒
𝜃𝑏 = 223𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒
𝑚𝑏 =F/rb =1.35lb
𝑚𝑑1 𝑟𝑑1 𝜃𝑑1 𝑚𝑑2 𝑟𝑑2 𝜃𝑑2 𝐻 𝑉 𝜃𝑑 𝑚𝑏 𝑟𝑏 𝜃𝑏

(lb) (in) (deg) (lb) (in) (deg) (lb-in) (deg) (lb) (in) (deg)
1.0 3 10 0.75 3 90 2.95442 2.770945 43.16 1.35 3 223

0.7 4 160 1.25 4 60 -0.1311 5.287 91.4207 1.76 4 271
Comments:
From above readings, it can be seen that if value of calculated balancing mass does not match
combination of masses available in laboratory then make a combination which is closest to
calculated value. Similarly, if 𝜃𝑏 does not match to any of calibrated angle readings on the wheel
then attach balancing mass at that calibrated location which is closest to calculated 𝜃𝑏 . Due to
these approximations, there can still be some vibrations in the apparatus. Vibrations can still exist
if the slots in the wheel are not made at the same distance which was used in calculating balancing
mass. Errors can also exist if disturbing masses were not attached exactly at the same locations on
the balancing wheel which were used in calculations.
Experiment: 4
To balance two rotating disturbing masses with a single balancing mass rotating at different radii
in the same plane.
Apparatus:
Procedure:
2. Two disturbing masses 𝑚1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚2 were attached with the help of nut and bolt to the
wheel at a specified distance rd1 and rd2 respectively from center of wheel, and at certain
positions 𝜃1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃2 .
6. Resultant of two disturbing masses were calculated, and 𝜃𝑑 was also determined.
7. A balancing mass, equal to resultant of two disturbing masses, was attached opposite to
the disturbing mass i.e. 𝜃𝑏 = 180 + 𝜃𝑑 to the wheel at different distance 𝑟𝑏 from center
of wheel.

𝐹 = √𝐻 2 + 𝑉 2 eq(3)
𝑉
𝜃𝑑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝐻) eq (4)
Let
𝑚𝑑1 =1 lb
𝑚𝑑2 = 0.75lb
𝑟𝑑1 =4in
𝑟𝑑2 = 5𝑖𝑛
From eq (1)
H=3.94lb-in
V= 4.44lb-in
From eq (3)
F=5.93 lb-in
From eq (4)
𝜃𝑏 = 228.4𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒
𝑚𝑏 =F/rb =1.48 lb
𝑚𝑑1 𝑟𝑑1 𝜃𝑑1 𝑚𝑑2 𝑟𝑑2 𝜃𝑑2 𝐻 𝑉 𝜃𝑑 𝑚𝑏 𝑟𝑏 𝜃𝑏

(lb) (in) (deg) (lb) (in) (deg) (lb-in) (deg) (lb) (in) (deg)
1.0 4 10 0.75 5 90 3.94 4.44 48.4 1.48 4 228

0.7 3 160 1.25 4 60 0.526 5.0483 84 1.7 4 264
Comments:
Experiment:5
To balance three disturbing masses with a single balancing mass rotating at same radii in the
same plane.
Apparatus:
Procedure:
2. Three disturbing masses 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚3 were attached with the help of nut and bolt to
the wheel at a specified distance respectively from center of wheel, and at certain
positions 𝜃1 , 𝜃2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃3 ..
6. Resultant of three disturbing masses were calculated, and 𝜃𝑑 was also determined.
7. A balancing mass, equal to resultant of three disturbing masses, was attached opposite to
the disturbing mass i.e. 𝜃𝑏 = 180 + 𝜃𝑑 to the wheel at same distance as that of
disturbing masses from center of wheel.

𝐹 = √𝐻 2 + 𝑉 2 eq(3)
𝑉
𝜃𝑑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝐻) eq (4)
Let
𝑚𝑑1 =1 lb
𝑚𝑑2 = 0.75lb
𝑚𝑑3 = 0.3𝑙𝑏
𝑟𝑑1 =3in
𝜃𝑑2 =160degree
From eq (1)
H=2.1087lb-in
V= 3.0787lb-in
From eq (3)
F=3.72 lb-in
From eq (4)
𝜃𝑏 = 235.6𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒
𝑚𝑏 =F/rb =1.24 lb
𝑚𝑑1 𝑟𝑑1 𝜃𝑑1 𝑚𝑑2 𝑟𝑑2 𝜃𝑑2 𝑚𝑑3 𝑟𝑑3 𝜃𝑑3 𝐻 𝑉 𝜃𝑑 𝑚𝑏 𝑟𝑏 𝜃𝑏

(lb) (in) (deg) (lb) (in) (deg) (lb) (in) (deg) (lb) (lb) (deg) (lb) (in) (deg)
1 3 10 0.75 3 90 0.3 3 160 2.1087 3.0787 55.6 1.24 3 235.6

0.7 4 160 1.25 4 60 0.5 4 120 -1.13 7.02 99.16 1.77 4 279.16
Comments:
Experiment:6
To balance three disturbing masses with a single balancing mass rotating at different radii in the
same plane.
Apparatus:
Procedure:
2. Three disturbing masses 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚3 were attached with the help of nut and bolt to
the wheel at a different respectively from center of wheel, and at certain
positions 𝜃1 , 𝜃2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃3 ..
6. Resultant of three disturbing masses were calculated, and 𝜃𝑑 was also determined.
7. A balancing mass, equal to resultant of three disturbing masses, was attached opposite to
the disturbing mass i.e. 𝜃𝑏 = 180 + 𝜃𝑑 to the wheel at distance rb as that of disturbing
masses from center of wheel.

𝐹 = √𝐻 2 + 𝑉 2 eq(3)
𝑉
𝜃𝑑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝐻) eq (4)
Let
𝑚𝑑1 =1 lb
𝑚𝑑2 = 0.75lb
𝑚𝑑3 = 0.3𝑙𝑏
𝑟𝑑1 =3in
𝜃𝑑2 =160degree
From eq (1)
H=1.544lb-in
V= 4.033lb-in
From eq (3)
F=4.32 lb-in
From eq (4)
𝜃𝑑 = 69𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒
𝜃𝑏 = 249𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒
𝑚𝑏 =F/rb =1.08lb
𝑚𝑑1 𝑟𝑑1 𝜃𝑑1 𝑚𝑑2 𝑟𝑑2 𝜃𝑑2 𝑚𝑑3 𝑟𝑑3 𝜃𝑑3 𝐻 𝑉 𝜃𝑑 𝑚𝑏 𝑟𝑏 𝜃𝑏

(lb) (in) (deg) (lb) (in) (deg) (lb) (in) (deg) (lb) (lb) (deg) (lb) (in) (deg)
1 3 10 0.75 4 90 0.3 5 160 1.544884 4.033 69 1.08 5 249
0.7 3 160 1.25 4 60 0.25 5 120 -0.723 7.213 95.73 1.81 4 275.73
Comments:
Experiment:7
To determine kinetic coefficient of friction of various pair of wheels.
Apparatus:
Kinetic coefficient of friction apparatus, various pairs of metallic wheel, steel rod, stop watch,
ruler.
Procedure:
1. First of all the whole apparatus was placed in static horizontal position.
2. The distance between the centers of the wheel was measured by the ruler.
3. The rod was placed over the wheels and wheels were rotated counter clockwise by means
of simple gear train mechanism so that the rod may not fall away.
4. The time for 10 revolutions of the wheel was noted down for various pairs of wheel.
5. The kinetic coefficient of friction was then measured.
Related Theory:
Friction:
The force of friction is a force that resists motion when two objects are in contact. If we look at
the surfaces of all objects, there are tiny bumps and ridges. Those microscopic peaks and valleys
catch on one another when two objects are moving past each other.
The level of friction that different materials exhibit is measured by the coefficient of friction. It is
the ratio between the force of friction and the normal contacting force present between the
contacting surfaces.
The higher 𝜇 is, the more force resists motion if two objects are sliding past each other.
𝐹∝𝑁
𝐹 = 𝜇𝑁
𝐹
𝜇=
𝑁
Where 𝜇 is the coefficient of friction, 𝐹 is the amount of force that resists motion, and 𝑁 is the
normal force.
Normal force is the force at which one surface is being pushed into another.
If we try to slide two objects past each other, a small amount of force will result in no motion. The
force of friction is greater than the applied force. This is static friction.
𝐹𝑠 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁
Kinetic Friction:
If we apply a little more force, the object "breaks free" and slides, although you still need to
apply force to keep the object sliding. This is kinetic friction.
𝐹𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑁
Note that, 𝜇𝑠 > 𝜇𝑘 and 𝐹𝑠 > 𝐹𝑘
E.g. for tire on concrete, 𝜇𝑠 = 1.00 and 𝜇𝑘 = 0.80
For ice on ice, 𝜇𝑠 = 0.10 and 𝜇𝑘 = 0.03
Fig.7.1: Graphical representation of

static and kinetic region)
Laws of Kinetic Friction:
1. The force of friction always acts in a direction, opposite to that in which the body is
moving.
2. The magnitude of the kinetic friction bears a constant ratio to the normal reaction
between the two surfaces. But this ratio is slightly less than that in case of limiting
friction.
3. For moderate speeds, the force of friction remains constant. But it decreases slightly with
the increase of speed.
Figure 7.2
Derivation:
Figure 7.3: Free body diagram of apparatus

From fig.7.3, applying equilibrium equations and newton’s 2nd law;
By the conditions of equilibrium,
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 − 𝑤 = 0
∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0
𝑠
𝑤 ( + 𝑥) − (𝑅2 )𝑠 = 0
2
𝑤 𝑠
𝑅2 = ( + 𝑥)
𝑠 2
∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0
𝑠
−𝑤 ( − 𝑥) + (𝑅1 )𝑠 = 0
2
𝑤 𝑠
𝑅1 = ( − 𝑥)
𝑠 2
As,
𝑤 𝑠
𝐹1 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑅1 = 𝜇𝑘 [ ( − 𝑥)]
𝑠 2
𝑤 𝑠
𝐹2 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑅2 = 𝜇𝑘 [ ( + 𝑥)]
𝑠 2
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹2 − 𝐹1
𝑤
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝜇𝑘 ( ) (2𝑥)
𝑠
2𝜇𝑘 𝑤𝑥
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
𝑠
2𝜇𝑘 (𝑚𝑔)𝑥
𝑚𝑎 =
𝑠
2𝜇𝑘 (𝑔)𝑥
𝑎=
𝑠
𝑥 𝑠
=
𝑎 2𝜇𝑘 𝑔
As,
𝑥
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑎
𝑥
𝑇 2 = 4𝜋 2 ( )
𝑎
𝑠
𝑇 2 = 4𝜋 2 ( )
2𝜇𝑘 𝑔
2𝜋 2 𝑆
𝜇𝑘 =
𝑔𝑇 2

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 𝑆 = 19.3 𝑐𝑚
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑔 = 9.81 𝑚𝑠 −2
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 𝑁 = 10
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 10 𝑣𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 𝑡
𝑡𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 = 𝑇 =
𝑁
2𝜋 2 𝑆
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝜇𝑘 =
𝑔𝑇 2
Table:
Material Material Time for 10 rotations 𝑡𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑡𝑎𝑣𝑔 2𝜋 2 𝑆
𝑇= 𝜇𝑘 =
of rod of wheel 𝑡1 𝑡2 𝑡3 𝑁 𝑔𝑇 2
Cast iron 9.88 10.01 9.61 9.83 0.983 0.402
Steel 10.03 9.70 9.16 9.63 0.963 0.418
Steel
Aluminum 11.93 9.81 10.23 10.65 1.065 0.343
Brass 11.42 12.81 11.56 11.93 1.193 0.273
Comments:
It was observed that coefficient of friction was highest between steel rod and steel wheel. The
experiment has proved that coefficient of friction changes with material because each material has
a certain grain structure and certain intermolecular spaces which affect surface finish of material,
and a result its coefficient of friction.
Experiment:8
To determine mechanical efficiency, mechanical advantage, and velocity ratio of worm and
worm wheel.
Apparatus:
Worm and worm wheel set, hangers, weights.
Related Theory:
Worm and worm gears:
The worm gear drive consists of a worm and a worm wheel. It is used to transmit motion between
two non-intersecting shafts. Worm is a threaded screw, while the worm wheel is toothed gear. The
teeth on the worm wheel envelope the threads on the worm and give line contact between mating
parts.
It is shown in figure 9.1 below:
Figure 9.1
Advantages:
1. The most important characteristic of worm gear drives is their high speed reduction. A
speed reduction as high as 100:1 can be obtained with a single pair of worm gears.
2. The worm gear drives are compact with small overall dimensions, compared with
equivalent spur or helical gear drives having same speed reduction.
3. The operation is smooth and silent.
4. Provision can be made for self- locking operation, where the motion is transmitted only
from the worm to the worm wheel.
Disadvantages:
1. The efficiency is low compared with other
2. types of gear drives.
3. Considerable amount of heat is generated in worm gear drives, which is required to be
dissipated by a lubricating oil to the housing walls and finally to the surroundings.
4. The power transmitting capacity is low. Worm gear drives are used for up to 100 kWof
power transmission.
Mechanical Advantage:
It is a measure of force amplification.
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝐿)
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑀. 𝐴 =
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 (𝐸)
Velocity Ratio:
It is the ratio of distance through which any part of machine moves to that which the driving part
moves during the same time.
Mechanical Efficiency:
It is a measure of effectiveness with which a mechanical system is performing.
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (𝑀. 𝐴)
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 =
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 (𝑉. 𝑅)
Procedure:
1. First of all the whole apparatus was placed in static position.
2. The diameters of the worm and worm wheel were determined by the digital vernier
callipers.
3. The heavy mass was placed on the hanger attached with the axial shaft of the worm
wheel.
4. The small amount of the masses were placed on the hanger passed over the wheel
attached with the shaft of the worm.
5. The load was added unless the heavier load start moving up.
6. The mechanical advantage, velocity ratio and mechanical efficiency were calculated.

𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑑𝑟𝑢𝑚 = 𝑅1 = 17.5𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑟𝑢𝑚 = 𝑅2 = 35𝑚𝑚
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑚 = 𝑆 =1
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 𝑇 = 40

2𝜋𝑅1
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 = 𝑥 = = 109.9557mm
𝑆
2𝜋𝑅2
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑦 = = 210.0114mm
𝑇
𝑥 𝑅1 × 𝑇
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝑉. 𝑅 = = = 20
𝑦 𝑅2 × 𝑆
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝐿)
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑀. 𝐴 =
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 (𝐸)
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (𝑀. 𝐴)
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 =
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 (𝑉. 𝑅)
Sr. Applied Effort Lifted Load M. A ηmechanical
(lb) (lb) %
1 0.05 0.5 10 50
2 0.2 1 5 25
3 0.4 1.5 3.75 18.75
4 0.55 2 3.636364 18.18182
Comments:
It can be observed from readings that mechanical efficiency decreases with increasing applied
load. The line contact between worm and worm gear causes a significant frictional force between
worm and worm gear. When applied load is increased, friction force between worm and worm
gear also increases due to which greater effort is needed to lift the load.
Experiment:9
To study the cam analysis and draw the cam profile with the help of displacement curve.
Apparatus:
Cam analysis machine, Cam, Roller follower.
Related Theory:
Cams:
Cam is a rotating piece in a mechanical linkage used especially in transforming rotary motion into
linear motion or vice versa. The unique feature of a cam is that it can impart a very distinct motion
to its follower. In fact, cams can be used to obtain unusual or irregular motion that would be
difficult, or impossible, to obtain from other linkages.
Uses:
It is used in;
• IC engines to control valves
• Vibrators and graders in process industry
• Machine tools for limit switching.
Figure 10.1 Camshaft
Cam motion analysis:

Forward Stroke:
The angular displacement of the cam when the follower moves up to get highest position against
rotation of cam is called forward stroke.
First Dwell:
The angular displacement of the cam after forward stroke when the follower does not change its
position is called first dwell.
Return Stroke:
The angular displacement of the cam when the follower moves down to get lowest position against
rotation of cam is called return stroke.
Second Dwell:
The angular displacement of the cam after reverse stroke when the follower does not change its
position is called second dwell.
Procedure:
1. First of all the whole apparatus was placed in static vertical position at zero-zero
condition.
2. The blank paper was rolled over the drum of the cam analysis machine.
3. The pointer was mounted as to touch the graph paper.
4. The flywheel of the machine was rotated clockwise, i.e. the cam rotated and follower
moved down.
5. The drum was made to rotate with same frequency.
6. The displacement curve was dawn on the graph paper, the stroke angles were calculated
by scaling the graph properly, and at the end cam profile was drawn.
Figure 20.2 Cam analysis machine
Observations:
Figure 30.3 Displacement Curve

Figure 10.4 Cam profile
Comments:
• Make sure that the cam is fixed correctly.
• Take the impression at the start of curve imprinted on graph.
• Graph paper should be fixed correctly.
• Make sure that the impression is fully imprinted for 360-degree revolution.

Theory of Machines Lab: Department of Mechanical Engineering University of Engineering & Technology Lahore, Pakistan

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Figure 1.2 (a), (b)

Observations and Calculations:

1.75 3 60 5.25 1.75 3 240 5.25

Observations and Calculations:

Let disturbing mass = 𝑚1 = 0.25 lb, 𝑟𝑑 = 𝑟1 = 4𝑖𝑛, 𝑚𝑏 = 𝑚2 = 0.5𝑙𝑏

0.25 4 70 1 0.5 2 250 1

Observations and Calculations:

𝑚𝑑1 𝑟𝑑1 𝜃𝑑1 𝑚𝑑2 𝑟𝑑2 𝜃𝑑2 𝐻 𝑉 𝜃𝑑 𝑚𝑏 𝑟𝑏 𝜃𝑏

1.0 3 10 0.75 3 90 2.95442 2.770945 43.16 1.35 3 223

Observations and Calculations:

𝑚𝑑1 𝑟𝑑1 𝜃𝑑1 𝑚𝑑2 𝑟𝑑2 𝜃𝑑2 𝐻 𝑉 𝜃𝑑 𝑚𝑏 𝑟𝑏 𝜃𝑏

1.0 4 10 0.75 5 90 3.94 4.44 48.4 1.48 4 228

Observations and Calculations:

𝑚𝑑1 𝑟𝑑1 𝜃𝑑1 𝑚𝑑2 𝑟𝑑2 𝜃𝑑2 𝑚𝑑3 𝑟𝑑3 𝜃𝑑3 𝐻 𝑉 𝜃𝑑 𝑚𝑏 𝑟𝑏 𝜃𝑏

1 3 10 0.75 3 90 0.3 3 160 2.1087 3.0787 55.6 1.24 3 235.6

Observations and Calculations:

𝑚𝑑1 𝑟𝑑1 𝜃𝑑1 𝑚𝑑2 𝑟𝑑2 𝜃𝑑2 𝑚𝑑3 𝑟𝑑3 𝜃𝑑3 𝐻 𝑉 𝜃𝑑 𝑚𝑏 𝑟𝑏 𝜃𝑏

1 3 10 0.75 4 90 0.3 5 160 1.544884 4.033 69 1.08 5 249

Fig.7.1: Graphical representation of

Figure 7.3: Free body diagram of apparatus

Observations and Calculations:

Observations and Calculations:

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑚 = 𝑆 =1

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 𝑇 = 40

Figure 10.1 Camshaft

Cam motion analysis:

Figure 20.2 Cam analysis machine

Figure 30.3 Displacement Curve

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