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In the international arena with increasing the differentiation between groups in terms of politics, economics and
ideologies, people began to try to reflect their own culture, language and so on in specific region which was they
lived area. In the mid-20thcentury, the term “ethnicity” as it is used today replacing terminology of “races” or “nations”
used for the concept of in the 19th century. Especially in the post-Cold War period has witnessed a number of
ethnically-informed secessionist movements, predominantly within the former communist states. After the decline of
Soviet Union, numbers of the multi-ethnic societies increased within different nations and then we began to see
differentiations as a term of ethnic conflict that escalated to violence and civil war. In this study, my paper will focus
on the term of “Ethnic Conflict” and the case of conflicts between South Caucasus and Abkhaz.

1. Introductiion

After the Second World War, our world began has turned from unipolar to multi-polar with the effects of globalization.
On the other hand, transnational actors began to have a role in our world and thus complex relations began to occur
between different groups and then nation-states occurred. In other words, after the Second World War, different
religious, ethnic, political, national and also international groups occurred and they began to assert their unique
features.

During the Cold War period, countries around the world had under the control of two superpowers: The USA and
USSR.At the end of the Cold War, communist ideology and socialist countries had collapsed. In the end of the Cold
War and after the disappearance of superpower conflict that threatens world peace began to emerge as a new
threat: civil war or ethnic conflict. Actually these conflicts were even if occurred, those were become visible time to
time in history especially after the Second World War and as a result of end of the Cold War, these conflicts have
become threat in regional peace and world peace.

In specific regions, societies began to defend their territory to protect their religious and cultural features because
each society to live according to their characteristics endowed them of their property and want to consume such as
their land and mineral resources, or wealth-redistributing assets. In other worlds, each society wants to cherish their
culture and religion or ethnic features in area which they live. All of them generally can cause to conflicts between
different groups, minorities or majorities. The term “Conflict” describes a situation in which two or more actors
pursue incompatible, yet from their individual perspectives entirely goals.[1] One of conflicts into come from these
conflicts is “Ethnic Conflicts”.[2]Ethnic conflicts are one particular form of such conflicts that means confrontation in
one ethnic distinction such as religion, culture and language.

This paper proposes a multi-dimensional conceptual framework of understanding of “What is Ethnic Conflict”,
“Causes of Ethnic Conflict”, “Different Approaches about Ethnic Conflict” and also “Solutions of the Ethnic Conflict”
specifically focusing on the case of Caucasus. After the giving some specific information about ethnic conflict, my
paper can try to explain the on the example of the conflicts between South Caucasus and Abkhaz, my paper will
highlight problems of ethnic identity in Caucasian.

2. What is Ethnic Conflict?

Ethnic conflict or ethnic war is an armed conflict between ethnic groups.[3] However, after the define the term of
ethnic conflict, we will focus on the meanings of the concept of “ethnicity”, “race” and also “conflict” which are related
concepts of ethnic conflict.

Actually, ethnicity and race have a rarely similar meanings. Race has had a long and contested history and it used
since late 19 th century. Scientist generally used race to designate a group of people and race had no any analytical
value. The term race has also refers to groups of people who have differences and similarities in biological traits
deemed by society to be socially significant such as skin color.

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On the other hand, there are differences between meaning of ethnicity and race. Ethnicity refers to shared cultural
practices, perspectives and distinctions that set apart one group of people from another. This term was generally
started to using in 20th century especially after the Cold War with the collapse of Soviet Union in order the term of
race. Ethnicity is a shared culture, heritage. The most common characteristics distinguishing various ethnic groups
are ancestry, a sense of history, language, religion and also language. In addition, different political and economic
factors, historical heritages bring about conflict or ethnic conflict in terms of ethnicity.

Conflict refers to a situation which was include two or more actors and they pursue incompatible. Ethnic conflict are
also one particular forms of conflict that means specifically confrontation between different ethnic groups in which
the clashing interests of the conflicting parties are expressed in ethnic terms. Ethnic conflicts, in the post-Cold War
period, involved secessionist movements in the former communist countries and also the former Soviet countries
such as Abkhaz in South Caucasus.

Besides them, we need some concepts such as civilization and identity to explain what is ethnic conflict. Civilization
generally refers to state policies, a system of writing and a city. After the French Revolution the term of civilization
referred to means of a progress of humanity and gradually civilizations began to gain consciousness. Thus people
started to identify their identity which was depend on their culture, religion, language and so on. After that nation-
states occurred. At this point, with the defining civilization, ethnic identity began to use as a concept in the world.
Ethnic identity means the extent to which one identifies with a particular ethnic groups. The ethnic group tend to be
one in which the individual claims heritage (Phinney, 1996). Ethnic identity is separate from one’s personal identity
as an individual. According to this suggestion, there are 4 major components of ethnic identity which are “ethnic
awareness means that understanding of one’s own and other group, ethnic self-identification means that label used
for one’s own group, ethnic attitudes that feeling about own and other groups, ethnic behaviors that means behavior
patterns specific to an ethnic group”.

Groups, which was gain awareness about knowing and learning their own identity and culture, began to unify ethnic
groups gradually. Ethnic groups are historically giving collectivities whose members share a persisting sense of
common interest and identity. These identities and interests are based on some combination of shared historical
experience and valued culture such as beliefs, religion and language.

At this point, ask the question of what is ethnic group or what is ethnic community are necessary to explain the
conflict arising from this which was named as an ethnic conflict that means warfare between distinct unified ethnic
groups. There are several criteria to define the definition of ethnic group or ethnic community. Firstly, group names
are important role not only self-identification but also collective personality around the emblems or symbols.
Secondly, language is also important to identify national identity like politicians discourse. Thirdly, religion has an
important marker of the ethnic identity historically. Religious factor is effective elements in our social life such as
Middle East area, we see that generally there is a differentiation between different groups which have different
religions. Fourthly, territory has an important role as well as others. Territory is the basis of economic and political
structures, which are main units in the life of ethnic groups and nations. In addition, territorial state is considered to
be the determining element of the existence of a nation in modern times. Lastly, shared culture constitutes a
complex of distinctive elements of any ethnic groups. Culture is a system of values, symbols and meanings, norms,
and customs shared by the members of a group in the definition of ethnic groups.[4]

Briefly, Ethnic conflicts gain speed at the end of the Cold War period and it is an enduring tensions between states
that want to consolidate and expand their power and ethnic groups that want to defend and promote their collective
identity and interests. Criteria which are help to describe the ethnic groups in one way are the basis of ethnic
conflict. Depending on the values of these clashes that occurred among ethnic groups are called as an “Ethnic
Conflict”.

2.a. Causes of Ethnic Conflicts

What are the causes of ethnic conflicts? My paper mentioned earlier that the concept of ethnicity does not fully
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describe the causes of the ethnic conflicts because ethnicity is not a cause of violent or warfare alone.[5] In addition,
it is not caused directly by intergroup differences.

People who study about the ethnic conflict explain the causes of ethnic conflicts with the collapse of authoritarian
rule. After that, in this point we should ask some specific question in order to ask “How is ethnic conflict occur?” such
as “why ethnic conflict have sprung up in the former Soviet Union?” because places which was include authoritarian
regimes or was governed by authoritarian actors. Of course, all ethnic conflicts have causes to occur.

Some scholars explain the causes of ethnic conflict based on two steps of analysis which are the systemic level and
the domestic level.

Systemic Explanations:

Systematic explanations of ethnic conflict focus on the nature of the security systems in which ethnic groups operate
and the security concerns of these groups.[6] Firstly, it was occur between two or more groups, namely it occurred
in one single state and among the specific groups in these single territory. Briefly, these kind of conflict arises in a
complex or mixed society within a single territory. Generally, ethnic conflict give roots from competition between
different groups for political power and status. Systemic explanations in terms of ethnic conflict occurred in an areas
which has weak groups as a national, regional, international authorities and also a weak security.

At this point, state, state security and anarchy were important concepts. When people want to feel themselves a
safety and survival physically or when they realize the fear from against other groups, they most probable lost their
ability to survive and after that they try to gain their security again so ethnic conflict occur. Or collective fears of the
future arise when states lose their ability to arbitrate between groups or provide credible guarantees of protectionist
for groups. Barry Posen argues that security becomes of paramount concern under this condition.[7]

Groups have worry if they feel threat about security from neighbors and if threats will grow or diminish, and then
they began to take actions to defend themselves mobilizing armies and developing military forces. By contrast with
this, other group started to take action to diminish the security of the first group. Even if it was called as security
dilemma in most of time and generally states try to provide authority against these situations because problem of
anarchy was occurred within the state because of the security problems which occurred between different groups.

These conditions generally seen in empires. The collapse of imperial regimes can be viewed as a problem of
emerging authority. Authority system collapsed in the former Soviet Union, and these different groups have to
provide for their own defense and security in anarchic system. At this point, defensive and offensive forces entered
the framework which comes from realist ideology. States look after their own interests within the international system
and also state consider the others interest because these situation increases their security. Thus, their capability
was increased. However, offensive forces can cause war because the superiority of the offensive capability will
greatly increase prospects for military success.

Domestic Explanations:

Other explanation of ethnic conflict focus on factors that operate primarily at the domestic level in contrast systemic
explanations like the impact of nationalism on inter-ethnic relations, the impact of democratization on inter-ethnic
relations.

People look to states to provide security and promote economic prosperity. Nationalism reflects the need to establish
states capable of achieving goals.[8] As an example, nationalism suddenly occur in the Soviet Union where state
structures and political institutions have weakened or diminished capacities. These was caused ethnic war in the
post-Soviet states. Briefly, emergence of ethnic nationalism is related with the nationalism. The rise of ethnic
nationalism in one group can be seen as threatening by others because ethnic nationalism motivated armies or
ethnic groups build up their own military forces.

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Another factor of domestic level is democratization which have impacts on ethnic conflict. In fact, democratization
has the potential to help mitigate ethnic tension by allowing for the establishment of an inclusive means of
governance to address the needs of all ethnic groups in the state.[9]

The other factor is the equation of the ethnic groups in the country or their relative size. For example, we will think
two different groups. If one group is larger than others, the majority and large group will be able to dominate the
discussion about new political arrangement.

2.b. Different Approaches About Ethnic Conflicts

Ethnic conflict was born as a concept with the definition of ethnicity, race, identity and different interests. In addition,
the causes of ethnic conflict are debatedby political scientists and sociologists who generally fall into one of four
source of thought which are primordialist, constructivist, institutionalist approaches and also rational choice
approaches.

Primordialist Approach

Primordialists argue that ethnic groups and nationalities exist because there are traditions of belief and action
towards primordial objects. They say that ethnic identity was occurred with the historical and social conditions.
According to them, economic and institutional arrangements with the power that cannot be destroyed have a
determining role in politics.[10] There are ethnic groups since the depths of history and they are concrete and
independent social formation and they do not explain with the economic, social, cultural factors. [11] The
primordialist account relies on a concept of kinship between members of an ethnic groups. These kinship do not
depend on time and place. According to them, ethnic categories can be lost but kinship is still continuing. They saw
as ethnicity is most important and the basic factor than the ethnic identity; however, when we look at this
perspective, multi-ethnic groups include lots of conflict rather than others, I think this is wrong according to other
definitions of ethnicity, ethnic identity which mentioned in this study. Lastly, According to them, Ethnic identity cannot
be change easily.

The Constructivist Approach

The main proponent of this approach is Jean Piaget. He explain the ethnic conflict or ethnicity as an accommodation
and assimilation. According to him, when individuals assimilate, they incorporate the new experience into an already
existing framework without changing that framework. Experience is important to the representation of world.
Accomdation is the process of reframing one’s mental representation of the external world. The other proponent of
this approach is Benedict Anderson. The most important concept which was used by Benedict Anderson is
“İmagined Community”. Anderson understanding of nationalism is that “nationalism is not the awaking of nations to
self-conciousness, it invents nations where they do not exit.”[12] Briefly, nation is an imagined community as limited
and sovereign. Lastly, in this approach, the most important point is importance of shared cultural elements. In
addition, ethnic identities are conflictual.

Institutionalist Approach

In this approach, the basic element is institution particularly institutional framework has very important role and also
they emphasize importance of institutions. Institutions an important role in regulating the level of the conflict potential
of ethnicity.Crawford notes that institutions “both constrain behavior and provide incentives for cooperation and
compliance in norms, rules, and procedures for allocation, participation, representation, and accountability.”[13]
According to her, whether or not identity politics turns into violent conflict depends on the functioning of state
institutions: “Where identity politics is practiced, states can channel it in peaceful political competition as long as
they can make credible commitments to shape and uphold agreements made among culturally defined political
actors.”[14] In addition, democratic institutions are considered to promote inter-ethnic cooperation. According to
Prazauskas, “In a democratic multinational state, stability is generally maintained by means of political bargaining

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and compromise between ethnic subgroups.[15]

Rational Choice Approach

Rational Choice theory has its philosophical roots in Hobbes and Locke’s theory of social contract. The other name
of these approach is instrumentalism. Ethnic relations and ethnic group solidarity have been one of the phenomena
where rational choice approach analysis has been shown to be a very popular and applicable paradigm. This
approach focused on human behavior. They emphasize the cultural beliefs, ideologies and so on as a secondary.
Security dilemma is important concept for them. International system is an anarchic system and high authority to
protect to state. Our world is dangerous. States try to maximize their interest. When states maximized their interests,
states disregarded some group interest and mostly these groups have minority positions in the state. On the other,
these minority groups want to reflect their ethnic identity like their culture or religion at the same time states can
controlled to this while try to maximized its interests. This is a security dilemma. In addition, these approach includes
international relations approaches and game theory approaches. In the IR approaches, collapse of imperial order,
anarchy, security are important concepts. On the other hand, in the game theory approach, they argue that ethnic
identification and violence as a rationally calculated enterprise.

2.c. Solutions of Ethnic Conflicts

Ethnic conflict, as we know, is a kind of conflict and lots of scholars study on this issue. Sometimes they try to
explain causes of ethnic conflicts and they realized that ethnic conflict has some solutions to solve the problem
between different ethnic groups like as in other kind of conflicts such as civil war and war.

Scholars who study in this field have success to resolution and management their study field of ethnic conflicts. John
McGarry and Brendan O’Leary have developed a taxonomy of eight macro-political ethnic conflict regulation
method. They include a number of methods that they note is clearly morally unacceptable.[16]

Methods for eliminating differences:

1. Genocide
2. Forced mass-population transfers
3. Partition and/or secession (self-determination)
4. Integration and/or assimilation

Methods for managing differences:

1. Hegemonic control
2. Arbitration (third-party intervention)
3. Cantonisation and/or federalization
4. Consociationalism or power-sharing

Methods for eliminating and managing differences actually are not enough to solve all ethnic conflicts but even so
these method minimize these conflicts between ethnic conflicts. Generally, there are a number of possible solutions
to ethnic conflicts and they divided into two sub-categories which are external solutions and internal solutions.
External solution lead to separation of ethnicities and internal solution leads to intermingling of the ethnicities.

External Solutions:

When the ethnic conflict occurred within the state and near the state border, generally, governments suggest some
external solutions. Firstly; governments can separate states for separate peoples. Secondly, governments try to
move populations from one place to another place specifically it was occur between countries. For example; Turkey
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and Greece exchanged populations after 1923. Similar changes occurred in Poland and Germany after World War
II. Final external solutions is ethnic cleansing. This is not desirable solutions, but it does not completely solve the
ethnic conflict.

Internal Solutions:

Internal solutions are also related with the population similar to external solutions. Firstly, autonomy is kind of
internal solutions. When we think that the autonomy, firstly we will think minority and majority ethnic group in the
state. For example; some ethnic groups will be given more internal power to govern its affairs such in the Australia
the most powerful and the most autonomous groups is the Aboriginal Reservations. Secondly; another internal
solutions is ethnic voting. In this system, each ethnicity registers for voting and gets a different allocation than they
would naturally by population. The last solutions is related with the ethnic power. For example; In Iraq, the president
must always be a Kurd.

3. Ethnic Conflicts and Ethnic Nationalism in Caucasus

After the Cold War, Ethnic nationalism in the South Caucasus impact on the international system is quite important.
After the collapse of USSR, conflicts which was occur in South Caucasus turned to be battlefield in this period and
these conflict which experience between different ethnic groups is still continuing. The most important reason of this
conflict is due to the ideological because ethnic nationalism in Caucasus seen as communist ideology. At the same
time, Caucasus has important strategic position and natural sources and because of this lots of countries try to
provide authority in this region. To understand this ethnic conflict firstly we need to look at the structure of Caucasus.

3.a. General Structure in Caucasus:

From past to today, Caucasus is a most important geographical region that include multi-religious, multi-language
structure and at the same time it under the control of hegemonic competition. The basic problem in this region is
shaped by around regional and international framework. The region’s oil and gas resources has caused this
regional and international problems by using ethnic differences between different ethnic groups.

In these region, ethnic nationalism that occurred after the Cold War and caused by this, implemented population
policies which did by Tsarist Russia and USSR, nationalism to fill the ideological gap after the collapsed of Soviets
and the remaining institutions are effective in this region. In the background there are the global power like Russia.
Now, we need to look further this region.

Politically, all Caucasus is evaluated in the European Continent.[17] Caucasus was known as the region of the
power struggles throughout history. The end of the Cold War, with the collapse of the USSR, today South Caucasus
achieved its sovereignty but on the other hand North Caucasus is still in the Russian border.[18]

Caucasus is one of the richest region as in terms of ethnicity, religion and language. There are more than fifties
ethnicity in this region. Indigenous people in the North Caucasus are Abkhaz and Circassian; but indigenous people
in the South Caucasus are Armenians, Jews and Kurds and so on.[19]

Languages which spoken in Caucasus separate 3 groups: Caucasus languages, Indo-European Languages and
Turkish languages. Diverse in terms of religious beliefs in the Caucasus is the most common religion is Islam. After
that, the most known religion is Christianity. People in the region of 55, 9 % is known to Muslim; others are Christian
and Jewish people. Turk peoples have authority in this region in terms of language, religion and at the same time as
a territorial and also gradually Muslim elements turn to Turkish element. In addition, Caucasus has a strategic
importance. Caucasus is region that join with north-south and east-west road.

3.b. Ethnic Conflicts in Caucasus After the Cold War:

Border intra-ethnic conflicts explain that more than ethnic groups against the central government in the dominant

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position. Concept of Ethnic Groups in this region indicate the roots of common ancestry, common history, common
culture and language. Proximity of blood is not important element for ethnic conflicts in this region. Consequently,
ethnic identity is a kind of psychological bond or feeling.

With the end of the Cold War and collapsed of the USSR, Caucasus and Russia began to fight about sovereignty
between them and this region turned to war field and also these conflicts is still continue. Actually, Caucasus have
concussion as a geopolitical after the collapsed of the USSR which is kind of the most important super power in the
world. After this situation, geopolitical and global powers who want to fill the gap and regional actors has been scene
of a power struggle. Caucasian people were sent to immigration, minorities were placed into majorities by these
powers or these powers or governments wanted that majority will manage to minority. As you can see, the solutions
described in further appointment is intended to be used by them but actually they did not successful with this
solutions which try to solve ethnic conflicts.

Stalin did lots of interventions to this region and this caused a changing of population in the Caucasus and all of
these forms the basis of today’s conflicts. Stalin implemented the policy of resettlement. Stalin also placed human in
the border of this region. Due to problems arising from this, ethnic conflict began to occur between old and new
owners who have a these region.

Another reason of the ethnic conflicts in the Caucasus is heritage of the USSR; and the system of company,
institutions, ideas, thinks. In the world, national liberation and democratic transitions from authoritarian regimes have
been. However, from a totalitarian regimes and socialist economy to democracy is unprecedented move. In this
state, state, nation, identity, ideology, politics and economics of the cases was necessary to rebuilt.[20]

Soviet Regimes who trying to keep ethnic groups under the empires used communist powers and economic and
politic tools which was owned Russian Empires. After the collapsed of the USSR, lots of ethnic groups have their
sovereignty in the South Caucasus and lots of minority groups began to live under the these groups but with the
effects of nationalism, we saw lots of ethnic conflicts in these region. On the other hand, North Caucasus still have
problems about ethnic conflicts.

The most basic conflicts in the North Caucasus is conflict lived in between Abkhaz and Georgian people. These
conflicts actually seen as a national dependency movement. Although Georgia gained its sovereignty, they tried to
get rid of Russian threat and to provide border security, at the same time, Abkhazians began to war to gain their
sovereignty like other South Caucasus’s people. Briefly, the behavior of each group are parallel.[21]

Abkhazians have very root and deep history since 12th century and also they are very old people who live in the
Caucasus. Abkhazians are Sunni- Muslıms and they speak Abkhazian. On the basis of Abkhazian issue is that
Abkhazia Autonomous Republic want to be independent state. Abkhazia exposed assimilations which comes from
Tsarist Russia and the USSR and thus they came to minority position. After the collapsed of the USSR, Abkhazian
parliament declared their sovereignty in 1992 but on the other hand Georgian military army began to bloody clashes
in the Sukhumi which is the capital of the Caucasus at the same year. Upon this, North Caucasus wanted to help
from Russia for Abkhazians and after that they signed agreement in March, 1993. However, after two months
conflicts was started again. Abkhazians past their natural borders and they occupied part of Georgia. Consequences
of war, huge part of population of Georgian people were force to flee and instead of Georgians, Abkhazians was
placed in the same territory.

The issue of Abkhazia is continuing after this period. While Abkhazians want to full sovereignty, Georgian people
against this idea because they think that if Abkhazians have full sovereignty, unitary structure within the state break
down. Another issue is Georgian immigrants. Abkhazians did not want to this because if they are coming this region,
Abkhazian were thinking of coming to a minority position. These are the general problems in the Caucasus in
general.

4. Conclusion:
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Ethnic conflict is not a just conflict at the same time it includes interests of people and governments. It occurred with
the consequences of differentiations of different ethnic conflicts. States generally try to provide a common culture,
language, religion in territory. On the other hand, different ethnic groups who live in a same state’s territory try to
reflect their own culture, language and so on. They recognize their identity depend on their culture, language,
religion and so on. These are create a differentiation between groups who live in same territory. Mostly, these
different groups are often minority groups and because of these generally ethnic conflicts occurred between them.
In this paper, I tried explain “What is ethnic conflict?” and “What originates from and How it is resolved?” In addition
when I explained them, I took the approaches addressed related them.

In this study, I chose examples of Caucasus and I explain the two ethnic groups which are Abkhazian and Georgian
who lives in North Caucasus. The ethnic conflicts are different from others. Lastly, I have explained the ethnic
conflicts by addressing the points which was differentiated from ethnic conflicts.

Simge ATAOĞLU, Marmara Üniversitesi Siyaset Bilimi ve Uluslararası İlişkiler 4. Sınıf öğrencisi.

04 Temmuz 2014

———-

[1] Stefan wolff,

[2] Ibid

[3] Wikipedia.

[4] Gursel G. Ismayılov, Ethnic Conflicts and Their Causes ( Jyochi University Press: Tokyo), 52

[5] David A. Lake, Donald Rothchild (eds), The International Spread of Ethnic Conflict: Fear, Diffusion,
andEscalation, p.8

[6] Barry R. Posen, The Security Dilemma and Ethnic Conflict, in Michael E. Brown (ed), Ethnic Conflict and
International Security, p.103

[7] Ibid., p.103

[8] JackSynder, Nationalismand The Crisis of the Post-Soviet State, in Michael E. Brown (ed), Ethnic Conflict and
International Security, p.79

[9] Renee de Nevers, DemocratizationandEthnicConflict, p.61

[10] CliffordGeertz, Interpretation of Cultures, New York: Basic Books, 1993; Walker Connor, Ethno Nationalism,
Princeton: Princeton UniversityPress, 1994, 17, No: 2, pp. 164-171.

[11] Pierre van den Berghe,”DoesraceMatter?”, Nations andNationalism, 1, No: 3, 1995, pp.359-68.

[12] Özlem Pusane, Natonalism, EthnictyandWar,Ethnicity- EthnicConflictorWar, 2013.

[13] Beverly Crawford, “The Causes of Cultural Conflict: An Institutional Approach” in Beverly Crawford and

Ronnie D. Lipschutz, eds., The Myth of “Ethnic Conflict”, International and Area Studies Research

Series/Number 98, (Berkeley: University of California, 1998), p. 17.

[14] 28 Beverly Crawford, “The Causes of Cultural Conflict: Assessing the Evidence” in Ibid., p. 517

[15] 33 AlgisPrazauskas, “Ethnic Conflicts in the Context of Democratizing Political Systems,” Theory and Society,
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20, 1991, pp. 581-2.

[16] McGarry, John; O’Leary, Brendan (1993). “Introduction: The macro-political regulation of ethnic conflict ”
(London: Routledge), pp. 1–40.

[17] Habip Yıldırım, “Kafkasya’da Etnik Çalışmalar ve Türkiye Açısından Bölgenin Önemi”, Yayınlanmamış Yüksek
Lisans Tezi, (Sakarya Üniversitesi, 2007), p.6-7

[18] Ibid., p.8-12

[19] Ibid., p.7

[20] Fikret Elma, “Küreselleşme Sürecinde Güney Kafkasya Demokrasi, Güvenlik ve İşbirliği Sorunu”, Uluslararası
Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 2, No: 6, (2009), p.198-199.

[21] Alexandros Petersen, “The1992-1993 Georgia-AbkhaziaWar: A Forgotten Conflict”, Caucasian Review of

International Affairs, 2, (Autum 2008), p.198.

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