Summary Book Consumer Behaviour Martin E

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Summary: book " Consumer Behaviour " Martin Evans,

Gordon Foxall, Ahmad Jamal - Exam Notes
Mens en Product (Technische Universiteit Delft)
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Exam Notes Mens & Product 10/14/2013 10:59:00 PM
Chapter 1 – Consumer Motives and Values (1-15, 24-31)
• Benefits Approach
o classic way of marketing
o focusing on [needs features benefits]
• Costumer needs and requirements should not be totally satisfied
businesses need to make profit and keep groing
• What is needed: a crucial compromise of satisfying
organizational goals and satisfying costumer needs
Motivation
• The driving force within individuals that moves them to take a
particular action
• Homoseastatis: The psychological equilibrium between need
satisfaction and deprivation/lacking
• Motivation caused by state of tension due to unfulfilled needs
which move consumers away from homeostatis
• Motives can come from physical needs (hunger), social
psychogenic drives – e.g. fitting in) or psychological needs
(biogenic drives)
• According to the Frankfurt school, social symbolism of products
often outweighs the more practical use values
Positive and Negative Motivation

• Positive motivation (approach): +ive mood, pleasure, sensory
gratification, intellectual stimulation, social approval, comfort
etc.
• Negative motivation (avoidance): motivated to escape from
negative situations, pain, illness, discomfort etc.
Internal and External Motivation

• Internal motivation
o From within a person
o Concerned with instinct, need, drive or emotion
physiological base e.g. hunger, thirst, sexual needs
• External motivation
o From the environment

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o Based on an attractiveness of environmental stimuli e.g.

products/services later to become internal motivation in
form of preference for products/services/situations
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (a theory of motivation)

• Needs at one level must be at least partially satisfied before
those at the next level become important in determining our
actions
• Fist, basic needs must be met Secondly the physiological
(biogenic) needs Thirdly the more psychogenic requirements
such as social acceptance and self-esteem
• 7 Different stages:
o 1. Physiological needs
o 2. Safety needs
o 3. Social needs
o 4. Esteem needs
o 5. Cognitive needs (need to understand things)
o 6. Aesthetic needs
o 7. Self-actualization needs (exploring talents and
personality)
• As societies develop, they move further down the hierarchy list
in terms of most relevant needs to tackle
• Maslow’s theory distinguishes physical/inherited needs from
learned needs
• Cognitive motives: reflect motives that emphasize an
individual’s need for being adaptively oriented towards the
environment, and achieving a sense of meaning
• Affective motives emphasize an individual’s needs to achieve
satisfying feeling states and attain emotional goals
Motivation and Shopping

• Personal motives
o Needs for role-playing, diversion, self-gratification, learning
about new trends, physical activity, sensory stimulation
• Social motives
o Needs for social experiences, communication, status,
authority, pleasure in bargaining

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• For some, the process of buying > the resulting product

acquisition
• For others, shopping simply task-orientated – satisfying
physiological needs
Values
• Critical determinants of behavior
• An enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end-state
of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or
converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence
• Rokeach Value Survey (RVS): measures 18 instrumental
values (means to reach a goal/preferred modes of conduct) and
18 terminal values (related to end-state goals e.g. wisdom,
happiness, freedom)
Motivation Research
• Projective Techniques
o When people are relieved of direct responsibility for their
expressions tend to answer more freely and truthfully
o Respondents are required to project themselves into
someone else’s place/ambiguous situation e.g.
Third-Person Test
Word-Association Test
Chapter 3 – Consumer Responses to Marketing Actions 2: Learning

and Attitudes (89-123)
Learning
o Learning – acquiring new information
o Memory – internal recording of information and
experiences
o Three important processes of memory:
[encoding/obtaining storage retrieval]
• Memory Types
o Sensory Memory
Information sensed temporarily (few seconds), but
not analysed thus lost very quickly

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E.g. letters shown at optician – unlikely to remember

exact letters and order
o Short-term Memory
Short-term but conscious and active processing of
incoming information
Limited capacity
o Long-term Memory
Organizes and stores new pieces of information and
tie them up with existing information
Two types
Sematic memory (the organizing and storing of
factual information)
Episodic memory (organizing and storing info
specific to a particular context)
• Behavioral Learning (p. 92)

o A.k.a stimulus-response model (focusing on stimuli and
responses)
o 2 popular approaches to learning:
1. Associationist Learning (Classial
Conditioning)
based on work of Ivan Pavlov and Skinner
If marketers understand the target market’s
frame of reference, it can present that relevant
appeal (e.g. sex appeal) repeatedly market
will response favorable to appeal if product
is presented repeatedly, consumers will
associate product to the appeal
2. Instrumental Learning (Operant
Conditioning)
Frequency of occurrence of specific behavior is
modified by the consequences of the outcome
of that behavior
Marketers want to increase rate at which
learning takes place and reduce rate at which
consumers’ memory decays
• Repetition Effects

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o Advertising Wearout: the concept of how many

exposures are needed for optimal learning of the message
(of the advertisement)
o Generally speaking 4:
1. Achieving awareness
2. Relate message to target consumers’ frame of
reference (show relevance)
3. Remind consumers of benefits of product/service
4. Reassurance of quality of product
o Repetition generally increases effectiveness, then stabilizes
and eventually declines
• Cognitive Learning
o Emphasizes on studying cognitive processes (e.g. logical
reasoning, abstract thinking, imagination, insights,
appreciation)
o Relating new information to old information
• Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination

o Stimulus Generalization: expecting opinions regarding a
certain product to be similar
o Stimulus Discrimination: consumers learning to make
different responses to similar stimuli some people have
preferences regarding 1 brand and will discriminate other
brands
o Marketers look to make their product unique
• Measurement of Learning
o Recognition method: measuring proportion of each
sample who, after having seen an advertisement, claim to
have noted it
o Aided recall method: measure who, after being shown a
brand advertised in a magazine, can ‘play back’ enough of
the advertisement to indicate that they have seen it
• Knowledge and Expertise
Knowledge and Expertise

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• Knowledge: what we know and what we have stored in our

memory as a function of learning
• Objective knowledge: actual information about stimulus stored
in memory
• Subjective knowledge: reflects our own perceptions of
what/how much we know about stimulus
Attitudes
• If the hierarchy of effects ‘sequence’ has ‘worked’ so far, the
message has:
o Reached target market through communication
o Gained attention
o Been interpreted the intended way
o Been remembered the intended way
• Now concerned with developing favourable attitudes towards
marketing offering/message
• Attitude: an enduring organization of motivational, emotional,
perceptual and cognitive process with respect to some aspects of
the individual’s world
• The Structural Approach to Attitudes and Attitude Change

o Attitude has three components:
A cognitive component – consists of a person’s
beliefs or knowledge about an issue/object (reflect
how individual perceives product)
An affective component – consists of a person’s
feelings/emotions about issue of object (+ or -)
A behavioural (conative) component – consists
of how individual is likely to respond to the object
based on what they know/how they feel about it
• Heider’s Balance Theory

o Argues that consumers try to maintain a degree of balance
between cognitive and affective components
o E.g. consumer hates Microsoft but friends persuades him
to purchase it chose friend or Microsoft changes
attitude towards Microsoft but doesn’t buy it

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• Attitude Measures
o Semantic Differential Scales
Five-point (= rated from 1 to 5) bipolar scales
characterized by opposites e.g. good/bad
o Likert Scales
Similar 5-point scale but from “strongly agree” to
“strongly disagree”
Bandwagon Effect: when respondents answer
according to how they think the interviewer wants
them to respond, or how they think “most people”
would feel about the issue
Fishbein’s Multi-Attribute Model (Attitude
Toward Object Model): our attitude towards an
‘object’ is predicted upon what we consider to be
appropriate
1. Person is asked to rate importance to
him/her of each attribute from 1 to 5
2. Person is asked to rate each attribute of
both (or more) concepts from 1 to 5
Importance to him/her of the specific attribute
is multiplied by rating of that same attribute
all products per concept are added up creating
2 (or more) final scores indicating which is best
Fishbein’s and Ajzen’s Theory of Reasoned
Action
Suggests that a person’s behavior is
determined by his/her intention to perform the
behavior and that this intention is, in turn, a
function of his/her attitude towards the
behavior and his/her subjective norm
Best predictor of behavior is intention (the
cognitive representation of a person’s
readiness to perform a given behavior)
Intention determined by 3 things:
• Attitude towards specific behavior
• Subjective norms
• Perceived behavioral control

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• The Functional Approach to Attitudes

o Attitudes can serve many functions for consumers (Katz,
1960)
1. Instrumental Function
Functio
The individual assesses the utility of objects for
the attainment of their goals
If experience is satisfying, consumer likely to
repeat it and develop favourable attitude
towards it
2. Ego-Defensive
Ego Function
The individual uses attitudes to protect their
self-image
image by emphasizing their place in their
social world
E.g. person wants sports car but can’t afford it
says it’s actually too flashy for someone
middle-aged
3. Value
Value-Expressive Function
The individual expresses their central values
and self to others
4. Knowledge Function
The individual constructs the meaning of their
world, or gives explanation to both physical
and metaphysical phenomena

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• Changing Attitudes and Behaviour

o Persuasion: attempted attitude and behavior change
o People are more likely to be persuaded when the
information is credible and expects e.g. scientists are used
to convey a message
o Repetition is a useful tool for persuasion
Hoofdstuk 4 – Consumer Response to Marketing Actions
Action
• Final stages of the sequential model of response to marketing:
o Exposure Attention Perception Learning Attitude
Action Post-purchase
• Impulsive Buying (unplanned buying)
o A sudden but powerful and persistent urge to buy a
product (not only with cheap products)
o Compensatory Impulse Buying occurs when buyer feels
‘down’
o 4 Forms of Impulse Buying:
1. Pure impulse buying (buys on sudden grounds)
2. Reminder impulse buying (item is suddenly
‘remembered’)
3. Suggestion impulse buying (consumer goes
through rapid evaluation on the spur of the moment
without prior knowledge regarding the product)
4. Planned impulse buying (when consumer wants to
buy something but doesn’t necessarily know what)
Post-Purchase
• Customer Satisfaction
o Full meeting of one’s expectations
o Word-of-mouth advertising: when satisfied consumers
share their experiences with others
o Antecedents of Costumer Satisfaction
Disconfirmation Paradigm
Views satisfaction with products and brands as
a result of two cognitive variables: pre-
purchase expectations and disconfirmation

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Attribution Theory
Consumers seek explanations for the causes of
outcomes e.g. when microwave stops working
Equity (fairness) Theory and Other Factors
The fairness judgement that consumers make
in reference to what others receive
o Consequences of Customer Satisfaction
Complaining Behaviour
Voice, Third Party Actions and Private Actions
Voice: complaining behavior directed towards
manufacturer/service provider
Third-party: e.g. leaving complaint through
website/post
Private: complaining behavior is channeled to
consumer’s own circle e.g. family/friends
(Word of Mouth – WOM)
• Cognitive Dissonance
o Psychological tension resulting from perceived
inconsistencies in cognitions
o E.g. buy sportscar after thorough research and evaluation
of alternatives
final choice must be compromise since no car is
completely tailored to the requirements of each individual
customer
consumer satisfied but other car may have had certain
superior design feature
the slightly contradictory cognitions can produce
tension/dissonance and may ask “have I made the right
choice?”
if neighbor says “why the hell did you buy that”
cognitive dissonance increases
• Disposal Behaviour
o Concerns the disposal of used-up products including those
which we no longer need
o Disposal behavior includes throwing away, recycling,
selling/swapping, giving away
Chapter 5 – Consumer Demographics

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Age and Generational Cohorts

• Biological age – estimate of present position with respect to your
potential lifespan
• Social age – age in terms of social roles and habits
• Cognitive age – self-perceived age (e.g. some feel younger than
their actual age)
• Subjective age – self-perception with reference to other age
groups
• Personal age – based on your self-perceptions & comprises 4 age
dimensions (feel age, look age, do age and interest age)
• Generation Y (or ‘N’) (16-33 yrs in 2010)
o Materialists, brand-orientated, risk-takers, keen on
business, hedonism and illegal drugs, disrespect for
policies
• Generation X (or Baby Busters) (34-44 yrs in 2010)
o Important spenders – demanding their own products and
searching for their own identity, especially individualistic,
skeptical of marketing activity
• Between X and Boomer
o Switch pursuits and relationships, want relatively
immediate results from their activities
• Baby Boomers (45-65 yrs in 2010)
o Born in the years following WW2, involved in a massive
social revolution which changed music, fashions, political
thought and social attitudes, first “teenagers”, youthful
self-concept (think they younger than they really are)
• The Over-50s
o More disposable income than all the others combined,
growing population
o Don’t like to be portrayed as ‘old’ but neither as too
‘young’ caution is needed
• Gremlins: the New Batch
o Modern children grown up in a 24/7, internet, mobile
phone world
o Confronted with inappropriate concepts; e.g. allowing them
to give internet dolls boob jobs and sexy lingerie

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Gender
• Women account for ±80% of household buying decisions
• Sex-appeal is a successful persuasion technique
• Understanding Consumer Behaviour via Information
Processing Styles
o Concerned with the idea that the male and female brains
might ‘work’ differently
o Males: selective processors of information
o Females: tend to be comprehensive processors of
information paying attention to all details
o Neurolinguistic programming (NLP): used to target
consumers to identify different types of information
processing styles
o Females more likely to communicate their internal
emotional states than males
Sexuality
• Concepts of masculinity and femininity are aligned along a
continuum based to a large extent on:
o Socialization of our culture (some cultures men kiss each
other, some not)
o Our own self-image
o How we use our bodies to reflect this and how we dress to
achieve the image we wish to project to others
• Marketing is also increasingly interested in the gay market
segments
Social Grade
• Involves complicated assessment of income, wealth, power and
skill
• Significant differences in buying behavior between respondents
in various social grades
Income
• Can clearly and logically determine some consumption behavior
Chapter 6 – Consumer Psychographics

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Lifestyle
• A mode of living as reflected in consumers’ unique patterns of
attitudes, interests and opinions
• Important because gives deeper insights into consumer behavior
by looking at how consumers spend time and what they think of
various elements of their environment, plus motives, feelings
and beliefs
• Traditional lifestyle and contemporary lifestyle
• Main focus, on traditional lifestyle marketing, is to explore
consumer activities, interests and opinions (AIO analysis)
• Traditional lifestyle research has been based typically on the
presentation to respondents of a series of statements (Likert
scales)
• Most significant sources of consumer data: Target Group Index
(TGI)
Personality
• Personality Variables
o Personalities provide the essential differences between one
individual and another
o Like lifestyle, marketers can use some personality traits
as a basis of segmenting their target market
o Psychoanalytic Theory
Our personality is the result of polarizing forces of
the id and superego and the intervening and
balancing mechanism of the ego
o Trait Theory
Traits: individual’s characteristic ways of responding
to the social and physical environment
Personality big five factors: extraversion,
openness, agreeableness, conscientiousness and
emotional stability
• Consumer Decision Making Styles
o A mental orientation characterizing a consumer’s approach
to making shopping choices
Quality consciousness – tendency to seek
perfection/highest quality

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Brand consciousness – tendency to seek the more

expensive, famous brands
Novelty-fashion consciousness – tendency to buy
novel and fashionable items to seek
Recreational shopping – tendency to seek pleasure,
fun, recreation and entertainment out of shopping
Value consciousness – tendency to seek bargains and
look for deals
Impulsiveness – tendency to buy on impulse
Confusion – tendency to get confused by over-choice
of brands/information
Brand loyal orientation – tendency to like and buy
same brands again and again
o Type Theory
Another approach to personality analysis
classification of various types of personality (e.g.
introverts and extroverts)
• Brand Personality
o Similarities between human personality traits and those
associated with a brand
o Human traits are inferred on basis of observations of a
person’s behavior, physical attributes, attitudes, beliefs
and other demographics
Perceptions of brand personality traits are formed due to
interactions (direct + indirect) with a brand
• Social Character Research
o Inner-/Other-Directedness
Riesman uses social character to sum up the
individual’s personality type
His system has 3 categories:
Tradition-direction – those whose values and
behavior stem from the past
Inner-direction - have a strong personal sense
of what sort of behavior is correct
Other-direction – have values, attitudes and
behavior which are largely acquired from
others
o Self-Monitoring

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The degree to which people adapt themselves to

their social environment
High self-monitors tend to buy products/brands that
contribute to making favorable impressions on their
reference group
o Problems with personality in explaining consumer
behavior:
An objective personality test might reveal our true
personality but we might not know that this is how
we are/may not agree with it
We might want to disguise our true personality
buy brands which extend the traits we want to
portray leads us to consideration of how we want
to be/how we think we are rather than how we
actually are self-concept theory
Self-Concept
• Based not on what personalities consumers possess, but on how
consumers possess themselves
• Refers to all subjective thoughts and feelings a person has about
themselves as an object (Rosenberg)
• Dimensions of Self
o Self-concept can include actual self, ideal self, social self
and ideal social self
• Multiple Selves
o Debates about whether self-concept is stable and
consistent over time or whether it changes in different
situations
o We all have multiple identities
o Possible selves – a self-relevant knowledge pertaining to
how individuals think about their potential and about their
future
• Extended Self
o Based on the idea that we can value certain possessions to
the extend that they become part of ourselves e.g.
brands/collections/animals even
o Purchases become an extension of ourselves ultimate of
this process: tattoos, plastic surgery, body piercings

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o ‘Ideal’ body image difficult to achieve and can lead to

eating disorders and body mutilation
o Desirable body shapes varies across cultures
• Virtual Self-Image
o Dramatic rise of online communities and social networking
created the virtual self
• Self-Image Congruence
o Product-user image interacts with the consumer’s self-
concept, generating a subjective experience referred to as
self-image congruence
o Consumers buy products similar to their own self-concept
o Self-Concept Research Mechanics
Seven-point scale including brand image of A, brand
image of B and self-image.
• Alternative Approach for Measuring Self-Image
Congruence
o Inner-Directedness, Self-Concept and Self-
Expression
Consumers use brands as a means of non-verbal self
expression
o The Undesired Self
Exploration of undesired end states and undesired
self-images
Chapter 7 – Social Group, Tribal and Household Buying Influences
Social Groups
• Primary groups: characterized by their size/close relationships
e.g. family, tutor group of students
• Secondary groups: made up of more than one primary group
e.g. students’ union
• Informal groups: occur spontaneously on basis of common
interests and geographical closeness
• Formal groups: officially organized groups with more rigid
structure
• Reference Groups

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o An individual/group of individuals that can significantly

influence your behavior consumers aspire to be like
them
Aspirational: who we aspire to be like
Associative: people equal to us e.g. friends/family
Dissociative: people who we don’t want to be like
o Consumers use reference groups as sources of attitudes,
beliefs, values or behaviours
• Types of Reference Group Influence
o 1. Information influence – when consumer buys product,
seeks information about product from family, friends,
perceived experts
o 2. Utilitarian influence (normative influence) – concerns
conformity with the behavior/norms of a group with which
the consumer wants to identify want to comply with
expectations of others
o 3. Value expressive influence – consumer buys brand to
enhance their image among others in the group
Publicly consumed luxery – e.g golf clubs
strong reference group influence (both product and
brand visible to others)
Privately consumed luxery – e.g. TV games
strong reference group influence (everyone has it so
you must have it) but weaker influence on specific
brand (brand consumption hidden from public)
Publicly consumed necessity – e.g. wrist watches
weak reference group influence on whether or not
product is owned but strong reference group
influence on specific brand since everyone sees
Privately consumer necessity - mattresses
weak reference group influence (neither product nor
brand is visible to others)
Public if other people know you have it/can
identify it
Private if you use it at home so that very
little or no people are aware of it
• Consumers’ Susceptibility to Interpersonal Influences
(CSIN)

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o The need to identify/enhance one’s image with significant

others through the acquisition and use of products and
brands, the willingness to conform to the expectations of
others regarding purchase decisions, and/or the tendency
to learn about products and services by observing/seeking
information from others
o People with high levels of susceptibility more likely to buy
products to enhance their social image
• Reference Groups and Self-concept Theory
o Escalas and Bettman: consumers use brands for creation
and representation of their self-images and for
presentation of these images to others with a view to
achieve some identity goals
o Reactance - when an individual buys similar product to
group members but for e.g. buys it in different colour, to
achieve some degree of independence
o Cohesiveness – the overall level of attraction towards the
group
• Leadership
o Leaders – those who most frequently initiate action within
the group relevant to goals
• Social Power
o Referent power – when consumer identifies/admires the
group/person e.g. celebrity
o Information power – when consumer perceives someone as
possessing knowledge about issue
o Legitimate power – where a consumer thinks the position
of referent confers authority e.g. policeman
o Expert power – when there’s a good degree of expert
knowledge by referent
o Reward power – operates when responding favourably to
the referent results in positive reinforcement by the group
e.g. purchase of trendy trainers rewarded by approval of
individual by the group
o Coercive power – opposite of reward power encourages
conformity threatening some intimdation
• Negative Reference Groups

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o Groups/individual whose behavior, beliefs and values the

individual deliberately avoids adopting as their own
• Membership and Non-Membership Reference Groups
o Proquinquity – the physical closeness to the group
o Exposure effect – when the frequence of coming acorss
people can increase likelihood of joining as a social group
Tribal, Virtual Groups and Postmodern Consumer Behaviour

• Tribe – the ephemeral and unstable grouping of consumers who
are joined together by sharing emotions, feelings and passions
on a relatively small scale
Virtual Groups
• Disintermediation – when new technologies permit people to
make direct connections with others by the elimination of the
middleman
• Kozinet’s 4 Distinct Virtual Community ‘Types’
o 1. Tourists – lack strong social ties
o 2. Minglers – Maintain strong social ties, but are only
interested in central consumption activity
o 3. Devotees – maintain a strong interest in consumption
activity, but have few social attachements to grouop
o 4. Insiders – strong personal ties to the consumption
activity
• Brand Hijacking
o When brand is takes away from marketers by a brand
community to enhance the brand’s evolution
Family Influences on Consumer Behaviour

• Intergenerational Influence
o Learning our norms, attitudes and values from our families
as part of our socialization and the effect of the family on
our socialization
• The Family Life Cycle
o Young Single (Bachelor) Stage – starts at ±18 when
person starts living on their own as household
o Young Married w/out Children Stage – Honeymoon stage

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o Young Married with Children (Full Nest I) – arrival of first

child drastic change in lifestyle and financial situation
o Middle Aged Married with Children (Full Nest II) – family
life cycle stage revolving around children and their
education
o Middle Aged Married w/out Children (Empty Nest I) –
children leave home better financial situation
o Older Stages (Empty Nest II and Survivor) – grey market
good for targeting travel/leasure/healthcare
• Trends Affection Family Life Cycle Stages
o Childless couples
o Unmarried couples
o Single parents
o Lonely nation
• Roles and Decision Making in Family
o Thus Kotler’s 5 buying roles:
Initiator
Influencer
Decider
Purchaser
User
• Children and Pester Power
o Children large effect on family expenditure
o Pester Power = purchase request behaviour
Chapter 8 – Culture and Subculture
Culture
• According to Johnson, culture comprises
o Cognitive elements and beliefs – what society knows about
physical and social worlds/how society works, religious
beliefs
o Values and norms – inform how society is expected to
behave
o Sign, signals and symbols – language, variety of
conventions conveying meaning
• Culture is learned, not born with
• Culture and Meaning

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o Culture – the meaning system that members of any

specific group use to inform their lives
o McCracken: cultural category – represents the basic
distinctions that a culture utilizes to divide up its world
w of
everyday experiences e.g. time, space
• McCracken’s Meaning-Transfer
Meaning Model

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o The cultural “meaning” originally resides in culturally

constituted world (world of everyday experiences)
o Meaning is then disengaged/transferred to consumer goods
via macro mechanisms (advertising/fashion systems)
o Meaning is finally transferred to individual consumers
through range of symbolic actions (e.g. gift exchange,
rituals, grooming rituals)
o Underlying assumption of meaning-transfer model: cultural
meaning is attached to consumer goods, can be
communicated by goods, and consumers turn to products
for material benefits but consume symbolic meaning of
goods as portrayed in their images
Exchange Ritual – gift exchange – to insinuate
symbolic properties
Possession Ritual – time/energy spent on cleaning,
discussing, reflecting, showing off, photographics
belongings – to claim ownership of new products
Grooming Ritual – time/energy spent in preparing
for public scrunity e.g. going out – to exalt
meaningful properties e.g. hair, clothes into lives
Divestment Ritual – cleaning/redecorating new
house, disposing a product – to erase meaning
associated with previous owners
• Shared Consumption Rituals
o Ritual (definition by Rook) - a type of expressive, symbolic
activity constructed of multiple behaviours that occur in a
fixed, episodic sequence and tend to be repeated
o Shared consumption rituals (e.g. weddings) link to
physical, temporal, social and cultural environments
o They “instill” and celebrate a sense of “group
cohesiveness”
Values
• Individualistic cultures (e.g. UK) tend to hold an independent
view of self, emphasizes separateness/uniqueness of individuals

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• Collectivist cultures (e.g. Japan) tend to hold interdependent

view of self
• In individualistic cultures, time is prioritized in way that relative
importance of promptness of schedules > relative importance of
social relationships
• Hofstede also identified other values-related constructs such as:
o Power distance – e.g. relatively informal culture of many
Western societies compared to more structured
interpersonal relationships in some Asian societies
o Uncertainty avoidance – extent to which ambiguity
(uncertainty) is overcome by belief structures and societal
institutions e.g. religion
o Long-term orientation – (or Confucian Dynamism)
reflects importance a society attaches to perseverance and
values associated with preparing for and shaping the future
o Masculinity vs. femininity – concerns degree of
assertiveness, doing and acquiring in societies such as USA
compared to more nurturing and thinking cultures such as
some Asian societies
Cultural Differences and Similarities

• Due to technology, the entire world could be treated as one large
marketplace
• However, many language and cultural differences e.g. traditions,
norms, customs, habits, attitudes
• Customization – refers to products and market activities being
modified according to cultural, regional and national differences
Use of Humour
• Particularly effective when it comes to products we buy on
regular/repeated basis does not allocate much mental energy
to evaluate information before purchasing
Spanning (spreading) Cultures

• Country of Origin Effects
o Consumers often use the country of origin as information
cue to make inferences about products and their attributes
such as quality and reliability

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o Country of origin works as an image variable, which

influences consumers’ perceptions of a brand or a product
to the extent that the evaluation of other salient and
important attributes is affected
o Ethnocentric consumers have a tendency to feel proud
of and attached to products originating from their own
culture and a tendency to reject culturally dissimilar
products
Subcultures
• Refer to groups within a society which possess distinctive
characteristics
• Can also be used to refer to ‘a distinctive subgroup of society
that self selects on the basis of a shared commitment to a
particular product class, brand, or consumption activity’
• E.g. Harley-Davidson motorcycle owners can be classified as
‘subculture of consumption’ because they appeared to be a
distinctive subgroup within society with a shared commitment to
the brand and a visible hierarchical social structure
• Ethnicity and Ethnic Identity
o ‘Ethnic’ used to describe groups of relatively recent
immigrants who are perceived to be sufficiently different
from the ‘mainstream’ group
o However, term could be used to describe any social group
(mainstream or minority), irrespective of their cultural and
social background
o ‘Ethnicity’ implies many dimensions including ‘a sense of
common customs, language, religion, values, morality and
etiquette’
ethnicity can be viewed as a characteristic of racial
group membership on the basis of some commonly shared
features
o Two sets of principles operating within ethnicity
Inclusionary-exclusionary principle
One establishes difference
Difference-identity principle
One establishes identity
• Ethnicity and Acculturation

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o Ethnic subcultures/immigrants do usually not abandon

their cultural features
o Recreate their own small cultural worlds in their own ways
o Acculturation – describes the changes in consumer
behaviours of ethnic subcultures the phenomena which
results when groups of individuals having different cultures
come into continuous first hand contact, with subsequent
changes in the original culture patterns of either or both
groups
o or ‘the general process of movement and adaption to the
cultural environment in one country by people from
another country’
o Assimilation – refers to the situation where an immigrant
consumer/group relinquishes their cultural identity over
time and moves into larger society
o Integration – refers to situation where an immigrant
consumer/group not only maintains original culture but
also makes move to become an integral part of a larger
societal framework
o Rejection – refers to a situation where an immigrant
consumer/group rejects the mainstream society while
maintaining identity with the culture of origin
o Deculturation – where an immigrant consumer/group
rejects movement into the mainstream society as well as
any identification with culture of origin
• Individual Differences
o The following factors can be very important in determining
the pace and direction of acculturation
Age – younger immigrants generally adapt quicker
than older ones
Gender – sometimes females have to work for extra
income leads to tension when men have to work in
the household
Work status – those in work experience adapt
easier to new culture (more contacts with host
society)

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Length of stay – those with longer tenure in the

new environment appear to have less difficulty
adapting than those who recently immigrated
Social class – middle-class backgrounds have
advantage over those with working-class
backgrounds
Urban/rural background – those from urban areas
experience fewer difficulties than their rural
counterparts (normally inhabit a consumption
environment similar to the those in new culture)
Sense of ethnic identity – those with strong sense
of ethnic identification more likely to recreate own
culture than those who care less about ethnic origin
Degree of similarity between cultures/nations
– those immigrating from collective culture difficult
to moving to individualistic culture and society
Attitudes of local society – those + state policies
can have an impact on acculturation strategies
adopted by immigrant consumers
Exposure to host and ethnic media – can also
impact acculturation strategies adopted by
immigrants
• Acculturation Agents
o For immigrant consumers there are two sets of institutions
that can act as important source of group and personal
influences
Family, friends and media, and commercial,
educational and religious institutions back home
Family, friends and media, and commercial,
educational and religious institutions in the culture of
destination
• Acculturation Processes
o Movement, translation and adaption are important
acculturation processes
• Acculturation Outcomes
o Most immigrant consumers assimilate many of
products/services associated with mainstream consumer
culture

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o Many of the immigrant consumers also maintain various

aspects of their original culture (food, media, clothing,
travel, financial and music choices)
• Need for Understanding Ethnic Subcultures in UK
o 1. The ethnic minority community has been the fastest-
growing segment of the total population in the UK
o 2. Marketers are always interested in instilling brand
loyalties in their target customers particularly when they
are relatively young; children likely to develop strong
brand loyalties over time
o 3. Marketers are interested in targeting customers that are
relatively affluent (rich)
o 4. Marketers of health products are strongly interested in
exploring consumption patterns of ethnic minority
consumer groups because of their different health patterns
as compared to mainstream consumers
Chapter 9 – New Product Buying
Foundation Theory
• Diffusion-Adoption of Innovations
o Process of spreading innovations through a society and
how individuals ‘adopt’ these is the domain of diffusion-
adoption of innovations theory
o Diffusion – how the innovation is communicated and
distributed through society over time
o Innovation and its Types
Innovation – anything (e.g. idea, concept, product,
service) perceived as being new in the marketplace
o Discontinuous Innovations
New products with a maximum disruptive (not
necessarily a problem) effect
o Dynamically Continuous Innovations
Create some change in how consumers behave but is
not perceived to be dramatically important changes
by those individuals e.g. electric lawnmower instead
of manual version
o Continuous Innovations

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Variations on familiar products e.g. new improved

shampoos
o Alternative Types of Innovation
E.g. functional innovations, aesthetic/hedonistic
innovations, symbolic innovations
o Criteria for Acceptance of Innovations
Compatibility
The degree to which a product is consistent
with consumers’ current values, cognitions and
behaviours
A product that doesn’t require important
change in consumer values/beliefs/purchase-
/user behaviours more likely to be tried by
consumers
Relative Advantage
Degree to which an item has a sustainable,
competitive, differential advantage over other
product classes, product forms and brands
Trialability
Degree to which a product can be tried on a
limited based/divided into small quantities for
an inexpensive trial
Observability
Degree to which a product/its effects can be
sensed by other consumers
Speed
Refers to how fast benefits of product are
experienced by consumer
Simplicity
Degree to which product is easy for consumer
to understand and use
Perceived Risk
If perceived (physical/financial/social) risk of
new product is low, more likely to be adopted
Product Symbolism
What the product/brand means to consumer
and what consumer experiences in purchasing
and using it

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Aesthetic/Hedonistic Innovations
Appeal to our sensory/pleasure-seeking needs
including new clothing styles etc.
Innovation Overload
Where consumers are faced with bewildering
array of new products across many categories
Communication of Innovation
• Adoption
o A regular/committed purchase behavior
Adoption process:
awareness interest evaluation trial
adoption
o Another model by Lavidge and Steiner:
awareness knowledge liking preference
conviction purchase
This first adoption model based on ‘information-attitude-
behaviour’ theory of the communications effect
o Another model:
Knowledge persuasion discussion
confirmation
• Adopter Categories
o Innovators – eager to try new ideas, don’t need much
persuasion
o Early Adopters – tend to have the greatest contact with
salespeople/local people and are often leaders in clubs and
organizations, exhibit the greatest opinion leadership
o Early Majority – have contact with mass media and
salespeople, but also with early adopters
o Late Majority – tend to be skeptical, need much pressure
from peers before they adopt, below average in terms of
income/status/education
o Laggards – bound in tradition, often use other laggards as
sources of information
• Adoption in Technological Markets
o Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) extends traditional
adoption theory via linkages with attitude models
Adapters vs. Innovators

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• Cognitive style – concerned with how individuals make decisions

and solve problems
• Kirton Adaption Innovation Inventory scales can identify
individuals’ positions along one continuum of cognitive styles: an
adapter-innovator continuum
• …………….
Two- and Multi-Step Flows of Communications

• Major factor in speeding up diffusion process is use of
recommendations by those who have ‘source credibility’ can
involve perceived expertise and trustworthiness
• Source attractiveness – where the consumer perceives the
source of message similar to themselves increases
persuasiveness
• Opinion leaders – those who influence others often product
class- or domain-specific
• Market mavens – those who are opinion leaders across
categories
• Opinion Formers and Opinion Leaders
o Two-step model of communication:
o Sender -----> Opinion leader -----> Receiver
Number of strengths and weaknesses
Opinion formers and leaders are assumed to pass on
+ information, but communication planners need to
be sure that they will not reprocess and transmit the
information in a – manner
Opinion leaders can be difficult to identify and it can
be difficult to measure degree of impact they have in
influencing opinion followers
Opinion formers more easily identified but less
effective
• Real Opinion Formers
o Celebrities can be used as opinion formers
• Simulated Opinion Formers
o Characters can be fictional but possess a degree of
perceived credibility
• ‘Real’ Opinion Leaders
o E.g. a person you’d like to speak to for advice

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o Targeting opinion leaders can lead to great potential power

and success they spread information because people
trust them
• Simulating Opinion Leaders
o –
• Simulating Opinion Leadership
o Concerned with encouraging people to talk about an issue
o Buzz marketing – planting company representatives in a
social setting, where they talk loudly about a
product/service category, so that they are going to be
heard by others conversational advertising
o Retro marketing – where nostalgia can inform product
design, fashion design, product re-launches and
advertising campaigns
• Market Mavens
o Hold useful information for others about products but are
also interested in buying and consumption can provide
information about prices and availability
o Transferred to internet they are called infomediaries

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Product Ergonomie 10/14/2013 10:59:00 PM
Hoofdstuk 3 – 3.4
Het Mens-Product Interactie model (MPI)
• Het sub-model Mens

o Linkerzijde
o Input via zintuigen throughput en storage door middel
van brein output door het spier-skelet-systeem
• Het sub-model Product
o Rechterzijde
o Intelligent product: een product met eigen
programmering, geheugens en regeling

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• Informatiestroom via bedieningsonderdelen (controls)

• Bij intelligente producten: stroom van info. gaat naar intelligente
onderdelen kunnen een besluit nemen en vaak meerdere
programma’s draaien bijv. wasmachine
• Output-subsysteem wordt gevormd door andere werking van het
product door een of meer signaalgevers (displays) bijv. zoemer,
lampje, geluidje
• De Modellering van Interactie

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o Voorbeeld gebruiksfasen: naar het product toegaan,

starten, het eigenlijk gebruiken, het stoppen,
schoonmaken, opbergen
o Interactie-patroon: systematisch, weerkerende,
invariante elementen van waarnemen en hanteren die in
een bepaalde vaste volgorde optreden en zo een
gebruikerspatroon vormen
• Het sub-model Omgeving

o Elke gebruiker andere omgeving omgeving wordt
aangegeven als een alles omgevende band
• Verschillende mensen of producten tegelijkertijd
o Bijv. praatpaal M-P-M – twee mensen communiceren via
een product
o Bijv. 2 fauteuil lichaam drukt (M-output) op
steunvlakken van zit- en rugvlak en armleggers (P-input)
geeft reactie-krachten, vering, vervorming etc. (P-
output)
worden door persoon waargenomen in huid en
ledematen (M-input)

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Hoofdstuk 4 – 4.1, 4.2
4.1 - De Normaal-Verdeling
• De gemiddelde mens bestaat niet

• Door omgevingen en situaties maar ook door genetisch bepaalde
hersen ‘bedrading’ (genetic wiring)
• Ook fysiek geen gemiddelde mens
De Gauss-curve, x̅ and s

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• Frequentie-verdeling in de vorm van een normaal-verdeling

• Y-axis: hoeveel individuen (n) de meetwaarden bezitten die op
de x-axis zijn uitgezet
• n = (gemeten) aantal individuen
• x = het variabele kenmerk met gelijke stappen in oplopende
intensiteit geordend
• x̅ = het rekenkundig gemiddelde het
• s = de standaardafwijking
• de spreidingsmaat = de gemiddelde, absolute afwijking van de
xi-waarden ten opzichte van de x̅ :
• s = horizontale afstand tussen symmetrie-as (x̅) en het buigpunt

van de curve
Percentielen en Z-waarden
• P50 = x̅ = rekenkundig gemiddelde

• Links van symmetrie as: negatief ; rechts van symmetrie as:
positief
• Z-waarden gegeven in de tabel
Uiterste Waarden
• Frequentieverdeling suggereert oneindige waarden – niet juist
• Echter, de extreme individuen zijn van minder belang tijdens
grote groepsonderzoeken
Inter-individuele s2 en intra-individuele s2

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• Inter-individuele spreiding: de spreiding van waarden tussen

verschillende individuen
• Intra-individuele spreiding: de spreiding van waarden die bij
één individu over een bepaalde tijdsperiode zijn gemeten en die
dus ontwikkeling (groei of achteruitgang) vastleggen (vaak
minder ontwerprelevant)
• Spreidingen worden volgens statistisch gebruik meestal variantie
genoemd en uitgedrukt in s2 (gekwadrateerde
standaardafwijking)
Variatie-coëfficient (V)
• s2 altijd gerelateerd aan X variabele onderlinge vergelijking
van de spreiding van verschillende kenmerken is moeilijk
• dimensieloze maat bedacht: variatie-coëfficiënt V (let op geen
variaNtie)
4.2 – De Zeven Ergonomische Ontwerptypen
1. Prokrustes-type
• Gebruiker moet zich aan het product aanpassen inplaats van
andersom veroorzaakt ongemak en soms zelfs ongelukken
(afzagen/uitrekken ledematen)
2. Ego-type
• Wanneer ontwerper alleen eigen maten neemt voor ontwerp
• Bijv. krachten, zichtbaarheid, lichaamsafmetingen
3. x̅-type
• Ontwerpen voor de middelmaat/ het gemiddelde
• Minimaliseert ongemak voor de totale gebruikerspopulatie
4. Lager-percentiel Type
• Ontwerpen zodat de kleinere, zwakkere, minder handige, tragere
enz. ook van het product gebruik kunnen maken
• Verminderende Meeropbrengst

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o Extreme delen van de normaalverdeling weglaten –

moeilijk om én de extreem lage percentielen voldoening te
geven én de extreem hoge percentielen ontwerper moet
streng zijn
o Linker deel van
normaalverdeling
van zelfde
oppervlakte als stuk
uit het midden heeft
meer lengte van x-
axis nodig grotere
variatie in maat
5. Hoger-percentiel Type
• Ontwerpen zodat ook de langste ermee kunnen werken
• Ontwerpers kunnen niet met alles ook de allergrootste mensen
voldoening geven veranderen de maat van deur niet als maar
1 van de 1000 ervoor moet bukken
6. In- en Verstelbaarheid Type
• Dimensies in ontwerp zelf variabel maken
• Verstelbaarheid: te kunnen veranderen tijdens het gebruik,
gemakkelijk en desgewenst vaak
• Beargumenteren van uitsluiting van gebruik
o Uitsluiten van bepaalde gebruikersgroepen meestal
onontkoombaar
o Kieze van verre waarden: bijna elke gebruiker krijgt dan
last
o Design for all: ethisch uitganspunt om géén gebruiker uit
te sluiten
7. Product-Varianten Type
• Verschillende maatvarianten maken (e.g. schoolbanken)

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Hoofdstuk 5 – Fysieke Ergonomie
• Fysieke ergonomie: bestudeert fysieke factoren en aspecten

van de mens-product interactie
• Mens als biologisch systeem opgedeeld in 3 delen: sensorisch
(waarnemen) deel, cognitief (denken) deel en fysiek (handelen)
deel (zie 2.3)
• Fysieke aspecten van lichaam: lengte, omvang, oppervlakte etc.
constant
• Dynamische aspecten: verandering stand van ledematen, druk
op huid, wisseling van positie van massamiddelpunt
5.2 – Indeling van Fysiek Ondersteunende Producten
Zesdeling

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• 1. Kleine Verblijfsruimten (Cabins)

o Functie: enige tijd beschermd verblijven e.g. cockpit/auto-
cabine
• 2. Lichaamsondersteuningsmiddelen (Supports)
o Functie: ondersteunen het volhouden van een
lichaamshouding e.g. werkstoel
• 3. Persoonlijke Uitrustingen (Outfits)
o Worden op lichaam meegedragen
o Ondersteunen functie van beschermen van lichaamsdelen
e.g. kleding/gasmasker/handschoen
• 4. Handvatten, Verpakkingen en Lasten (grips, packs and
loads)
o Ondersteunen functie van enige tijd vasthouden, vervoeren
en/of positioneren van containers e.g. handvatten, lussen
aan koffers
• 5. Handwerktuigen (tools)
o Ondersteunen en verbijzonderen de functies van vingers,
handen en armen e.g. pincet, schaar, hamer
• 6. Bedieningsonderdelen op grotere, al dan niet vaste,
werktuigen en machines (controls)
o Ondersteunen de functie van het doorgeven van een
besturings- of bedieningscommando aan interne
mechanismen van het grotere product e.g. stuurwiel,
hendel, drukknop, muis
5.3 – Fysieke Aspecten
Menskundige Kennisgebieden
• 1. Statische Antropometrie
o Beschrijft blijvende kenmerken (structuur) van de uiterlijke
vorm, opbouw en proportionering van het menselijke
lichaam
o Vooral lengte, breedte, diepte en omvang van
lichaamssegmenten
• 2. Dynamische Antropometrie
o Kijkt naar bewegingsmogelijkheden van het lichaam en zijn
segmenten

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o Combinaties van lichaamssegmenten of speciale

doorsneden worden gemeten e.g. gemiddelde stapgrootte
o Aan dynamische zijde van dit kennisgebied: kinesiologie
bewegingsleer (hoe ver en snel ledematen kunnen
bewegen)
• 3. Passieve Krachtopvang
o Onderzoek naar hoe menselijk lichaam reageert op externe
krachten e.g. zwaartekracht, druk op huid via
ondersteunende contactvlakken, opvangen/dempen van
schokken en trillingen, effecten van versnellingen van
vervoer etc.
• 4. Actieve Krachtuitoefening
o Gebruik van spieren interne krachtbron bij e.g. tillen,
duwen, tegenhouden etc.
• 5. Fysieke Inspanning
o Ontwerpers moeten rekening houden met (grote variaties
in) vermoeibaarheid, volhoudtijd, doorzettingsvermogen,
vaardigheid en kracht
• 6. Motorisch Leren
o Interacties vergen vaak het precies doseren van krachten,
het goed beheren van bewegingsbanen, snelheid van
voelen en reageren
o Fysieke interactie betekent vaak ondergaan van leerproces
(eerst proberen fouten maken steeds beter doen
bereikt een bevredigend niveau en automatisme)
5.4 – Een Matrix van Producttypen en Kennisgebieden

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• E.g. Bij ontwerp van kleding moet ontwerper meer analyse

maken van statische en dynamische antropometrie dan zorg
besteden aan factoren van fysieke inspanning
• Bij ontwerpen van koffers of drilboren andersom
Hoofdstuk 6 – Statische Antropometrie
Antropometrie (“mens-meterij”)
• Anatomie (ontleedkunde)
o Beschrijft aard en ruimtelijke hoedanigheid van
lichaamsonderdelen
o In ergonomie zijn vooral de huid, botten en spieren van
belang

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• Stokjes modellen worden gebruikt in plaats van complete

modellen om bepaalde houdingen weer te geven
• Een 15-segments Model
• Anatomische standaardhouding: de staande

standaardhouding
• Mannekins van karton + splitpennen: vaak op schaal 1:10
Bronnen van Lichaams-Variatie

• Factoren van Primaire Ontwerprelevantie
o Leeftijd (groei is merkbaar tot ±20 jaar)

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o Sex (natuurlijke lichamelijke verschillen)

o Lichaamshouding
o Lichaamsbouw
• Factoren van Secundaire Ontwerprelevantie
o Kleding (meegedragen objecten)
o Etmaalsritme (mensen zijn soms langer bij opstaan dan
’s avonds)
o Lateraliteit (ongelijkheid van linker- en rechterhelft van
lichaam)
o Willekeurige bewegingen (product moet rekening
houden met bewegingen van consument e.g. shirt
zwaaien met armen)
• Overige Ontwerprelevante Factoren
o Etniciteit (verschillende “rassen”: Negroïden, Mongoloïden
en Indo-Europeanen)
o Secularisatie (seculair: honderdjarig “pas na lange tijd
waarneembaar” en “altijd in dezelfde richting toenemend”)
o Gezondheid (ziekte/fysieke handicaps veroorzaken grote
veranderingen in lichaamsafmetingen/afwijkingen in
lichaamsvormen)
o Leefwijze
Ontwerpen voor Kleine Verblijfsruimten (Cabins)

• Funtionele Ontwerpparameters
o Verblijfsduur
o Aantal personen
o Lichaamshouding
o Activiteit
o Toegankelijkheid
o Oriëntatie (gebruiker kan last van claustrofobie hebben)
Antropometrische Enveloppen: “de imaginaire doos die de

bewegingsruimte rond mensen omhult”
Reikwijdte-enveloppen

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Ontwerpen van Middelen voor Lichaamsondersteuning (supports)

• Ondersteuningsduur
• Activiteit
• Ondersteunende weefsels
• Motiliteit (vermogen om spontaan te bewegen)
Hoofdstuk 7 – Dynamische Antropometrie
Gewrichtswerking
• Scharnieren in een stangenstructuur
o Synoviaal gewricht – gewrichten met kapsels en
vochtsmering tussen de kraakbeen-contactvlakken
o Bij gewrichtsbewegingen verdraaien twee nevenliggende
segmenten ten opzichte van elkaar
o Segmentie – als 2 segmenten in een vlak naar elkaar toe
buigen
o Extensie – als deze strekken

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o Abduceren – van het lichaam af bewegen

o Adduceren – naar het lichaam toe bewegen
o Rotatie – als een segment om zijn lengte-as draait
Naar buiten: exo-rotatie (supineren)
Naar binnen: endo-rotatie
• Factoren van Gewrichtsexcursie
o Leeftijd
o Geslacht (vrouwen algemeen leniger dan mannen)
o Passief (zelf doen) of actief (externe kracht)
o Training
o Nevengewrichten
Spieren kunnen over 1 gewricht lopen (mono-
articulaire spieren), 2 gewrichten ontspannen (bi-
articulair) of zelfs meer (poli-articulaire spieren)
Bewegingsparameters
• Vrijheidsgraden van mens-product interactie
o Individualiteit – niemand beweegt precies hetzelfde
o Kritische bewegingen
Onaanvaardbare bewegingen: onnodig vermoeiend,
onveilig, ongezond, frustrerend, onhandig
Ontwerpen van Middelen voor Lichaamsondersteuning (vervolg)

• Wervels vlak boven de bekken: ‘lumbale’ wervels
• Kyfosering: waar de tussenwervelschijven ongelijkmatig
vervormen tot wiggen schijf kan hernia oplopen
• Een vérgaande lumbale kyfose kan optreden door het langdurig
innemen van houdingen
• De ongewenste wigvorm (bij het zitten): in elkaar gedoken,
schouders hangen naar voren, rug is over hele lengte teveel
gekyfoseerd
• De Lumbaalsteun (onderrugsteun)
o Gaat kyfosering tegen door lumbaalwervels in de juiste
houding te ondersteunen
o Gewoonlijk licht indrukbaar
• Grandjean onderzocht zithoudingen van administrators
• Branton onderzocht zithouding van Britse treinreizigers

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Hoofdstuk 8 – Passieve Krachtopvang
De Krachten Op en In het Lichaam

• Atmosferische Druk
• Zwaartekracht en Oriëntatie
o Atmosferische druk geen richting, zwaartekracht wel
• Drukverdeling bij Staan

o Totale lichaamsgewicht wordt via voetzolen op de grond
gedrukt
• Drukverdeling bij Zitten
o Voeten dragen minder lichaamsgewicht
o Billen vangen meeste kracht op
• Drukverdeling bij Liggen en Decubitus
o 0g (zero gravity) houding zou ideaal zijn (zie fig. 8.1)
o Groter oppervlakte van lichaam ondersteund tijdens liggen
dan zitten/staan druk lager
• Versnelling
o Versnellings-tolerantie is op te voeren door middel van
traning (bijv. bij militaire piloten/ruimtevaarders)
• Trilling

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o Power Spectrum Density (PSD) – samengestelde maat

ontwikkeld om aan te geven hoe het lichaam door trilling
wordt belast
• Kinetose
o Samenvatting van alle bewegingsziektes (zeeziekte,
luchtziekte, rij-ziekte, reisziekte)
o Symptomen: slaperigheid, apathie en misselijkheid
Ontwerpen van Middelen voor Lichaamsondersteuning (slot)

• Essentieel bij ergonomisch ontwerpen is de juiste inschatting van
zitduur
• Tijdens zitten drukverdeling waar 2 zitknobbels meeste
opvangen
• Mensen zweten dus stoelen vaak van fijnmazig netwerk of
ademend weefsel als oppervlakte gemaakt
• De natuurlijke lumbale lombose moet bij zitten zo veel mogelijk
behouden blijven en zeker niet veranderen in een kyfose
• Armsteunen zijn wenselijk omdat deze het gewicht van de armen
opvangen zodat de schouders niet zakken
• Ontwerpvolgorde
o Men dient rekening te houden met motorische én visuele
taken
o Visuele keten: stand van ogen, hoofd en nek, stand van
romp
o Motorische keten: stand van handen en onderarmen,
bovenarmen en vervolgens weer stand van romp
o Zodra werkondersteuning, bliklijnen en handelingslijnen tot
een ergonomisch aanvaardbare houdingscombinatie zijn
gebracht kunnen de steunvlakken van billen, voeten en
onderrug worden bepaald
Hoofdstuk 9 – Fysieke Inspanning en Actieve Krachtsuitoefening
Fysieke Inspanning
• Materie-energie Metabolisme
o Men kan capaciteit van een orgaan/lichaamsfunctie tot een
niveau dat lang en constant kan worden volgehouden

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o Kanalen kunnen nooit helemaal leeg zijn het leven moet

minimaal doorgaan: BMR = Basal Metabolic Rate = basaal
metabolisme
• Inspanning en Kosten
o Mensen verschillen onderling qua metabolische
capaciteiten door lichaamsbouw, aanleg etc.
o Drie vormen van kosten:
Omkeerbare, functionele veranderingen in
doorstromingsorganen belasting en inspanning en
daarna herstel door rust
Onomkeerbare, zeer geleidelijke structurele
veranderingen door verouderingen, veroorzaken en
blijvende verminderingen van de metabolische
capaciteit
Onomkeerbare, betrekkelijk snelle structurele
veranderingen door overbelasting: schade door
excessieve prikkels, geweld, ziekten, gif, net als
veroudering die een moeilijk/onherstelbare
vermindering van capaciteiten veroorzaken
o Twee soorten inspanning
Mentale inspanning
Fysieke inspanning
• Spierarbeid

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o Spierwerking
Skeletspier – een die aan de uiteinden via pezen aan
botten bevesigd is is over een of meer gewrichten
gespannen
Hooffunctie:
• Lichaamshoudingen stabiliseren
• Lichaamsdelen bewegen rond gewrichten
• Krachten uitoefenen op externe objecten
Hypertrofie – buitengewone toename van
spierontwikkeling met zichtbare vormverandering
(bijv. door bodybuilding)
Als spier ‘atrofisch’ wordt is hij langere tijd
niet/weinig gebruikt verzwakknig
Hypokinesie – onderbeweeglijkheid het
systematisch en zeer langdurig te weinig bewegen
van ledematen
o Een Systeemanalyse van Fysieke Inspanning
Spier oefent kracht uit wanneer samentrekt
(contraheert)
Statische ‘contractie’: geen contractie maar er
wordt kracht uitgeoefend voor het volhouden
van stilstand/evenwicht van krachten
Dynamische ‘contractie’: contractie waarbij
spier duidelijk van lengte verandert
• Concentrische contractie: spier korter
• Excentrische contractie: spier langer
o Indicatie van Fysieke Inspanning
Zuiverste indicatie door vaststellen van
zuurstofverbruik per tijdseenheid
Aërobe capaciteit – de maximale hoeveelheid
zuurstof die iemand kan opnemen bij een uiterste
fysieke inspanning
Deel II – Sensorische Ergonomie
Hoofstuk 12 – Zintuigen als Vensters naar de Buitenwereld
De Instroom van Informatie

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• Prikkels en Verwijzende Codes

o Prikkels – gevormd door fysische veranderingen die
plaatsvinden als materie-energywisselingen
• Informatie-Input als Levensnoodzaak
o Informatie vanuit omgeving noodzakelijk om te kunnen
overleven mens kan na enkele uren al geestelijk
beschadigd worden
o Het zintuig heeft wisseling van informatie nodig voor het
waarnemen
Zintuigen als Huidspecialisatie

• Embryologie – het vormen van zintuigen
Zintuigen als Vensters naar de Buiten- en Binnenwereld

• Opvang en Transductie
o Zintuigen kunnen beschouwd worden als vensters naar
wereld
o Na prikkels opvangen vind transductie plaats omzetting
naar zenuwpulsen
• Vensterkarakteristieken
o - Breedte
o - Hoogte
o - Tijd-invloeden
o Venster hoeft niet rechthoekig te zijn venster van oor en
oog ovaal-vorm
Soorten Zintuigen
• Interoceptie
o Bloedvatten, darmen, longen etc. receptoren in het
lichaam die gevoelig zijn voor aspecten zoals druk, pH,
zuurstofspanning
• Kinesthesie
o In spieren, pezen en gewrichten zijn zintuigjes aanwezig
die informatie geven over configuratie van lichaam en
ledematen
o Informatie essentieel voor adequate reactie van spieren
• Vestibulair

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o Mens moet weten wat boven en onder is, in welke richting

de zwaartekracht werkt etc.
• De Huidzin
• Smaak
• Reuk (geur)
• Gehoor en Gezichtsvermogen
Vensterspecificaties
• Voor zintuigsystemen ‘horen’, ‘zien’, en ‘voelen’ zijn de
belangrijkste parameters voor het ergonomisch behandelen:
o Fysische aard
o Psychologische aard
o Frequentie: λ
o Intensiteit: i
o Tijdkenmerken (herstel van gevoeligheid na verwerking): t
o Optimale werkgebieden (wegens resolutie in λ, i en t)
• Zien
o Aard van fysische prikkels is elektromagnetisch
• Horen
o Aard van fysische prikkels is een drukwisseling
• Voelen
• Veroudering
o Verschillende kwaliteiten en karakteristieken van vensters
veranderen
Hoofdstuk 13 – Het Auditieve

Zintuigsysteem
Bouw, Werking en Meeteenheden

• De Anatomie van het Gehoor
Orgaan
o Oor 3 delen – uitwendig oor,
middenoor en inwendig oor
o Buitenoor: oorschelp +
gehoorgang + trommelvlies
o Middenoor: trommelholte +
gehoorbeentjes (hamer,
aambeeld en stijgbeugel) + het

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ovale venster + het ronde venster + buis van Eustachius

o Binnenoor: slakkenhuis + evenwichtsorgaan
• Werking Gehoor
o (Lucht)drukwisselingen komen gehoorgang binnen via
gehoorschelp
o Door conische vorm gehoorgang wordt geluid versterkt
dan op trommelvlies overgebracht
wordt in trilling gebracht
trilling plant voor in gehoorbeentjes (bevinden zich in
met lucht gevulde en met keelholte verbonden middenoor)
gehoorbeentjes dragen trilling van trommelvlies over
naar ovale venster (veel kleiner)
ovale venster dunwandige afscheiding tussen middenoor
en slakkenhuis (cochlea – met vloeistof gevuld)
trilling in ovale venster overgedragen op vloeistof-kolom
in slakkenhuis, dat de trilling via ronde venster terugbrengt
naar middenoor en via buis van Eustachius naar keelholte
loopt
vloeistoftrilling in slakkenhuis veroorzaakt trilling in de
vezels (haarcellen) van basilair membraan en hier vindt
een geluidsregistratie plaats
•
o Luchtdrukwisselingen gekenmerkt door aantal wisselingen
per seconde (frequentie: Hz) en intensiteit (dB)
De Auditieve Waarnemingskwaliteiten
• Tijdkenmerken

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o Auditieve signalen moeten langer aangeboden worden dan

300ms
• Factoren van Spraakverstaanbaarheid
o Luider spreken
o Beter articuleren
o Lettergrepen langer laten duren
o Meer toonvariaties
o Minder en kortere pauzes
Auditieve Signaalgevers (audio-displays)

• Eenvoudige en Complexe Audio-Signalen
o Auditieve displays: bijv. zoemers, toeters en bellen
Hoofdstuk 14 - Lawaai, Vóórkomen en Voorkómen
Lawaai-effecten en lawaai vóórkomen

• Adaptie en Schade
o Gehoorzintuig past zich aan merken soms ‘hinderlijk’
geluid pas als wegvalt
o Tijdens waarnemen van geluidsprikkel boven
gehoordrempel vindt drempelverhoging plaats
o Wanneer dB > 80, herstelproces kost tijd of zelfs
gehoorbeschadiging
• Lawaai
o Ongewenst geluid / geluidsoverlast
o Verschillende vormen
Subjectief ongewenst geluid (verstoort concentratie)
Lawaai dat menselijke communicatie verstoort
Lawaai dat discomfort/stress veroorzaakt
Lawaai dat verhoging gehoordrempel veroorzaakt
• Normen voor Lawaaiblootstelling
o Normen geven kans aan op gehoorbeschadiging
o Geluidsniveau wordt aangegeven in dB(A) waarden
o A tussen haakjes geeft doorlaatfilter aan waarmee het
gemeten is frequentie tussen 1000-5000 Hz
Geluidsarm Ontwerpen
• Aanpak van Bron, Weg en Luisteraar

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o Primaire maatregelen: wegnemen van bron

o Secundaire maatregelen: blokkeren van geluidsweg,
absorptie in ruimte, vergroten van afstanden
o Tertiaire maatregelen: gehoorbeschermers
Hoofdstuk 15 – Het Visuele Zintuigsysteem
Algemene Bouw en Werking van Oog

• Licht en Meeteenheden
o Fysische aard van lichtstralen elektromagnetisch
o Lichtbron heeft bepaalde lichtsterkte, uitgedrukt in candela
(cd) hoeveel energie bron uitstraalt
o Uitgestraalde lichtenergie: lichtstroom, uitgedrukt in
candela-steradiaal = lumen (lm)
• Het Oog
o Stevige buitenlaag (oogrok/sclera) die aan voorkant
overgaat in transparante hoornvlies (cornea)
o Lichtprikkels (fotonenstromen) komen via hoornvlies het
oog binnen
o Als fotonen lens bereiken gaan ze door voorste kamer door
de iris
o Ronde opening in iris: pupil
o Fotonen komen in achterste kamer gevuld met glasachtig
gelei (glasachtige lichaam), en worden uiteindelijk op
netvlies (retina) geprojecteerd

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o De pupil
Lichtregelaar van oog
Diameter kan variëren – ligt aan hoeveelheid
invallend licht
o De lens
Omgeven door lenskapsel en bevestigd aan (ciliair)
straallichaam
Accommoderen – het veranderen van de
brandpuntafstand zodat de invallende lichtsignalen
precies op het netvlies geprojecteerd worden
Nabijheidspunt – dichts bij het oog liggende punt
o Het netvlies (de retina)
Visuele signalen geprojecteerd op retina en vertaald
en chemisch-elektrische signalen
Bevat groot aantal kleine lichtreceptoren: ‘kegeltjes’
en ‘staafjes’
Visuele Processen
• Fotopie en Scotopie
o Fotopie: dag-zien
o Scotopie: schemer-zien
• 3 Overige Visuele Processen
o Adapteren – aanpassen van gevoeligheid van
lichtgevoelige zintuigcellen
o Accommoderen – het in focus zetten van lens, zodat
omgekeerde beeld op fovea wordt geconcentreerd
o Convergeren – binnenwaarts roteren van oogassen om
beide ogen op zelfde punt te fixeren
• Verziendheid en Bijziendheid
o Oogaslengte correspondeert niet met
brekingseigenschappen van lens
o Verziend (hypermetroop) – als oogas te kort is en
gefocusseerde beeld valt achter retina positieve lens
o Bijziend (myoop) – als oogas te lang is en gefocusseerde
beeld voor retina valt negative lens

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Visuele Waarnemingskwaliteiten
• Gezichtsscherpte – de capaciteit van het visuele systeem om
fijne details te onderscheiden
Het Waarnemen van Kleur, Helderheid, Diepte en Beweging

• 3 Typen Kegeltjes
o ‘rood’-gevoelige kegeltjes
o ‘groen’-gevoelige kegeltjes
o ‘blauw’-gevoelige kegeltjes
• Als een van kleurenreceptoren niet voldoende functioneren –
kleurenzwakte/kleurenblindheid
• Diepte-zien, Ruimte en Afstanden
o Factoren van Diepte-zien
Dispariteit – als 2 retinabeelden niet gelijk zijn (van
2 verschillende invalshoeken van 2 ogen)
Convergentie
Accommodatie
Gekende objectgrootte
Bewegingsparallax – verre beelden bewegen
langzamer dan beelden dichterbij
Schaduw
Textuur gradiënten
Overlapping
Perspectief
Luchtverblauwing – verre objecten in blauwe lucht
Blikvelden
• Veroudering
o Kleiner blikveld
o Nabijheidspunt verder van oog (leesbril)
o Gezichtsscherpte (beeldresolutie) neemt af meer
verlichting nodig
o Kleurgevoeligheid neemt af (vooral blauw)
o Adaptietijd neemt toe
Hoofdstuk 16 – Waarneming en Ontwerp van Visuele Vormen,

Patronen en Kleuren

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Vorm en Patroon als Gevolg van Visueel Organiseren

• Patroonherkenning
o Patroon – een waarneembare structuur van kwaliteiten
(vorm verschillen, kleurverschillen, bewegingen etc.)
• Gestalt-wetten
o Geven wetmatigheid in de patroonherkenning aan
Het Ontwerpen van Codes

• Coderen
o Interactie tussen mens en product – 2-richtings informatie-
overdracht van mens naar product en van product naar
mens
• Tekens
o Pictogrammen – plaatjes, meestal in vorm van
objectsilhouet bijv. inhalen verboden verkeersbord
o Ideogrammen – tekens die een bepaald begrip overdragen
zonder weergave van object bijv. kruis als verwijzing naar
hospitaal
Kleursystemen en Coderen met Kleur

• Verschillende systemen om kleur aan te duiden en definiëren
o Munsell
Kleuren worden aangegeven door
Kleurtint/kleurtoon = Hue
Kleurhelderheid van zwart naar wit met
tussenliggende grijswaarden = Value
Kleurverzadiging (zwart-wit bijmenging) =
Saturation = Chroma
o Commission Internationale d’Eclairage (C.I.E)
Kleurhelderheid wordt als vaste waarde genomen
Kleur aangegeven door 2 kleurcomponenten x and y
Munsell beter want heeft kleurhelderheid parameter
• Algemene Kleurcodes:
o Rood – alarm
o Oranje – riskant
o Geel – aandacht
o Groen – veilig

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o Blauw – reparatie, mededeling

o Paars – radio-actief
Visuele Signaalgevers (Displays): Meters, Schalen en

Elektronische Indicatoren
• Het Gebruik van Visuele Signaalgevers
o Gebruik van displays is noodzakelijk als signalen anders:
Een te kleine/grote intensiteit hebben
Schuilgaan in overmatig ruis
Op de verkeerde plaats/tijd beschikbaar zijn
Moeilijk kwantificeerbaar zijn bijv. snelheid
o Statische Displays – geven informatie over
tijdonafhankelijke parameters van een systeem bijv.
plattegronden
o Dynamische Displays – geven informatie over
tijdafhankelijke parameters van een systeem bijv.
thermometers
Technische Oplossingen voor Dynamische Visuele Signaalgevers

• Mechanische en Elektronische Indicatoren
o Mechanische indicatoren maken gebruik van een of meer
bewegende elementen (bijv. wijzer)
o Elektronische indicatoren maken gebruik van lampjes,
LED’s, beeldschermen, ‘elektronische’ cijfers en letters
De Elektronische Indicatoren en Elektronisch Gegeneerde Tekens

• Driedeling
o De elektronische indicatoren voor dynamische visuele
signalering verdelen we onder 3 groepen:
Lampjes, LED’s; alleen aan/uit functie
Elektronische cijfers, letters, andere tekens; worden
gerealiseerd met behulp van projectietechnieken
Beeldbuizen bijv. TV schermen; brengen
veel(soortige) en complexe informatie over
• Elektronisch Gegenereerde Tekens (Signs)
o Puntmatrix
o Stripvormige segmenten waarmee cijfers getoond kunnen
worden door het oplichten van verschillende combinaties

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o Continu vast gevormde cijfers en letters

o Continu x, y en zelfs z sturing van een straal die een
afbeelding vormt op een gevoelig materiaal

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14-10-2013 22:59:00

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Summary: book " Consumer Behaviour " Martin Evans,

Mens en Product (Technische Universiteit Delft)

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Exam Notes Mens & Product 10/14/2013 10:59:00 PM

Chapter 1 – Consumer Motives and Values (1-15, 24-31)

Positive and Negative Motivation

Internal and External Motivation

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o Based on an attractiveness of environmental stimuli e.g.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (a theory of motivation)

Motivation and Shopping

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• For some, the process of buying > the resulting product

Chapter 3 – Consumer Responses to Marketing Actions 2: Learning

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E.g. letters shown at optician – unlikely to remember

• Behavioral Learning (p. 92)

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o Advertising Wearout: the concept of how many

• Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination

• Knowledge and Expertise

Knowledge and Expertise

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• Knowledge: what we know and what we have stored in our

• The Structural Approach to Attitudes and Attitude Change

• Heider’s Balance Theory

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• The Functional Approach to Attitudes

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• Changing Attitudes and Behaviour

Hoofdstuk 4 – Consumer Response to Marketing Actions

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Chapter 5 – Consumer Demographics

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Age and Generational Cohorts

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Chapter 6 – Consumer Psychographics

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Brand consciousness – tendency to seek the more

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The degree to which people adapt themselves to

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o ‘Ideal’ body image difficult to achieve and can lead to

Chapter 7 – Social Group, Tribal and Household Buying Influences

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o An individual/group of individuals that can significantly

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o The need to identify/enhance one’s image with significant

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o Groups/individual whose behavior, beliefs and values the

Tribal, Virtual Groups and Postmodern Consumer Behaviour

Family Influences on Consumer Behaviour

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o Young Married with Children (Full Nest I) – arrival of first

Chapter 8 – Culture and Subculture

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o Culture – the meaning system that members of any

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o The cultural “meaning” originally resides in culturally

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• Collectivist cultures (e.g. Japan) tend to hold interdependent