3-Geometrical Applications of Integration

200 Engineering Mathematics through Applications
3 Geometrical Applications of Integration

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3.1 INTRODUCTION
In general, we consider the integration as the inverse of differentiation. In the expression of
∑
b
the sum, a
f (x)∆x, f is considered continuous on a ≤ x ≤ b and we find that limit of S as ∆x
b
approaches to zero is the number ∫
a
f (x)dx = F(b) − F(a), where F is any anti-derivative of f. We
apply this contention in finding the area between the x-axis and the curve y = f(x), a ≤ x ≤ b. We
extend the application to compute distances, volumes and volumes of revolution, length of
curves, area of surface of revolution, average value of function, centre of mass, centroid, etc.
3.2 AREA OF BOUNDED REGIONS (QUADRATURE)

I. Areas of Cartesian Curves
The area bounded by the curve y = f(x), X-axis and the y
B
b
ordinates x = a, x = b is ∫ y dx , when f (x) is continuous single y = f(
x)
a
valued and finite function of x, and y does not change sign in the
P´ Q +δy)
interval [a, b]. (x, y)P (x + δx, y
Q´
If AB is the curve y = f(x) between the ordinates A
LA(x = a) and MB(x = b) with a condition that y is strictly y y + δy
increasing (or strictly decreasing) function of x in the
interval [a, b].
Let P(x, y) and Q(x + δx, y + δy) be two neighbouring
O L N N´ M x-axis
points on this continously increasing curve y = f (x) and x δx
NP, N’Q be their respective ordinates.
Fig. 3.1
Here clearly the ALNP i.e. A depends on the position of
the point P(x, y) whose abscissa is ‘x’ and area PNN’Q = δA lies between the areas of the
δA
rectangles PN’ and NQ, i.e. δA lies between area yδx and (y + δy) δx or δx lies between y and
(y + δy).
dA
On taking the limits as Q → P, i.e. δx → 0 (meaning thereby δy → 0), =y
dx
Integrating both sides between the limits x = a to x = b, we get
Geometrical Applications of Integration 201
b Y
b
Area ALMB = A a = ∫ ydx .
y=b
a M B
However, if x and y are interchanged in the above formula, we x = f(y)
see that the area bounded by the curve x = f (y), Y-axis and the abscissa
b L
y=a A
y = a, y = b is ∫ xdy. X
a O
Fig. 3.2
Observations:
(i) The area bounded by the curve y = f(x), the two ordinates at A and B and the X-axis is often called the
area under the curve AB and the process of calculating the area bounded by the curve is called quadrature.
(ii) An area whose boundary is described in anti-clockwise direction is considered positive otherwise
negative. Or in other words, for the portion of the curve (under Y
consideration) above X-axis for which y is positive, area enclosed is
positive, whereas for the portion of the curve (under consideration)
below X-axis for which y is negative, area is negative.
But in case of area with negative sign, we mean numerical value of L M
X
the area. O x=a x=b
(iii) If in the interval, a ≤ x ≤ c, the curve y = f(x) is above the x-axis and in the
interval c ≤ x ≤ b, the curve y = f(x) is below the x-axis then we write the A
area
b c b
∫a y dx = ∫a y dx + ∫c y dx y = f(x) B
or in otherwords, if x-changes sign from a to b, y = f(x) changes sign at Fig. 3.3

some interval point x = c (say), then the area for x from a to c and Y
c to b, are calculated seperately and then their numerical value
are added (see Fig. 3.4)
Similarly, the result can be extended if y changes sign at more A
than one intermediate point in the interval [a, b].
(iv) Area of the region bounded between two continuous curves f(x) x = a +ve
and g(x) on [a, b] and the vertical lines x = a, x = b is given by area
b x=c M X
A = ∫ [ f (x) − g(x)] dx , O
a L N –ve x = b
where f(x) ≥ g(x) in [a, b]. (see Fig. 3.5)
area
In the region under consideration, representative rectangle is
shown with height: f(xi) – g(xi), width: ∆x and P(xi g(xi)); Q(xi f(xi))
If f(x) ≥ g(x) in [a, c] and f(x) ≤ g(x) in [c, b], then we write the area as B
Fig. 3.4
c b
A = ∫a [ f (x) − g(x)] dx + ∫c [g(x) − f (x)] dx
as shown in Fig. 3.6.
Y
f(x) g(x)
∆x
f(x) Y
Q
Q
f(xi)
g(x)
PP
g(xi)
X X
O a xi b x=a x=c x=b
Fig. 3.5 Fig. 3.6
Example 1:
(i) Find the area bounded by the parabola y2 = 4ax and its latus-ractum.
(ii) Show that the area cut off from a parabola by any double ordinate is two-third of
the corresponding rectangle obtained by the double ordinates and its distance from
the vertex.
Solution (i): For the parabola y2 = 4ax, let the double ordinate PP' be x = c
Since the curve is symmetrical about X-axis, therefore, for part of the curve above X-axis,
y be taken as positive, i.e. y = 4ax
Thus, the area bounded by the parabola with its double ordinate
PMP’ (i.e. Latus ractum) y2 = 4ax
Y (4a, 4a)
= Area P’APP’ = 2 Area PAMP B
c P
 3
c c 1
 x2  8 1 3 x=0
= 2∫ ydx = 2∫ 4ax dx = 4a 2   = a2 c 2
3 3
0 0
  A M
 2 0 x=c
1 1
(ii) Again for P(x, y), y = MP = 4ax = 4ac = 2a 2 c 2 so that
1 1
C
PP' = 2 MP = 4 a2 c 2 P´
Now the area of the rectangle formed by the double ordinate Fig. 3.7
(PMP’) and its distance from the vertex A (i.e. AM) = PP' × AM
( 1 1
)
= 4a 2 c 2 ⋅ c = 4a 2 c 2
1 3
Now the area cut of from the parabola by double ordinates, i.e. area P’APP’
8 2 2 2
=
1 3
2 ( 1 1
)
a c = 4a 2 c 2 = area of the rectangle formed by PP' and AM.
3 3 3
Hence, the area formed by the parabola and its latus ractum is two third of the area of the
rectangle formed by the double ordinates with its distance from the vertex, A.
Note: Vice versa, the area of the rectangle is 3 times the area bounded by the parabola with latus ractum.
2
Y
Example 2: Find the area between the curve
x2y2 = a2(y2 – x2) and its asymptotes.
Solution: The given curve x 2 y 2 = a 2 (y 2 – x 2 ) is
symmetrical about both the axis and at the origin, x
=
y = ±x as the tangents. Further, x = ± a are the two y
B(–a, 0) O
asymptotes parallel to Y-axis. The curve no where X
A(a, 0)
intersects with the axis except at (0, 0). Whence the =
y
–
curve does not enclose area with its abscissa or
x
ordinates (see Fig. 3.8).

Due to its symmetry about both the axis, the whole
area between the curve and its asymptotes is x = –a x=a
a
∫
a
ax
= 4∫ y dx = 4 dx (Putting x = a sin θ)
0 0 a2 − x2
Fig. 3.8
π
π
a sin θ
∫
2
=4 2
a⋅ ⋅ a cos θ dθ = 4 ∫ a2 sin θ dθ = 4a2
0 a cos θ 0
Example 3: Find the area of the curve a2y2 = x3(2a – x).

Solution: Without going into geometrical details of the curve, the area enclosed by it in the
first quadrant is Y
3
∫ ∫
2a 2a
x2
A= ydx = 2a − x dx
0 0 a
(i) The curve intersects X-axis at x = 0, x = 2a.
O
X´ X
(ii) Axis of X is the tangent at the origin. (0, 0) (a, 0) A(2a, 0)
dy dy 3  3a , 0 
(iii) = 0 at x = 2a, = ∞ at x = a  2 
dx dx 2  
Put x = 2a sin2 θ
3 Fig. 3.9
π
(2a sin2 θ)2
A= ∫
0
2
a
⋅ 2a − 2a sin θ ⋅ 4a sin θ cos θ dθ
2
π
= ∫
0
2
16a2 sin4 θ cos2 θ dθ
3 ⋅ 1 π  π a2
= 16a2  =
 6 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 2 2  2
π
 (p − 1)(p − 3) … (q − 1)(q − 3) … π 
 using
 0
2
∫
sin pθ cos qθ dθ =
(p + q)(p + q − 2) 2

Hence the total area is π a2.

Example 4: For the curve y2(a – x) = x2(a + x) [NIT Kurukshetra, 2004]
(i) Find the area of the loop Y
(ii) Area of the portion bounded by the curve and

its asymptote.
x=a
Solution: The curve passing through the origin is x
O =
symmetrical about X-axis and has x = a as its A y
X´ X
asymptote. It intersects the axis of X at (–a, 0) as shown (–a, 0)
y
=
in Fig. 3.10.
–x
For the area of the loop, x varies from –a to 0.

Further, the loop is symmetrical about X-axis Y´
a+x a+x
∫ ∫ ∫
0 0 0 Fig. 3.10
∴ Area of the loop = 2 y dx = 2 x dx = 2 x dx (on rationalization)
−a −a a−x −a a2 − x2
 
∫ ∫
0 0
ax x2
= 2 2 − 2
dx + 2 − 2
dx 
 −a a x −a a x 
 1
a2 − (a2 − x2 ) 
∫ ∫
0 − 0
= 2 ax(a2 − x2 ) 2 dx + dx 
 −a −a a −x
2 2

 1

∫ ∫ ∫
0 − 0 0
1
= 2  −a (−x)(a2 − x2 ) 2 dx + a2 dx − a2 − x2 dx 
 −a −a a − x2
2 −a 
0
 1
x  x a2 − x2 a2 x 
∫
0
= 2  −a d(a2 − x2 )2 dx + a2 sin−1 −  + sin−1 
 −a a  2 2 a −a
 1 0
a2 x
0
x a2 − x2 
0
= 2 −a (a2 − x2 )2 + sin−1 −

 −a
2 a −a 2 −a 

 
= 2 ( −a2 − 0) + ( 0 − sin−1(−1)) − (0 − 0) , where sin−1(−1) = −π
2
a
 2  2
 πa2  a2 a2
= 2  −a2 +  = 2 ⋅ [− 4 + π] = (π − 4) numerically
 4  4 2
Alternately:
a+x
∫
0
A=2 x dx, Put x = a sin θ, dx = a cos θdθ
−aa−x
Limits for x = 0, θ = 0; x = –a, θ = −π
2
a(1 + sin θ)
∫
0
A = 2 −π a sin θ a cos θ dθ
2
a(1 − sin θ)
1 + sin θ 1 + sin θ
∫
0
=2 −π
a sin θ a cos θ dθ
2
1 − sin θ 1 + sin θ
sin θ cos θ (1 + sin θ)

∫ ∫
0 0
= 2a2 −π
dθ = 2a2 −π
[sin θ + sin2 θ] dθ
2
1 − sin 2
θ 2
0
 sin θ + 1 (1 − cos 2θ)  dθ = 2a2  − cos θ + θ − sin 2θ 
∫
0
= 2a2 −π   
2
 2 2 4  −π
2
2 2
a a
= (π − 4) = (4 − π) numerically
2 2
(b) Area between the curve and its asymptote
a+x
∫ ∫x
a a
=2 ydx = 2 dx
0 0 a−x
This integrand is same as in the case (a) simply limits are 0 to a.
a
 1
a2 x x a2 − x2  a2
Area = 2  − a(a2 − x2 )2 + sin−1 −  = (π + 4)
 2 a 2 0 2
Example 5: Show that the area of the loop of the curve y2(a + x) = x2(3a – x) is equal to the
area between the curve and its asymptote. [KUK, 2002; NIT Kurukshetra, 2003]
Solution: The curve y 2 (a + x) = x 2 (3a – x) is θ = π/3

symmetrical about X-axis and passes through the 2π/3
(a, a)
origin with y = ± 3 x as the tangent. The line x =
x = –a B
0 or x = –a is the asymptote parallel to Y-axis.
Further the curve intersects X-axis at (0, 0), (3a, 0) O A
making one loop in the positive direction of X-axis (3a, 0)
as shown in the geometry.
3a − x (a, –a)
Here y=x
a+ x x=–
Clearly the area of the loop is the area which the
curve encloses between the ordinates Fig. 3.11
x = 0, x = 3a and the X-axis, viz.
2a + (a − x)
∫ ∫
3a 3a
A = 2(Area ABO) = 2 y dx = 2 x dx
0 0 2a − (a − x)
π
Take (a – x) = 2a cosθ so that dx = 2a sinθdθ and the limits x = 0, θ = 3 ;
x = 3a, θ = π
π
1 + cos θ
Implying A = 2 ∫ π
3
a(1 − 2 cos θ)
1 − cos θ
2a sin θ dθ
π (1 + cos θ)
= 4a2 ∫ (1 − 2 cos θ)
π
3
(1 − cos2 θ)
sin θ dθ
π π
= 4a2 ∫π
3
(1 − 2 cos θ)(1 + cos θ) dθ = 4a2 ∫ π
3
(1 − 2 cos2 θ − cos θ) dθ
π 0
sin 2θ
= −4a2 ∫ π
(cos 2θ + cos θ) dθ = −4a2  + sin θ
3
 2 π
3
 1 3 3
= −4a2  − −  = 3 3a
2
 2 2 2 
Further, the area between the curve and its asymptote is approximately,
2a + (a − x)  Same substitution ( a − x) = 2a cos θ, 

∫ ∫
0 0
A=2 y dx = 2 x dx,  π
−a −a 2a − (a − x)  and limits: x = −a, θ = 0; x = 0, θ = 
3
π
sin 2θ
A = −4a2  + sin θ  = −3 3 a2
3
 2 0
which is numerically the same as the area of the loop of the curve.
3a − x 4a − (a + x)
Alternatively, y can also be expressed as y = x =x and if (a + x) = 4a sin2θ
a+x a+x
then
π π
cos2 θ
∫ ∫ ∫
3a
ydx = π
2
(4a sin2 θ − a) ⋅ 8a sin θ cos θ dθ = 8a2 π
2
(4a sin2 θ cos2 θ − cos2 θ) dθ
0
6
sin2 θ 6
π π
= 8a 2
∫ π
6
2
(2 sin θ cos θ) − cos θ dθ = 8a
2 2 2
∫
π
6
2
 sin2 2θ − cos2 θ dθ
π π
  1 − cos 4θ   1 + cos 2θ  
= 8a2
∫ π
6
2
  2
−
  2  
dθ = −4 a2 ∫π
6
2
(cos 4θ + cos 2θ) dθ
π
 sin 4θ + sin 2θ  2 = 4 2  sin 4θ + sin 2θ  as at π , limit value is zero.
= − 4a  2
a
 4 2  π  4 2 π 2
6 6
 1 3 1 3
= 4a2  +  = 3 3a
2
4 2 2 2 
Example 6: Find the area included between the circle x2 + y2 = 2ax and the parabola
y2 = ax. [NIT Kurukshetra, 2005]
Solution: The circle x2 + y2 = 2ax is symmetrical y-axis

y 2 = ax
about X-axis, and passes through the origin with
(a, a)
centre as (a, 0), radius ‘a’, Y-axis (x = 0) as the
C B
tangent at the origin. Further, x 2 + y2 – 2ax = 0
or (x – a)2 + y2 = a2 means it intersects X-axis at
x – a = ±a or x = 0, 2a. O A
In case of parabola, y2 = ax, it intersects the circle (a, 0) (2a, 0)
x-axis
x + y2 – 2ax = 0 at (0, 0), (a, a).
2
Hence the area outside the parabola and inside

the circle is covered under limits x = 0 and x = a.
(see geometry).
Hence the desired area = 2 Area OBCO (– a, a)
Fig. 3.12
∫ ( y of the circle) − ( y of the parabola) dx
a
=2
0
 
= 2 ∫ 2ax − x dx −∫ ax dx 
a a
2
 0  0
I II
π
∫ ∫ ∫
a a
I= 2ax − x2 dx = a2 − (a − x)2 dx = 2
a2 − a2 cos2 θ ⋅ a sin θdθ
0 0 0
π
πa4
= a2 ∫ 2
0
sin2 θ dθ =
4
(Taking a – x = a cosθ)
a
 3 
 x2 
∫
a
2
II = ax dx =  a  = a2
0 3 3
 
 2 0
 πa4 2 2  π 4
− a  = a2  −  = (3π − 8)
a2
∴ A = 2
 4 3   2 3 6
8a3 .
Example 7: Find the area included between the parabola x2 = 4ay and the curve y =
x2 + 4a2
Solution: The curve, x2 = 4ay represents an upward parabola symmetrical about Y-axis with
the origin as its vertex. Y
8a3
The curve y = which is symme-
x2 + 4a2 x 2 = 4ay
trical about Y-axis, does not pass through
B (0, 2a)
the origin. Further, y = 0, i.e. axis of X is
8a3
an asymptote to it. It meets the Y-axis (2a, a) y=
C x + 4a2
2
at (0, 2a). (–2a, a) A
To find the points of intersection,
X
equating the two values of y, i.e. O
x2 8a3
= 2 Fig. 3.13
4a x + 4a2
or x4 + 4a2x2 – 32a4 = 0
or (x2 + 8a2)(x2 – 4a2) = 0
Rejecting (x2 + 8a2) = 0 (which gives imaginary values of ‘x’), we get
x2 – 4a2 = 0, i.e. x = ± 2a, and y = a.
Thus, these two curves intersects at (2a, a) and (–2a, a).
 8a3 x2 
∫
2a
∴ The required area OABC = 2 × OBC = 2  2 −  dx
0 x + 4a2
4a 
2a
 1 x 1 x3 
= 2 8a3 tan −1 −
 2a 2a 4a 3  0
 π 
= 2  4a2  − 0 − ( 8a3 − 0 )
1
  4  12a 
= 2  πa2 − a2  = a2 ( 3π − 2)
2 2
 3  3
Example 8: Find the area between the curve x3 + y3 = 3axy and its asymptote x + y + a = 0.
[KUK, 2001; NIT Kurukshetra, 2007]
Solution: Clearly from the Fig. 3.14, which has already been explained in detail under tracing
of curves, the product of the slops of the line of symmetrical, y = x and the equation of
asymptote, x + y + a = 0 is –1, i.e. they are at right angle to each other. Whence if the axes of
references are turned through an angle of 45°, the new X-axis coincides with the symmetrical
line y = x with a changed equation of curve having 1)
asymptote parallel to the new Y-axis instead the oblique Y x´ =
Y'
m 1
x(
asymptote x + y + a = 0. y=
After transformation, new x and y are
(x − y)
X = x cos 45° − y sin 45° = O(90) A
°
2 X' 45 X
(x + y)
Y = x sin 45° + y cos 45° = B
2
and hence the new equation of curve becomes
x
+
y
3 3
 (x − y)   (x + y)   (x − y) (x + y) 
+
–Y
 +   = 3a  ⋅
a
 
=
2  2  2 
0(
2
m2
=
1 1 3a
–1
(x − y)3 + (x + y)3 = (x − y )(x + y)
)
2 2 2 2 2 Fig. 3.14
3a 2
or (x3 + 3xy2 ) = (x − y2 )
2
 a  2  3a 
3y2  x +  − x  − x = 0
 2 2 
a
3y2(x + b) – x2(3b – x) = 0, where b =
2
Clearly, the asymptote of this equation parallel to Y-axis is x = –b.
Hence, the area between the curve and its asymptote is given by
0
A = 2 ∫ ydx
−b
1
−x  3b − x  2
∫
0
=2   dx (Taking negative sign)
−b 3 x+b 
−2 x(3b − x)
∫
0
= dx
3 −b (x + b)(3b − x)
Putting x = b(1 – 2cos θ) so that dx = 2b sinθ dθ
π
and for x = –b, θ = 0; x = 0, θ =
3
b(1 − 2 cos θ) ( 3b − (−b − 2b cos θ)) ⋅ 2b sin θ
π
 −2 
∴ A=
 3  ∫
0
3
((b − 2b cos θ) + b)(3b − (b − 2b cos θ))
dθ
π
−2
=
3 ∫
0
3
2b2 (1 − cos θ − 2 cos2 θ) dθ
∫
4b2
= 3
(cos θ + cos 2θ)dθ
3 0
=
4b2 sin θ + sin 2θ  3 = 3b2 = 3 a2
3  2 0 2
Example 9: Show that area common to the two parabolas y2 = 4a(x + a) and
8
y2 = 4b(b – x) is (a + b) ab . Y
3 (b – x)
y = 4b
2
2 L
y = 4a(x + a)
y2 = 4a(x + a) …(i) 
…(ii)
Solution: Both the parabolas, are
y2 = 4b(b − x)
(–a, 0) A
X
symmetrical about X-axis. Parabola, y2 = 4a(x + a), has its O N B(b , 0)
vertex at A(–a, 0) and latus ractum as 4a, whereas the
parabola y2 = 4b(b – x), has its vertex at B(b, 0) and latus
ractum as 4b.
For intersection of these two, we get M
4a(x + a) = 4b(b – x) Fig. 3.15
or x(a + b) = b2 – a2
or x = (b – a)
Hence the two parabolas intersects at L and M for
x = b – a.
∴ Area included between them = area ALBMA = 2 × area ALBNA
= 2(Area ALNA + Area LNBL)
b−a
 
∫ ∫
b
= 2 4a(x + a)dx +
4b(b − x)dx 

−a b− a 
b−a b
 3   3 
 (x + a)2   (b − x)2 
=4 a +4 b
3  −3 
   
 2  −a  2 b − a
8 a  3  8 b 3
 8 1 3 3 1
 8
=  b 2 −0 −
  0 − a 2 =
  a 2 b 2 + a2 b 2 =
 (a + b) ab
3   3   3  3
Example 10: Find the area common to the circle x2 + y2 = 4 and the ellipse x2 + 4y2 = 9.
Solution: The equation x2 + y2 = 4 represents circle with centre (0, 0) and radius 2 units
x2 y2
where the equation x2 + y2 = 9 or 2 + 2 =1
represents an ellipse with semi-major axis as 3
3  3
 2
3
units and semi-minor axis as units and for intersection of these two, we get
2
7
x2 + 4(4 – x2) = 9 or 3x2 = 7 i.e. x=
3
Since the ellipse and the circle both are symmetrical about both the axis
∴ Required common area to the circle and the ellipse
= 4 × area common to them in the Ist quadrant
= 4[area OAPD] = 4[Area OLPD + area LAPL]
 7 
∫ ∫
2
= 4 3
(value y of ellipse) dx + (value y of circle) dx 
 
7
0
3
 71  x 2 + y2 = 4
∫ ∫
2
= 4 3 9 − x2 dx + 7 4 − x2 dx  B P(0, 2)
 0 2  x 2 + 4y 2 = 9
3 P
D (0, 3/2)
 7 A
A(2, 0)
=4   x 9
9 − x + sin −1 x  3
 +
2 O  7 L C(3, 0)
 2 2 3 0
 
3
(2, 0)

2 
 x 4 − x2 + 4 sin−1 x   Fig. 3.16
2 2 2 7
3
 7 7 7   7 7 7 
= 2  9 − + 9sin−1 − 0 +  0 + 4 sin−1(1) − 4 − − 4 sin−1
 3 3 3 3   3 3 2 3  
 7 20 7  π 7 5 7 
= 2  + 9 sin−1  +4× − ⋅ − 4 sin−1
 3 3 27  2 3 3 12 
 7  20 5   7 7 
= 2  −  + 2π +  9sin−1 − 4 sin−1
 3  3 3    27 12 
 35  7 7 
= 2  + 2π + 9sin−1 − 4 sin−1

 3  27 12 
ASSIGNMENT 1
x2 y2
1. Find the area of the ellipse + =1
a2 b2
2. Find the area of the circle x2+ y2 = a2
3. Find the area of the loop of the curve ay2 = x2(a – x)
 ∫
HINT : x a − x dx =
∫ [ a − (a − x)] a − xdx

4. Calculate the area of the curve a2x2 = y3(a – y)
5. Find the whole area of the curve x2(x2 + y2) = a2(x2 – y2) [HINT : Put x2 = a2cos θ]
6. Find the area between the curve y2(2a – x) = x3 and its asymptote.
7. Find the area bounded by the curve xy2 = 4a2(2a – x) and its asymptote.
8. Compute the area bounded by the parabola y = x2 + 2 and the straight line x = 0, x = 1
and x + y = 0.
9. Find the area enclosed between the curve x2 = 4y and the straight line x = 4y – 2.
10. Find the area of the segment cut off from the parabola x2 = 8y by the line x – 2y + 8 = 0.
11. Find the area bounded by the parabola y2 = 4ax and the line x + y = 3a.
16a2
12. Prove that the area common to the parabolas x2 = 4ay and y2 = 4ax is .
3
II. Area of Curves Given in Parametric Form

(i) The area bounded by the curves x = f(t), ψ = φ(t), the X-axis and the ordinates at the
∫ y  dt  dt .
b
dx
points where, t = a, t = b is given by
a
(ii) The area bounded by the curve x = f(t), ψ = φ(t), the Y-axis and the abscissac at the
 dy 
∫
d
points where, t = c, t = d is given by x   dt .
c  dt 
Example 11: Find the area included between the cycloid x = a(θ θ + sinθ θ);
θ), y = a(1 – cosθ
and its base. Also find the area between the curve and X-axis.
Solution: For the inverted cycloid

x = a(θ + sin θ),
y = a(1 − cos θ) }
which is symmetrical about Y-axis, the
point O (the farthest point on it) is its vertex and the line AB which is parallel to X-axis is its
base.
Y
For half of the cycloid, θ varies from 0 to π.
∴ Area between the curve and its base BCA B(θ = π) C A(θ = π)
= area BOA = 2 area OCA
π dy dy
∫ ∫
2a
= 2 xdy = x dθ 2a 2a
0 0 dθ dx
π M L
O P
= 2∫  a(θ + sin θ)(a sin θ) dθ 
0 Fig. 3.17
π
= 2 a2 ∫ (θ sin θ + sin 2 θ) dθ
0
π π
 1 − cos 2θ  θ
= 2a 2
∫ θ sin θ dθ + 2a ∫ 
0
2
0 2 
d
π
sin 2θ 
= 2a2 θ(− cos θ) − ∫ 1(− cos θ)dθ  + a2 θ −
π
0  2  0
 sin2 π 
= 2a2 [−π cos π + sin π] + a2 π −
 0 
= 2a2(– π) + a2π = 3πa2.

Area between the curve and X-axis = 2 area OAL
π
∫ ∫
2a
dx
= 2 ydx = 2 y dθ
0 0 dθ
π
= 2∫ a(1 − cos θ) a(1 + cos θ) dθ
0
π π /2
= 2a2 ∫ sin 2 θ dθ = 4a2 ∫ sin2 θ dθ = π a2
0 0
 π
2 (p − 1)(p − 3)… π 
 using ∫ sin θ dθ = ⋅ 
 0 p(p − 2)… 2
Example 12: Show that the area of the hypocycloid x = a cos3t, y = b sin3t is 3π ab . Hence
8
deduce the area of the asteriod x = a cos3t, y = a sin3t.
Solution: The given curve x = a cos3t, y = b sin3t (hypocycloid) shown in the figure, 3.18
π 3π
meets x-axis at t = 0 and t = π and to y-axis at t = and t = , and is symmetrical about
2 2
both the axis.
Y
t = π/2
(0, b )
(–a, 0)
t=π t=0
X
(a, 0)
(0, –b)
Fig. 3.18
π
a 2
dx
∴ The required area = 4∫ ydx = 4 ∫ y dt
0 0 dt
0
= 4 ∫ b sin3 t.3a cos2 t. − sin t dt
π /2
π /2
= 12 ab ∫ sin 4 t ⋅ cos2 t dt
0
(4 − 1) ⋅ (4 − 3) ⋅ (2 − 1) π 3abπ
= 12ab =
6⋅4⋅2 2 8
 π

 using ∫ sinp x cosq x dx = (p − 1)(p − 3) … 1(q − 1)(q − 3) … 1 π 
2
 (p + q)(p + q − 2) …… 2 
0
2 2 2
Note: Area in case of asteriod x 3 + y 3 = a 3 which is a particular case of hypocycloid, when a and b are equal
3π a2
becomes .
8
Y
et + e−t et − e−t
Example 13 For any real t, x = ,y = is a point
2 2
of the x2 – y 2 = 1. Show that the area bounded by this P(t)
parabola and the lines joining its centre to the points
AB X
corresponding to t' and –t' is t'. O
Solution: Let P(t') and Q(– t') be two points on the hyperbola Q(t´)
x2 – y2 = 1 (Fig. 3.19). Then the area bounded by the hyperbola x 2 + y2 = 1
and the two lines OP and OQ is shown by the shaded portion.
The required area is the difference of the area of the ∆ OPQ et' + e–t'
OB = x =
2
and area PAQBP. e t'
– e–t'
PB = y =
2
Now Fig. 3.19
et' + e−t' et' − e−t' 1 2t'

Area of ∆OPQ = PB ⋅ OB = ⋅ = (e − e−2t' )
2 2 4
e − e−t et − e−t
∫ ∫ ∫
B t' t' t
dx
Area PAQBP = 2 y dx = 2 y dt = 2 ⋅ dt
A 0 dt 0 2 2
t'
1  e2t e−2t 
∫
t'
1
= (e2t + e−2t − 2) dt =  + − 2t 
2 0 2 2 −2 0
1 2t'
= (e − e−2t' − 4t ')
4
1 2t' 1
∴ The required area POQAP = (e − e−2t' ) − (e2t' − e−2t' − 4t) = t'
4 4
ASSIGNMENT 2
x = a sin 2t ,
1. Show that the area of the loop of the curve y = a sin t
4 2
is a .
3 }
x = a sin2 t,
 3 2
2. Show that the area bounded by the cissiod sin3 t  and its asymptote is πa .
y=a 4
cos t 
 1 − t2  
x = a
 1 + t2  
3. Find the whole area of the curve 
 2 at  
y= 
 1 + t2  
(It is the parametric form of the circle)
x = a(t − sin t)
4. Find the area included between the cycloid y = a(1 − cos t) } and its base.
x = a(θ − sin θ),

5. Find the area included between the inverted cycloid y = a(1 + cos θ) and its base. }
6. Prove that the whole area between the four infinite branches of the tractrix
a t
x = a cos t + log tan2 , y = a sin t is πa2.
2 2
III. Area for Curves Given in Polar Form, r = f(θ θ).

Area bounded by the curve r = f(θ) and radii vectors θ = α, θ = β is B
β δθ)
∫
1 2 r, θ +
r dθ, where r = f(θ) is continuous and single valued. Q(r + δ
α 2 S
R
β
Let AB be the curve r = f(θ), and OA, OB be the radii vectors P(r, θ)
θ=
for θ = α and θ = β respectively Fig. 3.20 6θ r A
Let P(r, θ) be any general point on the curve such that θ θ=
α
Q(r + δr, θ + δθ) as its neighbouring point.
θ = 0 initial
Let the area OAP (which is a function of θ) be A so that sectorial axis
area OPQ is δA. Fig. 3.20
Evidently area OPQ lies between the sectors OPS and ORQ, i.e.
1 2  Using Area of circular sector = 1 (radius)2 ×
δA lies between r δθ and 1 (r + δr)2 δθ,  2 
2 2  circular measure of the angle 
δA 1 2 1
lies between r and (r + δr)
2
∴
δθ 2 2
dA 1 2
Proceeding to limits as δθ → 0 or δr → 0, we get = r
dθ 2
Integrating both sides from θ = α to θ = β, we get
1β 2
[A]αβ = (value of A for θ = β) − (value of A for θ = α) = ∫ r dθ
2α
1β 2
A = (sectorial area OAB − 0) = ∫ r dθ
2α
1β 2
Hence the area OAB = ∫ r dθ
2α
Note 1: In the above result, we have supported that r is an increasing function of θ in the interval [α, β]. The
same formula is valid even if the radius vector r decreases as θ varies from α to β. However, the same formula
is not necessarily valid if r = f(θ), takes both positive and negative values in the interval [α, β].
If there are finite number of points of Maximum and Minimum radii vectors in the interval [α, β] say at θ =
θ1, θ2, … θn, then we divide the sectorial area OAB into (n + 1) sectors with the corresponding limits as follows
θ1 θ2 θn β
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
A = Area OAB = r dθ + r dθ + … + r dθ + r dθ
α 2 θ1 2 θn − 1 2 θn 2
Note 2: In case of area bounded by two polar curves r = f(θ) and r = ψ(θ) and the radii vectors
β
∫
1 2 2
θ = α and θ = β is (r1 − r2 )dθ
α 2
where r1 is the radius vector for outer curve and r2 is the radius vector for inner curve.
θ and hence find the total area

Example 14: Find the area of the loop of the curve r = a cos2θ
of the curve.
θ
=
Solution: As we know that the curve r = a cos nθ or r = a sin nθ 3π
/ 4 θ = π/4
have equal loops if n is odd and 2n equal loops if n is even.
In our problem, r = a cos2θ, n is even means the curve has 4
equal loops. O
Further to find the limits of integration for a loop, we
generally put r = 0 and find two consecutive values of θ. θ
/4
5π
=
π 7π
Thus, there r = 0 implies cos2θ = 0 i.e. 2θ = ± or θ = ± π θ
= /4
=
2 4 –
π/
4
π π
i.e. for the first loop of the curve θ varies from to as shown Fig. 3.21
4 4
in Fig. 3.21.
π /4 π /4
∫ ∫
1 2 1
Area of one loop of the curve = r dθ = a2 cos2 2θ d θ
−π /4 2 2 −π /4
π/4
∫
a2
= ⋅2 a2 cos2 2θ dθ
2 0
 As cos2 2θ is an even function of θ and for an even function 

 a a 
 ∫−a f (x)dx = 2∫0 f (x)dx 
Putting 2θ = t, we get
π /2
dt a2 1 π πa2
Area = a2
∫0
cos2 t
2
=
2 2 2
=
8
πa2 πa2
The total area of the curve is 4 times the area of the single loop, i.e. 4 × or
8 2
θ and inside the cardiod r = a(1 + cosθ
Example 15: Find the area outside the circle r = 2a cosθ θ).
[NIT Kurukshetra, 2008]
θ = 0 ⇒ r = 2a 
Solution: For the circle, r = 2a cosθ, .
π
θ= ⇒r = 0
2 
Further, the circle r = 2acosθ is symmetrical about the initial axis.
 Otherwise also in cartisan coordinates, it becomes r ⋅ r = 2ar cos θ or (x2 + y2 ) = 2ax
 (x − a)2 + (y − 0)2 = a2 , i.e. circle with centre (a, 0) and radius a. 
θ = 0, r = 2a;
π 
For cardiod, r = a(1 + cosθ); θ = , r = a; 
2 
θ = π, r = 0 
Further, the cardiod also is symmetrical about the initial line.

For intersection, the geometry is as shown in Fig. 3.22 (III)
θ = π/2
B
Y-axis θ = π/2
(a , π/2) D
0 , π  θ=π θ=0
θ=π θ dθ A
 2 θ = 0 X-axis
O a a O (0, π) A(2 a, 0) O (2 a, 0)
A(2a, 0)
(I) (II) (III)

Fig. 3.22
Above the initial axis, the cardiod is traced from θ = 0 to π, whereas in case of circle, θ goes
π
from 0 to .
2
So the area outside the circle inside the cardiod, i.e. Area OABDO.
= 2 [Area of the cardiod above X-axis – Area enclosed by circle above X-axis]
 π π /2
1 2 
∫ ∫
1 2
= 2 r1 dθ − r2 dθ 
 0 2 0 2 
 π π /2

=
 ∫
0
a2 (1 + cos)2 dθ − ∫ 0
4a2 cos2 θ dθ 

 π 2
 2 cos2 θ  dθ − 4 π /2 
= a2 

∫ 0  2 ∫0
cos2 θ dθ

 π
θ π /2

= 4a2 
 ∫ 0
cos4
2
dθ − ∫0
cos2 θ dθ 

I II
θ
= 4a2  ∫0 cos2 θ dθ  In I, putting = t
π /2 π /2
cos4 t dt − ∫0
   2 
3 ⋅ 1 π 1 π  πa2
= 4a2  − =
 4 ⋅ 2 2 2 2  2
 π /2 (p − 1)(p − 3) … π 
 using ∫
0
cosp θ dθ =
p (p − 2) … 2 
θ ) and
Example 16: Show that the area included between the cardiod r = a(1 + cosθ
a2 (3π − 8)
θ) is
r = a(1 – cosθ . [KUK, 2001]
2
Solution: Both the curves r = a(1 + cosθ) and r = a(1 – cosθ) are symmetrical about the initial
π
axis and they intersects at θ = ± as a(1 + cosθ) = a(1 – cosθ)
2
θ = π /2
π r = a (1 + cos θ )
implies cos θ = 0, i.e. θ = ±
2
From the geometry it is clear that area B
included between the two curves is 2 times the Q P
area OPBQO above the initial axis for θ = 0 to π. θ=π C O A θ=0
Further, this area OPBQO is taken up as the (2 a, 0)
breakup of the area OPBO for θ = 0 to π and

2 r = a (1 – cosθ )
π
area BQOB for θ = to π Fig. 3.23
2
Whence the area included between the two curves,
 π /2 π
1 2 
∫ ∫
1 2
= 2 r1 dθ + r2 dθ
 0 2 π /2 2 
I II
(r1 = a(1 – cosθ) and r2 = a(1 + cosθ))
 π /2 π

= a2 
 ∫ 0
(1 + cos2 θ − 2 cos θ) dθ + ∫
π /2
(1 + cos2 θ + 2 cos θ) dθ 

π /2 π
  3 + cos 2θ − 2 cos θ dθ +  3 + cos 2θ + 2 cos θ dθ 
= a2 
 ∫ 0 2 2  ∫
π /2  2 2  
 3 sin 2θ
π /2
sin 2θ
π

= a2  θ + − 2 sin θ + θ+ + 2 sin θ 
3
 0 2  π/2
 2 4 4 
 3 π 3π 
= a2   ⋅ − 2 ⋅ 1 +  π − − 2 ⋅ 1 
3

 2 2   2 22  
3π a2 (3π − 8)
= a2  − 4 =
 2  2
Example 17: Prove that the area enclosed by one loop of the curve x3 + y3 = 3axy is three
θ.
times the area enclosed by the curve r2 = a2cos2θ
Solution: The curve x3 + y3 = 3axy is symmetrical about the line y = x and insect this line
 3 a, 3 a
y = x at points (0, 0) and . For details see the Fig. 2.61 under tracing. It transforms
2 2 
x = r cos θ,
this curve to polar coordinates, y = r sin θ } resulting in, r3(cos3θ + sin3θ) = 3ar2 sin θ cos θ
 3a sin θ cos θ 
r =
or  sin3 θ + cos3 θ 
π.
Clearly the loop is bounded for r = 0, i.e. sinθ cosθ = 0 or θ = 0,
2
π/2 π/ 2
sin2 θ cos2 θ
∫ ∫
1 2 1
∴ The required area of the loop = r dθ = 9a2 dθ
0 2 2 0 (sin3 θ + cos3 θ)2
π/2
tan2 θ sec2 θ
∫
9a2
= dθ
2 0 (1 + tan3 θ)2
Put tan3θ = t, so that 3tan2θ sec2θ dθ = dt and limits are t = 0 to ∞
∞
∫
9a2 1 dt
=
2 0 (1 + t)2 3
∞ ∞
3a2  (1 + t)−1  − 3a2  1  3a2
=   =   =
2  −1 0 2 1+ t 0 2
−π
For the curve r2 = a2 cos 2θ, one of the loop is bounded in between the radii vectors θ =
4
π
to , as r = 0 gives θ = ±π/4.
4
For details, see the Fig. 2.66 under tracing.
π /4π /4 π /4
sin 2θ 
∫ a2 cos 2θ dθ = a2 
∫
1 2 a2
∴ Area of the loop = 2 r dθ = =
0 2 0  2 0 2
3 3
Whence the area of the loop of the curve x + y = 3axy is three times the area of the one of
the loops of r2 = a2 cos 2θ.
Example 18: Find the ratio of the two parts into which the parabola 2a = r(1 + cos θ )
θ).
divides the area of the cardiod r = 2a(1 + cosθ
Solution: The curve r = 2a(1 + cosθ) is a standard cardiod with values

θ = 0, r = 4a, point A(4a, 0)
π  π
θ= , r = 2, point B  2a, 2 
2  
θ = π, r = 0, point O (0, π)
3π  π
θ= , r = 2a, point C  2a, − 
2 2
2a
Likewise, for parabola r= ,
1 + cos θ
θ = 0, r = 2a, pointA (a, 0)
π  π
θ= , r = 2a, k point B  2a, 
2 2
3π  π
θ= , r = 2a, k point C 2a, −
2  2
Clearly the two curves intersects at θ = ±π , otherwise also,

2
= 2a(1 + cos θ) ⇒ (1 + cosθ)2 = 1 implying cosθ = 0, i.e. θ = ± π
2a
r=
1 + cos θ 2
2a
r = y
1 + co s θ
θ = π/2
r = 2a(1 + cosθ)
B(2a, π/2)
E
θ=π (0, π) O D A θ=0
y
C(2a, – π/2)
θ = π/2
Fig. 3.24
π π
∫ ∫
1 2 1 2
The whole area of the cardiod = 2 r dθ = 2 4a (1 + cos θ)2 dθ
0 2 0 2
π
= 4 a2 ∫ (1 + 2 cos θ + cos2 θ)dθ
0
π
1 + 2 cos θ + 1 + cos 2θ  dθ = 4a2  3 θ + 2 sin θ + 1 sin 2θ = 6π a2
π
= 4a2
0 
 ∫ 2   2 4  0
… (1)
Area of the unshaded region between the two curves = 2[Area OABO – area ODBO]
 π /2 π /2
1 2 
∫ ∫
1 2
= 2 r2 dθ − r1 dθ ,
 0 2 0 2 
2a
where r1 = 2a(1 + cosθ), cardiod and r2 = , the parabola
1 + cos θ
 π /2 π /2 
∫ ∫
1
= 4a2  (1 + cos θ)2 dθ − dθ
 0 0 (1 + cos θ)2 
 
 π /2 3 θ π /2 
 + 2 cos θ +  dθ −
∫ ∫
cos 2 1
= 4a2  
 0 2 2  2
0  2 cos2 θ  
  2  
 3 sin 2θ 
π /2 π /2
θ θ 
= 4a2  + 2 sin θ + ∫
1
− sec2 ⋅ sec2 dθ 
2 4 0  4 2 2 
 0
 3 π /2
 1 + tan2 θ  sec2 θ dθ
= 4a2  π + 2 − ∫
1
2 
   ,
 4 4 0 2
θ 1
Put tan θ = t so that sec2 ⋅ dθ = dt
2 2 2
 3π 1 1 
= 4a2  + 2 − ⋅ 2∫ (1 + t2 ) dt 
 4  4 0 
 3π 1 t3   (9π + 16) 2
1
= 4a2  + 2 −  t +   = a
  2 3  0  … (2)
 4 3
∴ The area of the shaded region = The whole area of the cardiod – the area of the
unshaded region of the cardiod
(9π + 16) 2 (9π − 16) 2
= 6πa2 − a = a … (3)
3 3
Hence the required ratio viz. the ratio of shaded region to that to unshaded region
9π − 16 
= 
 9π + 16  units … (4)
ASSIGNMENT 3
1. Find the whole area of the cardiod r = a(1 + cos θ)
2. Find the whole area of the curve r = 3 + 2cos θ
3. Find the area of one loop of the curve r = a sin2 θ.
4. Find the area common to the circle r = a and the cardiod r = a(1 + cosθ).
5. Find the area common to the circle r = 2 a. and r = 2a cos θ. [NIT Kurukshetra, 2002]
a sin2 θ 3π a2
6. Show that the area between the cissiod r = and its asymptote is .
cos θ 4
HINT : Here as θ increase from 0 to π , r increases from 0 to ∞ and as θ increases 
 2 
 π 
from to π, r increases from − ∞ to 0. Asymptote is r cos θ = a i.e. x = a 
 2 
5 2
7. Show that the area between the curve r = a (sec θ + cos θ) and its asymptote is πa .
4
 ±π π 
HINT : Here we see, θ = 0, r = 2 a; θ = , r = ±∞ i.e. as θ increases from 0 to , 
 2 2 
r increases from 2a to ∞ and as θ increases from π to π, r increases − ∞ to 2a. 
 2 
  r x x2
(2 a − x) 
 Otherwise also, in cartisan form, the given curve is r = a  x + r  or y = x − a 
2
 
8. Find the area lying between the cardiod r = a(1 + cosθ) and its double tangent.
HINT : Here φ = θ and for all position P(r, θ), ψ = θ + φ = θ + θ = 3θ . If ψ = π 

 2 p
2 2 2
 π 
 then θ = . i.e. tangent at P will be perpendicular to the initial line. 
 3 
3.3 LENGTH OF CURVES (RECTIFICATION)

The process of finding the length of an arc of a curve between the two points on it is called
rectification.
I. Length of Curves in Cartisan Coordinate System and its Intrinsic Equation
Length of the arc of the curve y = f(x), between two points x = a and x = b (as two abscissae)
is given by
2
 dy 
∫
b
1 +   dx
a  dx 
y B
dy , y)
where in y and are continuous and single valued P(x
dx
functions in the internal [a, b] and the integrand either
positive (or negative) throughout the interval. A s
Let AB be the curve y = f(x) between the two point y
A(x = a) and B(x = b) as the two abscissae points and CA
and DB their respective ordinates.
Let P(x, y) be any point on the curve with MP as M
O C(x = a) D(x = b)
perpendicular on x-axis. If s denotes the length of the arc x
AP measured from a fixed point A to the variable point P,
Fig. 3.25
then s clearly is a function of ‘x’ and
2
ds  dy 
= 1+  
dx  dx 
2
 dy 
∫
b
[S]ba = (value of s for x = b) − (value of s for x = a) = (Arc AB − O) = 1 +   dx
a  dx 
b
Hence the arc length AB = ∫a 1 + y12 dx
2
ds   dy
Observations: As dx = ± 1 +  dx  , but we have assumed that s increases with increase in x (taking
+ sign of the radical). Negative sign means, s decreases with increase in x, throughout.
ds
If or the integrand changes sign at some intermediate value x = c, then we divide the interval a to b into
dx
ds
two parts one from a to c and the another c to b and, value of is taken positive(or negative) throughout in
dx
each sub interval accordingly.
If the equation of the curve is off the form x = F(y), then the length of the arc between points
2
 dy 
∫
d
y = c and y = d is 1 +   dy by taking x as an explicit function of y(means x = F(y) =
c  dx 
containing only terms of y in right hand side).
Intrinsic Equation: A relation between the variable s (the arc) and ψ(the tangent at variable
point P(x, y) makes with the X-axis) is called intrinsic equation of a curve. For practical
2
 dy 
∫
dy
purposes, eliminate x between equation of S = 1 +   dx and tan ψ = .
 dx  dx
Example 19: Show that the whole length of the curve x2(a2 – x2) = 8a2y2 is π a 2 .
[KUK, 2001]
1
Solution: The curve x2(a2 – x2) = 8a2y2 is symmetrical about both the axis and y = ± x are
2 2
the tangents at the origin. Further, it intersects x-axis at (a, 0); (–a, 0) and,
x
y=± (a + x)(a − x) . Means the curve wholly lies between x = –a and x = a, and the
2 2a
origin is a node. Y
dy 1  a2 − 2x2 
=
dx 2 2 a  a2 − x2 
Here O (a, 0)
X
(–a, 0) B A
9a4 − 12a2 x2 + 4x4

2
 dy  (a2 − 2x2 )2 =
so that 1+   = 1+ 2 2
 dx  8a (a − x2 ) 8a2(a2 − x2 ) Fig. 3.26
1 (3a2 − 2x2 )
=
2 2a (a2 − x2 )
1  2(a2 − x2 ) + a2 
=  
2 2a  (a2 − x2 ) 
 1 a2 
=2 a − x +
2 2
2 
 2 2a a −x 
2
and hence the length of the curve,

2
 dy  2 
∫ ∫ ∫
a a a
a2
s=4 1 +   dx = 2 a2 − x2 dx + dx 
0  dx  a  0 0 a −x
2 2

a
2   x a2 − x2 a2 x x
= 2  + sin−1  + a2 sin−1 
a   2 2 a a 0
2 2 2 π
=  2a2 sin−1 1 = 2a ⋅ = π a 2
a  a 2
Example 20: Find the parmeter of the loop 3ay2 = x2(a – x).
dy 2ax − 3x2
Solution: 3ay2 = x2(a – x), on differentiation, implies 6ay = 2ax − 3x2 or y1 =
dx 6ay
36a2 y2 + x2(2a − 3x)2
2
 2ax − 3x2 
so that 1 + y12 = 1 +   =
 6ay  (6ay)2 y
y= x
12a ⋅ x2(a − x) + x 2(2a − 3x)2 3
=
12a x2 (a − x)
x
x2[12a2 − 12ax + 4 a2 − 12 ax − 9x2 ] (a, 0)
=
12a x2 (a − x) y = –x
3
x=0 x=a
x2 [16a2 − 24ax + 9x2 ]
=
12a x2 (a − x) Fig. 3.27
x2 (4a − 3x)2 (4a − 3x)2

= =
12 a x2 (a − x) 12a (a − x)
(4a − 3x)
∫ ∫
a a
So the desired perimeter of the loop, s = 2 1 + y12 dx = 2 dx
0 0 2 3 a ( a − x)
3(a − x) + a
∫
a
=2 dx
0 2 3 a a−x
x = 0, t = a;
Let (a – x) = t so that – dx = dt and the limits are x = a, t = 0 }
a −1
3t + a
1

∫ ∫
a
s =2 2
× dt =  3 t 2 + at 2
 dt
0 2 3a t 2 3a 0 
a
 3 1

1  t2 t2  1  32 1
 1 3
4a
= 3⋅ 3 + a 1 =  2a + 2a ⋅ a 2 =
 ⋅ 4a 2 =
3a  2  3a   3a 3
 2
0
 ex − 1 
Example 21: Determine the length of the curve y = log  x
 e + 1 
from x = 1 to x = 2.
Solution: The given equation of the curve

ex − 1
y = log = log(ex − 1) − log(ex + 1)
ex + 1
dy ex ex 2ex
∴ = x − x = 2x
dx e − 1 e + 1 e − 1
2
 dy 
∫
2
Required length of the curve, S = 1 +   dx
1  dx 
4 e2 x (e2x − 1)2 + 4 e2x

∫ ∫
2 2
= 1+ dx = dx
1 (e2x − 1)2 1 (e2x − 1)
(e2x + 1)2 e + 1)
∫ ∫
2 2 ( 2x
= dx = dx
1 (e2 x − 1) 1 (e2 x − 1)
e + e−x )  
∫
2( x
∫ f (x) dx = log f (x) 

2 f'(x)
= −x
dx = log(ex − e−x )1 ,  using
1 (e − e )
x

e2 − e−2
= log(e2 − e−2 ) − log(e − e−1) = log
e − e−1
= log(e + e−1) = log  e + 
1
 e
II. Arc Length of Curves in Parametric Form:
If the parametric form of a curve is given by x = φ(t), y = ψ(t), a ≤ t ≤ b where φ(t) and ψ(t) are
continuously differentiable function on [a, b] then the arc length of the curve is given by
2 2
 dx  +  dy  dt
∫
b
s = ∫a (φ′)2 + (ψ ')2 dt =
b
   
a dt dt
dy y'
Note: For intrinsic equation of the curves, eliminate ‘t’ between s = ∫ (x ')2 + (y ')2 dt and tan ψ = = .
dx x'
 x2 y2 
Example 22: Rectify the ellipse x = a cos θ and y = b sin θ,  or 2 + 2 = 1 .
 a b 
2 y2
Solution: The ellipse x = a cosθ, y = b sinθ, i.e. x + = 1 is symmetrical about both the
a2 b2
axes.
On differentiating with respect to ‘θ’, Y
= −a sin θ
dx
θ = π/2
dθ 
dy  B
= b cos θ 
dθ  A
∴ The perimeter of the ellipse O θ=0
π /2 2 2
 dx  +  dy 
= 4 × Arc AB = 4 ∫
0
 
dθ
 
dθ
Fig. 3.28
π/2
= 4∫0 2
a sin 2θ + b cos
2 2θ
dθ
π/2
= 4∫0 a2 sin2 θ + a2(1 − e2 )cos2 θ dθ
(Since for an ellipse b2 = a2(1 – e2), where e is the ecentricity of the ellipse)
π/2
= 4a∫0 (sin2 θ + cos2 θ) − e2 cos2 θ dθ
π/2 1
= 4a∫0 (1 − e2 cos2 θ) 2 dθ
 1 1 
π /2  −1
2 
∫
1 2 2
= 4a 1 + ( −e cos θ) +
2
(−e2 cos2 θ)2
0
 2 2

11 
− 1  − 2
1
2 2 2  
+ (−e2 cos2 θ)3 + …… dθ
3 

 n(n − 1) 2 
 By Binomial theorem, (1 + x) = 1 + nx + x + ……
n
2 
π /2  
1 e2 cos2 θ
∫
1 4 1· 3 6
= 4a 1 − − e cos4 θ − e cos6 θ … dθ
0
 2 2 2·4 2·4·6 
 π /2 (p − 1)(p − 3) … 
 using

∫0
cosp θ dθ =
p(p − 2) …
π /2, for p even 

π 1 1 π 1 4 3 ·1 π 1· 3 6 5 · 3 ·1 π 
= 4a  − e2 − e − e − ……
2 2 2 2 2·4 4·2 2 2·4·6 6·4·2 2 
 2 2 2
 1 · 3  e4  1 · 3 · 5  e6 
= 2πa 1 −   e2 − 
1 
 −   − ……
  2  2 · 4 3  2 · 4 · 6  5 
 
Example 23: Find the perimeter (full length) of the hypocycloid x = a cos3θ, y = b sin3θ, i.e.
2 2
 x 3 +  y 3 = 1
    [KUK, 2001]
a b
Y
Solution: The given equation of the curve is B (0, b )
2 2 2 2
 x 3 +  y 3 = 1  y3  x3
    i.e.   = 1 −   (– a, 0) A(a , 0)
a b b a X
2
C
 y3 y2
if x > a,   is negative, i.e. 2 or y2 is negative.
 b b
Thus, the curve does not lie beyond x = ±a. D(0, – b)
Similarly, the curve does not lie beyond y = ±b.
Fig. 3.29
Hence the shape of the curve is as shown
Thereore, whole length of the curve = 4 × the length of the arc in Ist quadrant = 4 × Arc AB
Clearly from arc AB, x varies from 0 to a.
On differentiating the given curve with respect to x, we get

1
−1 −1  y 3
2 x 3 1 2 y 3 1 dy dy b b
  +   =0 or =− 
3  a a 3  b b dx dx a x
 
a
2  2

 y 3 1 −  x 3 
 a 
2
 dy  b2  b  = 1+ b 
2
Thus, 1+   = 1+ 2    2 
 dx  a x a2
    x 3 
a
  a  
 3
b2  1 − ( x a ) 
2
2
 dy 
∫ ∫
a a
Therefore, the required length = 4 1 +   dx = 4 1+ 2 dx
0  dx  0 a  ( x a)2 3 
 
x = 0, θ = 0;
Let x = a sin3 θ, so that dx = 3a sin2θcosθ dθ and for 
π
x = a, θ =
2 
π /2
b2 (1 − sin2 θ)
∴ Required length = 4 ∫
0
1+
a2 sin2 θ
· 3a sin2 θ cos θ dθ
π/2
= 12∫0 a2 sin2 θ + b2 cos2 θ sin θ cos θ dθ
Again taking a2 sin2 θ + b2 cos2 θ = t2, we get
{a2 · 2 sin θ cos θ + b2 · 2cos θ(– sin θ)} dθ = 2t dt
i.e. 2(a2 – b2) · sin θcos θdθ = 2t dt
t
i.e. sin θ cos θ dθ = dt
(a − b2 )
2
Also, for θ = 0, t = a; 

π
θ = , t = b
2 
Thus with above substractions, the required integral becomes,
∫ ∫
b t dt b
12
S = 12 t · 2 = t2 dt
a (a − b2 ) (a2 − b2 ) a
b
12 t3 4 (a2 + b2 + 2ab)
= · = 2 ( a3 − b3 ) = 4
(a − b ) 3 a (a − b )
2 2 2
(a + b)
Alternatively: In parametric form x = a cos3 θ, y = b sin3 θ, so that

2 2
 dx  +  dy  = 9a2 cos4 θ sin2 θ + 9b2 sin4 θ cos2 θ
∴    
dθ dθ
= 9sin2 θ cos2 θ(a2cos2θ + b2sin2θ)
Thus, the required length in the first quadrant is
2 2
π /2
 dx  +  dy 
s= ∫0
 
dθ
 
dθ
π /2
= ∫0
3 cos θ sin θ (a2 cos2 θ + b2 sin2 θ) dθ
Putting a2cos2θ + b2sin2θ = t2 so that 2(b2 – a2) cos θ sin θdθ = 2t dt

and for θ = 0, t = a;

π
θ = , t = b
2 
∫ tb
b
tdt
∴ s=3
a 2
− a2
∫ t dt
3 b
= 2
b − a2
2 a
b
3 t3 b3 − a3 (b − a)(b2 + ab + a2)
= = 2 2 =
b −a 3 a b −a
2 2
(b − a)(b + a)
(a2 + ab + b2 )
=
(a + b)
(a2 + ab + b2 )
Hence the full length of the curve = 4 ·
(a + b)
 t
Example 24: Find the length of the tractrix x = a  cos t + log tan  , y = a sin t from the
 2
fixed point (0, a) on the curve. Also find the intrinsic equation of the curve.
Solution: From the given equation,
 sec2 
t
dx 
= a −sin t +
1 2  = a  − sin t + 1  = a cos2 t dy
   and = a cos t
dt  2 tan t  sin t  sin t dt
2 
dy
dy a cos t
= dt = = tan t
∴ dx dx a cos2 t … (1)
dt sin t
 dy 
At the point (0, a), t = π and   = (tan t)t = π/2 = ∞.
2  dx  t = π/2
Therefore, y-axis is the tangent to the curve at the point (0, a).
π π
= cot t = tan  − t  and, therefore ψ =  − t .
1
Whence tan ψ =
 dy  2  2 
  … (2)
dx
2 2
 dx  +  dy  dt =
∫ ∫
t t
a2 cos4 t
Now S=     + a2 cos2 t dt
π /2 dt dt π /2 sin2 t
∫
t
= a cos t cot2 t + 1 dt
π /2
∫
t t
=a cot t dt = a  log(sin t) π/2
π /2
= a log(sint) … (3)
Therefore, the intrinsic equation,
π
S = a log sin  − ψ = a log(cos ψ) … (4)
2 
(using (2))
Example 25: Find length of one full arc of the cycloid x = a(t + sint), y = a(1 – cost) and
show that the intrinsic equation of the cycloid is s2 + ρ2 = 16a2.
= a(1 + cos t),

dx
}
x = a(t + sin t) dt 
Solution: The equation of cycloid y = a(1 − cos t) implies dy 
= a sin t 
dt 
Step: I Measuring S from the point where t = 0
2 2
 dx  +  dy  dt = t a2 (1 + cos t)2 + a2 sin t dt = a t 2(1 + cos t) dt
∫
t
S=
0
 
dt
 
dt
∫0 ∫0
t
 sin t 
 2  = 4a sin t
∫ ∫
t t
2 t t
=a 2 · 2 cos dt = 2a cos dt = 2a 
0 2 0 a 1  2 … (1)
 
 2 0
Here for full branch, θ varies from – π to 0 and 0 to π, for two halves.
π
∴ Length of one full branch is = 2 × 4a sin = 8a
2
dy t t
2 sin cos
dy dt a sin t 2 2 t
Step II tan ψ = = = = = tan
dx dx a(1 + cos t) 2 cos2 t 2
dt 2
t
implying ψ = … (2)
2
t
Step III Eliminating t by putting as Ψ
2
t ds
From (1), s = 4a sin = 4a sin ψ or ρ= = 4a cos ψ …(3)
2 dψ
∴ s2 + ρ2 = (4asin Ψ)2 + (4a cos Ψ)2 = 16a2
III Length of Polar Curves

The arc length of a curve r = f(θ) between the points θ = α and θ = β is given by
β 2 β
∫ r2 +   dθ = ∫
dr
r2 + r12 dθ
α  dθ  α
dr
where is a continuous and single valued in [α, β].
dθ
When the equation is of the form θ = f(r), the arc length between two radii vectors r1 and
r2 is given by
2
θ
2
 
1 +  r d  dr =
∫ ∫
r2 r2
1 +  r  dr
r1  dr  r1 r 
1
dθ
where is continuous and single valued in [α, β].
dr
β r
Note: For intrinsic equation of the curve, eliminate θ and φ between r = f(θ), s = ∫α r2 + r12 dθ and tan φ =
r1
(where ψ = θ + φ) θ = π /2
B
Example 26: Find the whole length of the cardiod P
r = a(1 + cos θ). Also show that the upper half is bisected by
θ=π O θ = π /3 θ=0
π x
θ= . [NIT Kurukshetra, 2004, 2005] A
3
Solution: The cardiod r = a(1 + cosθ) is symmetrical about the Fig. 3.30
initial axis and for the upper half, θ = goes from 0 to π. Here
dr
= − a sin θ
dθ
π 2 π
∫ r2 +   dθ = 2 ∫
dr
∴ Length of the whole arc = 2 a2(1 + cos θ)2 + a2 sin2 θ dθ
0  dθ  0
π π
θ
= 2a ∫ 0
2(1 + cos θ) dθ = 2a ∫
0
2 cos dθ
2
θ 
π  sin
2  = 8a (1 − 0 ) = 8a
= 4a 
0

∫
1 

 2 
Thus, the length of the upper half of the curve is = 4a.
π /3
Here length of the arc AP(for θ varying from 0 to π/3) = ∫0 a 2(1 + cos θ) dθ = 2a,
is half the length of the upper half of the cardiod.
Example 27: For the curve r = aeθ · cotαα, prove that s = constant , s being measured from the
origin. r
dr
Solution: For given curve r = a eθ · cotα, we get = a eθ · cot α cot α = r · cot α
dθ
So the length of the curve r = f(θ) = a eθ · cotα between two points is given by
2 θ
β θ
∫ r +   dθ = ∫ ∫
dr
s= 2
r + r cot α dθ = r cosec α dθ = (r θcosec α)
2 2 2
α  dθ  0
0
(s being measured from the origin)
s
or = θ · cosec α, a constant number (say λ)
r
Hence the proof.
Example 28: Find the length of the arc of the equiangular spiral r = a eθ · cotαα between the
two points for which radii vectors are r1 and r2.
dr
= a eθ · cot α · cot α = r cot α
Solution: Given r = a eθ · cotα so that
dθ
Here length of the curve between two points for which radii vectors are r1 and r2 is given
as:
2 2
θ
1 +  r d  dr = 1 +  r  dr
∫ ∫
r2 r2
s=
r1  dr  r1  r cot α 
=∫
r2
1 + tan2 α dr
r1
r2
= sec α ∫ dr
r1
= (r2 − r1) sec α
Example 29: Find the length of the arc of the hyperbolic spiral (Reciprocal Spiral) r θ = a
from the point r = a to r = 2a.
a dθ −a
Solution: Rewrite the given equation as θ = , so that =
r dr r2
The required length from r = a to r = 2a is given by
2
dθ a2 + r2
∫ 1 +  r  dr = ∫ ∫
2a 2a 2a
a2
S= 1 + r2 · dr = dr
a  dr  a r4 a r
Put a2 + r2 = t2 so that 2rdr = 2tdt and for r = a, t = a 2 ; r = 2a, t = a 5

 a2 
∫ ∫
a 5 a 5
t2
Implying S= dt =  1 + 2  dt
a 2 t2 − a2 a 2 t − a2 
a 5
t − a
= t + a2 · log
1
 2a t + a a 2
a a 5−a a 2 − a
=a ( 5− 2 + ) 2 
log
a 5+a
− log
a 2 + a 
 5 −1 2 + 1
=a ( 5− 2 + ) a
2
log 
 5 +1
×
2 − 1 
=a ( a
)

5 − 2 + log 
5−1
·
( 2 +1 
2

)
2 
 ( 5 +1 )2
2 −1 

= a ( 5 − 2 ) + a log
( 2 + 1)
( 5 + 1)
θ.
Example 30: Find the whole length of lemniscate r2 = a2cos2θ
Solution: The curve r2 = a2cos2θ is symmetrical about the initial line and makes two loops in
total. One loop is enclosed between radius vectors θ = –π/4 to π/4, below and above the
initial line.
π/4 π/4
∴ Full length = 2∫−π /4 r2 + r12 dθ = 4∫0 r2 + r12 dθ
−a2 sin 2θ
Here r2 = a2 cos2θ ⇒ 2rr1 = a2(– sin2θ) × 2 or r1 =
r
π /4
a4 sin2 2θ
=4 ∫ 0
r2 +
r2
dθ
π /4 π /4
a4 cos2 2θ + a4 sin2 2θ
∫ ∫
1
=4 = 4a dθ
0 a2 cos 2θ 0 cos 2θ
Take 2θ = t so that 2dθ = dt and for t = 0, θ = 0; 

π π
t = ,θ =
4 2 
π /2 π /2
∫ ∫
1 dt 1
Implying, length l = 4a = 2a dt
0 cos t 2 0 cos t
Again, take cos t = cos2 φ so that – sint dt = – 2 cos φ sin φ dφ, (Limits remains unchanged)
π /2 2 cos φ sin φ
∫
1
∴ l = 2a × dφ
0 cos φ sin t
π /2 sin φ
= 4a ∫ 0 (sin2 t)
1
2
dφ
π /2 sin φ π /2 sin φ
= 4a ∫ 0 (1 − cos2 t)
1
2
dφ = 4a ∫0 (1 − cos4 φ)
1
2
dφ
π /2 sin φ
= 4a ∫ 0
1
(1 − cos2 φ) 2 (1 + cos2 φ)
1
2
dφ
−1
π /2 dφ π /2  sin2 φ
∫ ∫
2
= 4a = 2 2a  1 − dφ
0 (2 − sin2 φ)
1
2 0 2 
−1
 sin2 φ 2
+ …, where x = sin φ
−1 1 1 3 x2 1 3 5 x3 2
Now,  1 − = (1 − x) =1+ x+ · + · ·
2 
2
 2 2 2 2! 2 2 2 3! 2
2 r3
1  sin2 φ 1 3  sin2 φ 1 · 3 · 5  sin2 φ
= 1+   + ·   + + ……
2 2  2 4 2  2 · 4 · 6  2 
π /2  
1 sin2 φ  1  1 · 3
2 3
∫ sin4 φ   + sin6 φ   + … dφ
1 1· 3 · 5 1
∴ l = 2 2a 1 + +
0
 2 2  2 2 · 4  2 2 · 4 ·6  2

 π /2 (p − 1)(p − 3)… π 
 using

∫ 0
sinp φ dθ =
p(p − 2)… 2
for p even 

π 2
1 π  1 · 3   3 · 1   1 π  1 · 3 · 5   5 · 3 · 1  1 π
2 3 
= 2 2a  +     + 
1
  +    + …
 2  2   2  2  2 · 4   4 · 2   2  2  2 · 4 · 6   6 · 4 · 2   2  2 
 2
1  1  1 · 3   1
2 2 2
 1 · 3 · 5  1 3 

= 2 πa 1 +  + + + …
  2 · 4 ·6   2 
  2  2  2 · 4  2   
 
Example 31: Show that the whole length of the lemicon r = a + b cos θ (a > b) is equal to
that of an ellipse whose semi-axis are equal to length to the maximum and minimum radii
vectors of the lemicon.
b
Further, prove that the perimeter of the lemicon r = a + b cosθ θ , if be small, is
a
 1 b2 
approximately, 2π a  1 + .
 4 a2 
Solution: The equation of the lemicon is r = a + b cos θ (a > b).
(i) The curve is symmetrical about the initial line. θ = π/2
−a
(ii) Further r = 0 implies cos θ = > 1 numerically
b
B
(as given a > b) which is impossible, since always
|cosθ| < 1. Whence, r is never zero and the curve
does not pass through the pole, though it goes θ=π O
on decreasing from r = (a + b) to r = (a – b) upto C A θ=0
θ = π.
(iii) Some of the broad values of r for the values of
(a) are as:
Fig. 3.31
π π 2π
θ: θ π
3 2 3
b b
r: a+b a+ a a− a–b
2 2
Thus, clearly for upper half of the curve, θ varies from 0 to π.
π 2
∫ r2 +   dθ
dr
Whence the whole length of the lemicon = 2
0  dθ 
π π
l = 2∫0 (a + b cos θ)2 + b2 sin2 θ dθ = 2∫0 a2 + b2 + 2ab cos θ dθ … (1)
Now, for the lemicon maximum value of r = (a + b) and minimum value of r = (a – b).
Therefore, the parametric equation of the ellipse whose semi-axes vectors of the maximum and minimum
radii vectors of the lemicon r = a + b cos θ are
= −(a + b)sin t 
dx
x = (a + b)cos t  dt 

y = (a − b)sin t  so that
and
dy
= (a − b)cos t 
… (2)
dt 
2 2
 dx  +  dy  = (a + b)2 sin2 t + (a − b)2 cos2 t
∴    
dt dt
= a2(sin2t + cos2t) + b2(sin2t + cos2t) – 2ab(cos2t – sin2t)
= a2 + b2 – 2ab cos2t … (3)
Further, the ellipse is symmetrical about both the axes, and in the first quadrant, ‘t’ varies
π
for 0 to .
2
π /2 2 2
 dx  +  dy 
∴ Whole length of the ellipse, l = 4 ∫ 0
 
dt
 
dt
π /2
=4 ∫ 0
a2 + b2 − 2ab cos 2t dt
π
Take 2t = π – θ so that 2dt = – dθ and when t = 0, θ = π; t = ,θ=0 … (4)
2
π
−dθ 
a2 + b2 − 2ab cos(π − θ) 
∫ ∫
0
… (5)
⇒ l =2  2 
= a2 + b2 + 2ab cos θ dθ
π 0
which is clearly equal to the whole length of the lemicon a + b cosθ, (a > b) already obtained
above in (1).
Further from (1),
1
π
 b b2   2
lLemicon = 2a ∫ 0
1 +  2 a cos θ + a2   dθ,
 
(Putting into binomial format)
 1  −1 
π 
b2  2  2 
2
1 b  b b2 
= 2a ∫ 0
1 +  2 cos θ + 2  +
 2 a a 2!
 2 cos θ + 2  + … dθ
a a 
 
π
 
∫
b b2 1 4b2
= 2a 1 + a cos θ + 2a2 − 8 a2 cos θ + … dθ
2
0
π
 
∫
b b2
= 2a 1 + a cos θ + 2a2 (1 − cos θ) dθ
2
0
 b b3 
 as is small, neglecting 3 and its higher powers

a a
π
 2 
∫
b b2
= 2a 1 + a cos θ + 2a2 sin θ dθ
0
π
 b2 1 − cos 2θ 
∫
b
= 2a 1 + a cos θ + 2a2  dθ
0 2
π
 
∫
b b2 b2
= 2a 1 + cos θ + − cos 2θ  dθ
0 a 4a2
4a2

π
 b b2 b2 sin 2θ 
= 2a θ + sin θ + 2 θ − 2
 a 4a 4a 2 0
 b2 
= 2π  1 + 2  approximately
 4a 
θ).
Example 32: Find the intrinsic equation of the cardiod r = a(1 – cosθ
Solution: Measuring s from the pole where θ = 0,
θ 2
∫ r2 +   dθ = ∫0 a2 (1 − cos θ)2 + a2 sin2 θ dθ

dr θ
Step 1: ∴ s=
0  dθ 
θ
=∫ 0
a2 (1 + cos2 θ − 2 cos θ + sin2 θ) dθ
θ θ
θ
=∫ 2a2(1 − cos θ) dθ = 2a ∫ sin 2 dθ
0 0
θ
 − cos θ 
= 2a  2
 1 
 
2 0
θ
= −4a  cos − 1
 2 
θ
= 8a sin2 … (1)
4
dr a(1 − cos θ) θ θ
Step 2: tan φ = r = = tan imply φ = … (2)
dθ a sin θ 2 2
Step 3: We know, ψ =θ+φ=θ+

θ 3θ
= or θ =
2ψ or θ = ψ … (3)
2 2 3 4 6
ψ
Step 4: Eliminating θ from (3) and (1), we get s = 8a sin2
6
which is the required intrinsic equation of the curve.
Note : For finding length of cardiod, we know for upper half, θ goes from 0 to π
 2 π 2 
 i.e. from (i), r = 8a sin θ = 8a · sin2 π = 8a  1  = 4a implying s = 8a 
 
 2 
 2 4 0 4 
2a
Example 33: Find the length of the arc of the parabola = 1 + cos θ from its vertex and
r
also obtain the intrinsic equation of the curve. [NIT Kurukshetra, 2007]
Solution: The equation of the given parabola may be written as

2a 2a θ dr θ θ 1
r= = = a sec2 and = 2a sec2 · tan ·
1 + cos θ 2 cos2 θ 2 dθ 2 2 2 …(1)
2
Therefore the length s of the arc from the vertex A to any point P(r, θ) is given by
θ
s= ∫0 r2 + r12 dθ
θ
θ θ θ
= ∫0
a2 sec4
2
+ a2 sec4 tan 2 dθ
2 2 φ
P
ψ
θ
θ θ
∫
= a sec2
0 2
1 + tan2 dθ
2
θ
O (0, 0) A T
π/2 + ψ
θ 1 θ
Put tan = t sothat sec2 dθ = dr
2 2 2
θ
tan
2 T´
s = 2a ∫ 1 + t2 dt
0
Fig. 3.32
θ
( )
tan
= 2 a  1 + t2 + log t + 1 + t2 
t 1 0
2 2 0
 θ θ θ θ 
= a  tan sec + log  tan + sec   … (2)
 2 2  2 2 
 
dθ  θ  1  = cot θ = tan  π − θ 
Now tan φ = r = 2a sec2
dr  2  2a sec2 · tan · 
  θ θ 1 2  2 2
 2 2 2 
π θ
⇒ −φ= … (3)
2 2
Since ψ is the angle made by the tangent to the curve at P(r, θ) with the tangent AT at the
vertex A, as shown in the figure 3.32.
π θ
Whence +ψ =θ+φ or ψ = (using 3) … (4)
2 2
Therefore on using (4), (2) becomes
s = a[tan ψ · sec ψ + log (tan ψ + sec ψ)] … (5)
as the desired intrinsic equation of the curve.
IV. Arc Length of Curves in Pedal Form:
∫
b
r
The arc of the curve p = f(r) between the points r = a, r = b is dr, where p = r sinφ
a r − p2
2
is the length of the perpendicular from the pole on any tangent and φ is the angle between
the tangent and the radius vector at that point.
ds dr r
Note: Intrinsic equation of the curve in pedal form is obtained by eliminating r from =ρ=r· =
dψ dp f'(r)
∫
r
r
and s = dr
0 r2 − p2
Example 34: Find the length of the arc of the parabola p2 = ar for r varying a to 2a.
Solution: Length of the arc of the given parabola p2 = ar is given by

r − a) + a
∫ ∫ ∫
2a 2a 2 a (2
r 1 2r 1
s= dr = dr = dr
a r − p2
2 2 a r − ar
2 2 a r2 − ar
(2r − a)
∫ ∫
2a 2a
1 a dr
= dr +
2 a
1
2 a (r2 − ar)
(r2 − ar)2
1
(2r − a)
∫ ∫
2a 2a
2 a dr
= 1 dr +
a
(r2 − ar)2
2 a  2 a2   a2 
 r − ar +  −  
4 4
1
∫ ∫
2a 2a
a dr
= d(r2 − ar)2 dr +
(r − a 2) − ( a 2)
a 2 a 2 2
2a
r − a
−1  2
2a
1 a
= (r2 − ar) 2 + cosh
a 2 a
2 a

 using ∫
1
x2 − a2
x
( )
dx = cosh−1 = log x + x2 − a2 
a 
2a
 2
a 
2
= 2 a + log  r −  +  r −  −   
a a a
 2  2  2 
2   a
3a
+ 2a
a  3a  a a
= 2 a +  log  + 2 a − log  = 2 a + log 2
2 2  2 2 a
2
= a  2 + log ( 2 + 1  )
Example 35: Find the intrinsic equation of the curve whose pedal equation is p2 = r2 – a2.
dp dr p
Solution: From the equation, p2 = r2 – a2, we get 2p = 2r or = … (1)
dr dp r
ds dr p
∴ =ρ=r =r· =p … (2)
dψ dp r
Step 1: Let s be measured from the point where r = a (since for r = 0, p2 = –a2 are imaginary
entity)
r
p2
∫ ∫
r r
r r r2 1
Step 2: ∴ s= dr = dr = = (r2 − a2 ) = … (3)
a r − p2
2 a a 2a a 2a 2a
Step 3: From (2) and (3), eliminating ‘p’, we get
2
 ds 
 dψ   ds  ds
s= or  = 2 as or = 2a d ψ
2a  d ψ  s
On integration, 2 s = 2a ψ + α, where a is a contant of integration. … (4)
Step 4: Let ψ = 0 for s = 0. Therefore from (4), α = 0
a
Thus, 2 s = 2a ψ or s= ψ … (5)
2
which is the desired intrinsic equation of the given curve.
ASSIGNMENT 4
1. Find the length of the arc of the semi-cubical parabola ay2 = x3 from the vertex to the
ordinate x = 5a.
2. Find the length of the arc of the parabola y2 = 4ax
(i) included between the ordinates x = 0 and x = h
(ii) cut of by the line 3y = 8x.
3. Find the parameter of the loop of the curve
3ay2 = x(x – a)2
4. Find the length of the curve y = log (sec x) from x = 0 to π/3.
1 − t2 2t
5. Show that the parameter of the curve x = , y= is 2π r.
1+ t 2 1 + t2
[The given curve is the circle x2 + y2 = 1] [MDU, 2001]
6. Find the length of arc of the curve
x = eθ sinθ, y = eθ cosθ from θ = 0 to π/2.
7. Find the length of one full arc of the cycloid
x = a(θ + sinθ), y = a(1 + cosθ)
or (x = a(θ – sinθ), y = a(1 – cosθ)) [Jammu Univ, 2001]
3
t
8. Find the length of the loop of the curve x = t2, y = t − [NIT Kurukshetra, 2008]
3
9. Find the length of the perimeter of the curve r = 2a cos θ.
10. Find the length of spiral of archimedes, r = aθ between the points whose radii vectors
are r1 and r2.
2 2 2
11. In four cuped hypocycloid x 3 + y 3 = a 3 , show that
3a
(i) s = cos 2ψ , s being measured from the vertex.
4
(ii) s = (3a/2) sin2ψ when (a, 0) is taken as the fixed point.
 At the vertex, θ = π 
 4 
2a ds 2a
12. Show that the parabola = (1 + cos θ) , = . Hence show that the arc
r dψ sin3 ψ
intercepted between the vertex and the extremity of the latus ractum is
a  2 + log ( )
2 + 1 
13. Find the intrinsic equation of the curve whose equation is p = r sin α.
3.4 VOLUMES OF REVOLUTION

When a plane area made to revolve about a fixed straight line lying in its own plane, generates
a solid body of revolution and its boundary generates a surface of revolution. The fixed line
about which this plane area is rotated is called the axis of revolution.
e.g.
D C
C
A B A B
C
B
A
(i ) (ii) (iii)
Fig. 3.33
(i) When a rectangle is rotated about one of its base, a right circular cylinder is generated.
(ii) When a semicircle is rotated about its bounding diameter, a sphere is generated.
(iii) When a right angle triangle, is rotated about its base, a right circular cone is formed
and so on there could be uncountable number of examples.
Whence a plane when revolved about a fixed straight line lying in its own plane, then the
body so generated by the plane area is termed as volume of revolution and the curved surface
(i.e. the outer face) generated by the plane area so revolved in called surface of revolution.
I. Volume of Revolution for Cartesian Curves

(i) Revolution about X-axis:
The volume of the solid generated by the revolution of the area bounded by the curve
b
y = f(x), the x-axis and the ordinates x = a, x = b is ∫a π y2 dx
where y = f(x) is continuous finite and single B
valued function in the interval a ≤ x ≤ b.
Let AB be the curve y = f(x) and CA and BD Q
be the two ordinates x = a and x = b respectively. A P
Let P(x, y), Q(x + δx, y + δy) be two
neighbouring points on the curve and LP, NQ
C L N D
be their respective ordinates. x
Let V denotes the volume of the solid O(0, 0)
generated by revolution about x-axis of the area
ACLP, which is clearly a function of ‘x’. Then
the volume of the solid generated by the
revolution of the area PLNQ is δV. Complete Fig. 3.34
the rectangles PN and LQ.
Clearly, δV lies between the volumes of the right circular cylinders generated by
the revolution of the rectangles PN and LQ.
i.e. δV lies between πy2δx and π(y + δy)2δx as PL = y and NQ = (y + δy).
δV
∴ lies between πy2 and π(y + δy)2
δx
Since y is a continuous function of x, therefore, δy → 0 as δx → 0
dV
Taking limits as δx → 0, = π y2
dx
∫ ∫
b b
dV
or πy2 dx = dx = [V]ba
a a dx
= (Vol. V when x = b) – (Vol. V when x = a)

= vol. generated by the revolution of the area ACDB – O
Hence the volume of the solid generated by the revolution of the area ACDB about
b
x-axis is ∫a π y2 dx
(ii) Revolution about Y-axis: The volume of the solid generated by revolution about y-axis
b
of the area bounded by the curve x = f(y), y-axis and abscissae y = a, y = b is ∫a π x2 dy
where x= f(x) is continuous finite and single valued
function in the interval a ≤ x ≤ b. y
B
(iii) Revolution about any axis: Q
M
P
Let the curve AB, y = f(x), revolves about any line
say LM other than x-axis or y-axis and take one fixed
point on this line. If P and Q, be two adjusant points
on the curve with perpendicular meeting the line LM A N'
N
L
in N and N’ respectively, then NN’ = d(LN) and the
volume of revolution of the elementary disc of x=a x=b x
revolution about LM is π(PN)2 d(LN) and hence the
Fig. 3.35
total volume is given by ∫ π(PN)2 d(LN) with proper
limits of integration.
y
x2 y2
Example 36: The hyperbola − = 1 revolves
a2 b2
P
about the axis of X. Show that the volume cut
off from one of the two solids thus obtained by
a plane perpendicular to X-axis, and distant h O(0, 0) M
–x x
from the vertex, is π b h (3a + h)

2 2 A' A (a, 0) (a + h, 0)
3a2
Solution: Clear from the figure 3.36, volume of

x=a+h
the solid cut off by a plane ⊥ to X-axis and at a x=a
distance h from the vertex is the same as volume h

obtained by rotating the portion of the curve from Fig. 3.36
x = a to x = a + h (i.e. portion of the curve to the
right hand side of Y-axis).
a+ h  x2 y2 
∫ ∫
b
b2 2 − 2 = 1
∴ The required volume = πy2 dx = π (x − a2 ) dx  using
a a a2 a2
b 
a+h
π b2  x3 
= 2 
− a2 x 
a 3 a
πb2  (a + h)3 − a3  πb2  3ah2 + h3 

= 2 
− a2 (a + h − a) = 2  
a  3  a  3
π b2 h2 (3a + h)
=
3a2
Example 37: Obtain the volume of the solid of revolution of the loop of the curve
y2(a – x) = x2(a + x) about Y-axis.
Solution: As shown in the geometry, the curve y
x (a + x)
2
y2 = has one loop lying between –a ≤ x ≤ a.
(a − x)
The volume of the solid of revolution of the loop
about X-axis is equal to O
x x
(– a, 0) A
0
x2 (a + x)
∫
0
V = ∫ πy2 dx = π dx x=a
−a − a (a − x)
Put (a – x) = t so that dx = – dt,

(a − t)2 (2a − t)
∫
a
= −π dt
2a t Fig. 3.37
 2a3 − 5a2 t + 4at2 − t3 

∫
2a
=π   dt
a t
 2a3 2
∫
2a
=π  t − 5a + 4at − t  dt
2
a
2a
 t3 
= π 2a3 log t − 5a2t + 2at2 − 
 3 a
 (2a)3   3 a3  
= π  2a3 log 2a − 5a2 (2a) + 2a(2a)2 −  −  2a log a − 5a2 a − 2a(a)2 −  
 3   3 
= 2πa3  log 2 −
2
 
3
Example 38: Find the volume of spherical cap of height h cut of from a sphere of radius a.
Solution: Let the equation of the circle be x2 + y2 = 1 … (1)

Let the plane PA’A cut the circle at a distance h from A so that AA’ = h and OA’ = a – h, since
OA = a.
The required volume of the spherical cap (shown shaded in fig 3.38) is the volume of the
solid generated by the revolution of the Arc AP (of the circle x2 + y2 = a2) about the X-axis
bounded between the ordinates x = a – h to x = a.
y
O A'
N
a–h h A(a , 0) x
P´
Fig. 3.38
a
 x3 
∫ ∫
a a
∴ V= π y dx =
2
π(a − x ) dx = π  a2 x − 
2 2
a−h a−h  3  a−h
= π  a2 { a − (a − h)} − { a3 − (a − h)3 }

1
 3 
π
= πa2 h −
3
{3a2 h − 3ah2 + h3 }
 h3 
= π  ah2 −  = πh2  a − 
h
 3   3
Cor. If the segment is cut off by a plane at a distance a/2 either from ‘a’ or from the centre,
h2  a 5 3
then a – h becomes a/2 and V becomes π a −  = πa units , whereas the volume of
4 6 24
4 3
the sphere of radius ‘a’ is π a (i.e. put limits x = 0 to a). Whence, the volume of the segment
3
5 3
πa
5
is 24 = times that of the volume of the sphere.
4 3 32
πa
3
Example 39: A basin is formed by revolution of the curve x3 = 64y (y > 0) about the Y-axis.
If the depth of the basin is 8 inches, how many cubic metres of water will it hold?
Solution: The equation of the generating curve is x3 = 64y

This curve is symmetrical in opposite quadrants i.e. by rotating through 180°, the geometry
remains the same.
The height of the basin is given 8 inches, so that y = 8
Therefore, x3 = 64 × 8 i.e. x = 8.
Hence, the portion OA of the curve with point A(8, 8) only y
is considered for generating volume by revolution about
Y-axis. A(8, 8) y = 8
8
∴ The required volume = ∫ π x2 dy
0 N 8 ´´ P
8 2
=∫ π(64y)3 dy
O y=0
0 x
2
8
= 16π ∫ 0
y 3 dy
8
 5
 y3 
= 16π  
5
  Fig. 3.39
 3 0
48  3 
5
= π · (8) − 0 
5  
5
48 48 1536
= π × (23 )3 = π × 36 = π cubic inches
5 5 5
Example 40: Show that the volume of the solid generated by the revolution of the curve
1 2 3
(a – x)y2 = a2x, about its asymptote is πa [NIT Kurukshetra, 2007]
2
Solution: As this problem lies under the category of revolution (a – x)y 2 = a 2x

about any axis.
Let P(x, y) be any point on the curve, shown in Fig. 3.40.
The desired volume is obtained by revolution of the curve
about its asymptote x = a, (x, y)
∞ M
∫
P
V=2 π(PM)2 d(PN) ,
0 A(a, 0)
N
where PM = OA – ON = a – x (0, 0) O
Asymptote
∞
V=2 ∫
0
π(a − x)2 dy x=a
2
∞  ay2 
=2 ∫
0
π a − 2

 dy, using given curve
a + y2 
∫ (a
a6
= 2π dy
+ y2 )
0 2 2 Fig. 3.40
Put y = a tan θ so that dy = a sec2 θ dθ

π /2
a sec2 dθ
∫ 1 π π2 a3
π /2
implying V = 2πa6
0 (a2 + a 2 tan2 θ)2
= 2πa3 ∫
0
cos2 θ dθ = 2πa3 ·
22
=
2
∞
Alternately: In 2 ∫0
π PM2 d(PN ) , we may keep it unchanged and simply find
 a x  a2
d(PN ) = d(y) = d  = dx
 a − x  3
2 x (a − x)2
a−x
∫ π(a − x) · 2 ∫
a a
a2
Thus, implying V = 2
3 dx = 2π dx
0 0 x
x (a − x)2
π
Put x = a sin2 θ, dx = 2a sin θcos θ dθ, limits are θ = 0 to .
2
π /2
π2 a3
implying V = 2πa3 ∫
0
cos2 θ dθ =
2
Example 41: Find the volume of the solid in the form of a Torus formed by the revolution
of the circle x2 + (y – b)2 = a2 (b > a) about x-axis.
Solution: For any general point P(x, y) on the circle x2 + (y – b)2 = a2,
(y – b)2 = (a2 – x2) or y − b = ± a2 − x2 or y = b ± a2 − x2
i.e. P takes two positions P1 and P2 above and below the origin (0, b) such that
y1 = b − a2 − x2 and y2 = b + a2 − x2
Therefore the required volume of the Torus so formed
by revolving the shaded area (shown in the figure) about
Y-axis is given by B (0, b + a)
(x , y )
 a 
V = 2  πy22 dx − π y12dx = 2π ( y22 − y12 ) dx
∫ ∫ ∫
a a P2 2 2
 0 0  0
O´
∫ ( y + y )(y − y ) dx ;
a
(0, b)
= 2π 2 1 2 1
0
x=a
= 2π∫ 2b · 2 a − x dx
a
2 2 P1
(x , y )
0 1 1
a (0, b – a) A
 x a2 − x2 a2 x
= 8π b  + sin−1  x=0
 2 2 a 0
 a2 π  O
= 8πb  ·  = 2π2 a2b
 2 2
Fig. 3.41
 Since only sin−1 x is non-zero at = 
 x a

a
x2 y2
Example 42: Show that the volume of solid formed by revolving the ellipse + =1
a2 b2
θ) about the line x = 2a is 4π
θ, y = b sinθ
(or x = a cosθ π2a2b. [NIT Kurukshetra, 2004]
x2 y2
Solution: For any point P(x, y) on the ellipse + = 1,
a2 b2
x2 y2 b2 − y2 x ± b −y
2 2
a 2
we get, = 1 − = or = or x= b − y2
a2 b2 b2 a b b
Means P(x, y) corresponds two values of x against points P1 and P2 as (Taking +ve sign)
x1 = 2a – x and x2 = 2a + x from the line x = 2a.
Now volume of the solid formed by revolving the given ellipse about the x = 2a will be
two times the volume generated by revolving the upper half of the curve about x = 2a
B(0, b) y=b
P1(2a – x, y)
P2(2a + x, y)
y=0
(0, – a) C A(a, 0)
x = 2a
D(0, – b)
Fig. 3.42
b
i.e. V = 2∫0 πx2dy
= 2 ∫0 πx22dy − ∫0 πx12dy 

b b
 
= 2  π∫0 (x22 − x12 )dy  = 2π  ∫a (x2 + x1)(x2 − x1) dy

b b
   
b
= 2∫0 4a ·2x dy as x2 + x1 = 4a and x2 – x1 = 2x
b b a 2 16πa2 b
= 16πa∫ xdy = 16πa · ∫0 b − y2 dy = ∫0 b2 − y2 dy
0 b b
b
16πa2  y b − y y
2 2
b2
=  + sin−1 
b  2 2 b 
0
16πa2  b2 π 
= · = 4π2 a2 b
b  2 2 
(As only 2nd term is non-zero at limit x = b)
Example 43: Find the volume (generated) of the frustrum of a right circular cone whose
lower base has radius R, upper base is radius r and altitude is h. [NIT Kurukshetra, 2003]
Solution: From the geometry of the frustrum

y-axis
it is clear that if the cone AB is revolved about
Y-axis (any axis PN) it will generate volume
(r, h)B´ O´ N´´ B(r, h)
giving shape of the frustrum. So the equation of
AB can be written with the help of two point form
with coordinates of A(R, 0), B(r, h) as OO' = h
( y − y1 ) = (yx2 −− yx1) ( x − x1 )
h O'B = r
( )
N
2 1 N P(x, y)
h−0
or y−0= (x − R) y
r−R Q
(r − R)
so that x= y+R x-axis
h O A(R, 0)
Now volume of the frustrum is the volume A´(R, 0)
obtained by revolving AB about Y-axis, i.e.
Fig. 3.43
∫ ∫
h h
V= π(PN)2 d(ON) = x2dy
0 0
2
 r − R  r −R
∫ π  ∫
h h 2
=  y + R dy = π ay + R  dy, when = a (const.)
0 
 h   0 h
h
 (ay + R)3 1  π
= π ·  = (ah + R) − (0 + R) 
3 3
 3 a 0 3 a
π  r−R 3

·  h + R − R3 
h
= ·
3 r−R  h  

πh πh 2
= r3 − R3  = (r + R2 + rR)
3(r − R) 3
r−R
Alternately: NP = NN‘ + N’P = OA + N’P = R + AN’tan θ = R + y tan θ = R + y
h
 Since in ∆ AN'P, N ' P = tan θ or N'P = AN' tan θ = y tan θ,

 AN ' 
 N'B r−R 
 where in the ∆ ABN', = tan θ or = tan θ 
N''A h
∫ ∫ π(y tan θ + R) dy
h h
∴ V= π(x = PN)2 d(ON) = 2
y=0 0
h
 (y tan θ + R)3 1 
= π
 3 tan θ 0
h h
π   r − R    π   r − R   
3 3
=  y   + R  =  h   + R 
3 tan θ   h   
 0 3 tan θ 
 h   
0
πh [ 3 3] πh ( 2
= R −r = r + R + rh)
2
3(r − R) 3
Note: In case of the revolution about X-axis, limits will be R to r and the frustrum will be along horizontal line.
Example 44: A quadrant of a circle of radius a, revolves about its chord. Show that the
π
volume of the spindle generated is (10 − 3π )a2 y
6 2
B (0, a )
Solution: The equation of the generating circle of
P ( x , y)
radius ‘a’ be x2 + y2 = a2
From the geometry, if A(a, 0) and B(0, a) be the N
extremities of the arc AB (in the positive quadrant),
then the equation of the line AB, using two point x
O A(a , 0)
form, is given by
y2 − y1
y − y1 = (x − x1)
x2 − x1
0−a
or y−0= (x − a) or x + y – a = 0
a−0 Fig. 3.44
Let P(x, y) be any point on the arc AB. Draw PN ⊥ on the Chord AB and form AP.
PN is perpendicular distance of P(x, y) from the chord AB or the line x + y – a = 0
x + y − a (x − a) + y (x − a) + a2 − x2
∴ PN = = =
2 2 2
( )
2
(x − a)2 + a2 − x2 + 2(x − a) a2 − x2
implying PN =2
2
(
= (a − x) a − a2 − x2 )
( )
2
 (x + y) − a 
AN2 = AP2 − PN2 =  ( x − a ) + (y − 0)2  − 
2
And    2 
1
= 2(x − a)2 + 2y2 − (x − a)2 − y2 − 2y(x − a)
2
1
= (x − a)2 + y2 − 2y(x − a)
2
1
= (x − a − y)2
2
implying AN =
1
2
(x − a − y) =
1
2
(
(x − a) − a2 − x2 )
1  x  a2 − x2 + x
d(AN) = 1+ dx = dx
∴ 2  2
a −x 
2
2 a2 − x2
As for the arc AB, x varies from x = 0 to x = a, therefore the required volume,
∫ ∫ ( ) a2 − x2 + x
a a
V= π(PN)2 d(AN) = π(a − x) a − a2 − x2 dx
0 0 2 a2 − x2
Put x = a sin θ, so that dx = a cos θ dθ and limits are θ = 0, θ = π/2.
π /2  a cos θ + a sin θ 
= ∫
0
π · a(1 − sin θ)(a(1 − cos θ)) · 
 2 · a cos θ 
a cos θ dθ
πa3 π /2
=
2 ∫ 0
(1 − sin θ)(1 − cos θ)(cos θ + sin θ) dθ
π /2  sin θ − sin2 θ − sin θ cos θ + cos θ sin2 θ + cos θ

πa3
=
2 ∫ 0

 − cos2 θ − sin θ cos θ − cos2 θ sin θ 
dθ
π /2 (sin θ + cos θ) − 2 sin θ cos θ − (sin2 θ + cos2 θ)

πa3
=
2 ∫ 0

 + (sin2 θ cos θ + cos2 θ sin θ) 
dθ
π /2
πa3 − d(cos θ) + d(sin θ) − 2 sin θ · d(sin θ) − 1 + 1 d(sin3 θ) − 1 d(cos3 θ)  dθ
=
2 ∫ 0  3 3 
π /2
πa3  sin2 θ 1 1 3 
= − cos θ + sin θ − 2 2 − θ + 3 sin θ − 3 cos θ
3
2 0
π a3  5 π  π a3
=  −  = (10 − 3π)
2 3 2 6 2
II. Volume of Revolution for Parametric Curves
If x = f(t) and y = φ(t) are parametric equations of a curve, then the volume of the solid
generated by revolving the area about X-axis is
∫
dx
πy2 dt
dt
with proper limits of integration.
Likewise, the volume of the solid formed in revolving the same curve about Y-axis is
∫ πx
dy 2
dt
dt
with proper limits of integration.
B(θ = – π) A(θ = π)
Example 45: Find the volume of the real formed by
the revolution of the cycloid x = a(θ θ + sinθθ ), θ
θ) about the tangent at the vertex (or
y = a(1 – cosθ
about the X-axis). θ=0
x´ x
O θ=0 L
Solution: Clearly in the geometry of the given cycloid,
the point O (the farthest point on it) is its vertex and
the axis OX is the tangent to it at the vertex O. Fig. 3.45
Thus, the volume of the reel formed = 2 [volume generated by the revolution of area
OQALO about the tangent of O viz about X-axis].
Or in otherwords, the volume of the reel is the volume generated by revolution of the
area formed below by one full branch BOA of the cycloid about X-axis.
aπ θ=π
∫ ∫
dx
∴ The required vol. = 2 π y2 dx = 2 π y2 dθ , where θ is the parameter
0 θ= 0 dθ
π π 2
 2 sin2 θ   2 cos2 θ  dθ
= 2π ∫ 0
a2 (1 − cos θ)2 · a(1 + cos θ) dθ = 2π a3 ∫ 0  2  2
π
θ θ
∫ sin 2 · cos 2 dθ
= 16π a3
0
4 2
π /2 θ
= 32πa ∫ sin t cos t dt ,
3 4 2
when =t
0 2
3 · 1·1 π  π /2 (m − 1) … 1(n − 1)…1 π 
= 32π a3 = π2 a3 ,  using ∫0 sin t cos t dt = (m + n)(m + n − 2) … 1 2 
m n
6·4·2 2
Example 46: Find volume generated by revolving one arch of the cycloid
θ – sinθ
x = a(θ θ)
θ), y = a(1 – cosθ
(i) about its base (ii) about Y-axis. (NIT Kurukshetra, 2002)
Solution:
(i) The equation of the cycloid are
x = a(θ – sinθ), y = a(1 – cosθ)
See the geometry, for the first half of the cycloid in the first quadrant, θ varies from 0
to π.
π π
∫ ∫
dx
∴ V=2 πy2 dx = 2 πy2 dθ
0 0 dθ
π θ= π
= 2π ∫ a2(1 − cos θ)2 · a(1 − cos θ)dθ π/
2 B
θ
=
0 =
π/
θ
2
π 3
θ
∫  2 sin
2a
= 2π a3 2
dθ
0 2
θ=0 aπ C
θ x
Take = t , dθ = 2dt A aw O θ = 2π
2
Fig. 3.46
and for θ = 0; t = 0 for θ = π, t = π
2
π /2
Thus V = 2π a3 ∫ 0
(2 sin2 t)3 2 dt
π /2
= 32πa ∫ 3
sin6 t dt
0
5 · 3 ·1 π
= 32π a3 · = 5π2 a3
6·4·2 2
(ii) For volume of revolution about Y-axis, see

the fig. 3.47 Here, we first obtain the volume L
of the reel generated by the revolution of B´ B θ=π
the cycloid about Y-axis, i.e. it is the volume Q P ( x , y)

of revolution of the area ABLA about y-axis,
θ=0 θ = 2π
y = 2a
∫
A C
V = y=0
πx2 dy
π π
∫ ∫
dy
= πx2 dθ = π a2 (θ − sin θ)2 · a sin θ dθ Fig. 3.47
0 dθ 0
π
= πa3 ∫ (θ
0
2
· sin θ − 2θ sin2 θ + sin3 θ) dθ
I1 I2 I3
Now integral ∫
I1 = θ2 · sin θ dθ = θ2(− cos θ) − 2θ (− cos θ) dθ
  ∫
 ∫
=  − θ2 · cos θ + 2θ sin θ − 2 sin θ dθ = −
 
θ2 · cos θ + 2θ sin θ + 2 cos θ
I2 = ∫ 2θ sin θ dθ = ∫ θ(1 − cos 2θ) dθ = ∫ (θ − θ cos 2θ) dθ

2
 θ2
=  − θ·
2
sin 2θ
2
− 1{sin 2θ
2
  θ2 θ · sin 2θ cos 2θ 
∫
dθ  =  −
 2 2
−
4  }
∫ ∫ ∫
I3 = sin3 θ dθ = sin2 θ sin θ dθ = (1 − cos2 θ)sin θ dθ
= ∫  sin θ − sin θ · cos θ dθ = ∫ sin θ dθ + ∫ (− sin θ)cos θ dθ

2 2
cos3 θ ( f (θ))n+1
= − cos θ +
3
, using ∫ f'(θ)( f (θ))n dθ =
n+1
π
 
3 θ2 θ · sin 2θ cos 2θ cos3 θ 
V = πa  −θ · cos θ + 2θ · sin θ + 2 cos θ − +
2
+ − cos θ +
∴ 144444 42444444 3 14444
2 224444 4 3 144244 33 
 
0
  π2
1 1   1 1  
= πa3  π2 − 1 − + −  − 1 + +   ,
 2 4 3  4 3
(All sine terms are zero for both the limits.)
 π2 8 
= πa3  − 
 2 3
Now volume generated by the revolution of the area ALBCA about Y-axis,
2π 2π
∫ ∫
dy
V' = π x2 dθ = π a3 (θ − sin θ)2 · sin θ dθ
θ=π dθ π
2π
 θ2 θ 1 1 
= πa3  − θ2 cos θ + 2θ sin θ + cos θ − + sin 2θ + cos2 θ + cos3 θ
 2 2 4 3 π
 4π2 1 1   2 π2 1 1  
= πa3  −4π2 + 1 − + +  − π − 1 − + + 
 2 4 3  2 4 3  
= πa3  π2 − 
13 8
2 3
Thus the desired volume of the solid generated by revolution of the cycloid about Y-axis
 13  π2 8  
V' − V = πa3   π2 −  −  −   = 6π3 a3
8
 2 3   2 3 
III. Volumes of Revolution for Polar Curves
The volume of the solid generated by the revolution of the area bounded by the curve
r = f(θ) and the radii vector θ = α, θ = β:
β
∫
2 3
θ = 0) =
(i) about the initial line OX (θ π r sin θ dθ
α 3
β
 ð
∫
2 3
(ii) about the line OY è = = π cos θdθ
 2 α 3
(The proof of these formulae depend on Pappus theorem).
Example 47: Find the volume of the solid generated by the revolution of the cardiod
θ) about the intial lines.
r = a(1 + cosθ [KUK, 2000]
Solution: The Cardiod r = a(1 + cosθ) is symmetrical about the initial line and for its upper
half, θ varies from 0 to π (see fig. 3.30)
π π
2π
∫ ∫
2 3
∴ Required volume = π r sin θ dθ = a3(1 + cos θ)3 sin θ dθ
0 3 3 0
2π a3 π f n +1(θ)
=−
3 0
∫ (1 + cos θ)3(− sin θ) dθ , using ∫ f n (θ) f'(θ) dθ =
n+1
π
2πa3 (1 + cos θ)4 πa3 8πa3
=− =− (0 − 16) =
3 4 0 6 3
y
Example 48: Find the volume of the solid obtained by
revolving the lemniscate r2 = a2cos2θ about the initial line.
θ = π/4
[NIT Kurukshetra, 2009]
Solution: The curve r2 = a2cos2θ is symmetrical about the initial B

x
A
line and consists of two equal loops. O
The required volume is therefore twice the volume
generated by the revolution of the portion OA of the curve
about the initial line. Fig. 3.48
π /4
2π 3 4π π /4
∫ ∫
3
Implying, V=2 r sin θ dθ = (a2 cos 2θ) sin θ dθ
0 3 3 0 2
π /4
4π a3 3
=
3 ∫ 0
(2 cos2 θ − 1)2 sin θ dθ , using cos2θ = (2 cos2θ – 1)
Take 2 cos θ = sec φ so that − 2 sin dθ = sec φ tan φ dφ

π
for θ = 0, φ =
4
and limits, π 
θ= , φ =0
4 
4πa3 sec φ tan φ
∫
0 3
Implying V = (sec2 φ − 1) 2 ·− dφ … (1)
3 π /4 2
4π a3 π /4
=
3 2 ∫ 0
tan3 φ · d(sec φ) dφ (Integration by parts)
Ist fun. IInd fun.

4π a3  π /4

=
3 2   ( tan3 φ sec φ)0 −
π /4
∫ 0
(3 tan2 φ · sec2 φ) · sec φ dφ ,

4πa3 
=
3 2 
( 2 − 0 − 3 ∫0) π /4
tan2 φ (1 + tan2 φ)sec φ dφ

π /4 π /4
4πa3 4πa3 4πa3
V=
3
−
2 ∫ 0
tan2 φ sec φ dφ −
2 ∫0
tan3 φ (sec φ tan φ) dφ
π
4πa3 4πa3
⇒ V=
3
−
2 ∫ 0
4
tan φ · d(sec φ) dφ − 3V (using (1))
Ist fun. IInd fun.

π
4πa3 4πa3  
( tan φ sec φ)0 − ∫
π /4
or 4V = − 4
(sec2 φ) · sec φ dφ 
3 2  0

4π a3 4π a3  
π /4 1
= −
2  2 − 0 − ((sec2
φ) ) ∫
2 sec2 φ dφ

3 0

Take tan φ = t so that sec2 φ dφ = dt and limits are 0 to 1.
4πa3 4πa3 
2 − ∫0 1 + t2 dt 
1
∴ 4V = −
3 2  
1
V=
π a3 π a3
3
−
2
× 2+
π a3  t t2 + 1 1
2  2

+ log t + t2 + 1 
2 0
( )

 using ∫ x2 + a2 dx =
x x2 + a2 a2
2
( 
+ log x + x2 + a2 
2  )
− 2π a3 π a3  2 1 
V=
3
+
2  2
+ log 1 + 2 
2 
( )
−π a3 π a3 π a3  1 1
=
6
+
2 2
log ( )
2 +1 = 
2  2
log ( )
2 +1 − 
3
=
πa3 2
12
(
3 log ( 2 + 1) − 2 )
Alternately:
If we take
x = r cos θ,
y = r sin θ }
, the given equation r 2 = a 2cos2θ becomes r2 = a 2(cos2θ – sin2θ)
or r4 = a2(r2cos2θ – r2sin2θ) becomes (x2 + y2)2 = a2(x2 – y2) or y4 + (2x2 + a2)y2 + (x4 – a2x2) = 0
which is a quadratic in y2 and on solving it for y2, we get
−(2x2 + a2 ) ± (2x2 + a2 )2 − 4(x 4 − a2 x2 ) 1
y2 = =  −(2x2 + a2 ) ± 8a2 x2 + a4 
2 2
1 a 
2
= −(2x2 + a2 ) ± 2 2 a x2 + 
2 8 
(Negative sign before under root is left as with negative sign, y2 becomes negative and y
becomes imaginary)
Hence the required volume,
∫ πy dx
a
V = 2· 2
0
1  
2

∫
a
= 2π  −(2x2 + a2 ) + 2 2 a x2 +  a   dx
0 2 2 2 
 
a
  a2
a2 
 x x + 8
2
 2  
x
= π − x − a x + 2 2 a 
3 2
+ 8 sinh−1 
 a
3  2 2 
  2 2  0

 x 2 x 
∫
a2
 using a2 + x2 dx =  a + x2 + sinh−1 
2 2 a 
 −2  a 3a a2 
⇒ = π  a3 − a3 + 2 2 a  · + sinh−1 2 2  
 3  2 2 2 16 
⇒
 −2
= π  a3 − a3 +
 3
3 a3
2
+
a3
4 2
log 2 2 + 3 ( ) , (sinh
−1
(
z = log z + z2 + 1 ))
πa3  1 
⇒ =
2
1
(
 − 3 + 2 2 log 2 + 1 + 2 2 
 
)
π a3  1 2
=
2
1
 − 3 + 2 2 log

( 2 +1 

)
π a3  1 1
⇒ =
2  2
log ( )
2 +1 −
3 
ASSIGNMENT 5
1. Find the volume formed by the revolution of the loop of the curve y2(a + x) = x2(3a – x),
about x-axis.
2. Show that the volume of the spindle solid generated by the revolution of the asteriod
32 3
x2/3 + y2/3 = a2/3 about x-axis is πa .
105
3. Show that the volume of the solid formed by the revolution of the loop of the curve
 2
y2(a + x) = x2(a – y) about x-axis is 2π a3  log 2 −  .
 3
a
4. A sphere of radius ‘a’ is divided into two parts by a plane distant from the centre.
2
Show that the ratio of the volumes of the two parts is 5 : 24.
5. Find the volume of the solid formed by the revolution about y-axis, of the area enclosed
by the curve xy2 = a2(a – x) and its asymptote. [NIT Kurukshetra, 2007]
6. Find the volume generated by the revolution of the one full arc of the cycloid
x = a(θ + sinθ), y = a(1 + cosθ) about its base (or about x-axis).
[Here for one full arc, θ varies from π to 2π].
7. Find the volume of the solid generated by the revolution of the cissoid x = 2a sin2t,
sin3 t  −π ≤ ≤ π 
y = 2a , t , about its asymptote.
cos t  2 2
8. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolution of the tractrix
1 t
x = a cos t + a log tan2 , y = a sint about its asymptote.
2 2
 dx a cos2 t 
∫
0
2 dx
HINT : 2 −∞ πy dt dt, dt = sin t 
9. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolution of the cardiod r = a(1 – cosθ) about
initial axis.
10. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the lemniscate r2 = a2cos2θ about
the line θ = π . HINT : 2 sin θ = sin φ

2
11. Show that the volume of the solid formed by the revolution of the lemicon r = a + b cosθ,
4
a > b about the initial axis is πa(a2 + b2 ).
3
12. Find the volume generated by revolving the area bounded by the curve x + y = a,
x = 0, y = 0 about the x-axis [NIT Kurukshetra, 2006]
3.5 SURFACES OF REVOLUTION

The area of the surface of the solid generated by revolution about x-axis of the area bounded
by the curve y = f(x), the x-axis and the ordinates x = a, x = b is
b
∫a 2π yds
where s is the length of the arc of the curve measured from a fixed point on it to any point (x, y).
Let AB be the curve y = f(x), and LA and MB be the ordinates
x = a and x = b respectively. Let P(x, y) and Q(x + δx, y + δy) be B
y
the neighbouring points on the curve and NP and N’Q be
their respective ordinates (Fig 3.49) θ
Let the arc AP = s so that PQ = δs. If S denotes the curved
s P δs
surface of the solid generated by the revolution about axis of A (x, y)
x of the area ALNP, then S is clearly a function of x and δS the
curved surface area of the solid generated by the revolution L N N´ M
about the axis of x, of the area PN N’Q. O (0, O) x
Since δS is small, then it may be taken as axiom that the
curved surface δS may be taken between the curved surfaces
obtained by revolution of the right circular cylinders whose
base radii are NP and N’Q and of the same thickness δs.
Thus δS lies between 2πyδs and 2π(y + δy)δs
δS Fig. 3.49
∴ lies between 2πy and 2π(y + δy)
δs
Since y = f(x) is continuous, therefore, as δx → 0, also δy → 0
Taking limits as Q → P, dS
= 2πy
ds
x =b
x=b
∴ ∫ 2 πyds = S x = a = (value of S when x = b) – (value of S when x = a) = curved surface of the
x =a
solid generated by the revolution of the area ALMB
x =b
Hence the required surface area of revolution = ∫x = a 2πy ds
Note:
1. Here we have assumed that the curve does not cross the axis of revolution (i.e. X-axis) and the ordinates
are continuously increasing. However, it is also true when the ordinates are continously decreasing.
2. If we interchange x and y in the above formula, then the curved surface of the solid generated by the
revolution about Y-axis of the area bounded by the curve x = f(y), Y-axis and the abscissae y = a, y = b is
y=b
∫y = a 2πxds
3. Surface area of the solid generated by the revolution about the line LM (i.e. about any axis other than
x = 0M
X-axis or Y-axis) of the arc AB is ∫x = OL 2π PN ds , PN is the perpendicular from any point P(x, y) of the
arc AB on LM such that x = ON and y = NP, where O is the fixed point on the line LM.
For Practical purposes, Surface of revolution is as follows:

(i) Cartisian Form (for the curve y = f(x))
2
∫ dx , ds = 1 +  
ds dy
S = 2πy
dx dx  dx 
(ii) Parametric Form (for the curve x = φ(t), y = ψ(t))
2 2
 dy 
∫ =   +  
ds ds dx
S = 2πy dt ,
dt dt  dt   dt 
(iii) Polar Form (for the curve r = f(θ))
2
∫ r2 +  
ds ds dr
S = 2πy dθ , =
dθ dθ  dθ 
Example 49: Find the area of the surface formed by the revolution of y2 = 4ax, about the X-
axis by the arc from the vertex to one end of the latus rectum.
dy 2a
Solution: For the given parabola y2 = 4ax, =
dx y
2
ds  dy  4a 2 4a 2 x+a
and = 1+   = 1+ 2 = 1+ =
dx  dx  y 4ax x
For the arc from the vertex, O to L, (the end of the latus rectum), L
x varies from o to a (Fig. 3.50).
∫ 2πy dx dx
a
ds
∴ Required surface of revolution =
0 O S (a, 0)
x+a
∫
a
= 2π 4ax · dx
0 x
a L´
3
1
(a +
∫ (a +
a
x)2
= 4π a x)2 dx = 4π a
0 3 Fig. 3.50
2 0
πa ( 2 2 − 1)
8 2
=
3
Example 50: Find the sphere of the solid generated by the revolution of the asteroid
x = a cos3t, y = a sin3t, about the Y-axis.
Solution: The asteriod x = a cos3t, y = a sin3t (or x2/3 + y2/3 = a2/3) is symmetric about both the axis
and in the first quadrant, θ varies from 0 to π/2 (see details, under tracing of curves).
dx dy
Here = −3a cos2 t sin t and = 3a sin2 t cos t
dt dt
2 2
 dy 
=   +   = 9a2 cos4 t sin2 t + 9a2 sin4 t cos2 t = 3a sin t cos t
ds dx
so that    dt 
dt dt
∴ The required surface area = 2 times the surface area generated by revolution of the area
under the curve in the first quadrant
π/2 π/4 π/2
∫ ∫ ∫
ds
=2 2π x dt = 4 π a cos3 t · 3 a sin t cos t dt = 12π a2 cos4 t sin t dt
0 dt 0 0
π /2
= −12πa2 ∫
0
cos4 t (− sin t) dt
π /2
 cos5 t  −12 2  f (θ) 
= −12πa 
 5  0
2
=
5
πa (0 − 1),  using ∫ f (θ) f'(θ)dθ = n + 1
n
12 2
= πa
5
Example 51: Prove that the surface generated by the revolution of the tractrix
x = a cos t + log  tan2  , y = a sint about its asymptote is equal to the surface of a sphere
a t
2  2
of radius ‘a’.
a t
Solution: For the given equation x = a cost + log tan2 , y = a sint
2 2
We get
dx 1 t 1 a
= −a sin t + a · · sec2 · = −a sin t +
dt t 2 2 t t
tan 2 sin cos
2 2 2
a (1 − sin2 t) cos2 t
= −a sin t + =a =a
sin t sin t sin t
dy
and = a cos t ,
dt
2
ds
2
 dx  +  dy  = cos4 t a2 cos2 t (cos2 t + sin2 t) cos t
So that =     a2 + a2 cos2 t = =a
dt dt dt sin2 t 2
sin t sin t
In the Ist quadrant, above the initial axis, θ varies from 0 to π/2 (see the details under
tracing … ). Therefore, the required surface generated by revolution of the curve about x-axis,
π /2 π /2 π /2
∫ ∫ ∫
ds a cos t
S =2 dx = 4π 2πy a sin t dt = 4πa2 cos t dt = 4πa2
0 dx 0 sin t 0
which is equal to the surface of a sphere of radius ‘a’.
Example 52: Find the surface of the solid of revolution formed by revolving the cardiod
θ) about the initial axis.
r = a(1 + cosθ [Jammu Univ, 2001]
Solution: The cardiod r = a(1 + cosθ) is symmetrical about the initial axis and for the upper
half θ, varies from 0 to π (Fig. 3.51).
dr
Here = −a sin θ so that
dθ
ds θ
= r2 + r12 = a2(1 + cos θ)2 + a2 sin2 θ = 2 2(1 + cos θ) = 2a cos
dθ 2
∴ Required Surface area of revolution,
π π
θ
∫ ∫ r sin θ 2a cos 2 dθ
ds
S= 2πy dθ = 2π
0 dθ 0
θ
∫ a(1 + cos θ)sin θ · 2a cos 2 dθ
a
= 4πa
0
π
θ θ θ θ
= 4πa2 ∫ 2 cos 2 · 2 sin 2 cos 2 · 2 cos 2 dθ
0
2
π
θ θ
= 16π a ∫ cos sin dθ
2 4
2 02
π
θ θ 1  f n +1(θ) 
= −32πa ∫ cos ·  − sin ·  dθ,
2 5
 using ∫ f (θ) f'(θ) dθ =
n

2  02 2 n+1 
π
 cos5 θ 
2 2  = − 32π a (0 − 1) = 32π a
2 2
= −32πa  
 5 0 5 5
−π π
θ) included between
Example 53: The arc of the cardiod r = a(1 + cosθ ≤θ≤ is rotated
2 2
about the line θ = π . Find the area of the surface generated.

2 θ = π/2
B
Solution: The given cardiod r = a(1 + cosθ) is symmetrical
about the initial axis as shown in the figure. The required
surface area is obtained by revolving the shaded area θ=π O A
OCAB about the axis θ = π , in other words the required

θ=0
2
surface is two times the surface area generated by
revolution of the area under the portion AB of the curves. C
π /2 Fig. 3.51
∫
ds
i.e. S=2 2π x dθ
0 dθ
dr
Here = −a sin θ so that
dθ
2
θ
= r2 +   = a2 (1 + cos θ)2 + a2 sin2 θ = a 2(1 + cos θ) = 2a cos
ds dr
dθ  dθ  2
∴ The required surface area of revolution,

π /2
θ π /2
θ
S = 4π ∫ 0
r cos θ · 2a cos
2
· dθ = 8πa∫ 0
a(1 + cos θ)cos θ cos dθ
2
π /2
θ  θ θ
= 8πa2 ∫ 2 cos2 · 1 − 2 sin2  · cos dθ
0 2  2 2
π /2
 1 − sin2 θ   1 − 2 sin2 θ  cos θ θ
= 16πa2∫ 0  2  2 2
d
π /2
= 16πa ∫ 2 1 − 3 sin2 θ + 2 sin4 θ  cos θ θ
 d
0 2 2  2
θ 1 θ 1
Put sin = t so that cos dθ = dt and limits are 0 to .
2 2 2 2
1 1
 2t5  2
S = 32πa2 ∫
0
2
(1 − 3t2 + 2t4 ) dt = 32πa2 t − t3 +
 5  0
 1 1 2 1   20 − 10 + 2  12 99πa2
= 3π a2  − +  = 3π a2   = 3π a2 · =
 2 2 2 5 4 2  20 2  20 2 5 2
Example 54: A quadrant of a circle of radius ‘a’, revolves around its chord. Show that the
π a2
surface of spindle formed is (4 − π) . [NIT Kurukshetra, 2005]
2
Solution: Let us take a circle of radius ‘a’ with centre as O
and point C as the mid point of its quadrantal arc AB (Fig. y
3.52).
Let P be any point on the arc AB, so that in parametric A
form, x = a cos θ, y = a sin θ.
Draw PM Perpendicular to OX (as X-axis) and PN a N P ( x , y)
π
Perpendicular to AB so that 4 C
x
O L M
π
PN = LM = OM − OL = x − a cos
4
θ  1 
= a cos θ − a cos = a  cos θ −  B
4  2 Fig. 3.52
2 2
 dy 
=   +   = (− a sin θ)2 + (a cos θ)2 = a
ds dx
and  dθ   dθ 
dθ
It is a surface of revolution about any axis, therefore here the required surface area of
revolution is the surface area generated by revolution the arc AB about its chord AB. Or it is
2 times the surface area generated by revolution of the area formed by revolution of the arc
AC about the line AL.
π /4 π /4
 1 
∫ ∫
ds
Implying, S=2 2πPN dθ = 4π a  cos θ −  · a dθ
0 dθ 0  2
π /4
 θ   1 π  
= 4πa2 sin θ − = 4πa2  −  − (0 − 0)
 2  0  2 4 2  
π a2
= (4 − π)
2
ASSIGNMENT 6
1. Find the area of the surface generated by revolution of the arc of the catenary y = c cosh x
c
from x = 0 to x = c about X-axis.
2 2
2. Find the surface of the solid generated by the revolution of the ellipse x + y = 1 about
a2 b2
X-axis.
3. Find the surface of the right circular cone formed by the right angled triangle about a
side which contains the right angle.
4. Obtain the surface area of a sphere of radius a.
5. Show that the surface area of the spherical zone contained between two parallel planes
is 2πah, where a is the radius and h the distance between the planes.
6. Find the area of the surface formed by rotating about y-axis, the curve y2 = x3 from x = 0
to x = 4.
7. The part of the parabola y2 = 4ax cut off from by the latus-ractum revolves about the
tangent at the vertex. Find the curved surface of the reel thus formed.
8. Find the surface area of the solid generated by revolving the cycloid x = a(t – sint),
y = a(1 – cost) about the base.
9. Find the surface of the reel formed by the revolution round the tangent at the vertex of
an arch of the cycloid x = a(θ + sinθ), y = a(1 – cosθ)
10. Find the surface of the solid formed generated by the revolution of the cardiod
r = a(1 – cosθ) about the initial line.
11. Find the surface of the solid generated by the revolution of the lemniscate r2 = a2 cos2θ
about the initial line.
12. Find the area of the surface generated if an arch of the cycloid x = a(θ – sin θ),
y = a(1 – cos θ) revolves about the line y = 2a.
ANSWERS
Assignment 1
8 2
1. πab 2. πa2 3. a
15
π a2
4. 5. (π – 2)a2 6. 3πa2
8
17 9
7. 4πa2 8. units 9. units
6 8
10. 36 units 11. 64 a2

3
Assignment 2
3. πa2 4. 3πa2 5. 3πa2
Assignment 3
3π a2 πa2
1. 2. 11π 3.
2 8
πa2
( ) 16
2
a
4. π – 1)
5. a2(π 8. 15 3 − 8π
4
Assignment 4
11
1. 12 a
27
h + a+h  15 + 
2. (i) ah + h + a log
2
, (ii) a log 2
a  16 
( )
4a
3. 4. log 2 + 3
3
6. 2 e ( π
2
)
−1 7. 8a
8. 4 3 9. 2aπ
1 r
 f (r2 ) − f (r1) , where f (r) = r r2 + a2 + a2 sinh−1
2a 
10.
a
ψ · cotα
12. s = a e
Assignment 5
π2 a3
1. πa3(8log2 – 3) 5. 6. 5π2a3
2
32 2 2 π2 a3
7. 2πa3 9. πa 10.
5 8
Assignment 6
π a2  b a  a2 − b2  
2. 2πab  a +
−1
1. (2 + sinh 2)
a2 − b2
sin   
2  a 
3. πr r2 + h2 , where r is the base radius and h is the height of the cone.
4. 4πa2 6.
128
1215
(
π 1 + 125 10 )
( )
64 2 32 2
7. π a2  3 2 − log 2 + 1  8. πa 9. πa
3 3
32 2 2 1  πa3
10. πa 11. 4π a  1 −  12.
5 2 12

3-Geometrical Applications of Integration

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3-Geometrical Applications of Integration

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200 Engineering Mathematics through Applications

3 Geometrical Applications of Integration

3.2 AREA OF BOUNDED REGIONS (QUADRATURE)

or in otherwords, if x-changes sign from a to b, y = f(x) changes sign at Fig. 3.3

ordinates (see Fig. 3.8).

Example 3: Find the area of the curve a2y2 = x3(2a – x).

Hence the total area is π a2.

(ii) Area of the portion bounded by the curve and

For the area of the loop, x varies from –a to 0.

= 2 −a (a2 − x2 )2 + sin−1 −

sin θ cos θ (1 + sin θ)

Solution: The curve y 2 (a + x) = x 2 (3a – x) is θ = π/3

2a + (a − x)  Same substitution ( a − x) = 2a cos θ, 

Solution: The circle x2 + y2 = 2ax is symmetrical y-axis

Hence the area outside the parabola and inside

II. Area of Curves Given in Parametric Form

Solution: For the inverted cycloid

= 2a2(– π) + a2π = 3πa2.

et' + e−t' et' − e−t' 1 2t'

x = a(θ − sin θ),

III. Area for Curves Given in Polar Form, r = f(θ θ).

θ and hence find the total area

 As cos2 2θ is an even function of θ and for an even function 

Further, the cardiod also is symmetrical about the initial line.

(I) (II) (III)

breakup of the area OPBO for θ = 0 to π and

Solution: The curve r = 2a(1 + cosθ) is a standard cardiod with values

Clearly the two curves intersects at θ = ±π , otherwise also,

HINT : Here φ = θ and for all position P(r, θ), ψ = θ + φ = θ + θ = 3θ . If ψ = π 

3.3 LENGTH OF CURVES (RECTIFICATION)

9a4 − 12a2 x2 + 4x4

and hence the length of the curve,

x2 (4a − 3x)2 (4a − 3x)2

Solution: The given equation of the curve

4 e2 x (e2x − 1)2 + 4 e2x

∫ f (x) dx = log f (x) 

On differentiating the given curve with respect to x, we get

Alternatively: In parametric form x = a cos3 θ, y = b sin3 θ, so that

Putting a2cos2θ + b2sin2θ = t2 so that 2(b2 – a2) cos θ sin θdθ = 2t dt

= a(1 + cos t),

∴ s2 + ρ2 = (4asin Ψ)2 + (4a cos Ψ)2 = 16a2

III Length of Polar Curves

= (r2 − r1) sec α

Put a2 + r2 = t2 so that 2rdr = 2tdt and for r = a, t = a 2 ; r = 2a, t = a 5

Solution: Measuring s from the pole where θ = 0,

∫ r2 +   dθ = ∫0 a2 (1 − cos θ)2 + a2 sin2 θ dθ

Step 3: We know, ψ =θ+φ=θ+

Solution: The equation of the given parabola may be written as

IV. Arc Length of Curves in Pedal Form:

Solution: Length of the arc of the given parabola p2 = ar is given by

On integration, 2 s = 2a ψ + α, where a is a contant of integration. … (4)

Step 4: Let ψ = 0 for s = 0. Therefore from (4), α = 0

3.4 VOLUMES OF REVOLUTION

I. Volume of Revolution for Cartesian Curves

= (Vol. V when x = b) – (Vol. V when x = a)

from the vertex, is π b h (3a + h)

Solution: Clear from the figure 3.36, volume of

distance h from the vertex is the same as volume h

πb2  (a + h)3 − a3  πb2  3ah2 + h3 

Solution: As shown in the geometry, the curve y

Put (a – x) = t so that dx = – dt,

 2a3 − 5a2 t + 4at2 − t3 

Solution: Let the equation of the circle be x2 + y2 = 1 … (1)

= π  a2 { a − (a − h)} − { a3 − (a − h)3 }