I.

A. STRONG POINTS OF WOOD AS STUCTURAL MATERIALS

1. Thermal Properties:
As we know, many, materials change in size and volume as the temperature changes. They expand with increasing of the
temperature. This means linear and volumetric expansion. The expansion. The expansion causes decrease in the strength of
materials. Steel, which is inorganic and non-combustible and therefore has an advantage against fire, but when used in
buildings, it expands and collapses as a result of increase in heat.
Wood does not practically expand against heat. On the contrary, by the effect of heat, it dries out and gains strength. The only
time wood expands a little is when the humidity level is below 0%, and this is only scientifically significant. In practice, the
humidity level of wood does not drop under 5% even in the driest climate.
The coefficient of thermal conductivity of the wood is very low. Aluminium transmits heat 7000 times, steal 1650 times, marble
90 times and glass 23 times faster than wood. For this reason, wood is used for making matches, handles of hardware
equipment, ceilings and wall coverings.
Specific heat of wood is high. That means high amount of energy is needed to increase and decrease the temperature of one-
kilogram of wood. Wood requires almost twice amount of heat energy than stones and concrete; similarly, three times of energy
is needed for heating or cooling steel.
2. Acoustic Properties:
Sound isolation is based on the mass of the surface. Wood, as a light material, is not very perfect for sound isolation; But it is
ideal for sound absorption. Wood prevents echo and noise by absorbing sound. For this reason it is extensively used in concert
halls.
Sound velocity is faster in woods than gases and liquids, and it is close to that of metals. Sound energy loss as a result of friction
is also significantly low in woods due to its lightness and structure. Because of such properties, wood is extensively used in
musical instruments.
3. Electrical Properties:
Resistance to electrical current of a completely dry wood is equal to that of phenol formaldehyde. An oven dried wood is a very
good electrical insulator. To some extent air dried wood is the same. Unfortunately electrical resistance of wood is lowered by
increasing the moisture content. The resistance of wood saturated with water. Static electricity that is dangerous for human
health is not observed in wood unlike metal, plastic and other materials. For this reason wood is preferred as a healthy material.
4. Mechanical Properties:
Although wood is a light material, its strength is quite high. For instance, while the tensile strength of wood with 0,6/cm3
specific gravity is 100 N/mm2, the tensile strength of steel with 7,89/cm3 specific gravity is 500 N/mm2. Dividing tensile strength
by specific gravity gives the breaking length and quality of material. This figure means the breaking length of the material, when
hung as a result of its own weight. While the breaking length of steel is used for construction is 5.4 km, chrome mobile steel is
6.8 km, hardened bow steel is 17.5 km, breaking length of spruce wood is 19.8 km, and laminated wood made of beech is 28.3
km. For this kind of properties, wood and laminated wood is used in wide-gap constructions like health centers and sport halls.
5. Aesthetic Properties:
Wood is a decorative material when considered as an aesthetic material. Each tree has its own color, design and smell the
design of a tree does change according to the way it is sliced. It is possible to find different wooden materials according to color
and design preference. It can be painted to darker colors of varnished, and can be given bright or mat touches.
6. Oxidation Properties:
Although wood has oxidation characteristics in some way, it is not the kind of oxidation seen in metals. Metals get rust, wood
doesn’t. For such characteristics, use of wood is preferred to avoid rust when necessary.
7. Working Properties:
It is easy to repair and maintain wood. While old woods can be renewed by special touches other materials are highly difficult
and costly to maintain and to repair. Therefore they are usually disposed of.
8. Variation:
There are more than 5000 kinds of woods in the world. Their specific gravity, macroscopic and microscopic structures are
different. Accordingly, their physical, thermal, acoustic, electrical and mechanical properties are also different. Because of this
variety, it is possible to find wood suitable for needs. For instance, for heat isolation and sound absorption woods in lightweight
are used. Similarly, heavy ones are used for construction purposes.

B. WEAK POINTS OF WOOD AS STRUCTURAL MATERIALS

1. Shrinkage and Swelling of Wood:
Wood is a hygroscopic material. This means that it will adsorb surrounding condensable vapors and loses moisture to air below
the fiber saturation point.
2. Deterioration of Wood:
The agents causing the deterioration and destruction of wood fall into two categories: Biotic (biological) and abiotic (non-
biological).
Biotic agents include decay and mold fungi, bacteria and insects.
Abiotic agents include sun, wind, water, certain chemicals and fire.
3. Biotic Deterioration of Wood:
Woods are organic goods. Like any organic good, wood is a nutritional product for some plants and animals. Humans can not
digest cellulose and the other fiber ingredients of wood, but some fungi and insects can digest it, and use it as a nutritional
product. Insects drill holes and drive lines into wood. Even more dangerously, fungi cause the wood to decay partially and even
completely.
Biological deterioration of wood due to attack by decay fungi, woodboring insects and marine borers during its processing and in
service has technical and economical importance.
4. Fungi:
It is necessary to give some short information about fungi agents to take measures against the wood deterioration.
Physiological requirements of wood destroying and wood inhabiting fungi:
A favorable temperature.
The temperature must be 25-30°C for optimum growth of most wood rotting fungi. But some of them can tolerate temperature
between 0-45°C.
An adequate supply of oxygen
Oxygen is essential for the growth of fungi. In the absence of oxygen no fungi will grow. It is well known that storage of wood
under water will protect them against attacks by fungi.
5. Moisture
Generally wood will not be attacked by the common fungi at moisture contents below the fiber saturation point. The fiber
saturation point (FSP) for different wood lies between 20 to 35% but 30% is accepted generally.
It is recommended that wood in service must have a moisture content at least 3% less than FSP to provide desirable safety
against fungi.
6. Nutrients
Wood is an organic compound and consists of 50% carbon. That means that wood is a very suitable nutrient for fungi because
fungi derive their energy from oxidation of organic compounds. Decay fungi wood rotters can use polysaccharides while stain
fungi evidently require simple forms such as soluble carbohydrates, proteins and other substances present in the parenchyma
cell of sapwood. Additionally, the presence of nitrogen in wood is necessary for the growth of fungi in wood.
7. Insects:
Insects are only second to decay fungi in the economic loss they cause to lumber and wood in service. Insects can be separated
into four categories: Termites, powderpost beetles, carpenter ants and marine borers.
8. Termites
There are two types of termites: Subterranean termites damage wood that is untreated, moist, in direct contact with standing
water, soil, other sources of moisture.
Dry wood termites attack and inhabit wood that has been dried to moisture contents as low as 5 to 10%. The damage by dry
wood termites is less than subterranean termites.
9. Powderpost beetles
Powderpost beetles attack hardwood and softwood. At risk is well seasoned wood as well as freshly harvested and undried
wood.
10. Carpenter ants
Carpenter ants do not feed on wood. They tunnel through the wood and create shelter. They attack most often wood in ground
contact or wood that is intermittently wetted.
11. Carpenter bees
They cause damage primarily to unpainted wood by creating large tunnel in order to lay eggs.
12. Marine borers
They attack and can rapidly destroy wood in salt water and brackish water.
http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN-98769/wood-as-a-building-material-it39s-benefits-and-disadvan-.html

Strength properties of wood

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The strength of wood increases as its density increases. When evaluating the density of wood, the level of moisture in which its
mass and volume were measured must always be known. Most commonly the density of wood is given as dry air density,
whereby the mass and volume of the wood are measured with its level of moisture at 15% (or 12%). Density is often also given
as a dry-fresh density, whereby the mass of the wood is measured dry, and the volume saturation point (about 30%) at a high
level of moisture. The main tree species in Finland are pine, spruce and birch. Pine and spruce are the most common in
construction. The density of Finnish pine is 370 – 550 kg/m3, spruce 300 – 470 kg/m3 and birch 590 – 740 kg/m3.
In the growth rings of a tree, there is much less lighter-coloured spring wood than darker summer wood. In a normal pine tree,
the share of summer wood is on average 25% and in spruce about 15%. In Finnish conifers in terms of wood strength, the ideal
gap between growth rings is 1-1.5 mm, under which circumstances the relative share of summer wood in the growth rings is
greatest. A small gap between rings does not necessarily mean that the wood is denser and stronger. For example, the annual
growth of pines in Lapland is almost exclusively the rarer spring wood, even though the gap between growth rings is very small.
Because of this, a pine that has grown in Northern Finland is lower in density and its timber lighter than a pine grown in Central
and Southern Finland.
The durability of the heartwood is not dependent on density because, in Finnish pine, spruce and birch, the density of the wood
increases as you go from the core to the surface. The durability of the heartwood depends on a high resin content, which
increases its resistance to decay and pests. In the main Finnish trees, the density and strength of the wood decreases as you go
from the base to the top. In pine, the longitudinal change in density is greater than in spruce. The density of the wood increases
with age in species of tree in which the density increases from the core out towards the surface.
The strength of the wood is fundamentally affected by the direction in which it is loaded in relation to the grain. In the direction
of the grain, the bending strength is directly proportional to the density of the wood. In uniform, flawless wood, the bending
strength is as great as the tensile strength.
Tensile strength in the direction of the grain is usually 10-20 times more than its strength perpendicular to the grain. Tensile
strength also depends on the density of the wood: for example, the tensile strength of the spring wood in a pine is only 1/6 of
that of summer wood. The compression strength of air-dry wood is about half of the corresponding tensile strength.
The shearing strength of wood is 10-15% of its tensile strength in the direction of the grain. Shearing strength is weakened by
knots and faults and cracks that appear in the wood.
The elasticity and durability of wood increase as its density increases. The modulus of elasticity of wood in the direction of the
grain may be up to a hundred times more than the same parameter perpendicular to the grain. In the radial direction, the
modulus of elasticity is about twice as great as the same parameter in a tangential direction.
Because the properties of wood may vary greatly depending on different factors, it is advisable to sort it according to its
purpose. Sorting can distinguish two main examining criteria, which are the appearance and strength-technical properties of the
wood. In wood quality and strength sorting, about 90% of quality criteria are related to its knots. Strength sorting may be done
either visually or mechanically.
https://www.woodproducts.fi/content/wood-a-material-1

1. Hardwood is not necessarily a harder material (more dense) and a softwood is not necessarily a softer material (less
dense).
Different types of construction projects call for different kinds of timber, both hardwood and softwood are used for
everything from structural to decorative.
Softwood and hardwood are distinguished botanically in terms of their reproduction, not by their end use or
appearance. All trees reproduce by producing seeds, but the seed structure varies.
In general, hardwood comes from a deciduous tree which loses its leaves annually and softwood comes from a conifer,
which usually remains evergreen. Hardwoods tend to be slower growing, and are therefore usually more dense.
Softwood trees are known as a gymnosperm. Gymnosperms reproduce by forming cones which emit pollen to be
spread by the wind to other trees. Pollinated trees form naked seeds which are dropped to the ground or borne on the
 wind so that new trees can grow elsewhere. Some examples of softwood include pine, redwood, douglas-fir, cypresses
and larch. (more information visit our species section)
A hardwood is an angiosperm, a plant that produces seeds with some sort of covering such as a shell or a fruit.
Angiosperms usually form flowers to reproduce. Birds and insects attracted to the flowers carry the pollen to other
trees and when fertilized the trees form fruits or nuts and seeds. Hardwoods include eucalypts, beech and blackwood.
The hardwood/softwood terminology does make some sense. Evergreens do tend to be less dense than deciduous
trees, and therefore easier to cut, while most hardwoods tend to be more dense, and therefore sturdier. In practical
terms, this denseness also means that the wood will split if you pound a nail into it. Thus you need to drill screw or bolt
holes to fasten hardwood together. But structural lumber is soft and light, accepts nails easily without splitting and thus
is great for general construction.
http://www.nzwood.co.nz/faqs/what-is-the-difference-between-hardwood-and-softwood/

Classifying wood as either a hardwood or softwood comes down to its physical structure and makeup, and so it is overly
simple to think of hardwoods as being hard and durable compared to soft and workable softwoods. This happens to
be generally true, but there are exceptions, such as in the cases of wood from yew trees — a softwood that is relatively
hard — and wood from balsa trees — a hardwood that is softer than softwoods.

Hardwood comes from angiosperm — or flowering plants — such as oak, maple, or walnut, that are
not monocots. Softwood comes from gymnospermtrees, usually evergreen conifers, like pine or spruce.

Comparison chart

Hardwood versus Softwood comparison chart

Hardwood Softwood

Definition Comes from angiosperm trees that are
not monocots; trees are usually broad-leaved.
Has vessel elements that transport water
throughout the wood; under a microscope,
these elements appear as pores.
Comes from gymnosperm trees which usually have
needles and cones. Medullary rays and tracheids
transport water and produce sap. When viewed
under a microscope, softwoods have no visible pores
because of tracheids.

Uses hardwoods are more likely to be found in high-
quality furniture, decks, flooring, and
construction that needs to last.
About 80% of all timber comes from softwood.
Softwoods have a wide range of applications and are
found in building components (e.g., windows, doors),
furniture, medium-density fiberboard (MDF), paper,
Christmas trees, and much more.

Examples Examples of hardwood trees include alder, Examples of softwood trees are cedar, Douglas fir,
balsa, beech, hickory, mahogany, maple, oak, juniper, pine, redwood, spruce, and yew.
teak, and walnut.

Density Most hardwoods have a higher density than Most softwoods have a lower density than most
most softwoods. hardwoods.

Cost Hardwood is typically more expensive than Softwood is typically less expensive compared to
softwood. hardwood.

Growth Hardwood has a slower growth rate. Softwood has a faster rate of growth.

Shedding Hardwoods shed their leaves over a period of Softwoods tend to keep their needles throughout the
of leaves time in autumn and winter. year.

Differences in Microscopic Structure

Presence of pores in hardwoods (oak, top) and the absence of pores in softwoods (pine, bottom).

There are differences between the physical structures of hardwoods and softwoods. This is usually visible at both
microscopic level and at the surface — hardwoods tend to have broad leaves, while softwoods tend to have needles and
cones. Hardwoods have vessel elements that transport water throughout the wood; under a microscope, these elements
appear as pores. In softwoods, medullary rays and tracheidstransport water and produce sap. When viewed under a
microscope, softwoods have no visible pores because tracheids do not have pores.

The pores in hardwoods are a lot of what gives hardwood its prominent grain, which is quite different from softwood's
light grain.

Uses of Hardwood vs Softwood

In many cases, hardwoods and softwoods are both used for many of the same purposes, with more emphasis placed on
the type of hardwood or softwood and how dense it is.

Generally, though, softwoods are cheaper and easier to work with than hardwoods. As such, they make up the bulk of all
wood used in the world, with about 80% of all timber being a softwood. This is impressive considering hardwoods are
much more common in the world than softwoods. Softwoods have a wide range of applications and are found in building
components (e.g., windows, doors), furniture, medium-density fiberboard (MDF), paper, Christmas trees, and much more.
Pines are one of the most commonly used softwoods.

Though hardwoods are often more expensive and sometimes more challenging to work with, their upside is that most —
though not all — are denser, meaning many hardwoods will last longer than softwoods. For this reason, hardwoods are
more likely to be found in high-quality furniture, decks, flooring, and construction that needs to last.

https://www.diffen.com/difference/Hardwood_vs_Softwood

Advantages and Benefits of Softwoods

The name “softwood” almost implies an inferiority to hardwood, but softwood is every bit as useful as hardwood. Softwood
species are easily replaced because they grow so quickly. This is pretty much the definition of “renewable” or “sustainable.”
Because they are so plentiful, they are economical and are the timber of choice for many projects.
 Softwood has a softer surface, but it is still a very strong timber. They are lightweight and their “softness” makes them a lot
easier to work with than hardwoods. They are also a lot lighter than hardwoods, making them easier to transport to your work
site.

Softwoods are a bit less durable than hardwoods, but they absorb finishes, adhesives and preservatives much more easily than
hardwoods. Due to their superior absorption characteristics, treated pine is very durable. It is resistant to termites, bacteria,
fungal attacks and moisture.

Uses for Softwoods

Since pine absorbs finishes such as paint, varnish, oil and urethane, it is perfect for home woodworking projects. Pine can be
used for cladding, decking, flooring, panelling, structural framing, beams, poles, benchtops, furniture and cabinets. Pine is often
the timber of choice for DIY projects because it is economical and easy to work with.

https://www.narangbatimbers.com.au/uses-for-softwoods/

Softwood

Softwood is a type of wood that is cut from trees belonging to gymnosperms, such as coniferous trees. By
contrast, hardwood typically comes from angiosperm, deciduous and broad-leaved trees. Trees that lose their leaves in the
autumn, such as oak.

Softwood Hardwood

Softwood trees, such as pine, cedar, spruce, larch and fir, retain their leaves throughout the year and grow faster
than hardwood.
Unlike hardwood, the microstructure of softwood trees does not include vessels, as their cells are open. This allows
them to act as conduits, feeding nutrients and water through the tree. These open cells allow them to absorb things
such as adhesives and finishes better.
Softwood provides around 80% of all timber, and is usually supplied in long, rectangular forms such as
planks, posts and rails. Softwood is commonly used in construction, in the roof and inner walls structures, as well as
in other building components such as fixtures and fittings, doors, and so on. It is also the main constituent of some
man-made boards, such as medium density fibreboard.
Hardwood is is typically used in furniture such as tables, chairs, chest drawers, and so on. It may also be used in
applications such as window frames.
Though some softwoods are harder than hardwood (for example, balsa is a hardwood), softwood is generally less
dense. This makes it easier to saw, plane, bore, nail, and so on.
Hardwoods are commonly used in
the constructionof walls, ceilings and floors,
while softwoods are oftenused to make doors,
furniture and window frames. Some examples of
the most popular hardwoodsinclude oak, maple,
mahogany, cherry, walnut, and teak.

2.