ECS 3390 - Business and Technical Communcations

SECOND EDITION
BUSINESS AND TECHNICAL

COMMUNICATION
A GUIDE TO WRITING PROFESSIONALLY
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MARIBETH SCHLOBOHM CHRISTOPHER RYAN

SECOND EDMON
BUSINESS AND TECHNICAL

COMMUNICATION
A GUIDE TO WRITING PROFESSIONALLY
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MARIBETH H L O B O H M I CHRISTOPHER RYAN
Kendall Hunt
publis i n g c o m p a n y
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Copyright © 2013, 2014 by Kendall Hunt Publishing Company
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without the prior written permission of the copyright owner.
Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
CONTENTS
About the Authors x i
Foreword x i i i
Acknowledgements x v
CHAPTER 1 Principles of Professional and Technical Communication 1

Style 2
Different from Other Forms of Writing 2
Research Orientation 2
Voice 3
Shifting Writing Orientation from Self to Audience 5
Designing for Easy Navigation 5
Structure 6
Introduction 6
Body 6
Conclusion 6
Time and Space Limitations 7
Editing 8
Grammar 8
Etiquette 11
Ethics 1 2
Knowing and Doing Right versus Wrong 1 3
Giving Proper Attribution 1 3
Respecting Intellectual Property 1 4
Abiding by Employment Agreements 1 4
Honoring Noncompetition and Nondisclosure Agreements 1 5
Ensuring Safety and Security of Others 1 5
Conclusion 1 6
Candidate for a Pullet Surprise 1 8
CHAPTER 2 A u d i e n c e 2 1
Purpose 2 2
Informing 2 2
Persuading 2 2
Types of Audiences 2 3
Decision Makers 2 3
Influencers 2 3
iii
iv C O N T E N T S
Those Who Need to Know: End Users 2 4

Example Using All Audience Types 2 4
Overcoming Communication Barriers 2 5
Cultural Obstacles 2 6
Cross-Cultural Communication 2 7
Word Usage and Spelling 2 9
Gender Neutrality 3 0
Contractions 3 0
Generic Forms of You 3 1
Company Culture 3 1
Conclusion 3 2
CHAPTER 3 D o c u m e n t , Poster, and Presentation Design 3 5

Basic Design Elements 3 6
Written Document Design 3 6
Margins 3 6
Headings 3 6
Widows and Orphans 3 7
Font Size in Written Documents 3 7
Font Type and Style in Written Documents 3 7
Bold, Italics, and Underline 3 8
All Caps and No Caps 3 9
Line Spacing 4 0
Bullets and Numbers 4 0
Illustrations 4 1
Charts 4 1
Diagrams, Schematics, Blueprints, and Equations 4 4
Tables 4 5
Maps and Photographs 4 5
Poster Presentation Design 4 6
Layout 4 7
Font 4 7
Graphics 4 7
Slide Presentation Design 4 8
Grammar and Citation 4 8
Professional Templates and Backgrounds 4 9
Three Required Slides 4 9
Color 5 0
Font Size and Style 5 7
Visual Composition 5 7
CONTENTS • v
Illustrations 5 8
Words per Slide 5 8
Points per Slide 5 9
Slides per Minute 5 9
Animation and Multimedia Clips 5 9
Question Anticipation 5 9
Conclusion 6 0
CHAPTER 4 W o r k i n g and Writing Collaboratively 6 3

Management and Work Styles 6 4
Team Size 6 4
Establishing a Team Vision 6 4
Coming to Agreement on Operating Rules and Principles 6 5
Scheduling and Following Timelines 6 6
Gantt Charts 6 7
Status Reports 6 7
Maximizing Talents 6 8
Roles: Leaders, Coordinators, Team Members 6 9
The Six Sigma Model 7 0
Team Stages o f Development 7 1
Team Writing 7 2
Dividing and Conquering 7 3
Specializing 7 3
Concurrent Writing 7 3
Tools that Assist the Team Writing Process 7 3
Working Relationships of Subject Matter Experts and Editors 7 4
Conclusion 7 5
CHAPTER 5 Telephone, Text, Email, Letters, and Memos 7 9
Internal vs. External Communication 8 0

Informal vs. Formal Communication 8 0
Choose the Best Platform 8 1
Telephone 8 1
Text 8 2
Email 8 3
Comparison to Letters 8 3
Comparison to Memos 8 4
Limitations 8 4
vi C O N T E N T S
Format 8 4
Etiquette 8 7
Letters 8 8
Letterhead 8 8
Letter Types 8 9
Formats 9 4
Memos 1 0 3
Conclusion 1 0 7
CHAPTER 6 R e p o r t s , Proposals, and White Papers 1 1 1

Front Matter 1 1 2
Back Matter 1 1 4
Reports 1 1 4
Feasibility Reports 1 1 4
Lab/Test Reports 1 1 7
Status Reports 1 1 8
Final Project Reports 1 2 4
Proposals 1 3 9
Request for Proposal (RFPs) 1 3 9
Open vs. Closed 1 3 9
Solicited vs. Unsolicited 1 3 9
Formatting 1 4 0
White Papers 1 5 6
Conclusion 1 5 6
CHAPTER 7 S t a n d Alone and Supplemental Documents 1 5 9

Definitions and Glossaries 1 6 0
Definitions 1 6 0
Glossaries 1 6 2
Instructions and Specifications 1 6 2
Instructions 1 6 2
Specifications 1 6 3
Statement of Work 1 6 4
Definition 1 6 4
Elements 1 6 4
Policies and Procedures 1 6 6
Policies 1 6 6
Procedures 1 6 7
Manuals 1 6 7
Conclusion 1 6 8
Spider 1 6 9
CONTENTS v i i
CHAPTER 8 Presentations 1 7 1
Live vs. Electronic Media 1 7 2
Audience Needs 1 7 2
Informative Presentations 1 7 2
Introduction 1 7 3
Body 1 7 5
Conclusion 1 7 6
Informative Speech Outline 1 7 6
Poster Presentations 1 7 7
Poster Presentation Question and Answer Session 1 7 7
Persuasive Presentations 1 7 9
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs 1 7 9
Monroe's Motivated Sequence 1 8 0
Group Presentations 1 8 2
Passing the Ball 1 8 2
One Mouthpiece 1 8 5
Panel Discussions, Symposiums, and Forums 1 8 5
Managing Question-and-Answer Sessions 1 8 6
Presentations in an International Environment 1 8 6
Agents, Customs, and Language 1 8 7
Using Technology in Presentations 1 8 7
When Technology Fails a n d It Will Fail 1 8 8
Using Interpreters and/or Language Processing Technology 1 8 8
Avoid Slang and Sarcasm 1 8 8
Speaker's Professional Presence 1 8 8
Good Preparation 1 8 9
Topic Knowledge and Enthusiasm 1 8 9
Hand Gestures 1 8 9
Eye Contact 1 9 0
Facial Expressions 1 9 0
Vocal Inflection, Tone, and Emphasis 1 9 1
Good Grammar and Pronunciation 1 9 1
Appropriate Attire 1 9 1
Body Movement 1 9 3
Conclusion 1 9 4
CHAPTER 9 G a i n i n g , Retaining, and Advancing Employment 1 9 9
The Job Search Process 2 0 0

Finding Opportunities 2 0 0
A Few Important Considerations 2 0 2
Sanitize Social Media Accounts 2 0 2
viii • CONTENTS
Prepare for Background Checks 2 0 2

Be Ethical 2 0 3
The Hiring Process 2 0 3
Resume Writing and Processing 2 0 3
Key Word Searches 2 0 3
Tailoring Your Resume 2 0 4
Honesty 2 0 5
Writing and Designing Your Resume 2 0 5
Cover Letters 2 1 6
Interviewing 2 1 7
Interviewing Methods 2 1 7
Different Types o f Interviews 2 1 9
Preparation 2 2 0
Practicing for the Interview 2 2 2
Participating in the Interview 2 2 2
Third Parties 2 2 3
Compensation Negotiation 2 2 3
Follow Up 2 2 4
Maintaining and Advancing Your Career 2 2 5
Conclusion 2 2 5
CHAPTER 10 Social Media and Intellectual Property 2 2 9

Social Network Sites Defined 2 3 1
Internet and Social Networking Site Usage 2 3 1
Screen Reading: The "F" Pattern Phenomenon 2 3 2
Creating, Monitoring, and Sanitizing Personal Social Media Usage 2 3 2
Creating 2 3 2
Monitoring 2 3 3
Sanitizing 2 3 3
Social Media Use in Employment 2 3 4
National Labor Relations Act 2 3 4
Corporate Social Media Policies and Guidelines 2 3 4
Blogging Guidelines 2 3 6
Tweeting Guidelines 2 3 6
Corporate Uses of Social Media 2 3 7
Newsworthy Uses o f Social Media 2 3 7
Intellectual Property 2 3 8
Trademarks 2 3 9
Copyrights 2 3 9
CONTENTS 4 , i x
Patents 2 4 0
Trade Secrets 2 4 1
Plagiarism and the Fair Use Doctrine 2 4 2
Plagiarism 2 4 2
Fair Use Doctrine 2 4 3
Employment Agreements 2 4 4
Non-Competition Agreements 2 4 4
Non-Disclosure Agreements 2 4 5
Conclusion 2 4 5
APPENDICES
Appendix A: American English Mechanics Guide 2 4 9
Punctuation 2 4 9
Periods 2 4 9
Commas 2 4 9
Oxford Commas 2 5 0
Semicolons 2 5 0
Colons 2 5 0
Exclamation Points 2 5 0
Question Marks 2 5 0
Quotation Marks 2 5 1
Apostrophe 2 5 1
Capitalization 2 5 1
Sentence Structure Basics 2 5 2
The Articles: A, An, and The 2 5 2
Comma Splice (CS.) 2 5 2
Fragments (Frag) 2 5 3
Gerund 2 5 3
Run On (SO.) 2 5 3
Subject-Verb Agreement (S-V) and Verb Tense 2 5 3
Mechanics "Trouble Spots" 2 5 4
i.e. and e.g. 2 5 4
Affect and Effect 2 5 5
Because, Since, and As 2 5 5
Bored of, bored by, bored with 2 5 5
Fewer and Less 2 5 5
I or Me (when not alone) 2 5 5
Its and It's 2 5 6
Lay and Lie 2 5 6
x CONTENTS
Of and Have 2 5 6
Sit and Set 2 5 6
That and Which 2 5 6
There, Their, and They're 2 5 7
Whether and Weather
Hear and Here
Be and Bee 2 5 7
Who and Whom 2 5 7
Whose and Who's 2 5 7
Year's and Years' 2 5 8
Your and You're 2 5 8
Appendix B: IEEE Citation Format 2 5 9
Books 2 5 9
Examples 2 5 9
Handbooks 2 5 9
Examples 2 6 0
Reports 2 6 0
Examples 2 6 0
Conference Technical Articles 2 6 0
Examples 2 6 0
Online Sources 2 6 0
Example 2 6 1
Examples 2 6 1
Examples 2 6 1
Patents, Standards, Theses, Dissertations, Unpublished Works 2 6 1
Example 2 6 1
Examples 2 6 1
Example 2 6 2
Example 2 6 2
Examples 2 6 2
Periodicals 2 6 2
Examples 2 6 2
Additional General Reference Rules 2 6 3
References in Text 2 6 3
References Within a Reference 2 6 3
References With URI_ in Addition to Print Source 2 6 3
Reference Abbreviations for Source, Month, and More 2 6 3
References Page 2 6 3
References 2 6 5
INDEX 2 7 1
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
MARIBETH SCHLOBOHM
Maribeth (Betsy) Schlobohm i s a Clinical Associate Professor a t
The University o f Texas at Dallas where she teaches Small Group
Communication and Professional and Technical Communication.
Schlobohm is also an attorney and mediator in private practice. Her
legal practice is focused in the areas of representing small businesses,
estate planning and probate, and mediation. Schlobohrn has conducted
more than 575 civil and family law mediations. She is a Texas Mediator
Credentialing Association (TMCA) credentialed Distinguished Mediator,
a distinction earned by less than 80 of her Texas colleagues, and she
has served as the Collin County Bar Association Alternative Dispute
Resolution Section Secretary in 2008-2010.
Schlobohm is a magna cum laude undergraduate of Texas Tech University
where she also received her Master o f Arts in Speech Communication, now
Communication Studies. She received her Doctor of Jurisprudence from Texas
Tech University School o f Law, where she was a member o f the Texas Tech
University Negotiation Team and the recipient of the American Jurisprudence
Award in Constitutional Law. She is a lifetime member of Phi Delta Phi Legal
Fraternity.
CHRISTOPHER J. RYAN
Christopher (Chris) J. Ryan is the Associate Director of Rhetoric, Director
of Professional and Technical Communication, and a Senior Lecturer in
Professional and Technical Communication at The University of Texas
at Dallas.
Prior to joining the faculty in 2009, Ryan served in various leadership
roles during a 25-year career at EDS/HP. Among his many roles, Ryan
served as Manager of Editing & Writing in Corporate Communications,
Director o f Campus Recruiting, Director o f Asia/Pacific Human
Resources, Director o f Staffing, and Development Consultant f o r
Executives during his tenure with the company.
Ryan holds a Bachelor of Arts in English from St. Edward's University, Coue
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where he graduated surnma cum laude; a Master of Arts in Advertising

from The University of Texas at Austin; and a Doctor of Philosophy in
Technical Communication and Rhetoric from Texas Tech University.
xi
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FOREWORD
Many technical and professional communication textbooks are currently i n

circulation. Each serves its own purpose. The purpose of this text is to provide a
communication foundation for professionals in business and technical industries.
Whereas some business and technical communication books seek t o guide
technical writers, this book seeks to guide those whose roles do not exclusively
require writing and editing b u t whose day-to-day responsibilities demand
that they focus in technical or business careers in which a professional level of
communication is required. Whether those jobs are in engineering, accounting,
finance, or computer science, the subjects addressed and guidance provided
in this book will be useful. We have included the most critical communication-
oriented needs o f professionals, especially those who will be entering the
workforce following the completion of their college degrees.
Maribeth Schlobohm C h r i s t o p h e r Ryan

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Whenever you start a long journey, it's your support system that keeps you on
the road. The writing of this book was a journey and our support system includes
students, colleagues, and family, without whom this book would not have been
possible.
Special thanks goes t o our engineering, computer science, and business
students whose thirst for knowledge caused us t o put the "good stuff" into
one package between the covers of this book. Thanks go to our colleagues in
the School of Arts & Humanities, UTDesignO, and the Erik Jonsson School of
Engineering & Computer Science at The University of Texas at Dallas. Because of
their input, this second edition is a much-improved sister to our first edition with
new sections, samples, an Index and two appendices: American English Grammar
Guide and IEEE Citation Format Short Cuts.
Special thanks to Cane S. Lambert, Ph.D., whose diligent comments and
thoughts caused us to improve our writing in every chapter.
No dedication would be complete without recognition of our friends and
family who did much hand holding and gave many words of encouragement
through the process including Cindy Becker, Bob and Ann Ball, Bill Asher, Betty
Grill, and Tina Schlobohm. Additional thanks go to John and Betty, Josie, CJ, and
Andy Ryan, whose love of learning and appreciation for formal education serves
as inspiration.
Mari beth Schlobohm C h r i s t o p h e r Ryan
XV
CHAPTER 1
RINCIPLES OF
ROFESSIONAL AND
E C H N I C A L C O M M U N I C AT I O N
INTRODUCTION
Professional and technical communication calls for many of the same approaches
that we find in other genres of communication, but this communication also dif-
fers. Those who have written mostly or entirely for academic purposes need to
adjust their writing, especially in style and format, and consider the implications
of the communication they construct.
2 BUSINESS AND TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION
This chapter addresses foundational aspects of professional and technical

communication that set it apart from other types of communication. The chap-
ter also addresses style, structure, etiquette, and ethics in professional and tech-
nical communication.
STYLE
Different from Other Forms of Writing
Writing in business demands a different style than most forms of writing. Prior
to now, you were taught to produce creative works and essays in your English
classes. Perhaps you have experimented with poetry as well. These types of writ-
ing have purposes, but their purposes are different than when you write for an
audience in a professional setting.
Unlike writing styles in creative pieces such as poetry, short stories, novels, and
essays, the style used in professional and technical writing should be simple,
which should not be confused with being easy for the writer to write. In fact,
writing in a simple style is challenging. To write sim-
QUICKTIP ple, easy-to-understand statements, you must craft
each sentence carefully, choosing the most appro-
Sentences and paragraphs should be: priate words to convey the intended meaning and
• Clear limiting the possibility that other meanings could
• Concise
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understand complex ideas.
Research Orientation
Technical and professional communication is research oriented. It demands that
we strive for objectivity in presenting our arguments. Although you may not
achieve true objectivity, as any treatment of a topic will hold your subjectivity
(even if only by the topics you choose or the words you use to craft your points),
you must try to base your communication as objectively as possible. You can best
achieve objectivity through thorough and balanced research.
Thorough and balanced research should consider different ways that you can
perform a task or select a product. You should provide information that is com-
plete enough that your reader can understand different options and that gives
CHAPTER 1 PRINCIPLES OF PROFESSIONAL AND TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION • 3
a fair hearing to different approaches to information. Furthermore, you should

use credible sources. Credible sources encourage readers to accept the writer's
claims and to provide greater objectivity to your claims.
Consider the continuum below.
Objective 4 S u b j e c t i v e
When you communicate, the degree to which you insert your subjectivity
and to which you try to be objective can vary and can fall anywhere on the con-
tinuum. Most sales-oriented communications—e.g., advertising and marketing-
related communication—would fall toward the right, or subjective, end of the
continuum. Most technical communication would fall from the center toward
the left, or the objective end, of the continuum.
For example, when you present a technical solution to a client, you want your
arguments to be as fact based as possible. However, you will not tout the capa-
bilities of your competitors. Therefore, your communication will fall toward the
middle of the continuum. For other technical communications, you should strive
for the continuum's left, or objective, end, particularly when you are providing
in-house recommendations or analyses. Even when
you might want to suggest one option as better
than others, you should present information so that
QUICKTIP
your fellow employees or management team can be Strive for objectivity in business and
comfortable that you have explored and considered technical communication by:
fairly all options. Doing so enhances your credibility • Researching
because your audience is less apt to feel like you are • Stating facts
• Making logical, well-supported arguments
selling something.
Voice
As you do in other genres, you should write in active voice when performing
technical writing. Active voice is when the subject is performing the action and
thus is noted first, followed by the action. In other words, a sentence in active
voice follows a subject-verb order, and in many cases a direct object follows
the verb. Passive voice occurs when you introduce the action (and possibly the
object receiving the action) before you note the subject. (Passive voice exists
with a form of to be—am, is, are, was, were, be, being, or been—with the past
participle (or "-ed" form) of the verb and a present or insinuated "by whom."
Examples of active and passive voice follow:
• Active voice—The engineer wrote the manual.
• Passive voice—The manual was written by the engineer.
Readers find sentences in active voice easier to comprehend quickly, because
we have been trained to expect the "doer" or actor to appear first, followed
by the action. In these examples, the sentence in active voice presents the sub-
ject (engineer) and then the action or verb (wrote) and further follows with
the object (manual). In the sentence in passive voice, the order is reversed: The
object (manual) begins the sentence, the action or verb (was written) follows,
and the subject (engineer) falls to the last of the three parts of the sentence and
answers "by whom."
Unlike other genres, technical writing is more accepting of passive voice, as

long as you use it strategically. Strategies for using passive voice include:
• Situations in which the subject or "doer" does not matter or is unknown
• Circumstances that call for a variation in the pattern
• Writing in which you want to soften a message for more sensitive or
diplomatic communication
When the Subject Does Not Matter or is Unknown

Many professional and technical communication pieces are intended t o be
instructive. For example, when you construct a manual of assembly instructions,
you introduce the steps in the process to complete the assembly. Usually, the
doer who performs the steps does not matter, and you may not know or care
who will be following your instructions, as long as the steps are completed. Con-
sequently, you may choose to remove the subject and write each step as a sen-
tence fragment or to apply passive voice in complete sentences. Like assembly
instructions, lab reports serve as an example of communication pieces in which
the subject may not matter.
When Variation May Be Appropriate

When you write a document that involves multiple sentences, the same pat-
tern used over and over can become monotonous to the reader. Although
active voice may be appropriate for most of the document, you may break that
monotony by occasionally using passive voice in a sentence. You may also use
passive voice to create transition between sentences—to begin a sentence with
information the reader already knows and end with new information that you
need to emphasize.
When Sensitivity or Diplomacy Is Preferred

QUICKTIP
Although active voice may benefit the audience
Use passive voice when the doer does not
matter or when variation is necessary. because of clarity and understandability, the reader
may receive active voice as being too direct, perhaps
even harsh. When you want to make a point with
your reader, you may wish to do so without blaming or being blunt. For exam-
ple, in the workplace, you may need to convey bad news or criticize your team
without hurting the recipients' feelings or lowering team morale. In such an
instance, passive voice can help. If you need to convey bad news, you can soften
your message, saying, "The release of our product has been delayed," instead of
"Our research and development team delayed the release of our product." Thus,
you can still inform the customer that an eagerly awaited product will not be
ready as originally planned, but you can also stop short of blaming a department
within the company for the delay. Similarly, if you as
a manager need to admonish your team but want
QUICKTIP
to protect morale, you can write in a memo, "The
Use active voice unless there is a strategic parts were manufactured poorly," rather than, "You
reason for passive voice such as when you manufactured the parts poorly." You convey the
want to tone down potential harshness.
criticism but in a manner that is less confrontational.
Shifting Writing Orientation from Self to Audience

Given that professional and technical communication is performed in many
instances to persuade someone to act—whether to approve a recommendation,
complete the steps of a process, agree to support the development of a plan,
or take action—you should communicate with the reader in mind. You must
consider what is important to the reader rather than focus on what matters to
you. Salespeople are taught to think about the "What's-in-it-for-me?" question
that consumers are likely to ask. In the same respect, when writing business
documents, you should ask what your reader values, needs, and expects so you
can address the topic and make it more understandable and thus persuade your
reader to accept your call to action.
Designing for Easy Navigation

You should also design professional and technical communication so your read-
ers can find what they need and digest the material in a simple fashion.
Ask yourself the following question: "Do I read every word of a document
or website?" If your answer is "yes," you are among the rarest of readers. If, on
the other hand, you answered "no" because you scan documents to find what
you are seeking, then you are among the majority of people. Knowing that
readers typically will scan your words, you must design your communications so
your readers can easily find what they seek. You can accomplish this in a variety
of ways, including clear demarcation of sections with sensible headings, short
paragraphs, and placement of key points within documents where readers are
most likely to find those points.
Headings
Headings and subheadings help readers find the important information in docu-
ments or websites. As a table of contents guides readers to the different topics
and sections within a book, headings and subheadings help readers to quickly
find information that they need in shorter documents, such as reports and mem-
oranda, and to navigate different sections and pages on a website. Dividing
lengthy communications into smaller, bite-size chunks with a few words that
summarize what the text contains is an effective way to ensure that your readers
will more easily find what they need.
Consider this textbook. In designing it, we could have written our points
without delineating sections or chapters, but we adopted the common conven-
tion of chapters so the topical matter can be categorized for easier consump-
tion. We then had the choice to allow the chapters to be the only means to
categorize and separate topics. But we chose to provide headings and subhead-
ings to further break down the subject matter so
you can more easily read and locate information in
the book.
QUICKTIP
In addition to headings and subheadings, num-
bers, letters, o r an alphanumeric combination t o Use headings and subheadings for fast
divide sections may further guide your readers and and easy navigation through written
communication.
may provide easy reference.
Placement of Key Messages

In addition to considering headings and subheadings, you should think about
where you should place your key messages. You know that your readers prob-
ably will not read every word o f every document you write; therefore, you
should address your key messages at the beginning and end of your document.
Similarly, you should build each of your paragraphs with the main points at the
beginning and end.
STRUCTURE
Most professional documents should include an introduction, a body, and a con-
clusion. These sections are always appropriate, even when other sections are
necessary.
Introduction
The introduction should include a statement of purpose, and i f you provide
your readers with a call to action, you may inform the reader of that call as
part o f the purpose. The introduction should provide sufficient context for
the reader to understand why the author of the document is writing. You
also should use the introduction to provide a forecast of what will follow in
the body. A well-articulated forecast can set the structure for the body of the
communication.
The introduction may vary in length, depending on its purpose. For example,
for a memo or business letter, the introduction is typically the opening para-
graph, while a longer report may involve more than one paragraph. Regardless,
the introduction should contain the purpose and context.
Body
In the body of a business document, letter, or report, you should address with
greater detail the topic(s) you indicated you would address in the introduction.
If the topics involve arguments or recommendations of any kind, you should
include in the body all of the supporting facts that strengthen the arguments
or the case for the recommendation, If in the introduction you provided a fore-
cast of what would follow, you can follow the same order for the paragraphs
in the body.
QUICKTIP Conclusion
When writing business and technical In the conclusion o f a professional o r technical
documents use: communication, you should close the document
• Introduction by summarizing key points. I f you expect any
• Body action o f the reader, clearly state that action in
• Conclusion
the conclusion.
Consider the email message below:
John,
I am following up with you regarding your question yesterday as to whether I would
suggest that we hold our planning meeting at our office meeting room or offsite at the
meeting room at our company's corporate apartments. I would like to briefly address
advantages and disadvantages of the options as well as team member preferences.
Both rooms provide sufficient work space, large tables, comfortable chairs, sufficient
numbers of electrical outlets and projectors with screens, so I do not think that either
location holds an advantage over the other in terms of resources and accommoda-
tion. However, I think our office meeting room has the disadvantage of being near other
departments, and past experience tells me that if we are in the building, people from
other departments will interrupt our meeting for questions and service needs. The offsite
location gives our team a meeting room in which we can conduct our planning without
interference.
I have spoken with all 12 of our team members to capture their preferences. Nine would
prefer the offsite location, largely due to the fact that they will be able to focus fully on the
necessary planning without interruption.
Given the greater opportunity for our team to focus on planning and the preferences of
our team members, I suggest that you select the offsite corporate apartment meeting
room for our meeting. Please let me know if you have any questions or concerns.
Jennifer
In the email message above, the first paragraph provides the introduction. Note
how the writer, Jennifer, states her purpose and provides context. She also fore-
casts what will follow by noting the two topics (advantages and disadvantages,
team member preferences) that she will address.
The second and third paragraphs are the body of the message. In these
paragraphs, Jennifer goes deeper into the details. These paragraphs contain
a detailed message; they give the reader a better understanding of the topic.
Note also that because Jennifer forecasted in the introduction the two topics she
would address, she has established the structure for the body. In the body, she
addresses the two topics in the same order she named them in the introduction.
Jennifer's final paragraph is the conclusion. In her conclusion, Jennifer briefly
summarizes her main points and provides her call to action, which includes her
recommendation to John and a request that he contact her if he has any ques-
tions or concerns.
Although length and purpose will vary, this introduction, body, and conclu-
sion format can work for any correspondence in the business world.
Time and Space Limitations

Professional communications are limited by time and space. Whether you are
walking down the hall while making a request to your boss, writing a recommen-
dation report to your department head, or presenting to other staff or clients, you
have limits to the time you have to convey your message or to the space that your
communication may take if you expect it to be read in a timely fashion. If you are
proposing a new process that you want your company to adopt but you ramble
with a 30-minute presentation that spills over a ten-minute time slot that you had
been granted, you may lose your audience and any chance that your recommen-
dation would be approved. Similarly, if you need your boss to approve funding for
a time-sensitive need, you may not get her to approve your request in time if you
deliver a lengthy document at 5:00 p.m. and ask for a response by the following
morning. If you are inconsiderate of time or length, you can defeat your purpose.
Even lengthy responses to what businesses call requests for proposal (11Flps)
should follow the guidelines established by the government or business that
puts forth the RFF's to receive competing proposals from businesses. You must
meet time limitations on presentations and follow all protocols for documenta-
tion, including length where applicable. But aside
QUICKTIP from reports that by necessity require extensive
technical and financial data and descriptions, you,
Always consider limitations of:
as the writer of business documents, should strive
• Time for a balance between sufficient detail for under-
• Length
standing and brevity.
EDITING
You should never deliver a rough draft as a finished work product. Always leave
time t o edit work before the delivery deadline on written communications,
including formal reports, proposals, white papers, manuals, specifications, poli-
cies and procedures, and technical definitions and glossaries.
Many beginning business and technical writers make the mistake of relying
on spellcheck and grammar-check software to make necessary editing choices in
their writing. Spelling- and grammar-checking software can be helpful, however
these programs correct spelling but may choose an incorrect word.
Grammar
The most common mistakes in technical communication are grammatical errors.
We could fill an entire book exploring grammatical errors, and as a beginning
business and technical writer, you are encouraged to purchase a good grammar
guide if grammar is an issue. Correct grammar is critical in business and techni-
cal communication for your reader's understanding. Furthermore, grammar is
important because it affects how a business person is perceived with regard to
credibility and professionalism. You can find more information in Appendix A of
this text, and we will address grammar here to bring attention to the most com-
mon mistakes, which include the following:
• Subject—verb agreement
• Articles: a, an, and the
• Commas, semicolons, and colons
• Sentence fragments and run-ons sentences
• Gerunds
• Pronouns: he, she, and it
• Parallel sentence structure and bulleted points
These few spelling and grammar tips are just the starting point for editing and
reviewing written communication. Practicing writing with a focus on proper
grammar will increase your ability t o communicate well w i t h professional
audiences.
Subject-Verb Agreement
Perhaps the most common problem for beginners with English-speaking tech-
nical and business writing is subject-verb agreement. English is very complex
and contains singular and plural nouns as well as present, past, and past per-
fect tenses. The key to subject-verb agreement is not in the verb tense; i t is
in the subject. Once the writer determines whether the subject is singular or
plural, the verb follows to complete the sentence and the thought. As with
many other languages, English conjugates verbs. The following example is for
the verb to be:
I am
You are
He, she, or it is
They are
Terms such as each, somebody, anyone, and no one are singular nouns. For
example, with the verb to be, each as well as the other singular words are always
followed by the singular is.
Articles
Failure to use articles and/or to use the correct article are common problems for
non-native English speakers and writers, as they may not use articles in their
native languages. English, however, uses articles, which help a receiver of com-
munication to understand whether you are speaking generally or specifically.
You should use the when referring to a specific person, place, or thing and a or
an when you reference a non-specific person, place, or thing. For example, if you
are referring to a specific company, you should write the company, but if you are
referring to any company, you should write a company.
Commas, Semicolons, and Colons

Many beginning business and technical writers overuse commas, which causes
comma splices, and misuse semicolons. To avoid semicolon problems, break a
compound and complex sentence into two separate sentences. The readers will
appreciate the break, because your sentences will not be five or six lines long
each. Lengthy sentences can be difficult to comprehend. Shorten your sentences
and forgo the use of most semicolons.
Colons are also difficult for beginning technical and business writers. Colons
are most commonly used after a complete statement and before a bulleted list
or a list followed by many commas and finally the period.
You should use commas to separate items in a series. For example, "The
company's expenses, revenue, and profits increased in the most recent quarter."
Note, however, that some style guides may not require the last comma in the
series (the one before and). You should also use a comma before a conjunc-
tion that joins two independent clauses. An example of a comma used before a
10 • BUSINESS AND TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION
conjunction that joins two independent clauses follows: "The company's profit-
ability spiked in the third quarter, but income dipped in the fourth quarter to
its lowest level in three years." Commas are also necessary when setting off a
phrase that introduces a subject in a sentence, as the following example illus-
trates: "Having spiked in the third quarter, the company's revenue dipped in the
fourth quarter to its lowest level in years." One more common use of commas is
to set off a word or phrase that renames or identifies another word. An exam-
ple of this use of commas is as follows: "The company, a leading provider of
information technology services, recorded a spike in its third quarter revenue."
Sentence Fragments and Run-ons

Sentences require, at a minimum, a subject and a verb. Sentence fragments occur
when the verb (or sometimes the subject) is missing. Run-ons occur when a sen-
tence rambles in a wordy journey, failing to make a point or when two sentences
are connected without appropriate punctuation or conjunctions. Avoid run-ons
by breaking up your thoughts into clear and concise sentences that contain one
major idea.
Gerunds
Gerunds are nouns or noun phrases masquerading as verbs. An example of a
gerund would be, "I like writing reports." Writing is not the verb in this sen-
tence. The verb is like, and writing is a gerund. It is a noun that joins reports to
form a noun phrase. Gerunds most frequently appear as "-ing" words. Verbs
that end with "-ing" are also used for creating active voice, so the writer must
identify the purpose of the word to know if an "-ing" word is a verb or a noun.
Pronouns
Sometimes, you will use the pronouns he or she to identify the gender of a spe-
cific person. If your boss is female and you are writing or speaking about that
specific person and not bosses in general, you can use she as the pronoun for
that specific person. Speaking and writing about specific people in specific roles
requires the use of the pronoun that reflects the gender of that specific per-
son. This principle differs from using non-gender-biased language, which inter-
changes he and she or uses he/she, s/he, or she/he. Non-gender-biased language
is used when writing about all persons in a field, as in all engineers at the com-
pany, which could be a group of engineers with both male and female engineers.
One way you can ensure that pronouns agree with their antecedents is to
make both the pronouns and their antecedents plural. For instance, if you want
to state that an engineer should always be on his best ethical behavior, but you
do not want to offend female engineers with the use of he, you could make
your pronoun and its antecedent plural: "Engineers should always be on their
best ethical behavior."
Parallel Structure
Parallel structure is important in compound and complex sentence structures.
Parallel structure will clarify sentences and solve verb tense problems. You should
CHAPTER 1 PRINCIPLES OF PROFESSIONAL AND TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION 1 1
also use parallel structure for items in a bulleted list. For example, if the bulleted
items start with verbs, all of the items start with verbs, and if the bulleted items
start with nouns, all should start with nouns. The best bulleted items generally
begin with verbs in active voice.
Additional Resources
For more guidance on grammar, use one of the useful grammar resources that
you can find in print and online. A short list of these includes the following:
• Purdue Owl, Online Writing Lab (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/
section/1)
• Grammar Girl: Quick and Dirty Tips for Better Writing (http://grammar
.quickanddirtytipsocom or in print by M. Fogarty (2008), St. Martin's, ISBN:
978-0-8050-8831-1)
• McGraw-Hill Handbook of English Grammar and Usage, 2nd ed., M. Lester
and L. Beason (2012) McGraw-Hill, ISBN-13: 978-0071799904
• Only Grammar Book You'll Ever Need: A One-stop Source for Every Writing
Assignment, S. Thurman and L. Shea (2003), Adams Media Corporation,
ISBN-13: 9781580628556
ETIQUETTE
Most of us are well practiced at the art of
composing informal messages to friends
and family members. When you post a
handwritten n o t e o n t h e refrigerator,
send an email message, or write a brief
text, you may omit elements that you
should include in professional communi-
cation. For example, you may not include
a greeting or name the person for whom
your informal message is intended, You
also might use slang or abbreviate terms
in these informal situations. Additionally,
you may omit your name when the reader
knows or can guess who you are (especially
in the cases of email and text messages).
Communication in professional settings requires appropriate business eti-
quette. The communication expected in these settings has a higher standard
than that for the communications that we create informally for friends and fam-
ily. For example, without applying business etiquette to a note for a manager, an
employee might compose an email message as follows:
Hey, do you need me to work Saturday?

An employee who would write with such informality will not be regarded as
being as professional as one who composes the same question but with a for-
mal, professional tone:
Sally,
I am checking with you to see if you will need me to work this coming Saturday. Please
let me know at your soonest convenience.
Thank you.
Robert
In the above examples, you can see the difference in tone that is created by
the added formality. The more formal email extends respect to the recipient by
addressing her by name. The short body of the note that follows the greeting
gives context and a mannerly request. You may argue that the informal note
could achieve the objective just as well as the formal note, and you could be
right to make that argument. However, note that, in professional communica-
tion, how you communicate is often as important as what you communicate.
Thus, a manager might be irritated by the informality and lack of respect dis-
played in the first example and could choose not to respond to the message. In
that case, the informal note would not achieve its purpose. Given that your com-
munication in the professional environment is often intended to persuade your
readers to perform an outcome, a respectful, dignified formality can be useful
in enhancing our chances of achieving your objectives.
Consequently, i n professional and technical communication, you should
write with greater formality in all forms of communication, whether they are
reports, business letters, or even internal messages. In some forms of profes-
sional communication—such as business letters, memoranda, and reports—
standard business formats will guide us toward a higher level of formality. (We
will address those formats more fully later in this book.)
Etiquette also comes into consideration in business meetings and phone
conversations. Etiquette in these interactions—showing others respect by lis-
tening to what they have to say and not talking over them—is an important
place to start, Projecting your own points in a way that respectfully addresses
others is also important and enhances the likelihood that others will listen to
you and be more disposed toward responding favorably to your calls to action.
ETHICS
Business people can have excellent grammar skills and etiquette, but if they do
not behave ethically, their communication skills will matter little. The term ethics
is defined by the Oxford Dictionaries in two ways:
1. "Moral principles that govern a person's behaviour [sic] or the conducting
of an activity"
2. "The branch of knowledge that deals with moral principles"'
"ethics." Oxford Dictionaries, available at httpl/oxforddictionaries.cornidefinitionienglishiethics,

retrieved: 3/19/14.
Ethics are important to matters in business, and ethics arise in professional

and technical communication in matters such as deciding and conveying right ver-
sus wrong, giving credit when it is appropriate, and ensuring the safety of those
who use our products and services. Ethics should not be confused with "legal,"
because not all ethical matters are codified in law. However, some elements of
the law overlap with ethics because society has determined many matters of right
versus wrong should be made law. But when laws do not apply and the code of
ethics of an enterprise or an industry group does not provide sufficient detail to
spell out the appropriate course of action to take in a business matter, profession-
als are left to decide for themselves what the right thing to do may be. And just
as laws vary from one jurisdiction to another, so, too, do views on what is ethical.
In many high-profile stories involving ethics, employees (up to senior levels of
companies) have elected to do what is most expedient or what appears to give
the individual or the company an advantage, often a financial benefit. But what
may look beneficial in the short term often ends up being detrimental in the long
term. Many of these stories end up harmful to those who have made the wrong
ethical decisions, as well as to their companies, their customers, and their investors.
Knowing and Doing Right versus Wrong

As a member of a business enterprise, you should conduct yourself so that you
choose right from wrong, but this is not always as easy as it sounds. Many compa-
nies have written codes of ethics that they require their employees to sign. Similarly,
many industry associations have written codes of conduct or guidelines for ethical
behavior that can be found on the Internet. Following are just a few examples:
• Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)—http://www.acm.org/about/
code-of-ethics
• American Management Assocation (AMA)—http://www.amanet.orgi
HREthicsSurvey06.pdf
• Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE)—http://www.leee.org/
about/corporate/governa nce/p7-8.html
• National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE)--http://www.nspeorgi
Ethics/CodeofEthicsiindex.html
• Society for Technical Communication—http://archive.stc.orgiaboutiethical-
principles-for-technical-communicators.asp
These codes can help to provide guidelines of acceptable and unacceptable behav-
ior, but no code of ethics can possibly provide direction on every possible behavior
an employee can undertake during the course of a career. You therefore need to
consider the many possible implications of your communication and your actions.
Giving Proper Attribution

When you produce business documents, such as reports and proposals, you often
conduct research to help support your arguments. You do so because you build a
stronger case on facts than on opinion. Your research can yield useful points, sta-
tistics, tables, graphs, and photos that can help to strengthen the claims you make.
As you make use of these points, statistics, tables, graphs, and photos, you must
credit your sources. Using someone else's information without proper attribution
in your writing and presentations is plagiarism in business, just as it is in academics.
As with academic writing, you should use quotation marks and cite your
sources in any instance in which you use the same words as your source. When you
paraphrase, the quotation marks are not necessary, but the citation remains a
necessity. The same, too, applies to all visuals, such as any table, graph, or photo;
you must cite your sources. When you properly cite your sources, you not only
are doing the correct thing by giving credit when it is due, but you also stand to
benefit from using and citing others' work, because their work adds to the cred-
ibility of your work. Applying statements, facts, and figures from reliable and
sometimes expert sources helps to bolster your claims and to diminish concerns
that readers might have about the points you are making.
When you cite your sources, you also should follow an appropriate or
requested format. Applying citations and listing references in a proper format
ensures consistency throughout a document and helps trained industry readers
who are accustomed to seeing such information in a consistent format. The most
widely used formats include the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE), the Modern Language Association (MLA), American Psychological Asso-
ciation (APA), and the Chicago Manual of Style. Many business communicators
within industry sectors will use the format that is designed by the group that sets
the formatting standards for the industry. For example, engineering groups are
most likely to use IEEE; language and humanities-
related groups lean toward using MLA style; and
QUICKTIP professionals in the behavioral, psychological, and
Always follow proper citation and reference social sciences often use APA. All within industry
guidelines. sectors may use formatting standards from their
Consult your instructor, manager, or respective fields or from other fields. For example,
department receiving your work product to someone in the financial sector could use Chicago,
determine the appropriate citation format. MLA, or another format for citing sources.
Respecting Intellectual Property

When writing for business purposes, you must also ensure that you obtain per-
mission from individuals and companies to use information or titles of their
products and services. You can save your company significant costs in money and
reputation i f you respect and properly use the copyrights, logos, trademarks,
service marks, and patents within their established boundaries and thus prevent
lawsuits for violations. Similarly, you want to obtain copyrights, logos, trade-
marks, service marks, and patents for your own work to protect your ideas and
products from being used improperly by others.
Abiding by Employment Agreements

Most employers require their employees to sign formal agreements when they
are hired. Aside from defining terms, such as the position in which the employee
will work and compensation terms, an employment agreement dictates what the
employer expects of the employee's behavior on ethical and legal matters. For
example, many agreements include statements that employees should not engage
in action that violates the laws that govern stock, such as purchasing or selling
shares while in the possession of insider information. Agreements can also include
what the employer expects of the employee's behavior as a representative of the
employer, even when not on the job, with regard to matters such as drunk driv-
ing and use of illegal drugs or even legal drugs in an abusive manner. With such
agreements, the employee could be expected to remain in good standing with the
law at all times or face termination. Employers include additional expectations of
their employees in employment agreements, and the employee is responsible to
understand these and to abide by them to remain employed.
Honoring Noncompetition and Nondisclosure Agreements

Another area of ethics in business involves the employees' need to adhere to
agreements that pertain to how they retain proprietary or secret information
and that employers require that employees not work for competitors within
defined periods of time after leaving their jobs. Many companies require their
employees to sign noncompetition and nondisclosure agreements. Sometimes
these agreements are embedded in the overall employee agreements, but many
companies use separate noncompetition and nondisclosure agreements in addi-
tion to their employment agreements.
Noncompetition agreements are designed to protect employers from any
of their employees leaving their employment to go to work for competitors in
similar roles, taking with them the knowledge they have of companies' products
and services to apply that knowledge for competitors. These agreements are
typically limited to a period of time, such as six months, one year, or two years,
as it would not seem fair for an employer to be able to restrict an employee from
ever working again in the same industry for another employer.
Nondisclosure agreements prohibit employees from disclosing competitive
information to outside parties, including competitors for whom an employee may
choose to work. For example, you may not be restricted by an agreement of noncom-
petition from working for a competitor because the work for your new employer
does not compete directly with the work for your previous employer. However, you
still may be prohibited from sharing proprietary information from your previous
employer with others at your company, with clients, or with prospective clients. This
information can include client lists, research and development data, product formu-
las, in-house processes, and programming code, as just a few examples.
Ensuring Safety and Security of Others

Some documents may be written well, with proper mechanics and style, but may
still be poor examples of technical communication because of a lack of ethics.
When you write memoranda, reports, proposals, and manuals, you have a respon-
sibility to convey information in a way that helps to safeguard your readers from
harm. For example, if you were to write about the specifications of a product and
fail to note that using a feature of the product a certain way can cause injury, you
would be shirking your ethical responsibility. Each year brings new examples of
businesses and governments that fail to communicate known safety concerns to
those who may use their products or services. In some instances, these failed com-
munications have led to injuries and even deaths. The penalties for these have
usually been substantial and in some cases have led to the ruin of enterprises.
Your responsibility in communicating potential concerns to your readers is not
limited to matters that could produce physical harm. Sometimes, the security of
others can be affected in adverse ways without any physical harm. For instance,
if you do not properly communicate financial decisions to shareholders or do not
protect the identity of private citizens when you distribute information, you can
bring to your company an unethical image, legal troubles, or both, Therefore
you need to consider both the short- and long-term effects of your communica-
tion and to communicate in such a way as to ensure the security of those who
could be affected.
In many mid-size and larger companies, legal departments can help to ensure
that communications are accurate and properly reflect any security concerns that
readers should know about. Smaller firms that lack in-house legal staff usually
have attorneys on retainer for guidance on these matters, too. In matters that
are not legal but may still bring you as a writer to question if something is right,
you may find that discussing the communication with those in your leadership
command helps to bring clarity and helps you formulate your messages in a way
that seems right. But even with legal and leadership guidance, employees some-
times still feel that something may be wrong. In these instances, you do best to
follow your conscience.
Many companies and some government organizations have established
hotlines for employees who have ethical concerns. These hotlines are meant to
ensure that problems that employees are concerned about addressing with their
management staffs do not grow larger because of fear the employee may have
about speaking of the problem with management or any problems of those in
management not acting properly in regard to ethical concerns raised by employ-
ees. Additionally, some states and the U.S. federal government have laws pro-
tecting "whistleblowers," Whistleblower laws seek to ensure that authorities
will not retaliate and to protect employees who draw attention to unethical or
illegal actions that may occur within the government.
Even with areas where legal protections exist, employees must realize that when
they claim unethical or illegal action has occurred in their places of employment,
they have the opportunity for either risk or reward. In many instances, the whistle-
blowing is well received and can stop the wrongdoing. In other instances, employ-
ees may end up disenfranchised when they find that their employers do not handle
the matters to their satisfaction. And in some cases, whistleblowing employees
could face unintended retribution. Most people
QUICKTIP would agree that even with the risks that come with
whistleblowing, the worst case, which may involve the
Follow employer ethical guidelines and,
whistleblower being fired from the company, is a bet-
when in doubt:
ter scenario than continuing to work for an employer
• Seek guidance
who tolerates unethical or illegal practices, regardless
• Report ethical concerns
of how troublesome the loss of employment may be.
CONCLUSION
In this chapter we have addressed fundamental elements of professional and tech-
nical communication—namely style, structure, etiquette, and ethics. The concepts
contained here are foundational to the topics that we will address throughout
this book. In the next chapter, we will address another fundamentally important
consideration in professional and technical communication, namely audience.
EXERCISES
1. Compare the style of writing and discuss the similarities and differences that can be found
in each of the following:
• A news story from a newspaper or online
• An essay from a magazine
• Several paragraphs from a novel
• A technical document such as an annual report, a manual, or a business letter
2. Construct a paragraph on why you have chosen your major. After completing your draft, go
back to your paragraph and determine how you might be able to write it more clearly and
concisely.
3. Write a paragraph using only active voice. Write the same paragraph using only passive
voice. Consider instances when you may wish to use the passive voice strategically in any of
your paragraph's sentences.
4. In groups of four or five students, discuss the following scenario: Your company has a
policy that indicates employees should not offer or receive bribes. You are sent to a foreign
country thousands of miles from your home office to present to a potential client in pursuit
of a business deal that could bring your company $500 million U.S. in annual revenue for
each of the next eight years. When you arrive in the foreign country, the customs agent
in the airport tells you that if you want to get through customs and on your way to your
client presentation, you will need to give him $25; otherwise, you must take the next
plane back to your home country. What would you do? What are the possible implications
of choosing to refuse to pay the $25 to the customs agent and returning home? What
are the possible implications of paying the $25 so that you may proceed to your client
presentation?
5. Find an article about a product or service on the Internet. Determine where you consider
the article to fall on the continuum of objectivity versus subjectivity and support your
placement of the article on the continuum.
6. Select a company's quarterly or annual report that contains an opening letter from one
of its executives. Examine what portions of the letter constitute each of the following:
the introduction, the body, and the conclusion. Determine how well the letter applies the
necessary components of the introduction, body, and conclusion.
7. Review the codes of ethics of two industry organizations such as the American
Management Association (AMA), the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), the
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE), the National Society of Professional
Engineers (NSPE), the Society for Technical Communications (STC), or another association
related to your field of study. Compare the contents of the codes of ethics and identify
similarities.
17
8. Write an email to your instructor regarding ways in which you would envision ethics being
important in the professional and technical communication that you will develop and
deliver throughout your career. Be sure to apply an introduction, body, and conclusion that
contain the essential elements of each.
9. In 1991, Mark Eckman and Jerrold H. Zar wrote "Candidate for a Pullet Surprise," a spell-
checking poem that was originally published in The Journal of Irreproducible Results in
1994. The poem has 123 errors within its 225 words even though all words are spelled
correctly. Find as many of the 123 errors as you can, and make corrections to the poem
below. Then, discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using spell-checking software
programs.
CANDIDATE FOR A PULLET SURPRISE

By Mark Eckman and Jerrold H. Zar
I have a spelling checker,
It came with my PC,
It plane lee marks four my revue
Miss steaks aye can knot sea.
Eye ran this poem threw it,
Your sure reel glad two no,
Its very polished in it's weigh,
My checker tolled me sew.
A checker is a bless sing,
It freeze yew lodes of thyme,
It helps me right awl stiles two reed,
And aides me when eye rime.
Each frays come posed up on my screen
Eye trussed too bee a joule,
The checker pours o'er every word
To cheque sum spelling rule.
Bee fore a veiling checker's
Hour spelling mite decline,
And if we're lacks oar have a laps,
We wood bee maid too wine.
Butt now bee cause my spelling
Is checked with such grate flare,
There are know fault's with in my cite,
Of nun eye am a wear.
Now spelling does knot phase me,
It does knot bring a tier,
My pay purrs awl due glad den
With wrapped word's fare as hear.
To rite with care is quite a feet

Of witch won should bee proud,
And wee mussed dew the best wee can,
Sew flaw's are knot aloud.
Sow ewe can sea why aye dew prays
Such soft wear four pea seas,
And why eye brake in t w o averse
Buy righting want too pleas.
From The Journal o f Irreproducible Results, Volume 39, Issue #1, January/February 1994 b y
Jerrold H. Zar. Copyright ©1994 by The Journal of Irreproducible Results. Reprinted by permission.
http://online.vitalsource.com/books/9781465246738/print?from=19&to=20&skip_desktop=true 2/2
CHAPTER 2
INTRODUCTION
To be successful in achieving their goals, business and technical communicators

need to compose their messages with their audiences in mind. To do this effec-
tively, communicators must consider their purposes, determine whom their pri-
mary and secondary audiences may be, and recognize any obstacles that could
prevent their receivers from understanding their messages. This chapter will
delve more deeply into the topic of audience.
21
PURPOSE
For many students and entry-level business employees, the change from essay and
academic report writing to professional and technical writing requires a significant
shift. The attention that needs to be paid to the audience is a big reason for the shift.
There is a good chance that if you think about
your earliest writings f r o m elementary school
QUICK TIP through college classes, you have not considered to
Determine your document's purpose: whom you were writing, and if you have done so,
• Information you have written solely with your teachers in mind.
• Persuasion Composition researcher Irene Clark states, "Students
• Both think of audience only in terms of the teacher who
will grade their work and lack awareness of how
audience affects other aspects of a text, such as purpose, form, style, and genre."'
In large part, that is probably because your objective as a student involved obtain-
ing a desired grade and the teacher, who was your sole audience, was the grader.
When writing professional and technical documents o r correspondence,
you must begin with your purpose. Is your purpose to convey knowledge to
co-workers? Is it to garner support from another part of the business enterprise
for a particular direction on a project? Is it to get approval for financial or other
resources from executive management? Is it to report bad or good news to a
client? Or is it to pitch an idea, product, or service to potential clients? What-
ever your purpose may be, it is likely to require you to do either or both of the
following: to inform and to persuade.
Informing
A status report or an update memo could be written with the intent of ensur-
ing that audience members are kept abreast of events or progress. As such, its
purpose would be to inform. In many instances, even communication that is
intended primarily to inform is written, at least in part, for persuasive purposes.
For example, a status report on the rollout of a new product or service is likely
not only to inform audience members about the progress of the rollout but also
to convince recipients of the communication that those involved in the rollout
are on track. Similarly, i f the progress is not on track, the status report could
have the underlying intent to plant a seed to prepare recipients for possible
delays or the need for additional resources.
Persuading
Persuasive communication is used to bring about some kind of response from an
audience. You would communicate a proposal to clients for new business or a
memo that requests approval or funding with the intent to produce a response
from recipients. Sought responses could include approval to proceed with a plan
or financial commitment for the development of products.
A persuasive argument helps to ensure that you see your desired outcome.
However, persuasion in professional and technical writing differs from persuasion
'Clark, Irene L. Concepts in Composition: Theory and Practice in the Teaching o f Writing, Second
Edition, 2012. Routledge, New York and London, p. 109,
CHAPTER 2 AUDIENCE r • 23
as it applies in communications that are oriented toward sales and advertising.

Instead of catchy phrases or one-sided pitches, professional and technical com-
munications usually call for fact-based research that presents a case as objec-
tively as possible.
Those who assess the audience in their business and technical communica-
tions are more likely to meet their objectives, whether those objectives involve
informing, persuading, or a combination of both. Most business people, whether
they are first-line managers or company executives, are not usually interested in
making decisions on sales-oriented appeals; instead, they seek rational argu-
ments with reasonable support.
TYPES OF AUDIENCES
Communication always involves a receiver. After you determine your writing pur-
pose, you must think about the receivers of your messages to carry out your pur-
poses. Even if you have a specific audience in mind, you create your audience when
you write. You need to make assumptions regarding your readers' receptivity and
what your readers consider to be important. You also must consider the level of
understanding that your readers have about your topic and how familiar they may
be with the technical terms of your trade. The more you know about your audience,
the more you can formulate your message to reach them effectively.
Your purpose may involve reaching one or more
audiences. Frequently, in technical- and business-
related communications, you will need t o reach QUICKTIP
multiple audiences that have different reasons to The audience may be composed of:
know the information that you wish to convey. You
• Decision makers
can divide the audience into decision makers, influ-
• Influencers
encers, and those who just need t o be informed,
• End Users
which often include end users.
Decision Makers
If you are presenting a proposal of any kind, your purpose is to persuade. You
want whatever you are proposing to be approved, so your audience will involve
at least one decision maker. The decision maker should be considered your pri-
mary or direct audience. Therefore, you need to construct your message with
your primary audience in mind. Consider what your decision maker already
knows, needs to know, prefers, and expects. However, your consideration o f
audience may not end there. If others are part of your audience or could receive
a forwarded copy of your communication, you need to construct your writing
with them in mind, too, and their level of knowledge may be greater or lesser
on the topic than the person who is the primary or direct audience.
Influencers
In most business settings, the decision maker does not make decisions without seri-
ous consideration. Members of the decision maker's staff may provide input that
influences the decision. In some instances, these influencers—an important compo-
nent of your secondary or indirect audience—will know more than does the decision
maker about the day-to-day operations of processes, products, or services. So, they
may hold sway over the decision maker's thinking. In

QUICKTIP some instances, they may know less about "bigger
Identify and list considerations for: picture" matters and will hold less influence over the
• Primary audience decision maker. Therefore, you may not always know
• Secondary audience how influential other recipients of your message may
be on the decision outcome. Consequently, in any
instance when you have an audience that includes more than one decision maker
or influencer, consider the possibilities that different components of your audience
may bring to your outcome. If you are certain that those behind the decision maker
will not have any influence, then gear your communication more toward the deci-
sion maker without quite as much concern for your secondary audience. If you are
uncertain, be safe and craft your communication considering that some portion of
the secondary audience could influence the decision maker and compose your com-
munication with both your primary and secondary audiences in mind.
Those Who Need to Know: End Users

Some of your secondary or indirect audience will have little if any influence over the
decision maker but may have a need to know what you are communicating, because
they may be affected or need to know what is being considered to be prepared for
the possible outcome. Although you may be less concerned about this audience than
those who make or influence decisions, you still must consider this group to ensure
that your communication reaches this audience so they can understand what you
have recommended. Sometimes, the information that you share with this part of the
audience can help after the decision is made and this affected part of the audience
is living with the outcome. They may better accept your message and the resulting
plans if they better understand your message on the front end of the process.
Example Using All Audience Types

Consider an example that includes the three types of audience to illustrate why
you must consider each audience when you craft your messages.
You propose to upgrade software for the expense-report process at your com-
pany. You determine that the primary audience and decision maker for your pro-
posal will be the Chief Financial Officer (CFO). You also know that the CFO has
eight direct reports and a staff of 150 people. You will write and deliver your ini-
tial proposal of the idea to the CFO. You know from discussion with the CFO that
she wants her staff to read the proposal and discuss it at an upcoming meeting.
You also know when you develop the proposal that the CEO is not engaged
in the day-to-day processing of expense reports. She has a general understand-
ing of how the expense reports are processed currently, but she is not bogged
down in the largely manual process that occurs, and she will not directly benefit
if the staff decides to upgrade software that automates the process. Her staff,
on the other hand, oversees the team members who comprise the CFO's orga-
nization. They frequently hear the complaints about the gap between the time
when an employee submits an expense report and when those expenses are
eventually reimbursed. One member of the CFO's staff, the Financial Operations
Director (F0D), is most involved with the process because his team handles the
paperwork associated with the expense report process and thus receives the
most complaints when problems occur.
CHAPTER 2 AUDIENCE 2 5
As you consider your audience, you know that, to have a chance that the
CFO will accept your proposal, you must write so she will understand. You also
recognize that eight members o f her staff may weigh in on the decision t o
upgrade software to automate the process. Your secondary or indirect audience
may shape whether your proposal is influential. You know that you need to be
sensitive to the MD's tearn's current process, because you do not want the FOD
to take a defensive posture. Therefore, you determine that you must make the
need for the new system clear. You want to do this by stressing that the upgrade
will improve the system and help the current employees, but you do not want to
be overly critical about the current process. You also determine that you need to
describe the new process in enough detail to answer the questions that the FOD
is likely to have about how it would work, even though you do not want to go
into so much detail that you bog down the CFO. With this in mind, you may keep
the body of your report brief (for the sake of the CFO) and include an appendix
that gives greater detail (for the sake of the FOD). Lastly, you must consider the
end users: They may be the group that the change affects the most, as ultimately
they will be the people who use the upgraded process. Although the end users
may not be involved in the decision, they will receive communication at a future
stage of the project, so the communication that you start with the CFO and her
influencers should be consistent with the messages you later share with the end
users. Consequently, they are an audience that you must consider when you for-
mulate the original communication.
Once the CFO approves the proposal, several additional communications are
likely to be needed. A t this point, you may find that your messages are also
being read by those who participated in the approval process, as well as others
who need to know about the change and how it will affect their work. You need
to think of them as an audience that you must reach at the same time you are
trying to satisfy the CFO and her staff on the next steps in the process.
OVERCOMING COMMUNICATION BARRIERS

When we transfer data from one com-
puter to another, the information on the
receiving computer comes Out exactly as
it appeared on the sending computer,
even i f the file o f information is very
large and complex. When humans trans-
fer information, which we do through
communication, the information will not
be perceived by the receiver in exactly
the same way that the sender intended it
to be. This difference results because our
brains capture thoughts and information
through the lenses of our individuality,
which entails a blend of our unique genetic makeups, our different cultural and
educational influences, and our personal experiences.
Language is imperfect. It is a representation of concepts or things. For exam-
ple, if we have a slice of pizza in front of us, we have an actual object. We can
see, touch, taste, smell, and perhaps hear it as we bite into it. Some or all of our
senses are involved to comprehend it. How someone feels about and responds
to it will range from slightly to radically different from how others feel about
and respond to it. If you thoroughly enjoy pizza, you might have a favorable
reaction to it. If you do not like pizza, your response to the sight and smell of
it will be less favorable. You may have a different idea from someone else as to
what toppings should be on it. Or perhaps you may
Q U I C K TIP like pizza sauce that is less spicy than the way that
someone else likes it. Therefore our reactions to the
Communication barriers include
physically present pizza will differ, even if only in
• Language
the slightest way.
• Culture and customs If the pizza is not present and someone utters
• Education and experience the word "pizza" to communicate to an audience,
• Age, race, gender, and national origin the understanding of that reference becomes more
• Religion and politics abstract. The mere word "pizza" might conjure up in
the mind of one person a large round pie with pep-
peroni and sausage. Another person might envision a medium pie with no top-
pings. Yet another person might imagine an individual slice with onions, olives,
and tomato slices. Consequently, we can see that using a word creates a greater
opportunity for the message being construed differently by the receivers.
If a speaker or writer uses more descriptive language, some of the uncertainty
is removed. You could instruct your audience to imagine a 16" pizza, heavily cov-
ered with spicy tomato sauce and topped liberally with mushrooms and small
cubes of chopped green bell peppers. When you describe with detail like this,
you reduce misinterpretation but do not prevent the different understandings
and reactions that readers will inevitably have. You therefore must recognize
that language is fraught with imperfection, because symbols (and after all, words
are symbols) are not perfect substitutes for the real things that they represent.
Cultural Obstacles
Aside from the fact that each individual's brain will conceptualize things differ-
ently, we have additional obstacles to overcome. These obstacles are filters that
further prevent our messages from being completely understood in the way
that we intend them to be understood. One significant filter is one's culture.
Culture is defined as the "customary beliefs, social forms, and material traits of a
racial, religious, or social group; the characteristic features of everyday existence
shared by people in a place or time."' It can also apply to "the shared attitudes,
values, goals, and practices that characterize an institution or organization."'
As Figure 2.1 depicts, you can think of culture at many levels, starting in this
example with the community that is closest to us and working outwardly. First,
you have your family culture. The practices in the home where you grew up
differed from the practices employed in your neighbors' homes. Your parents
may have tolerated and not tolerated certain behaviors more or less than other
parents. Perhaps your family's practice was that all family members would eat
dinner together. Perhaps your next-door neighbors ate dinner when they had
Culture." Merriam-Webster, available a t httpi/www.merriam-webstercom/dictionarykulture,

retrieved: 3/19/14.
time because they had schedules t h a t

conflicted. Perhaps your family required c o u n t r y
that you respect elders, such as grandpar-
ents, aunts, and uncles, and the degree of
importance of that cultural element dif-
fered from its importance in a neighbor-
ing home. If you stop to think about it,
you can identify behaviors that related to
your family's values, and your parents or
caretakers most likely drove these cultural
habits.
If we think of the family as the inside
circle of our cultural model, the next circle
could be our community. Values, behaviors,
and shared practices of the community are
likely shaped by whether that community
is urban, suburban, or rural. For example, if
you were raised in a rural community, the
culture of that community might call for
you to say hello to someone when passing Figure 2.1 Cultural Circles.
by. The same may or may not be true in a
suburban community. In a city environment, your culture might not call for such
greetings unless you happened to pass someone whom you know. Other customs
might include how people welcome others into the community: Perhaps your com-
munity had a practice when neighbors extended small gifts such as dessert or a
plant, as a housewarming gift to a new neighbor. In other communities, such a
practice might be less likely to occur. These and many other community practices
shape what we expect about what is and is not appropriate.
The next levels in the circle can move to our region, our country, and then
perhaps our heritage from other countries; these have provided us with observ-
able practices that are particular to the people who comprise the region or coun-
try. These cultural differences are obvious in influences such as cuisines, apparel,
belief systems, laws, and other aspects of how we live. Importantly, they shape
how we interpret language and how and to what extent we perceive terms as
neutral, negative, or positive.
Add to these cultural differences other filters, such as religious, political, racial,
and gender differences, and you can see the many obstacles a communicator faces
when trying to convey a message to others. With all of these filters, you cannot
transfer your thoughts to another human the way that you can transfer informa-
tion from one computer to another. But if you are attentive to the differences,
you can increase your chance to break through these filters and strike down the
obstacles imposed by differences to ensure that your audience receives your mes-
sage in a way that is closely aligned with our intended messages.
CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION
Many businesses have international and even global reaches. More frequently,
businesses sell products and services beyond the countries in which those busi-
nesses are based. In some instances, companies have employees in multiple
countries, and they need to consider the potential filters through which their
messages pass when they seek to communicate with individuals around the globe.
Furthermore, in some instances, the employees may be in one country, but
because consumers reside outside the country, the
companies still need to consider cultural differences
in their communication.
In the cultures of the U.S. and much of the West-
ern Hemisphere, we value a direct style of commu-
nication. Our culture has shaped our thinking that
unvarnished communication and getting to the point
quickly are good things. In the Eastern Hemisphere,
direct communication may be regarded as brash or
rude, perhaps even disrespectful. Therefore, because
relationships are valued highly in Eastern countries,
people expect communicators t o introduce their
communication and to work slowly and respectfully
toward their desired purpose.
These cultural differences between East and
QUICKTIP West apply to written and spoken and even unwrit-
Multinational corporations must consider: ten and unspoken forms of communication. Many
• Culture and customs books have been written on the different cultures
• Language of countries and regions, and a serious communica-
• Religion tor who must develop communications for different
countries should research these differences.
When creating:
You do not, however, need to divide the world
• Employment policies and procedures into hemispheres t o find cultural differences. I n
• Advertising the U.S., where people and their ancestors have
• New products and services immigrated from all over the globe, you can find
differences in customs and practices. If your audi-
ence involves newly immigrated people, those whose families have been in the
country for many generations, and those who fall somewhere in between, you
should consider how cultural differences will affect receptivity to your mes-
sages. You cannot communicate as if "one size fits all" but instead you must
recognize the need t o communicate cross-culturally. The more you consider
the audience and shape your communications for effective and accurate trans-
feral, even through different cultural filters, the more likely your audience will
understand.
Humor, Siang, and idioms

When communicating to cross-cultural audiences, you should avoid humor, espe-
cially that which involves the subtlety of language. Language is transmitted cul-
turally. Language is nuanced, and when humor uses nuance, those who are not
native speakers are less likely to understand. In some instances, your audience
might interpret your humorous message as insulting, which could undermine
the entire purpose of the communication.
Also avoid slang, colloquial language, and idioms, because non-native speak-
ers are less likely to know the meaning of such terms and could misinterpret
your intended meaning.
Symbols, Gestures, and Colors

Just as with written communication, you must consider cultural differences in
designing visual communications that the intended diverse or multinational
audiences understand and can interpret'
Symbols and gestures differ from culture to culture. For example, in the U.S.,
we might interpret a clock as a symbol of punctuality or an icon representing
the passing of time. In contrast, in many Asian cultures, a clock can serve as a
symbol of death. Therefore, as a visual aid for communication about punctuality,
the clock would be less effective for an Asian audience than for a U.S. audience.
Another example is the "okay" sign that people in the U.S. make with their
hands; that sign is an insult in parts of South America.
Colors also carry symbolism. For example, in Western cultures, white can sym-
bolize purity and neutrality, black is symbolic for death, and gray can symbolize
boredom or that which is blasé. Green may be used to signify nature; yellow is
often used to project happiness, sunlight, and optimism; and red symbolizes pas-
sion. But through the lenses of Western cultures, these colors can symbolize very
different things: For instance, white may signify blandness, black may symbolize
elegance, blue can signify depression, green can represent envy, yellow may be
synonymous with cowardice, and red can symbolize the devil.'
Eastern cultures use colors differently—sometimes opposite of Western culture.
For example, in many Eastern cultures, white represents death and red is symbolic
of good luck and celebration. However, in South Africa, red symbolizes mourning,
while blue symbolizes mourning in Iran.' With these
considerations, a communicator who is selecting col- QUICKTIP
ors for a website or print document should invest time
to research and consider the colors that would best When communicating cross-culturally, avoid:
communicate the message so the audience is mostly • Humor
likely to receive the intended meaning. The colors • Slang
you use to create a mood or to graphically support And be mindful of:
your messaging can have negative, unintended con-
• Symbols
sequences if you are not thoughtful about the people
• Colors
who make up your audience and the cultural mean-
• Gestures
ings that accompany colors.
Word Usage and Spelling

Many of the guides that address ways in which professional and technical com-
munication differ from academic, journalistic, or essay writing apply to address-
ing audiences across multiple cultures. You can help to reduce miscommunication
if you are concise and selective in the words you choose. Do not regard a busi-
ness or technical communication as a chance to demonstrate the breadth of your
vocabulary. In contrast, the simplest and most accurate words are going to yield
the best chance that your audience will understand your intended message.
4Chu, Sauman. "Cross-Cultural Comparison o f the Perception o f Symbols." Journal o f Visual

Literacy, Vol. 23, No. 1, Spring 2001, 69-80.
'Keskar, Gulab. "Color Psychology and Its Effect on Human Behavior," Officer Technology, Research
and Technology Center. Asian Paints, Ltd. Turbhe New Mubai.
'Ibid.
These points are particularly important when you are addressing audiences
whose first language is not English. The English language has many terms that have
multiple meanings. Thus, you need to choose the right words and to use them con-
sistently to limit the confusion that could otherwise occur among members of the
audience who may not be proficient with the English language. This applies to hom-
onyms, terms that share the same spelling but have different meanings. For example,
words like close (which can be an adjective that means nearby or a verb that means
to shut something) or tire (which could be a noun that relates to a wheel or a verb
that means to become weary) can differ in meaning, depending on whether the
words are used as verbs, nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. Some companies will use style
guides that limit the use of a word to one form or meaning. Readers are then less apt
to be confused when words are used consistently than they would be if they saw the
same word applied in one way and then in a different way in the same document.
Gender Neutrality
You may also confuse your audience if your pronouns and their antecedents do
not agree. Your audience may not comprehend the different possibilities for
gender-related terms in the English language. To continue with an example we
used in Chapter 1, if you say that an engineer (any engineer) should do his ethical
best, you omit the female half of the engineering population. If you try to amend
this and use the term their in place of his to include both sexes, your plural, pos-
sessive pronoun (their) disagrees with your singular antecedent (engineer).
You can fix this problem if you keep the pronoun plural (their) and also make the
antecedent plural (engineers) if the gender does not matter. However, you may need
to keep the noun singular for the context of your writing, and in these instances, you
will have few options to address the problem. One option is to use different forms
of pronouns that represent both sexes; for example, his or her and his/her. Unfortu-
nately, using these terms repeatedly can become distracting for the reader.
You can also alternate terms throughout a document. In some instances,
you can use her and in others you can use his. Although acceptable and used
widely, you must be careful not to switch from one gender to the other when
still addressing the same topic, or you will confuse your reader as to whom you
are referring. One last option is to allow for the plural pronoun that is not gen-
der specific with a singular antecedent. For example, i f you were to say, "An
engineer must do their best to choose wisely on all matters involving ethics,"
you are using the word their because an engineer could be male or female,
and you may want to avoid a gender bias. As we have noted, this is not gram-
matically correct, but because this treatment has become somewhat common in
everyday speech, some business style guides make this the standard for handling
the problem so as not to be overly cumbersome and to ensure inclusion of both
sexes. Consequently, if your business has a style guide, you should refer to it to
apply the prescribed communication practice.
Contractions
Contractions are frequently used in writing. However, some business style guides
consider them to be unacceptable. When in doubt, the best guideline in profes-
sional and technical writing is to avoid the use of contractions. Contractions
are not used in many languages, aside from English. Thus, non-native English
speakers will more easily follow your communication if you spell out full words
instead of merging words and making contractions. Spelling out full words can
also help native English speakers, because full words often give stronger empha-
sis. For example, if you wrote in a manual, "Do not open the contents until you
have read all of the instructions," the full word "not" may sound stronger and
arguably clearer than if you said, "Don't open the contents...."
Generic Forms of You

As you consider your audience, determine when you can appropriately use the
term and variations of you (such as your and yourself). Throughout this book,
we, the authors, use the terms you and your in reference to you, the reader. But
many writers will use the term you generically, and you should avoid the generic
use. For example, an employee could include the following sentence in a memo
to a boss: "You need to know right from wrong." If the employee is addressing
the boss with you to tell her that she needs to know right from wrong, then this
sentence is perfectly clear and an acceptable way of addressing the audience.
If, on the other hand, the employee means that people, in general, need to
know right from wrong, then this generic use of the term you is inappropriate,
less clear, and possibly offensive. The reader—in this
case, the boss—could be confused as to whether the
employee means people in general or her. In such an QUICKTIP
instance, the boss could be insulted by the message, When directly addressing your audience,
and the objectives o f the communicator could be use the you perspective.
undermined completely. Only use you and its vari- Avoid inserting you when it is not a direct
address to your audience,
ous forms if you are truly addressing your reader.
Company Culture
Just as people have different cultures, companies have different cultures. The
practices and policies of a company and the people who make up that company
will likely differ from the practices and people in another company.
Sometimes a company has a formal culture related to standards of dress and
the ways people are expected to interact. Other companies may be less formal
or even regarded as informal. In informal cultures, business attire may not mat-
ter, hours of work may not be as rigid, and communication among employees
may be less formal. Other possible cultural differences among companies could
involve the structure of the environment. Some companies may operate with
guidelines, policies, and processes that ensure smooth and consistent operation.
Other companies may have cultures that are more entrepreneurial, and employ-
ees are encouraged t o act as individual leaders who apply new ideas for the
benefit of the organization.
Employees should be mindful of the company's culture and the impact that
this may have on communication. Communication inside a company that is
policy oriented should reflect that culture. Memos, business letters, and pre-
sentations should be developed with the messages supporting the stated and
underlying policies. Communications in a company with an entrepreneurial cul-
ture can be composed to best reflect the values of creativity and self-initiative.
Similarly, communications to be delivered outside the organization should be

created to resonate well with the company culture of the intended audiences.
CONCLUSION
Knowing who your audience is and what it needs is essential before you com-
pose any communication. Audience members have characteristics in common,
but they may also have vast differences including age, race, sex, national origin,
religion, language, education, and experience.
You must also know your business and technical audiences, which are com-
posed of professionals who are work in fields with terminology specific to their
professions. You can best meet the needs of a diverse audience if you deliver
your message in a clear and concise manner, eliminating unnecessary humor,
slang words, and contractions and being mindful of the use of color and symbols.
EXERCISES
1. Imagine that your college/university is eager to expand its international enrollment. The
communications department plans to develop a web page with information about your
major to attract students from around the globe. The president of your school has asked
members of your class to advise the communications department on things they should
consider as they develop their communication for the international students. Write a one-
to two-page memo to the communications department manager addressing the kinds of
things that the writers should consider as they develop their message.
2. Find a printed or online manual for a manufacturing product. Analyze the document and
answer the following questions:
a. Who seems to be the primary target audience?
b. What is the likely education level of the audience?
c. Can you tell anything about the demographics of the audience by the way the manual is
written?
d. Does it appear to have a secondary audience, and if so, who would that audience be?
3. Find the annual report of a Fortune 500 company, Analyze the document and answer the
same questions as in the previous activity (Exercise 2), namely:
a. Who seems to be the primary target audience?
b. What is the likely education level of the audience?
c. What can you tell about the demographics of the audience by the way the report is written?
d. Does it appear to have a secondary audience, and if so, who would that audience be?
4. You have been asked to assist a communications team to develop a product manual for a
business expansion in China. Research color symbolism in China and write a brief report on
color considerations that should be taken into account in the development of the site.
5. Consider an improvement that could be made at your college. Write a memorandum to

the chairperson of the board of trustees. Assume that other members of the board will also
read the memorandum and that an indirect audience, such as the school's president, deans,
or staff leaders could also eventually read your document.
33
CHAPTER 3
D O C U M E N T, P O S T E R , A N D
P R E S E N TAT I O N D E S I G N
INFOGRAPHICS ELEMENTS
dli
CC 0
INTRODUCTION
Whether you are writing a document or making a poster or slide presentation in
the workplace, all of your written and oral communication must be well designed.
Before setting pen to paper or fingers to the keyboard, you must conceptually
organize your written and oral presentations. So, where do you start? What are
the basic elements of designing documents and presentations that bring results?
35
BASIC DESIGN ELEMENTS

Written documents have a built-in per-page space limitation. In effect, you have
81/2"x11" of space on each page. All written documents have margins and head-
ings, and some may have columns and illustrations, depending on the purpose
for the communication. For example, journals and newspapers use columns
whereas proposals and reports generally use no columns. For the purposes of
this text, we will discuss basic design elements using no columns.
All written documents, posters, and slides use fonts and may use bold, ital-
ics, and underline. In this chapter we will explore page formatting; widows
and orphans; f o n t size and style; the use of bold, italics, underline, all caps,
and no caps; line spacing; bullets and numbers; and the use of illustrations.
We will also explore how to design and use posters for presentations and how
to use various slide presentation programs as well as the principles of slide
composition including color, font size and type, bullet points per slide, words
per slide, slides per minute, animation, illustrations, anticipation of questions
by creating hidden slides, and the three required slides o f all professional
presentations.
WRITTEN DOCUMENT DESIGN

Margins
No matter what word processing program you choose, you must decide whether
to use the default setting of one-inch margins at the top and bottom and left
and right sides. Regardless of the style in which the document is written—e.g.,
MLA, APA, IEEE, AMA, Chicago—the standard is one-inch margins. The only
exception to this general rule would be the resume, which may use half-inch
margins.
Headings
Generally, you should use three levels of headings: first, second, and third. Fol-
low the style in which your document is formatted, but if your style is not dic-
tated, use the following general guidelines. In first-level headings, the heading
may be centered and in all caps. In second-level headings, the heading is left
justified and uses first-letter caps. In third-level headings, the heading is left jus-
tified and uses first-level caps and italics.
Sometimes, you need four levels of headings. In this case, the first-level head-
ings should be in a larger font. For example, if the document is in Anal 12 point,
the first-level heading would be in Anal 14 point. The second-level headings are
left justified with first-letter caps, but are larger than the text like the first-level
headings. The third level headings are left justified with first-letter caps and are
the same font size as the text. For example, when using Anal 12 point for text,
the third-level headings would also be Anal 12 point. The fourth-level headings
are left justified and the same font size as the text, use first-letter caps, and are
in italics.
If you cannot remember all of this, use a robust word processing program
such as Word'''' or WordPerfect. These programs each have a tool that will figure
out the headings for you.
CHAPTER 3 DOCUMENT, POSTER, AND PRESENTATION DESIGN 3 7
Widows and Orphans QUICKTIP

A heading standing alone (without text), called a
Avoid widow and orphan problems by
"widow," cannot be alone on one page with all of remembering this simple formula:
the information for that heading on the next page. Heading + 2 lines of text.
An "orphan" is a line of text (either after a heading
or at the end of a paragraph) that, because of spac-
ing, stands alone on a page.
A heading should have a minimum of two lines of text following it. If the
heading plus two lines of text cannot be achieved, the heading should be moved
to the next page. To correct widow issues, use page break. And, if you use a page
break and the document is edited afterward, go through the entire document
to make sure new widow and orphan problems are not created or a page break
occurs at an unusual position on a page without taking up the entire real estate
of 81/2" by 11".
The first line of a new paragraph should not appear by itself with the remain-
der of the paragraph appearing on the next page, and the last line of a para-
graph should not exist on a page on its own. The single line of the paragraph
should be moved to the top of the next page so it is with the remainder of the
paragraph content. And if a line stands alone on the page following the major-
ity of a paragraph, insert a page break before the last two lines to solve an
orphan issue. Go through the document before its final version to ensure that a
page break does not occur in an unusual position.
Font Size in Written Documents

The font size for print documents should be 10 to 12 points. The font will deter-
mine the font size used, with the priority being that the document is easy to
read. Print documents do not provide the reader with the option to enlarge
the view to make the font readable. In electronic documents, the reader may
be able to use the zoom function to make the document more readable. Even
in electronic documents, however, this may not be an available function. For
example, in .pdf files or other proprietary program files, the readers may not
have a zoom function unless they have the proper programming.
(High-school and college instructors have noted a trend of student writers
who attempt to make their assignment page count by using one font size for the
text and a larger font size for the punctuation in the document. While this trend
is enterprising, it is highly unethical and unacceptable. The student is advised
not to proceed down this path.)
Font Type and Style in Written Documents

Professional writing circles are battling over whether serif or sans serif fonts are
preferred as more readable. Sans serif fonts are easier for audience reading in
a visual format, and therefore, sans serif fonts are being used more frequently
in written documents. Serif fonts (translated from French as "tails") have added
embellishments, whereas sans serif fonts (translated as "without tails") are more
linear and straightforward. Before the 1960s, most textbooks and print materi-
als were printed in serif fonts. The most popular serif fonts include Bookman
Old Style, Times New Roman, and Cambria. The most popular sans serif fonts
are Calibri, Anal, and Tahoma. Table 3.1 below shows some of the most popular
fonts in 10, 11, and 12 points.
Page limitation is an important consideration when choosing a font, The
standard resume is one-page. Ariel 10 point will give you more lines and more
spaces on the page than Times New Roman 10 point. Ariel 10 point is also more
readable than Times New Roman 10 point. In short, when readability, lines, and
space are a concern, you should consider a sans serif font such as Ariel.
Bold, Italics, and Underline

Bold, italics, and underline are all used in business and technical writing. In the
first part of the 20th century, writers used typewriters, and the printer's code for
italics was to underline the word to be typeset in italics. However, today, writers
are able to italicize or bold text through a word processing program.
The purpose of bold and italics is to add emphasis to the text. Each is used
sparingly in both business and technical documents. In fact, the document may
be devoid of bold and italics except for use in headings. In today's written com-
munication, the use of bold and italics is not always taken as emphasis but may
be misconstrued as the writer shouting at the reader, and the use of underlining
indicates a live link in an electronic document and so otherwise may confuse
your reader.
You should use emphasis appropriately. When a particular procedure or pro-
cess must be followed exactly, emphasis may be required and hence, bold, italics,
and underlining may be appropriate. In legal documents, for example, some of
the boilerplate (text that must appear in all documents) must appear in bold
and the font size must be at least 12 points for the
QUICKTIP words to be legally binding upon the parties. Thus,
company contracts and policies and procedures may
Use bold, italics, and underlining sparingly
and with purpose use bold, italics, and underlining so the documents
may become legally binding.
You can italicize text to emphasize quoted materials. When you add empha-
sis to quoted reference materials to bolster an argument for or against an idea
or concept, you should tell the audience that you added emphasis. After the
quoted materials, which did not contain italics in the original text but now con-
tain italics in your document, indicate that emphasis was added by bracketing
the words [emphasis added] after the quote.
Font Type Font Style . m 3 0 point 11 point 12 point

San Serif Calibri Calibri Calibri Calibri
San Serif Mal Anal Mal Anal
San Serif Tahoma Tahoma Tahoma Tahoma
Serif Bookman Bookman Bookman Bookman
Serif Times New Roman Times New Roman Times New Roman Times New Roman
Serif Cambria Cambria Cambria Cambria
Table 3.1 F o n t Styles and Sizes.
All Caps and No Caps

The use of "all caps" (all letters are capitalized) has both proper and improper
implications in business and technical writing. All caps is correct when giving
legal warnings to consumers regarding how to properly use consumer products.
All caps is also correct in legally binding documents where the parties need to be
aware of different paragraphs as they create legally binding duties and respon-
sibilities for the parties to the document. In this context, all caps is generally
used in conjunction with bold, italics, and underlining to create legally binding
warnings to the parties prior to entering into agreements.
Companies spend millions of dollars meeting legal warning requirements
prior to placing any products into the marketplace. Generally, they have no
excuse in the law for failing to give proper warning. Thus, consumers see warn-
ings on window-blind cords, ladders, cars, computer power cords, hair dryers,
and all other products in the marketplace.
All caps also are used correctly to indicate if a payment is late. Late payment
notice letters are a form of bad news letter and will be covered more extensively
in Chapter 5: Forms and Formats.
All caps are improper when placed as part of the text in email or letters.
When the twenty-first century reader sees all caps in text, that reader assumes
that the writer is shouting at them.
The truth may be more simple than this in the workplace, however, because
of generational trends. The workplace is comprised of employees ranging in age
from 16 to 75 years—up to four generations of employees. Part-time employ-
ees enter the American workforce as early as 16 years of age and may return
to the workforce after retirement after the ages of 67 to 70 years. As such, the
workplace is a vibrant and diverse culture. Put into perspective in the workforce,
someone born in the middle of the twentieth century did not grow up in an
age of computer technology and may not have taken typewriting to learn the
qwerty keyboard, as typewriting was something taken by high-school students
seeking careers as secretaries and assistants. That same mid-twentieth century
employee is working side by side with a younger colleague who learned the
qwerty keyboard in kindergarten and was programming in Java in elementary
school. The mid-twentieth-century colleague had to pick up qwerty keyboard
skills on the job and may use all caps or no caps, as this colleague does not have
the skill set to use the keyboard the same way as the 16-year-old employee.
Regardless, using all caps in email or other business or technical documents
while communicating in the workplace is not appropriate because it can create
a hostile work environment.
Using no caps is not just a phenomenon of the older worker but is also a
phenomenon of the digital age and transferring bad habits learned while text
messaging on mobile platforms to email, letters, memos, and longer documents
such as reports, proposals, glossaries, and manuals. The older employee may
use no caps because the practice is the reverse of using all caps. Older employ-
ees were told not to use all caps, so they have over compensated by not using
any caps. The problem remains the same: a lack of a complete skill set with
qwerty keyboarding. Younger employees raised in the digital age received their
first mobile phones in elementary school and quickly found that text messaging
was more convenient than the old-fashioned way of passing notes on paper.
The mobile platform automatically puts the capitals at the beginning of sen-
tences and automatically puts the periods at the end of sentences by simply
using the space bar. So, who needed to learn all that
"grammar junk," right?
QUICKTIP Grammar is now important because effective
All caps may be properly used in legal business and technical writing requires a good
documents, labels, and warnings. understanding of American Standard English gram-
All caps are not proper in email because
mar, which has already been discussed in detail in
they can create a hostile work environment,
Chapter 1.
Line Spacing
Line spacing is another important element o f formatting. Generally, docu-
ments are written in 1.0-line spacing; however, when proposals and reports are
sent to a printer, the printer may require 2.0-line spacing. Currently, Microsoft
Word" uses 1.15-line spacing as its default. To change line-spacing options in
Words, go to the graphic for line spacing, click on it, change your spacing to
1.0 or 2.0 as appropriate and then go to line spacing options. In line spacing
options, ensure that the spacing options are 0 Pt before and 0 Pt after. The
default is .10 after, so you will need to make this change. Different programs
function differently. You as the writer must ensure that your format complies
with the directions from the publisher or the standard in their industry or
company.
Bullets and Numbers

Sometimes, the best way to grab the attention of the audience is to use bul-
leted points or to number steps in a process. Bullets and numbers also break up
large sections of text and help your audience digest complicated concepts and
processes. The general rule regarding bullets is that there is no hierarchy and all
bullets are equal, whereas when using numbers there is a sequence or hierarchy
generally implied by the numbers. For example, numbers would be used for the
steps in a process where the first step must take place before each of the subse-
quent steps.
Generally, if you are presenting five or fewer points, use bullets. When using
bullets, generally do not punctuate after the bulleted points. The exception to
the general rule regarding no punctuation after bulleted points would be when
the bulleted points create a sentence. In this case, the first three bulleted points
are followed with a semicolon, the fourth bulleted point is followed with a semi-
colon and "and," and the fifth bulleted point is followed by a period.
If you use more than five points, some styles require that you use numbers.
And, remember: Just because you have set forth your points in bullets or num-
bered them, you have not given any explanation. You must go back and explain
each bulleted point or numbered point in the order
QUICKTIP you have presented them. Bullets and numbers are
not enough t o cover the topic being presented.
Bullets and numbers generally break up They just begin the discussion.
large sections of text, therefore:
Bullets and numbers use parallel phrase struc-
• Use bullets with five or fewer points ture. Generally, start a list with a verb and continue
• Use numbers with more than five points
each bullet/number with a verb.
Illustrations
In March 1911, the newspaper editor Arthur Brisbane told the Syracuse Advertis-
ing Men's Club, "Use a picture. It's worth a thousand words."' His sentiment is
still correct: A picture, or more broadly, an illustration, can convey the entirety
of the message, the idea, product, or service without using a word. An illustra-
tion can be persuasive by conveying emotional content, which is absent from the
words. An illustration can clarify the words and bring greater understanding to
the reader of a document or an audience in a presentation. An illustration can
engage the reader's and the audience's interest,
Illustrations are importantto both print documents QUICKTIP
and oral presentations, In this section, we will explore
Use illustrations to:
how to incorporate and design illustrations specific
• Convey information
to documents and presentations. Specifically, we will
• Convey emotional content
review the uses of charts, diagrams, schematics, blue- • Clarify the words
prints, timelines, tables, and photographs. We will also • Engage interest
look at size, placement, and reference to illustrations.
All illustrations should be large enough so the reader can easily read the
information within an illustration in a document. Larger illustrations, exceed-
ing one half of one page in print, should generally be placed as back matter
in appendices. For electronic presentations, the presenter must determine the
importance of the materials and may choose to devote an entire slide to the
illustration. (We will discuss more about back matter in Chapter 5 and more
about electronic presentations later in this chapter.)
To make illustrations interesting and ensure that they complement the text,
use a text box and drop your illustration into that text box. In this way, you are
able to wrap text around the illustration and move the illustration from left to
right to center, thereby designing to create interest for the reader. Vary the size
of your illustrations as dictated by the need for size for readability.
One of the biggest mistakes that novice business and technical writers make
is failing to identify their illustrations in text. You should identify all illustrations
in the document to direct the reader's eye toward the illustration. Additionally,
you should explain to the reader the significance of the illustration, including
its purpose in the document along with what information should specifically be
gleaned by the reader from the illustration. Never
assume the reader's ability to understand the illustra- QUICKTIP
tion just because the illustration is contained within Pie Charts
the document. Always explain the significance of the • Use a pie chart to show parts of a whole
illustration to the reader. Illustrations should always • Each slice should
add depth to the documentation and should not just • Be a different color
be put into a document to look good or add interest. • Be a different pattern (with black and white)
• Be easily readable
• Do not include more than eight sections
Charts
or slices
Pie Charts • Use 'Other" for very small sections
• Use "exploded pies" or "exploded pie
Use pie charts to show parts of a whole rather than sections" for emphasis
to show comparisons of data of any kind, such as • Use 2D or 3D graphics for emphasis
'Martin, Gary, " A picture is worth a thousand words," available at: http://www.phrases.org.uk/
meanings/ a-picture-is-worth-a-thousand-words, retrieved 10/30/2012.
year-to-year or month-to-month comparisons or trends, Well-drawn pie charts

use different colors or different patterns in black and white for each slice of the
pie and legends to explain each section so they are easily readable. The largest
section of the pie should begin at the 12 o'clock position and each smaller slice
in descending order should proceed clockwise around the pie. Always limit your
pie charts to no more than eight sections because more than eight slices becomes
confusing for the reader. If you have a group of 1% o r 1/2% slices remaining,
label those together as "Other." If the author needs to emphasize a particular
section or all sections of the pie chart, the author can "explode" the pie chart,
which will emphasize each section exploded.
Figure 3.1 shows a financial portfolio using
Financial Portfolio a 2D pie chart. This pie chart, although accept-
• Preferred Stocks able, is not in the best form as the largest sec-
• Tax Exempt Bonds tion is not at 12 o'clock and each progressively
• Municipal Bonds—
closed funds
small section is not after the largest section.
Municipal Bonds— Additionally, the pie sections are in the same
open funds color, although there is a small grade in color, so
0 Government
Bonds
the chart becomes confusing.
D Money Market Figure 3.2 shows a 3D pie chart using differ-
D Other ent colors to show the various sections of the
whole pie. 3D pie charts add an element o f
dimension to the chart, which makes the chart
more interesting. In Figure 3.2, the largest sec-
Figure 3.1 Financial Portfolio with 2D Pie Chart. tion is at 12 o'clock and each next largest sec-
tion follows thereafter. Figure 3.2 fails because
Financial Portfolio it lacks a legend, the percentages are shown
Government twice, and the percentages do not add up to
Bonds-7% Other-3%
7% 10 %
100c/o.
Money Tax Exempt Figure 3.3 shows an exploded 3D pie chart.
Market-18% ' Bonds-32%
18% 31%
In this chart, each pie section is exploded for
emphasis. The legend is also complete and the
pie chart is ready for presentation.
Municipal Bar Charts

Bonds-2094
20% Bar charts belong in one of two categories: hori-
Figure 3.2 Financial Portfolio with 3D Pie Chart. zontal and vertical. Horizontal bar charts com-
pare quantities, such as sales figures per quarter.
Financial Portfolio
Vertical bar charts show changes in quantities
over time such as year-over-year sales figures
0 Tax Exempt
Bonds-32% for a company or year-over-year costs o f raw
0 Stocks-2594 materials used i n technology companies. Bar
D Municipal charts can be 2D or 3D and can be stacked or
Bonds-20%
• Money Market grouped. Additionally, bar charts can use vari-
—18% ous shapes such as cylinders, cones, and pyra-
• Government
mids in addition to the rectangle for each bar
Bonds-7%
o Other-3'Y. in the chart. Different computer programs and
Figure 3.3 Financial Portfolio with Exploded applications will permit various options for mak-
3D Pie Chart. ing your charts most readable for your audience.
Figure 3.4 shows a horizontal bar chart used Sales

for the comparison of quarterly sales. Unfortu-
nately, this bar chart inaccurately presents the Fourth Quarter
scale of sales and labeling does not indicate the
actual dollars of those sales. Third Quarter
Figure 3.5 shows a vertical bar chart to com-
pare data that is clearly defined—such as month
Second Quarter
to month or quarter to quarter—from one point
in time to another.
First Quarter IU Sales
Line Charts
0 2 4 6
Use line charts to demonstrate trends and as ver- Figure 3.4 Sales Shown via Horizontal Bar Chart.
tical bar charts to compare data. Line charts may
be 2D or 3D, just like other charts. The time interval for a line chart can be by min-
ute, as in the New York Stock Exchange stock quotes, or by any other time interval
such as daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly, or annually.
An example of a line chart is below in Figure 3.6. QUICKTIP
One of the problems with line charts is that they
Bar Charts
can appear cluttered when used as a "marked" line
chart, which includes the point of intersection or Use horizontal bar charts for comparisons.
the "dot" at each interval along the line. Line charts Use vertical bar charts for comparisons in
a time frame—i.e., year over year.
can also appear cluttered when they are "stacked"
to set forth more than two to three trends.
8
El Sales
Gantt Time Lines 7 E Gross profit
0 Net profit
Gantt time lines are a form of stacked line chart used to indicate 6
various tasks within a start date and a finish date and to show 5
the entirety of a project: from inception to delivery. You can cre- 4
ate a Gantt time lines in Excel®; however, for those not expert in 3
Excel®, other programs are available. One such software program
2 —
that is easy to use for the novice is at smartsheetcom, which pro-
vides a web-based alternative to Excel®.
Gantt time lines are used in almost every industry in which
2013 2 0 1 4 2 0 1 5
employees work to collaborate on projects. These time lines help
Figure 3.5 Sales and Profit
team members coordinate the work load to ensure that business
via Vertical Bar Chart.
and technical professionals meet their deadlines. Gantt
time lines document all the work the team must accom- 6
plish: from start t o project conclusion. Should a team
member lag behind, team members who are ahead may
be able to help to keep a project on time and in budget.
Additionally, Gantt time lines can expose problem areas so
that the team can work out solutions in advance and proj-
ects can remain on target for deadlines and deliverables.
Figure 3.7 shows a Gantt time line for a team's written
documentation for a project.
Jan— Apr— Jul— Oct--
The software or systems development life cycle (SDLC) Mar Jun Sep Dec
is an example of a never-ending timeline with no definitive Figure 3.6 Real Estate Inventory
start or end date. Not even when new software is released LIne Chart
Team Proposal
Rd Team Formation I P M E I M I l l Team Formation!

2 I n t r o d u c t i o n s , exchange information, NM !Mr-Auctions, ex' hange information, create fearn rules
create team rules
Brainstorm potential project topics, Brainstorm Potential project topics research

initial research
4 T o p i c selection 1.1 Topic on
E Team Proposal Writing Decision:

Divide and Conquer
Assign research and writing areas 1 . 1 Assign research and editing areas
7 R e s e a r c h completion Research ccmpletion

8 W r i t i n g completion
Edit document for all elements, check

citations, check citation format
10 F Power Point Presentation
Development
11 P r e p a r e 3 required slides
12 P r e p a r e 2-3 slides per presenter
13 r • - • 1 Finalize Project
14 R e v i e w documentation (proposal
and power point), make final edits
15 P r e s e n t a t i o n date
Figure 3.7 G a n t t Timeline.
is there a true end date on that software development because patches and secu-
rity updates are continually developed as issues are recognized and addressed. The
SDLC contains the following parts: initial idea, requirements analysis, design, imple-
mentation, testing, and evaluation, which lead to the next idea causing the cycle
to begin again. If using a Gantt time line to present a never-ending cycle, choose a
full segment of the project and present only that part of the SDLC or other process.
Diagrams, Schematics, Blueprints, and Equations

Diagrams, schematics, blueprints, and equations all have their purpose and you
should consider them illustrations, A diagram of a new process can be essential
for the audience's understanding. A detailed schematic makes the difference for
an end user, like a mechanic, who is using a manual to fix a car's engine. Build-
ers and architects use blueprints, but, in a broader sense, blueprints may also
be defined as mechanical or electrical drawings (see Figure 3.8). Equations and
algorithms are essential elements of almost all computer programming and Sci-
ence Technology Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) fields of study. Although
engineering and computer science counterparts in marketing and management
may not be interested in the equations and algorithms, nothing in technical
fields functions without the math.
V smartsheet
Sep 22 Sep 29 Oct 6 O c t 13
T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W T F S S M T W I F S
_ 1
Team Propcsat WO* g Decision: Civide an. Conquer
Wrting om iletic n
.-
Edi ument for all elements, check O M Gawk c• • brrnat
li. i 1 Pc
M I M I P r a r e 3- required steles
' .i. ,• , 2-3 slides per presenter
r , Fit
_ 1
— . 7 • M Review documentati
i
;1--1 Pr
Tables
Use a table to convey a large amount of
information within a small amount o f
space. For example, a table can explain
the financial condition o f a company
within a one-page or less table or can list
all o f the raw materials for technology
projects and their costs over time. Tables
are valuable tools when you write a pro-
posal and need t o convey information
that requires quantified costs. An exam-
ple of a table is in Table 3.2.
Figure 3.8 P C Tablet and Blueprints.
Maps and Photographs

Maps and photographs can add interest to and complement narratives in docu-
ments and presentations. You can use topographical maps in fields other than
geography; use dissected topographical maps i n petroleum engineering t o
determine if a particular geographic region is a good place for drilling for oil,
Quarter Ended 1st Qtr. 2nd Qtr. 3rd Qtr. 4" Qtr. Total
Fiscal Year 2013
Revenue $8,215 $10,153 $9,175 $9,292 $36,835
Gross profit 6,735 7,809 7,764 7,811 30,119
Net income 2,614 1,549 1,315 2,690 8,168
Basic earnings/share 0.24 0.14 0.12 0.25 0.76
Diluted earnings/share 0.24 0.14 0.12 0.25 0.75
Fiscal Year 2014
Revenue $9,189 $10,818 $9,620 $10,161 $39,788
Gross profit 7,720 8,896 8,221 8,751 33,588
Net income 2,528 3,463 2,563 3,700 12,254
Basic earnings/share 0.23 0.32 0.24 0.34 1.13
Diluted earnings/share 0.23 0.32 0.23 0.34 1.12
Table 3.2 Company Financials.
gas, or coal. Maps of various geographic regions throughout the world may be
instrumental in proposals, reports, or manuals such as to show specific locations
in diplomatic or consulate documents or presentations.
Photographs are an effective way to show the audience how a situation or
problem looks. For example, the face of a human who is suffering conveys a pow-
erful message when used in marketing materials for a nonprofit corporation that
provides food, clothing, and shelter for the suffering poor throughout the world.
Photographs can also be used in technology to document engineering failures,
which can range from simple issues, like a single-family-dwelling roof collapse,
to extremely complicated issues such as the collapse of a bridge. Photographs
help to document the story, show the problems, and reveal the situations. Photo-
graphs in documents and presentations can be effective tools of communication.
POSTER PRESENTATION DESIGN

Poster presentations are becoming more popular, especially in scientific and
technical fields. Poster presentations are also used as short business presenta-
tions. You can use a poster as a source of information, a conversation starter, an
advertisement of work, and a summary of a project. Well-designed posters are
always visual communication tools.
The poster's design can make or break the short presentation. Posters are not
written documents or slide presentations; however, they do contain elements of
both written documents and slide presentations. The real estate for a poster is
limited to approximately 42-48" by 31-36". Specific segments within the poster
presentation may include, but are not limited to, the following: references, glos-
sary, synopsis of the industry background, a materials list, problem statement,
lab report highlights, photographs, and any other information that will assist
the reader in understanding your research and work.
Some design companies specialize in creating professional posters. For exam-
ple, PosterPresentations.com' offers same-day service on poster printing. Poster
design considerations include layout, font, and graphics.
Layout
The poster should not be considered as one surface but instead should be viewed
as several sections of 81/2" by 11" standard American letter-sized segments con-
nected under one presentation title. This means that each poster will contain
five to six pages across and two to three pages down, for a total of 10-18 total
segments. Each segment should be designed both individually and as part of a
whole, with other separate segments. Specifically, each segment should share
the same fonts and similar graphics as other segments within the poster. Each
segment may have a separate title or may continue the information contained
under the title of the previous segment.
Posters should have a presentation title that commands attention. If you can
give the title of the presentation in one word, that one word can be more effec-
tive than several words. Regardless, titles should be limited to no more than five
words setting forth the theme and purpose of the entire poster.
Font
Avoid fancy or unusual fonts in posters. Use sans serif fonts like Anal or Calibri
between 36 and 72 points for overall poster titles and sans serif fonts between 16
and 28 points for individual segment titles. For poster text, use either a sans serif
font like Anal or Cal ibri or a serif font like Times New Roman or Bookman Old Style
at 14-18 points, which is larger than document text standard at 10, 11, or 12 points.
Poster text needs to be larger than document text because the audience will read
it from a vantage point that might be three to six feet from the poster while listen-
ing to the presenter instead of reading it at 18-30 inches from the document.
The font color should generally be black for both title and text. Occasionally,
you can vary the text color to red, blue, or another color for emphasis. The font may
also be varied for titles and text including bold, italics, or both to show emphasis.
Graphics
Posters are visual communication. The same principles found in slide presen-
tation design (discussed below) regarding background, color, and illustrations
apply to poster design. Poster backgrounds should be neutral—generally white
or a light neutral such as grey, blue, or beige.
Poster graphics should be bold and simple. Poster graphics should tell the
poster content at a glance. If the poster is about natural resources and green
energy, the poster graphics should deliver the message contained in the text
pictorially so the audience member standing six to eight feet away will be drawn
to the graphics and come closer for a look at the text.
'PosterPresentations.com, available at: http://www/posterpresentations.com, retrieved 8/13/13.

Illustrations of all types are used in poster presentation design. Carefully

choose illustrations to convey large amounts of information in a graphic format.
Pictographics in posters give information that a document might contain but in
a different illustration format such as a line chart or a bar chart. For example, for
a pictographic, you could use the stylized outline of four individuals to represent
four million people.
Color coordinate your graphics throughout the poster. Use color to unite
visually the segments of the poster. We discuss the significance of color below in
"Slide Presentation Design."
SLIDE PRESENTATION DESIGN

To effectively design a slide presentation, apply all of the principles of illustra-
tions and put them into a visual format. You can use any one of several pre-
sentation programs t o create professional presentations including Microsoft's
PowerPoint, Apple's Keynote, Prezi°, or Google Slides.
To create interesting a n d professional presentations, apply 12 design
principles:
1. Grammar and citation
2. Professional templates and backgrounds
3. Three required slides
4. Color
5. Font size and style
6. Visual composition
7. Illustrations
8. Words per slide
9. Points per slide
10. Slides per minute
11. Animation
12. Question anticipation
Grammar and Citation

Electronic media will continue to exist after the ini-
QUICKTIP tial presentation. You can separate slides from your
Slide presentations live after their initial presentation and send them to others in your com-
presentation. To preserve your reputation, pany or to interested individuals who want or need
grammar and citation must be perfect in the information within your slides. Thus, gram-
slides.
matical errors will live forever; even if you have not
included your name on the slides, the metadata will
reveal that you authored those slides. So, check your work and after you check
your work, check it two or three more times before you believe that you are
ready for your presentation. Do not use only a spell check tool, because the
words in your slides could be spelled correctly but be the wrong words. Wrong
words used in a presentation do not help your career.
After you have checked for grammatical errors, ensure that each piece of
information in your slides that is not original to you is noted with a source for
that information. Cite all sources for paraphrased information, direct quota-
tions, summaries, and data. You do not want to be accused of plagiarism—of
taking credit for someone else's intellectual property. Slides create a written
record that may be passed electronically through the company. In these slides,
if you correctly cite your sources, you will boost your credibility, but if you fail
to cite materials that are not yours, you might destroy your reputation, be disci-
plined, or even be terminated from your job.
While you learn to edit your work, have an experienced editor review your
work t o ensure that you have removed all grammatical and citation errors
before the presentation. If you do not know an experienced editor, have a col-
league review your work to ensure that you clearly convey and document the
information.
Professional Templates and Backgrounds

As PowerPoint® and Keynote® are used most frequently for presentations,
audiences may be overly familiar with some of the background templates avail-
able in these tools. And, when the slide templates are familiar, the audience
may consider the materials contained within the slides, although fresh and new,
to be old and familiar. You can avoid this problem by purchasing online one of
many template packages that contain 10,000-20,000 new and different, profes-
sionally designed templates. You can also go to shutterstock.com and purchase
one new, unique template or, if you have a flair for design, you can create your
own or alter a familiar template.
Slide templates and backgrounds should set the mood for your presentation.
If you are presenting on game design, choose a background that will comple-
ment the story. If you are speaking to your business or technical group, a white
background may be adequate. But you want your presentation of a brilliant and
innovative idea to appear innovative rather than adequate.
Your employer may require that, for your professional presentations, you
use the same presentation format, including template; background color and
design; font type, size, and color; and perhaps the company's logo. Companies
choose their presentation formats to brand their entity in the marketplace, so if
your company has a set format for internal and external presentations, use your
company's format.
Three Required Slides

Every professional slide presentation will have three slides:
• First: Title slide
• Next to last: References/Bibliography/Works Cited
• Last: Contact information
You will include other slides in your presentations; however, you will always
integrate these three slides in this order in professional presentations. The only
exception is if your company's protocol requires something different. In that
case, follow your company's protocol.
The title slide has three required elements: the title of the presentation, your
name, and the date of the presentation. The title can be centered, left justified,
or right justified. Determine what looks best on the slide with the presentation
template. Include your name and the date of the presentation to the right and
generally below the title of the presentation.
Write the presentation date with the month's name and numerals for the
day and year to avoid confusion in international presentations, as an interna-
tional audience will expect the day to come before the month. For example, in
Europe, "November 2, 2012," is written numerically as "02/11/2012," whereas in
American English, the same date is written as "11/02/2012."
The second required slide is your references/bib-
liography/works cited (depending on style format)
QUICKTIP slide. You should cite materials you have not writ-
Use the month's name and numbers to ten or concepts you have not developed and are
write the date to avoid confusion for an not known to the general public. When in doubt
international audience.
as to whether the public knows the concept, cite a
source. Citing a source ensures that you give credit
and thus you build your credibility. You also provide your audience with a source
in case readers want additional information.
Use the citation format required by your company. For example, in IEEE cita-
tion format, illustrations from another source used in the slide presentation can
use the https:// web data string under the illustration. Use citations in the slides
(with the borrowed materials) and at the end of the slides (on the reference slide).
The third and final required slide is your contact information. For internal
company presentations, the minimum data for the contact information slide will
be your name and job title, your direct phone line, and your email address. For
external company presentations, the minimum data for the contact information
slide will be your name and job title, your company name, company physical
address (street, city, state, and zip), mailing address (P.O./mailstop), your email
address, company email address, company website, company toll-free number,
company main number, and your direct line. In short, include all contact infor-
mation for both you and your company.
This is the last slide because, if you are in a conference, while you are taking
questions on your presentation, that contact information slide is visible to your
audience. Your audience members may not ask all
QUICKTIP of their questions, even in a question-and-answer
session. Also, question-and-answer sessions have a
You should include three slides in every
time limit; so you may not be able to answer all of
professional presentation:
your audience's questions after the presentation.
• Title
• References However, audience members will write down your
• Contact information contact information and email or call you later with
their questions.
See Figure 3.9 for a sample slide presentation on House Music. The presenta-
tion includes the three required slides and also uses red, one of the warm colors,
appropriately. (The slide presentation is purposefully not on a technical or busi-
ness topic so as not to limit your ability to be creative within the constraints of
the requirements for good slides in presentations.)
Color
Psychologists and presentation specialists have written numerous books about
the psychology of color, a topic that we introduced in Chapter 2 regarding cross-
cultural communication. Color can have an effect on mood and emotions, and
as such, color can change a person's opinion of a presentation. Thus, color is
House Music
Presented by: First and Last Name
June 18, 2013
OVERVIEW
• Definition
• Roots & Gen res
• Artists & DJs
• Conclusion
Figure 3.9 Slide Presentation on House Music.

DEFINITION
Slide presentations may be transferred in whole or part
after the initial presentation
Grammar must be correct
Citations must be correct
Contact information is necessary
Three required slides: Title

References
Contact Information
ROOTS & GENRES

ROOTS G E N R E S
Use bullet points Generally, keep text to 25
or fewer words
Limit words in parallel
phrases E x c e p t i o n s :
• Tables
• Charts
• Illustrations
• Processes
• Schematics
• Diagrams
Figure 3.9 (comnued).

CHAPTER 3 DOCUMENT, POSTER, AND PRESENTATION DESIGN • * 5 3
ARTISTS & DJs

A Second line of text can go here
ARTISTS D J s
CONCLUSION
Include this slide if you need to remember to give a
conclusion to your presentation.
Conclusions have two parts:

• Summary
• Concluding Remark
Figure 3.9 (continued).

REFERENCES
Always cite references for materials.
Use MLA, APA, IEEE, Chicago, West

or other citation format.
Be consistent with citation format and

use throughout entire slide show.
QUESTIONS???
Contact information
•First and Last Name
Job Title
Direct Telephone Number
Email Address
This is minimum contact information

powerful and an important tool when you create presentation slides, Before you
learn how to use color in presentation slides, you need to know about the red-
green-blue (RGB) and hue-saturation-light (HSL) color wheels, greyscale, and
color "heat," as in warm or cool.
RGB and HSL Color Wheels

Traditionally, color was viewed on the red, green, and blue (RGB) color wheel—a
wheel that shows the different primary colors and how they blend and comple-
ment each other. This color wheel can confuse people who have not studied art
or design. However, if you think of color as hue, saturation, and light (HSL), you
can learn enough about color to make appropriate and effective choices for
presentation slides.
"Hue" is what you think of when you think of a color; that is, thinking of the
colors in a box of crayons will help you understand hue. The purest version of a
hue is 100% "saturation" of that color. "Light" is how light or dark the hue is:
white represents 100% lightness and black represents 0% lightness.
Greyscale
Color can also be thought of as an overlay to a greyscale. First, overlay a color
at 100% saturation onto a greyscale. Now, move up toward white. You will see
the color lighten, turn pastel, then pale, and then to purest white. Next, move
down toward black. You will see the color deepen, turn jewel tone, and then to
the deepest, darkest part of itself until it is black.
Warm and Cool

Colors are warm or cool. When you think of warmth, you probably think of fire,
and contained in fire are the warm colors: red, orange, and yellow. These colors
will energize your audience, but too much red, orange or yellow can agitate
audience members, and when they are agitated, they are not in the mood to say
"yes" to your presentation.
When you think of cool, you probably think of an icy blue or a lush, green
forest. Blues and greens are cool colors; they remind people of water, sky, grass,
and trees and fill them with a sense of personal calm and well-being. If the audi-
ence members are too calm, however, they relax and may want to nap. Then,
they may miss information or not want to make a decision about a presentation.
Color in Presentations
Color choices are made in four places within presentation slides. Color is used in
backgrounds, titles, text, and illustrations.
Backgrounds
The most popular background colors are blue, green, red, purple, yellow/orange/
gold, black, white, and grey. Table 3.3 looks at each background color and the
effect it has on the audience.'
'Lerner, Kevin, "The Psychology of color in PowerPoint Presentations," available at: http://www
.presentationtearn.com/presentation-tipsipowerpoint-tips/psychology-of-color-in-powerpoint-
presentations, retrieved 11/4/2012.
Color in Presentation Slides

- 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 .
Color What it does Uses

Blue • Calming • Most popular background color
• Conservative • For conservative, corporate, no
nonsense—dark blue with light text
• For relaxed environments with lights
on to promote interaction—light blue
Green • Stimulating for interaction • For training and education
• Friendly • For generating discussion
• Warm and emotional • For environmental/earth-oriented
presentations
Red • Influential • For talking about the competition
• Hazardous (Use caution.)— • Not for talking about financial
carries negative cultural information, tables, or charts
attachments • Not for background
• Passionate
Purple • Mystical and emotional • Almost exclusively used by women
• Royalty and wealth • For emotional or spiritual presentations
• Wise and spiritual
Yellow/Orange/ • Affluent and prestigous • With care, sparingly—can cause
Gold • Attention getting frustration and anger
• Cheerful • For key words, titles, highlighting
• Visible important concepts
• Not for background
Black • Strong and definite • For background when discussing
• Neutral financial information
• Blank (starting fresh) • As transitional color (Think "fade to
• Finality black" in movies.)
White • Pure, fresh, clean • For positive information
• Boring • For focusing on the message
• Starting fresh • For creating a sense of open space
• For simple, although can be perceived
as cheap, flat, and harsh
Grey/Silver • Alternative to black or white • For use with white text (dark grey)
• Possibly perceived as • For use with dark text (light grey)
noncommittal—neither black • For neutral designs—neither harsh nor
nor white bold
• Independence • For technology presentations/metallic
• Self-reliance appearance
• Calm, softer than white
• Metallic
Table 3.3 Color in Presentation Slides.

Greyscale
Warm and Cool

Backgrounds

- 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 .

presentations
• Passionate
nor white bold
• Metallic

Greyscale
Warm and Cool

Backgrounds

- 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 .

presentations
• Passionate
nor white bold
• Metallic
EXERCISES
1. What, if anything, is wrong with the slide below. Explain your answer in memo format.
Sales
let Otr
o 2nd Otr
D 3rd Otr
• 4th Car
Figure 3.10 Sales
2. Which illustration type is used to show a breakdown of 100% of the company's

productivity? Use that illustration type to create an illustration showing the company's
productivity as follows: 15% new products and services, 40% current products, 45% current
services. Create the illustration.
3. Your manager has asked you to provide an illustration for trends in company sales for its
product lines. Research a company of your choosing and provide an illustration showing the
company's sales of its major product lines over the two years.
4. Why is it important to have the following three slides in every professional presentation:
title, references, and contact information? Write a memo outlining your reasons for the
importance of each of these three slides.
5. Is there a difference between the three required slides in an internal slide presentation and
an external slide presentation? If so, explain. If not, explain. Use the memo format set forth
in Chapter 5 for your explanation.
6. Do a formal presentation and an informal presentation differ? If so, explain. If not, explain.
Use the memo format for your explanation.
7. Create a poster presentation showing the steps in a technical process.
8. Create a slide presentation using the principles set forth in this chapter. In the presentation,
include the three required slides and up to seven additional slides for a total of 10 slides.
The purpose of the slide presentation could be either informative or persuasive.
See Chapter 8 for additional information regarding speech formats.
61
CHAPTER 4
WORKING AND WRITING

C O L L A B O R AT I V E LY
INTRODUCTION
Most businesses require teams of people to perform the work required to com-
plete projects. A good team can do so much more in completing work faster and
delivering better quality than an individual can. A team that operates poorly, on
the other hand, can bring great frustration and disappointment to its members
and can fail to deliver a quality product by its deadline. This chapter will address
63
important steps that teams can take to increase their opportunities for success-
ful outcomes and tools that can aid in the process of working and writing col-
laboratively. It will also introduce aspects of group dynamics and roles that can
help team members understand each other and operate better as a unit.
MANAGEMENT AND WORK STYLES

Because we are all unique, we bring different styles to our project teams. Manage-
ment firms and psychological and behavioral enterprises provide industries with
various tools that can be used to help teams understand how we differ and how
we can best work with others who possess different styles. Understanding each
team member's preferences on matters—such as working alone or with others on
tasks; communicating in person through frequent meetings or electronically with
periodic updates; or being most productive in the early, middle, or latter part of
the day—can help team members determine how best to work with each other.
Leadership styles also vary. Good leaders will be introspective about their most
comfortable work styles and when to stretch beyond their comfort zones to better
serve their teams in obtaining results. A leader must balance styles to determine
when to demand things authoritatively and when to allow team members to drive
the direction of facets of the project. Learning this balance and when to shift in
style from authoritative to democratic or in the reverse of these will usually come
after the leader knows and understands the team members' styles and can be sen-
sitive to what the situation demands. Many projects require times when the team
can contribute to determining the direction of the overall project or specific tasks,
and when the team members have more say, they often experience greater buy-in
and satisfaction. In some situations, however, time may be critical, and an approach
that involves everyone giving input is not reasonable. In these instances, leaders
need to step up to the sometimes-uncomfortable position of making decisions uni-
laterally and articulating to team members what needs to be done.
TEAM SIZE
The thoughts of industry leaders regarding the optimal size for a project team vary.
Management specialists seem to agree that project teams should be relatively small,
but even in agreeing with this concept, experts have different ideas on how small.
Twelve team members seems to be the highest number that any project manager
would consider manageable. Many experts suggest six or fewer team members. The
larger the number of team members, the greater the communication complexities
and other challenges. Larger numbers also may reducethe team's productivity and the
quality of the project. For academic writing purposes, our experience suggests that
teams should consist ideally of no more than five students for optimal productivity.
ESTABLISHING A TEAM VISION

Successful teams usually share a common end goal and a path to achieve it.
They begin their projects with their end goal in mind, and they build a plan that
supports that goal. How that vision and its associated plan look and which roles
'Pennington, Art. "What Project Team Size is Best?', available at: http://www.articlesnatch.com/
Article/WhatProject-Team-Size-ls-Best-/589717, retrieved: 3/19/14.
CHAPTER 4 WORKING AND WRITING COLLABORATIVELY 6 5
team members play may differ from team to team, but without an end goal and
a well-planned roadmap, a team is less likely to succeed.
In many businesses, teams are formed when the need for a shared workload
or a new project comes about. Initial meetings can be fruitful if all members of
the team discuss and agree upon the mission to achieve the end goal. For exam-
ple, an information technology business could take on a project to integrate
disparate systems at a bank. The team members assigned to the project would
meet and discuss the objectives, including the end goal. The end goal in this case
would be the successful integration of multiple systems into one seamless system
by a date that is stipulated in the contract with the bank.
In their first meeting, team members benefit i f they focus on getting to
know one another. All members should therefore be given an opportunity to
introduce themselves. Part of the introduction could include some background
on the work that each member has done and what each expects to contrib-
ute to the project. Further, the team should spend time getting to know any
particular limitations that team members may have. For instance, if one team
member must leave by 4:00 p.m. on Wednesdays for a master's course she is
taking, and another team member cannot arrive any morning before 8:45 a.m.
due to his need to take his daughter to school, the team benefits from know-
ing this information and not scheduling meetings when team members cannot
attend.
Coming to Agreement on Operating Rules and Principles

Teams can also benefit from brainstorming and ultimately agreeing upon expec-
tations that can become the team's operating rules and principles. For example,
a small sampling of a team's agreed upon operating rules and principles could
include the following:
• No one should be late for team meetings.
• Team members should not send or accept or emails, texts, or phone calls
during the time the team meets to ensure that everyone is focused on the
meeting topics.
• Only one person at a time should speak so that all members can be heard.
• All team members should treat their fellow teammates with respect and
dignity.
• Each team member will meet the
timelines established for each task.
If meeting a deadline becomes
questionable, the team member
responsible for that task will
notify other members of the team
immediately.
Although the agreed-upon operat-
ing rules and principles can sometimes
seem simple or even trivial, they can be
purposeful i f anyone later disregards a
rule. The team leader or team members
can remind the offender of the fact that
all team members agreed upon these principles at

QUICKTIP the outset of the project. This can often curtail a
Teams should: concern before it grows into a bigger problem.
• Determine member roles
• Clarify responsibilities for each member
• Extend others respect when they perform SCHEDULING AND FOLLOWING
their roles and meet deadlines TIMELINES
After a team has formed, completed introductions,
and established its operating rules and principles, members should address the
tasks necessary to complete the work and achieve the objectives and should
build a schedule of the identified tasks and subtasks. A team leader may create
the schedule, but sometimes the team members will help to formulate it.
Meeting deadlines is a reality of academic life and
QUICKTIP of the business world. The deadline is one aspect of
a timeline that the team cannot usually control. In an
Before starting the task, the team should:
academic setting, the professors usually establish the
• Set team rules deadlines, and in business the management team or
• Set deadlines for project components
• Determine expectations for accountability
clients usually set deadlines. Given that the deadlines
• Determine how the team will communicate must be met, the creation o f any project calendar
should begin with the ultimate deadline and work
with the time between the establishment of the project and the deadline. After all,
the most important date on any schedule will be the expected—or perhaps even
contractual—completion date. Even though the deadline comes at the end of the
schedule, it must be the starting point for building the schedule, as all tasks and
their associated dates must lead properly to the completion date.
The tasks that the team has identified for the project can be posted with
dates and times leading to the deadline, with the last of them scheduled to be
completed before the deadline, The team can build a schedule in a variety of
ways to complete the project. They can build a moderate pace throughout the
project or be very aggressive with work on the front or back ends of the project.
When possible, you should build in a buffer in the latter stages of the proj-
ect. If tasks slated for the early part of the project are not completed according
to the established timeline, the team will have some time to make up for areas
in which they have fallen behind. A schedule that builds many of the tasks—or
at least the more time-intensive tasks—into the latter part of the timeline will
not usually grant much, if any, opportunity to make up for any tasks that have
fallen behind the established timelines. The individual schedules of team mem-
bers will usually drive the most acceptable approach, as an aggressive schedule
on the front end of the project may not be possible when team members antici-
pate being busy with other obligations during the early stages of the project.
However, when possible, you should avoid building a timeline that places an
aggressive list of task completion dates in the latter part of the project schedule.
We will address team-writing methods later in this chapter. For any proj-
ect that involves team writing, the team's chosen writing method must also be
taken into account. The tasks, team member responsibilities, and time associ-
ated with each task will differ, depending upon the writing method the team
has chosen for the project.
Even when you perform projects individually, you need to establish timelines
to guide your project for on-time delivery. In team projects, timelines are even
more important, because if one team member misses a designated deadline, the
delivery of the entire project can be in jeopardy. Therefore, planning on status
checkpoints and building in contingencies for a team project are highly advisable.
Regardless of whether the timeline for the project is more aggressive on the front
or back end or what method of team work the project team has chosen, frequent
status checkpoints can be very useful. These checkpoints can serve a team well
to ensure that all required tasks are performed when they need to be. Frequent
status checkpoints can also help a team to identify a problem before it becomes
impossible to overcome. If a team finds that it is running behind schedule, team
members can do more to solve the problem quickly without throwing off the
entire project's completion. In this way, building in
contingency plans is also very useful. For example,
if a team establishes deadlines that are designed
QUICKTIP
to produce earlier results than the end deadline Timelines in business and technical fields
requires, team members can adjust the schedule to are critical. Teams may fall apart when
deadlines are not met, so focus on timelines
accommodate parts of the project that are contin-
at the outset and review status frequently.
gent upon the completion of the delayed tasks.
Gantt Charts
In Chapter 3, we introduced Gantt charts,
which serve as helpful visual tools i n
presentations. Many teams find Gantt 1 0 1 0 Z O O O R A F T PATCM - 0
O U N N U 0 0 0 0 " . 1 . 1 . 1 1 1 , F r ' M U M M A ] . F ,
c h a r t s a n e f f e c t i v e w a y t o m a n a g e t h e i r , I I I t I S t O 341 1 • 1 6 11 24 • 0 PE I t , t l e I •
i t t , 0 6 1 1 • 0 1 i 0 0 0 0 6 6 16 r o r n n .
projects. A Gantt chart can be consid- v A n t P R O P O S E D SCHEDULE

ered a horizontal bar chart that reflects E cfi •
KICK•OFF M E E I t t f 0
the timelines associated with each task h e a d l i n e o8
in a project. Not only can it be useful in 2 11 , 2 . 1 0 1 4 P R I P A M <
P A I N T. 7 r,
establishing and documenting the time- F A O R I C A T I . meg

lines for a project team, but it can also
PROPOSED SCHEDULE
be highly useful in managing the project. o
With a Gantt chart, team members can
seethe dependencies that some tasks may
have on others. For instance, some tasks cannot begin until others are complete.
Consequently, the timeline for a task that depends on the completion of another
must reflect a beginning date that is no sooner than the completion date of the
task that requires completion first. If the first task is delayed, then you must alter
the timeline to move the task that depends on completion of the first to a later
date or condense the time for the second's completion. If the second task also
must be completed before another task can begin, the delay of the first task can
have a ripple effect throughout the project timeline. In this way, and by using a
Gantt chart to track tasks and reflect dependencies, project managers can see the
bigger picture and not be limited to the view of each task as an independent item.
Status Reports
In Chapter 6, we will address status reports and provide samples that you can
use to organize and document the status of a team or employee on a project.
However, we will discuss some aspects of status reports here because of their
importance in team projects.
Status reports will be a necessary part of any team project you perform in the
workplace, and you may find that that a status report is helpful and sometimes
even required for academic projects. In industry, managers will often establish
the frequency for which they expect updated status reports. The size, scope,
and urgency of the project will usually drive the frequency. In some cases, the
status report for a team project may be as infrequent as quarterly. Sometimes
greater frequency is required, whether that be monthly, weekly, or even daily
(especially in the case of a particularly important or urgent project). Frequently,
management may require less frequency for status reports in the early stages
and greater frequency in the latter stages, particularly if the manager is con-
cerned in the latter stages of a project that the team may not meet its deadline.
Although a status report should factually represent a project teann's prog-
ress to date and indicate what the team must still complete, the report (like
many business reports) can also be considered a persuasive document. It serves
as a communication that can help its readers be confident that the project is
on course, or it can point to potential risks or even failures that have already
occurred. Thus, those who contribute to or compose status reports must be
transparent and accurate in their reporting. Some employees may be concerned
early in a project about noting potential risks or documenting that they are fall-
ing behind on a task. In these instances, they may rationalize that they will catch
up and get the project back on task, so they do not want to alarm their manage-
ment team unnecessarily. However, many experienced professionals know that
most management teams would rather have an accurate picture of a project's
status throughout the project.
If managers are informed o f risks or missed deadlines early in a project,
they usually have more time to intervene. Sometimes, the interventions call for
simple actions. Other times, they may require additional resources or a shifting
of team member responsibilities, but in any event as long as the concerns are
raised early enough, they can be addressed without the entire project missing
its deadline. A steady stream of status reports that make a project appear to be
on track only to miss the final deadline can be very costly. Such critical matters
can be more concerning when managers find that their teams have depicted a
smooth-running project in status reports despite being aware of risks and missed
task deadlines but did not report those issues. Consequently, whether your proj-
ect team's status represents good news or bad news, you need to be accurate,
and accurate status reports usually lead to better project outcomes than status
reports that withhold concerns.
When students form teams for projects in their classes, their instructors
may serve in roles parallel to the manager in the workplace and require status
reports. When the reports are not required, project team leaders should require
status reports from team members to ensure on-time completion of the project.
MAXIMIZING TALENTS
When a project arises in a business, one or more of the company's leaders will deter-
mine the members of the team and what roles they will fill. But sometimes indi-
viduals will be tasked with a project without any clear direction regarding who
will be responsible for the work. This lack of clear direction is often the case when
students form a team for an academic assignment. In an academic scenario, a team
conducting a research project can take advantage of the different strengths of team
members by matching team members with the tasks that best align with their skills.
In these instances, the team leader should determine team members' roles.
Roles: Leaders, Coordinators, Team Members

Teams can determine which roles are necessary for their projects success, but some
of the roles on project teams include a project leader or coordinator (or both), an
administrative coordinator, and the team members—the workers who usually per-
form the tasks of the project. Some or all of these roles may have different names or
slightly different responsibilities from one business or academic setting to another.
Project Leader
If management does n o t determine a I.
team leader, a team may find it useful to

select a leader. The leader must accept the
responsibility to ensure that the end goal
is completed successfully, and team mem-
bers must accept the leader's authority
once they have granted it. a p t
A good leader has the responsibility to
ensure that objectives are clear and that
the team can know when they have met S \
the objectives. The leader must ensure 0 , e - ,
that the team is completing work per the
schedule or determine what needs to be
done for the team to meet the schedule. The leader must also ensure that team
members work together in a spirit of cooperation and clear any obstacles that
could interfere with the completion of tasks.
Project Coordinator
The team leader may also take on the role of coordinator, but occasionally, espe-
cially when a project has many tasks, a team can benefit from a separate project
coordinator role. The project coordinator takes direction from the project leader
but ensures that the team meets schedules and deliverables. The project coordi-
nator can also help by ensuring that team members know of upcoming meetings
and deadlines and informing the project leader of any risks to the schedule.
Administrative Coordinator
Complex and writing-intensive work calls for retention of documents through-
out the project and often beyond the project's lifecycle. The archiving o f all
work materials is necessary in case any documentation is later needed through-
out the project. In the workplace, the archiving is also necessary in case there is
need to later review how a team conducted the project, especially if a similar
project is undertaken by the company. An orderly system is required for keeping
and retrieving documents so that they can be reviewed when needed without
time being lost in the search for information, and an administrative coordinator
role can usually assume these responsibilities.
The administrative coordinator may also assist the project leader or project
coordinator with clerical tasks, such as communicating meeting dates and times,
booking meeting rooms, and ensuring that necessary resources are distributed.
Team Members
Team members who are not the project leader, project coordinator, or adminis-
trative coordinator can serve in various other roles, depending on the needs of
the project. These roles can range from financial to human resources, to techni-
cal expert, to writer and editor. For most teams, the team members are assigned
to the tasks that the team has determined necessary for the project. Although
the subject matter expertise of the different team members may differ, all are
expected to do the following:
• Meet the established team deadlines
• Communicate updates in a timely fashion
• Respect the authority of the project leaders and the expertise of fellow
team members
• Voice any concerns about the group's direction if there could be pitfalls to
the project (The danger in all members of the project proceeding in the
direction of the group's leader without voicing concerns for any risks is that
"groupthink" can take over and lead to a less successful or even a failed
outcome. Groupthink, a term coined by Irving Janis in 1972, occurs when
team members choose not to provide alternatives in order to keep harmony
on the team. I t is often healthy for a team when its members respect one
another, but it can be unhealthy when the respect for others prevents
voices of dissention that can save a project from failure.)
• Notify the team leader of any risks that threaten completion of tasks so
that the leader can help determine any solutions that could help overcome
those risks
The Six Sigma Model

Six Sigma is a measurement-based quality management
methodology t h a t many companies apply. Six Sigma
methodology has been credited w i t h helping compa-
nies reduce variation and achieve improvement in their
processes.'
Six Sigma has well-defined roles that can provide aca-
demic projects with team assignments that may be use-
ful. These roles have similarity to the project team roles
we have addressed, but they have arguably a more rig-
orous application of these roles for process consistency.
They include implementation leader, team leader, team
2"Janis, Irving L. (1972) "What is Group Think?", available at http://www.psysrorgiabout/pubs_

resources/groupthink%200verviewhtm, retrieved: 215/13. See Janis, Irving L. (1972). Victims of
Groupthink. New York: Houghton Mifflin. See also Janis, Irving L. (1982). Groupthink: Psycho-
logical Studies of Policy Decisions and Fiascoes. Second Edition. New York: Houghton Mifflin.
3"What is Six Sigma", from iSix Sigma Website, available at http://wwwisixsigma.cominew-to-six-
sigma/getting-started/what-six-sigma', retrieved 1/23/13.
member, and process owner—roles that are similar to the roles that you can
find in many work groups that do not apply Six Sigma methodology. However,
Six Sigma roles in industry also include a leadership council that sets the tone of
the project for the project team, a sponsor who is usually a high-level executive
champion of the project, a coach who serves as a consultant and who provides
support, and designated levels of Six Sigma expertise and oversight, such as Mas-
ter Black Belt, Black Belt, or Green Belt (but these roles may not necessarily be as
applicable to a class project).4
With Six Sigma, the implementation leader is responsible for ensuring that
the implementation plan is performed as intended and by the deadline. In indus-
try, the implementation leader also serves as an agent of the leadership council
in ensuring the success of the project and in resolving problems and providing
motivation to the team.
The team leader is responsible for managing the project's schedule and com-
pletion, keeping track of progress on the project's tasks or steps. In a class proj-
ect, the role of team leader may be combined with implementation leader to
form one overall leader who is responsible for managing the project and the
timeline associated with its tasks.
Team members are those on the project team who perform their agreed-
upon or assigned tasks. They are expected to work with other team members to
keep up with the project's schedule and complete assignments that contribute
to the achievement of goals.
In industry, the process owner assumes the responsibility of a given process
following the completion of the project.' If an academic team were to borrow
from the model established in Six Sigma roles, a process owner could be respon-
sible for one or more processes of the larger project. For example, in addition to
performing assigned tasks, a given team member could serve the added role of
being the process owner for the editing process of the project report. Another
team member could have the responsibility of owning the process of developing
slides or other visuals for the project team's presentation.
Team Stages of Development

Even when roles of all team members are determined and clearly defined, that
determination does not ensure that a team will work together well in achieving
its goals. In the 1960s, Bruce Tuckman identified four typical stages for a team.'
These stages and the terms that describe them are still commonly referenced in
business today and can also be useful for a team of students to better under-
stand and navigate group dynamics. Tuckman's stages are forming, storming,
norming, and performing.
'Tutorialspoint website, available at: http://www.tutorialspoint.comisix_sigmaisix_sigma organization.

htm, retrieved 1/23/13.
5ibid,
6Tuckman, Bruce (1965). "Developmental sequence in small groups," Psychological Bulletin 63(6):
384-99. doi:10.1037/0022100. PMID.
Forming
Forming is the stage when a team comes together. In this stage, members begin
to understand what is required of the team and getting to know other team
members. A t this stage, the team usually experiences little conflict, as team
members will usually refrain from challenging others. But while this stage is
usually rather comfortable—and maybe even exciting—for team members, the
heavier work that the team must accomplish is not yet getting done.
Storming
Storming is when team members begin to recognize and address challenges and
potential obstacles. This stage can include friction among team members in their
relationships with one another as they become better acquainted and start to
work Out how they will delegate work and accomplish the tasks related to their
project.
Norming
Norming is the stage when team members have united for the common goal,
even if team members might need to give up any rigid views that they may have
had in their initial ideals and visions of the project to compromise for the greater
good.
Performing
Performing is when the work of the team is getting done well and all team
members are contributing without serious conflict.
Although teams may go through all four stages, one or more of the stages
may never occur for some teams. For example, many teams never truly reach the
performing stage as a high-functioning team. Many teams will also advance to a
given stage, such as norming, only to fall back to storming. This cycle can repeat
multiple times.
You must recognize as you work in your own team that these stages are
normal. You should also understand that difficult stages like storming can
be healthy for the team because, when team members challenge each other,
they sometimes produce better results. Storming
may also be necessary as a bridge from the form-
QUICKTIP
ing stage, when the team may not be producing
If your team is not proceeding through these much, to the forming phase when the team begins
stages, work with outside specialists to move to accomplish more. However, it is important for a
the team forward for project completion,
team to not remain in a storming phase.
TEAM WRITING
Now that we have addressed possible team member roles and considered team
development, we will address the important task of team writing. When mul-
tiple members of a team are expected to communicate their areas of expertise
to develop a report or proposal, the team may choose one of several methods to
write. The different methods include dividing and conquering, specializing, and
concurrent writing, and each has its share of pros and cons.
Dividing and Conquering

In applying the dividing-and-conquering method, team members can split the
load by each member taking responsibility for a portion of the overall work.
This approach can help to save time, as the entire team is not engaged in the
end product. Rather, each member contributes a portion of the overall project.
Potential shortcomings of dividing and conquering include the following:
• If a team member does their job improperly, those who have done their
jobs properly may need to wait or do extra work to make up for others.
• The end product (the report or proposal) could look like a patchwork of
multiple pieces that do not fit together seamlessly. Consequently, the
document might need more editing once all team members complete their
individual sections.
Specializing
The specializing method is like dividing and conquering, but it has the added
dimension that team members ensure that the divided workload is distributed
based on the specializations of the team members. For example, the financial team
members write the cost aspects of a business proposal, the human resources team
members address the people-related components of the proposal, and engineers
address the technical components. The benefits to this approach are the same as
dividing and conquering with the added consideration that subject matter exper-
tise is more likely to be represented in each section. The potential shortcomings of
specializing are the same as the shortcomings of dividing and conquering.
Concurrent Writing
Members of teams can write at the same time in a QUICKTIP
shared forum. This forum could involve all members For best results, allow all team members
being in the same room at the same time, or they involvement in the team's selection of writing
could be in different locations as long as they have method.
groupware tools (which we address below) to work
simultaneously. A chief benefit of concurrent writing is that with all members
contributing at the same time, they are more likely to create an end product
that flows more smoothly—without the choppy tone that can occur when writ-
ers contribute their pieces without knowing what other team members are writ-
ing. The biggest drawback to concurrent writing is that it can take more time,
given that all members of the team are involved with the writing of the entire
document.
TOOLS THAT ASSIST THE TEAM WRITING PROCESS

Writing teams can benefit from various software applications. Team members
can use email to exchange documents. When teams apply either a specialization
or a divide-and-conquer method to their writing projects, they may find that
they only need email. Writing in word processing applications, such as Microsoft
Word, and sharing the writing at scheduled intervals or as they complete a sec-
tion may be sufficient. If they save different versions or use application functions
that track changes, team members can edit or make comments on

documents to update writing without losing the originally drafted
material.
Sometimes, however, teams may find that real-time groupware
tools better meet their needs, especially when they have chosen to use
a concurrent writing method. Google Docs® is an example of group-
ware tools that allow real-time writing that gives multiple writers the
ability to write or edit a document simultaneously. Additionally, teams
with members in different locations can use voice and video tools such
as Skype or Apple's iChaV. These tools are particularly useful for team
discussion and planning. Instant messaging and texting may also allow
team members to communicate brief points quickly and immediately.
A team may find that combining an audio or video groupware
application with a document writing and editing tool helps team
members to complete a group writing task. Other tools are available: Some are
free and others cost. We do not endorse any particular product but provide
examples so you are aware of possible tools that you may find helpful for a team
project. As the market develops, new tools and new capabilities will produce
more opportunities for teams to share in the planning, writing, and editing of
documents, regardless of team member locations.
WORKING RELATIONSHIPS OF SUBJECT MATTER

EXPERTS AND EDITORS
Many companies have one or more editors who help with documentation. The
editors are usually trained in communication and often possess experience in
writing and editing professional documents and websites. They understand the
audience and attend to ensuring that target readers can understand the final
project. However, most editors lack the deep technical understanding that those
technically trained possess.
Those who possess an intimate knowledge of the work performed in their
field are frequently referred to as subject matter experts. For example, a mechan-
ical engineer who has worked in his field for a substantial period of time is likely
to be considered a subject matter expert in mechanical engineering matters.
Similarly, an experienced financial analyst is likely to be considered a subject
matter expert on financial matters.
When editors (who are likely t o be consid-
QUICKTIP ered subject matter experts i n language a n d
Subject matter experts should be comfortable ommunication) join subject matter experts to pro-
in pushing back on editorial choices when it duce written communications, each member of the
comes to: team has a role. Team members must understand
• Content clarity and respect the roles that each serve. Editors should
• Safety issues respect the subject matter experts' understanding
Conversely, subject matter experts should of the technical information in a document. If the
listen to editors when it comes to: subject matter expert insists that the writing o r
• Grammar and style editing does not accurately represent the techni-
• Audience cal aspects of the information, the editors should
• Voice
hear and respond t o the subject matter expert's
concerns. Similarly, a subject matter expert should recognize and respect the
writers' and editors' word choices, topical emphasis, and appeals to persuade
the readers, given the editors' focus on audience and experience in understand-
ing and reaching audiences.
Friction can develop when editors overstep their responsibilities and adjust
technical information in a way that subject matter experts find ineffective. Sub-
ject matter experts may also create friction when they resist changes in tone
or audience focus that an editor purposefully establishes. Team members may
struggle to reach an understanding and extend the respect each role is due, but
they must resolve issues for a finished product. The give and take that occurs
can be healthy in that it can lead to a better communication outcome, but team
members may struggle to compromise if they do not respect each other's roles
and responsibilities.
In academic teams, the same dynamics can occur when teams establish dif-
ferent roles for their communication projects. If the team determines that some
team members should focus more on the research of a technical topic and others
focus more on the writing and editing, team members should negotiate the roles
and responsibilities of each and extend the respect due to each team member.
CONCLUSION
Teams are more likely to succeed when they properly plan in the beginning of a
project, including establishing an appropriate timeline and assigning team mem-
bers to work that aligns best with their strengths. A team can also enhance its
chance to achieve its end goal if members understand group dynamics, respect
all team members, stay on top of timelines, and communicate to leaders in a
transparent manner.
EXERCISES
1. Form teams within class for any team-related communication project required by your
instructor. Create a list of team rules that team members agree to abide by during the
course of the team project.
2. Determine what team role each member will serve. Come to agreement on the
responsibilities associated with each role and document the responsibilities.
3. Discuss which method of team writing (dividing and conquering, specializing, or concurrent
writing) would work best for your group.
4. Identify and record all of the tasks required to complete your project.
5. Assign completion dates for all of the tasks you have identified for your project.
6. Experiment with one or more groupware applications and determine the usefulness of the
application for your team project.
7. Determine which electronic tools and applications your team will use for your project.
8. Construct a Gantt chart for all of the tasks you have identified for your team project and
update the chart throughout the project.
9. At predetermined intervals throughout your project, discuss as a team which of Tuckman's

stages of development (forming, storming, norming, and performing) you consider
yourselves to be in.
10. Determine the frequency with which members of the team should complete status reports
on their portions of the project.
11. If required by your instructor, produce project-wide status reports and deliver the reports to
your instructor with whatever frequency your instructor determines.
77
CHAPTER 5
T E L E P H O N E , T E X T, E M A I L ,
LETTERS, AND MEMOS
INTRODUCTION
Technical and business writing uses specific forms and formats. Forms and for-
mats are patterns that are followed in whole or in part. Forms are specific pat-
terns, whereas formats allow for pattern variance. Letters and memos follow
specific forms, whereas proposals and reports follow formats.
79
When you choose a form or format, you should first consider your audience,
which is discussed in Chapter 2. After you make decisions regarding the audi-
ence, identify whether the document is internal or external to the company,
whether the document must be formal or can be informal in tone and the best
platform for the message.
INTERNAL VS. EXTERNAL COMMUNICATION

Before writing, the document author will know whether the document is for
an audience within the company (internal) or whether the document is for an
audience outside the company (external). Internal communications generally
use less formal communication channels and are designed for speed and t o
move with the internal pulse of the company. External communication uses
more formal communication channels and is designed more as deliberate com-
munication such as communication displaying the company's image. Examples
of internal communications include daily reports and production quota memos;
however, any document prepared on a daily, weekly, monthly, or annual basis
for internal usage would be an internal communication. Examples of external
communications include letters, memos, texts, and email sent from one com-
pany to another or from the company to its customers, contractors, vendors, or
partners.
INFORMAL VS. FORMAL COMMUNICATION

Both informal and formal communication may be either internal or external.
Informal and internal communication includes m a i l s and text messages, but
may also include memos, proposals, reports, and white papers. Unfortunately,
sometimes employees get sloppy in their informal and internal communica-
tion and forget proper grammar and spelling, and that sloppy work makes
their documents more difficult t o read. All internal communication should
use correct grammar so documents are clear and may be read easily by all
parties.
Informal, external communications are also possible. A n example would
be employee conduct outside of work, such as how employees in a company-
sponsored softball league act toward their opponents. Another example would
be an employee's public bashing of the employer on either the company's or the
employee's social media page or biog. The implications of social media will be
discussed in Chapter 10.
Formal, external communications set forth the company's public image and
include everything from the company logo and slogan to the company docu-
ments and presentations. Formal, internal presentations may include proposals
or reports for mid-level to senior managers. Formal, external communications
would include all documents and presentations made from company to com-
pany and to the general public. An example of a formal, external communica-
tion would be the company's annual report, which the company presents at the
annual shareholders meeting. Table 5.1 depicts a matrix of informal and formal
and internal and external communication.
CHAPTER 5 TELEPHONE, TEXT, EMAIL, LETTERS, AND MEMOS 8 1
Communication Informal F o r m a l
Type
Internal Internal/Informal: Internal/Formal:
• Daily reports • Annual budget
• Weekly reports • Project proposals
• Co-worker email • Project reports
• Water cooler/grapevine • Promotion announcements
discussion • Company newsletter
External External/Informal: External/Formal:
• Employee social networking • Annual Reports
• Company social networking • Product Announcements
• Letters/Memos/Email
• Copyright/Patent Applications
• Conference White Papers
Table 5.1 Communication Matrix.
CHOOSE THE BEST PLATFORM QUICKTIP

After making the internal/external and informal/ Communication may be:
formal writing decisions, you should then deter-
• Internal or external
mine which platform best suits the communication. • Informal or formal
Written documents in the workplace include text Make these determinations before writing.
messaging, email, memos, letters, reports, propos-
als, white papers, technical definitions and glossa-
ries, statements of work, and manuals. Each document has a specific purpose
and is designed for a specific audience. Some documents are designed for speed
and convenience, and some are designed for other purposes: e.g., to document
a communication or company procedure or policy, to clarify information, or to
explain principles and concepts. Table 5.2 clarifies some of the key principles and
uses for each document.
TELEPHONE
The telephone remains a very basic and useful tool in business and
technical communication. Telephone calls are immediate and per-
sonal. Callers can convey more information in oral communication
than they can convey in written communication. Specifically, a caller
can transmit nonverbal communication with the oral message and
can also receive immediate oral and nonverbal feedback from the
person being called.
Nonverbal communication aids the caller's understanding. The
caller can determine whether the audience received the message,
how clearly that message was received, and whether barriers exist
to that communication, The caller can also determine the general
mood of the receiver (annoyed, bored, tired, happy), whether the
receiver is in good or poor health (coughs and sniffles), and whether
1E7
Platform B r e v i t y Immediacy Clarity Person- G r o u p
to-Person C o m m u n i c a t i o n
_ Communication
Telephone i i i i i
Text i i i i
Email i i i i
Memo i i i
Report may be , / i
Proposal may be 1 i
White Paper i i i
Technical Definitions i i
Technical Glossaries i i
Instructions & / „ ( i
Specifications
Policies
Manuals
Table 5.2 Platforms and Their Uses
the receiver is distracted (lots of interruptions by team or other calls). In this way,
the caller can determine how important the caller's message is or will be to the
receiver.
Telephone calls can be person to person and person to group. Conference
call technology has gone through a revolution with SkypeTM, iChat°, and Face-
Time voice over internet protocol (Vol P) technology. The next generation VoIP
technology will be in 3D telepresence creating a seamless, face-to-face and
global conference room. In short, today's telephone technology is almost as
effective as the next best thing to getting on a plane and having an in-person
meeting.
Today's telephones are also mobile devices. Telephones can
be used for text, email, internet connectivity, and entertainment
through books and movies. Telephones are no longer just f o r
0 p h o n e calls.
RE
TEXT
Text messaging is a communication platform that is typically limited
-a, 0
21:2 t o 140 to 166 characters depending upon the service provider. Texts
0 2
2 a r e brief, concise, and immediate. As opposed to popular belief, this
W Ep l a t f o r m is not appropriate for every occasion. Long conversations
to i n this platform are tedious and annoying because text messaging
. r e q u i r e s constant keyboarding, and not all mobile devices with text
data plans have easy-to-use touch keyboards and shortcuts.
Because platform constraints require message brevity, text messages do

sometimes create clarity issues. In fact, text messaging has led to an entire lan-
guage that accommodates the brevity constraints. For the uninitiated user, this
language, which can seem to be an endless string of letters, can be confusing,
frustrating, annoying, and inefficient. For the initiated, these text-specific terms
create a great new world of technology shorthand. "LOL," "ROFL," "BTW," and
"I8r" all have meaning in texts but when this text shorthand is used in other
platforms, it makes the writer appear illiterate. At work, "text speak" should be
limited because not all colleagues will appreciate the shorthand lingo. Remem-
ber, the work force is a diverse place where people from 16 to 75 years of age
are working side by side in some industries. Not everyone has the same techno-
logical skill set.
Text messaging may be necessary when other forms of communication are
unavailable or prohibited. Text messages may get through t o a party when
phone service and email are not available because the signal is carried on a
different wavelength. Phone calls may not be possible and email may not be
checked as often, so text messaging may be the most expedient form of com-
munication. For example, an important co-worker, team leader, or manager may
be in a meeting while the team continues to work on a time-sensitive project.
If the team needs an immediate answer t o move
to the next step in the process, a text message may
be essential. If you are in a meeting and you antici- QUICKTIP
pate that you may receive an urgent text message Text is a:
from your team, silence your phone and move it to • Limited platform
vibrate before your meeting starts. Thus, you will • Brief, short, and immediate
not interrupt the rest of the meeting and can main- • Good alternate when other platforms are
unavailable
tain contact with your team.
EMAIL
Email has emerged as a versatile and essential communication tool for
both business and technical professionals. Email can be sent quickly
to one or more recipients, can be brief and concise, and can contain -0
bulky attachments, but may not be immediate communication. Not

everyone is going to check email every five minutes throughout the
workday or on the move, even when email is sent directly to the
user's mobile device. In this section, email will be compared to let-
ters and memos and limitations, format, etiquette, and ethical issues
associated with this platform will be addressed.
Comparison to Letters
Email can be both a suitable and unsuitable substitute for a letter.
Email is a shortened, informal form of communication. Email is suit-
able in the workplace for quick communications to many people, keeping them
informed about a project— across a work group, department, and company, and
from company to company on a joint venture or project.
Email is suitable for transmitting deadlines and for putting crucial informa-
tion in writing so the workforce may be held accountable for the information
contained in the email.
Email is also suitable if you want to transmit documents; however, email is

not suitable for transmitting documents without a suitable transmittal letter or
cover letter as an additional document attachment for important projects and
deadlines. Therefore, follow this guideline: i f the project is important to the
group, department, or company or is a joint venture between companies, send
a letter attachment in addition to the email.
Email is suitable for customer service when the original order or customer
contact came from an online platform. Email is not suitable for customer service
when the initial customer contact was via telephone. In this case, the suitable
platform would be telephone call or letter from the company to its customer.
As companies expand into virtual storefronts and social media, email will
remain an essential tool for customer contact.
Comparison to Memos
The email platform has built-in fields for date, to, from, and subject. These fields
will appear automatically in the email program that you use. You can arrange
email by date received—in ascending or descending order, by the sender of the
email, and by the email's subject. In this way, you can arrange a large number
of emails on a particular topic or from a particular person with the click of your
mouse.
Email can also be printed in memo format, should a hard copy of the email
be required for later reference. In effect, email is an electronic form of stan-
dard memo format; however, email cannot be used for all memos. For some
memos, U.S. law requires that they be posted on an employee bulletin board—
so all employees have access to the information. Most of these posting-required
memos are for employment matters. More about memo format will be discussed
later in this chapter.
Limitations
Emails, although expedient, are less formal than are letters and do not have the
personal touch of a face-to-face conference or telephone call. Email is effec-
tive if you need to disperse information to a large number of people; however,
email can be impersonal and misunderstood, as the words on the page convey
no human or emotional context.
For example, take the following scenario. A mistake is brought to the atten-
tion of a co-worker and that co-worker acknowledges the error and makes an
apology via email. The apology is not perceived as an apology but as a mockery
of an apology. In short, there has been a miscommunication caused by the limi-
tations of the email platform.
Format
Fields and Folders
In addition to arranging by the date, to, from, and subject fields, you can arrange
email by inboxes, drafts, sent, spam, and trash, to name a few of the folders.
Smart users divide their inbox into sub-folders for various projects being worked
on simultaneously, by client, or using some other organizational system.
Reply vs. Reply All

When working on a project with numerous people, the employee must know
when to reply to all recipients of the original message versus to reply only to
the sender. Whenever the response is important for the project, use "reply all."
When the response is specific to a certain person, reply only to that person. For
example, when the human resources department sends an email to request infor-
mation from each employee, the employee should not reply to all. No one else
in the company needs to know an individual's business with human resources.
However, when the email comes from a team lead and is directed to the team
on the project, reply all is appropriate.
In short, think before hitting "reply all." Does everyone need this informa-
tion to do individual jobs with maximum efficiency? If the answer is yes, reply all.
If, however, the answer is no, reply only to individuals to whom the information
is relevant.
High Priority
When you overuse the label "high priority" for email, you may annoy those with
whom you regularly communicate. Not everything is high priority. Think before
sending out a high priority email because you should reserve that label for com-
munication that requires an answer within a few hours.
Salutations
Because of text messaging, employees have foregone the simple politeness in
emails that remains necessary in a work environment. Every email needs to begin
with "Dear," "Hi," or "Greetings" followed by the name of the person who will
be receiving the email and then by a comma. In this way, email is very similar
to writing a personal letter. Examples of appropriate salutations are as follows:
"Dear John,"
"Hi John,"
"Greetings John,"
You need to only include the salutation in the initial email and the initial
reply of the email thread. Once the email thread has been established, you do
not need to continue with the salutation at each reply.
Signature Block
Well-drafted emails also include a signature block. The signature block for
internal email will contain less information than it will for external email. Each
employee should have at least three signature blocks: informal, internal, and
external. The internal email signature block can be both formal and informal.
The external email signature block is always formal.
The internal company email signature block will contain at a minimum the
following: first and last name, job title, email, and direct telephone number.
Once you have established an email thread, you can switch to an informal ver-
sion of your internal company email signature block, which would contain first
name, email, and direct telephone number.
The formal, external signature block will contain the following: first and
last name, job title, company name, company address (street and mailing), com-
pany toll-free telephone numbers, fax numbers, company email and website
addresses, employee's direct email, and employee's direct telephone number. In
many cases, this information is reduced to an electronic business, or v-card. Some
people include a personalized saying, quotation, or sentiment. These sayings are
fine for personal email; however, avoid them in business email.
Examples of informal, internal, and external email signature blocks are found
in Table 5.3.
Delete Is Deceptive
People have the misconception that once an item is deleted, it is gone forever.
However, they are incorrect. A deleted item is not gone forever. It is only deleted
from one terminal in the company. That item is not deleted from the termi-
nal of the email recipient(s), not removed from the company's servers, and not
removed from the cloud. In short, email lives on almost forever, so remain vigi-
lant in being aware of what you put in writing and put in email.
Remember: Lawyers love email. Email is discoverable and has been used to
prove many a hostile work environment, sexual harassment, personal injury, and
product liability lawsuit.
Attachments
One of the best parts of email is the ability to send attachments. Attachments
can be documents, blueprints, schematics, pictures, illustrations, and slide shows
that are necessary to review before work can proceed on a project.
informL Internal External

Cheers, S i n c e r e l y , S i n c e r e l y ,
John J o h n Smith, Customer Service I J o h n Smith, Customer Service I
jsmith@company.com D i r e c t : 987-654-3210
987-654-3210 j s m i t h @ c o m p a n y . c o m
ABC Company, Inc.

123 State Street
PO Box 45
City, State Zip
orders@company.com
https://www.company.com
800-987-654-1111
Fax 123-987-1112
Table 5.3 Email Signature Block Samples.
Bad Grammar, Al: Caps, No Caps

Good grammar is necessary in good email. Bad grammar creates a form of "white
noise" that communicates nonverbally that you are not paying attention to the
details, you are sloppy, you lack the ability to be professional, and you do not
care about your position in the company.
The use of all capital letters or "all caps" can cause problems in email as all caps
is construed as shouting by the receiver of the email. All caps could mean bad key-
boarding skills by an older worker, but you should avoid this potential problem.
Just as all caps should be avoided, no capital letters or "no caps" should also
be avoided. No caps makes email difficult to read and is associated with bad
grammar. Again, the person sending the email might have bad keyboarding
skills, but you should avoid this potential problem.
Etiquette
You should use email etiquette to maintain professionalism in the workplace.
Five key areas of etiquette are response time, email threads, subject lines, spam,
and flaming.
Response Time
Email is not immediate; however, you should respond to email within 24 hours.
On occasion, you can reply to email in 48 hours, such as over a weekend or holi-
day, but after 72 hours, an email is stale and the sender might wonder whether
a response will ever be received.
A team leader or manager who fails to respond to email from subordinates
communicates that their email has no value and that they as employees have no
value to the organization. A team leader or manager who fails to respond to a
manager's email may need to look for a new job because a manager can termi-
nate a subordinate for ignoring a superior, an action that is communicated when
that team leader fails to respond to email in a timely manner.
Email Threads
When setting up email, you will have the option to not include the previous
emails in the thread, to include a partial thread, or to include the entire thread
of messages in the current email. The best practice is to set the option to include
the entire previous message in the email thread. When email threads become
long, recipients may need to read through the entire thread before responding.
Additionally, when the subject matter of the email thread changes, either the
subject line of the email should change or a new email thread should be estab-
lished, thereby ensuring the email thread does not become too long.
Subject Lines
Many emails are sent without a subject; however, best practice is for you as
an employee to include a subject line in all email. That subject line tells the
reader what the email is about and may mean the difference between a two-
hour response and a two-day response. So, always include a three- to five-word
subject in the subject line.
Spam
All those camera ready, sweet, political, or religious emails should not be for-
warded in the business environment. If you must include meme-filled emails,
forward them to your personal email and later forward them from your per-
sonal email account on your own time. Emails that do not relate to business
should not be sent from business servers between business hours. Non-business
emails are annoying, take time to read and delete, and waste company and
work time. These nonprofessional emails also may have tracking cookies and
malware in their attachments that can bring down a company's Internet and/or
intranet.
Flaming
Flaming occurs when the discussion in an email thread becomes heated or
out of control. Email has limitations. You and your messages can be misun-
derstood because the receiver has only words on a page and cannot hear the
tone in your voice. Before responding to emotionally charged emails, take a
breath. Take a day, i f necessary. Write several drafts of your response, save
them, and read them the following day before sending them or call the per-
son on the telephone and have a conversation. But, whatever you do, avoid
flaming email.
LETTERS
Letters are the backbone of business communication. They are used daily in
all aspects of the company, no matter what industry. Letters may introduce or
accompany other documents. Letters are used to address customer service (e.g.,
order fulfillment, back order, delay shipment, out of stock, discontinued item/
substitute item); to communicate the employment process (e.g., hiring, firing,
lay off, recommendation, thank you); to explain projects (e.g., scope of work,
specifications, delays and deadlines, agreements); and to create goodwill for
the company with its customer base and local, state, national, and international
communities. Letter agreements may be legally binding when signed by all par-
ties, so they should not be entered into lightly and should be reviewed and
drafted by legal counsel.
Letters are divided into two basic categories: good news and bad news. Letters
also follow two basic formats: block and modified block format. Letters are gener-
ally three paragraphs in length and include an introduction, body, and conclusion.
Letterhead
Every company has its own letterhead, which serves as an introduction to the
company. A company's letterhead will have all o f its contact information—
including name, street address, mailing address, telephone numbers (toll free
and international), fax number, email address, and website. Additionally, com-
pany letterheads may have slogans or sayings that are significant to the com-
pany. Company letterhead is also in the colors associated with the company. For
example, Home Depot uses orange, UPS uses brown, and GE uses blue for let-
terhead graphics and lettering.
Company letterhead may be centered, left justified, right justified, or split,

depending on the amount of information in the company's letterhead. Cen-
tered, left justified, and right justified are self-explanatory; however, split needs
to be explained. Some companies put their name at the top of the letterhead
and their contact information at the bottom. A variation o f the split format
could also place the company name and contact information at the top of the
letterhead and the company's slogan at the bottom.
Individuals seeking employment may also set up their own letterhead for
all correspondence, resumes, and references. An individual's letterhead trans-
lates into a way of marketing the individual for a professional position and will
include the individual's name, street and mailing addresses, telephone numbers,
individual website, and email address.
Letter Types
Good News
Letters that deliver good or neutral news to the receiver include transmittal,
cover, order acceptance and fulfillment, hiring, recommendation, thank you,
scope of work, specifications, agreements, and goodwill letters. Good news
letters generally have three paragraphs: good news, specifics on the good
news, and contact information. The first paragraph states the good news
quickly and briefly, the second paragraph expands on the good news and
gives specifics as necessary, and the third paragraph gives company contact
information.
Consider the hiring letter. In the first paragraph, the employer tells the new
hire that he or she has been hired for a particular position with the company.
In the second paragraph, the employer gives specifics about the hire, including,
without limitation, the start date, starting salary, job duties and responsibilities,
where and t o whom to report, the work schedule, and the benefits package.
In the third paragraph, the employer provides company contact information
should the new hire have questions before the start date.
Perhaps the most commonly used good news letter is the transmittal let-
ter, which accompanies every formal report and proposal, contract, a n d
manual. Transmittal letters are used when projects are external to the group
within a company or are company to company. The transmittal letter follows
the same three-paragraph format. In the first paragraph, the writer conveys
to the receiver that a specific document is attached or enclosed. Documents
attached to email are "attached." Documents that are sent via regular mail are
"enclosed." The second paragraph expands on the highlights of the attached
or enclosed document(s), giving the receiver a taste of the document without
disclosing the details of the document. The third paragraph gives the receiver
the sender's contact information, should the receiver have questions about the
document(s) transmitted with the letter. A sample transmittal letter is shown in
Figure 5.1.
An often overlooked, although very important, good news letter is the
thank-you letter. Head hunters and professional search companies agree that
sending thank-you letters after interviews are essential in today's professional
job search. A sample thank you letter is in Figure 5.2.
Time and Relative Dimension Systems, Inc.

1234 Universe Way * Tyler, TX 75000-9876 * 800-987-654-3210 * 001-801-555-1212 * Fax 801-555-1213
https//:www.tardsi,corn custorrerserviceOtardsi.com
The future is now. Embrace it.
December 24, 2015 T O P S E C R E T
Jim Kirk, CEO

Stargazers Institute
1234 Enterprise Drive
Fort Baker, CA 98765
RE: Proposal for Starship Time Dilation technology
Dear Mr. Kirk:
It has been a pleasure working with you on the Starship Time Dilation technology for all
starships in the federation fleet. Attached is the proposal for this project, including deliver-
able deadlines.
As you understand, time has a bunch o f whimey, wiggly, wobbly bits and dimensions.
The technology can be extremely dangerous because it's essential to know the difference
between fixed points in time and things that are subject to change. Also, there is no polic-
ing bad acts and bad actors across any rifts in time. Explanations are fully explored in the
proposal.
For all of us at Time and Relative Dimension Systems, Inc., we look forward to a long and
prosperous relationship far into the future. Should you have any questions after your initial -*-
read of the proposal, please feel free to contact me while I am visiting our plant in Tyler, TX
at 800-987-654-3210 * 001-801-555-1212.
Sincerely,
Time and Relative Dimensions Systems, Inc. .4-
Dr. John Smith, President
Attachment .1-
Figure 5.1 Sample Transmittal Letter (continued).

1. S o m e companies include a tag line that describes their company products and/or
services.
2. Write out the month in the date to avoid confusion regarding the actual date as the U.S.
writes dates as month/day/year and most other nations write the date as day/month/year.
Top Secret is written in all caps as this letter contains material and/or information that is
covered under and protected by a confidentiality agreement between the parties.
3. RE: means regarding and may be substituted for SUBJ: which means subject.
4. I n letters, use a colon and not a comma in the salutation.
5. Paragraph 1 sets forth the purpose of the communication and states the names of the
document or documents that are attached or enclosed with the transmission of the letter.
6. Paragraph 2 expands on the document attached without getting into details. Only enough
information to increase the reader interest is given.
7. Paragraph 3 includes all contact information. It is not enough to just include the contact
information in the letterhead. Be considerate of the receiver and include it in the third
paragraph.
8. Some companies use very formal signature blocks, including company name, a line for the
signature of the company officer, and the printed title, first and last name and position in
the company.
9. Paragraph 1 indicates the document is attached and being sent via email; therefore, use
attachment. If the letter was being transmitted via regular mail, the writer would use Enclo-
sure instead of Attachment.

Your Name -4- - 0

Street Cell: )o<x-x)o<-xxxx
City, Texas Zip Email: youremail@email.net
o
December 3, 2015
Ms. Rose Tyler, CEO

Bad Wolf Corporation
123 Wayside Universe LN
Cardiff, Wales, UK CF10 2AL
A- • 0
RE: Interview Date: December 3, 2012
Universal Design Group position, Job No. 345-678A
Dear Ms. Tyler:
Thank you for the opportunity to meet and discuss the Universal Design Group position,
Job No. 345-678A. I appreciate the time you and your team gave me exploring this posi- --- 0
tion in Bad Wolf Corporation. After our discussion, I believe I would be able to contribute
immediately to the current project.
We discussed my skills in research and development and we agreed that my skills are
current and would be a fit for Bad Wolf. We also discussed how my M.B.A. in Manage-
--- 0
ment will aid the team in reaching its goals. Although I do not have experience in the Bad
Wolf business model, we both explored how my current skills will assist the current team's
composition.
I look forward to hearing from you soon about this exciting opportunity. Should you have
questions prior to your candidate selection, please contact me at 987-654-3210 (cell) or o
yourname@email.net.
o
Sincerely. 4-
/Your Name/
Your Name
Figure 5.2 Sample Thank-You Letter (continued).

1. Match your letterhead for your cover letter, resume and thank you letter.
2. Thank you letters should be sent out immediately following interviews. Failure to send out
the thank you letter can disqualify you from candidacy for the position.
3. Thank you letters can be written in block or modified block format. This letter is written in
block format.
4. You may use the postal code for Lane which is LN or use the abbreviation for Lane which
is Ln.
5. Include the RE: or a l a i : to clarify which position this interview pertains to.
6. Paragraph 1 thanks the interviewer for their time and restates the position.
7. Paragraph 2 summarizes the interview highlights, including both skills and deficiencies, as
necessary. Put any deficiency into the best light possible per the sample.
8. Paragraph 3 restates your contact information.
9. Sincerely is the most commonly used phrase.
l a You can 'sign' a letter by putting your name into forward slashes if you do not have PDF
ability. If you are sending via regular mail, sign your letter.

Bad News
Bad news letters deliver just that: bad news. Letters that fall into this category
include back order, delayed shipment, out of stock, discontinued item/substitute
item, job rejection, firing, lay off, and deadline delays. Different companies treat
their bad news delivery differently. Some companies soften the bad news with
a "word cushion." Some companies are more abrupt and just give the bad news
straight away.
If you have received a job rejection letter, you know what a word cushion
looks like—something like, "Although your credentials meet the criteria of the
position and your resume showed promise, we will not be able to hire you for
the position at this time. ABC Company, Inc. will keep your resume in our data-
base over the next six months and will contact you should a position arise." This
word cushion is designed to make you feel better about the bad news as you
continue to search for a job. The word cushion is always certain and offers no
hope that the bad news contained in the rest of the letter will change in the
future.
The bad news letter uses three paragraphs. The first paragraph delivers the
bad news and may or may not have a word cushion. The second paragraph
expands on the company and its goals and other available product lines. The
third paragraph restates the bad news and wishes the receiver well. Contact
information is generally not given, as the company does not desire telephone
calls, emails, or other communication regarding their bad news decision. The
third paragraph might include an exception to its finality if an item is a discon-
tinued item/substitute item scenario. In this case, the company would include
its contact information should the receiver of the bad news want to purchase a
substitute item for the discontinued item.
Formats
The two formats used in business and technical letter writing are block and
modified block. The formatting for both styles is standardized and has been in
use since at least the first half of the twentieth century. The two formats need
to be learned because different industries prefer one or the other format. For
example, more traditional industries such as power companies, insurance, and
law firms prefer the modified block format, whereas less traditional industries
prefer the block format for its streamlined approach.
The line spacing is 1.0 (single spaced) in both formats. Word° now uses 1.15
as its default setting, so you need to change the default line spacing options
at 1.0. For paragraph spacing, Word's default is now zero before and ten after,
so you will also need to set the spacing before and after paragraphs at zero.
Between each element of both the block and modified block formats there will
be an additional space.
Do not leave a disproportionate amount of white space at the bottom of
the letter. Should the letter not be relatively centered on the page after written,
additional spaces may be added between the letterhead and the date and the
CHAPTER 5 TELEPHONE, TEXT, EMAIL, LETTERS, AND MEMOS ) 95
date and the addressee. Do not add additional spaces between any of the other
elements in order to center the letter on the page.
Block
The elements of the block format are:
1. Letterhead
2. Date
3. Addressee
4. Subject
5. Salutation
6. Three paragraphs
• Introduction
• Body
• Conclusion
7. Signature block
8. Attachment/Enclosure
Letterhead
Elements 2-8 in block format are either left justified or full justified, beginning
at the left. The letterhead may be centered, left justified, right justified, or
split.
Date
The date is written in words and numbers. Do not use ordinal numbers—st, nd,
rd, or th—after the date. Even though you say ordinal numbers, you do not
write the extensions in dates. Use cardinal numbers—such as 1, 2, and 3—for
dates. In American business, the date is written as month, day, and year, but in
most all of the world, the date is written as day, month, and year. If the company
has international business, it is common to use the international format—day,
month, and year—instead of the American format of month, day, and year. It is
also common to write out the month and then insert the day and year for inter-
national business.
Addressee
Generally, the addressee elements are written as follows:
r. or Ms. First Name Last Name, Title

Company Name
Street
PO Box 1234
City, State Zip
When the title of the person is longer than two words, the title is moved to
the second line. When the letter will go to a department within a company, the
style is generally as follows:
Company Name
Street
PO Box 1234
City, State Zip
A-ITN: Department Name
You can use additional variations for the addressee; however, these two for-
mats are the most commonly used.
Suoject
In business and technical writing, you should include a subject (SUBJ:) or regard-
ing (RE:) line. The subject line clearly and quickly establishes the subject matter
of the letter, which helps when the company receives a high volume of corre-
spondence. Insurance companies and law firms in particular use the subject line
to identify claims and cases. Engineers use the subject line to identify reports,
proposals, and projects. Smart job hunters use the subject line to identify the
position title and job number. In short, always use the subject line.
The salutation format is as follows: "Dear Mr./Ms./Dr, Last Name" followed by a

comma in personal correspondence and a colon in business correspondence. If
the sender knows the person receiving the letter personally, you may use a less
formal salutation: "Dear First Name." Never skip the salutation.
If you are unsure of the gender of the recipient—perhaps the person's name
is unfamiliar or could be used for a man or a woman (i.e., Terry, Chris, Lynn, Pat,
or Leslie)—try to find the recipient through internet research to determine if the
recipient is male or female. If that is not possible, leave off the Mr. or Ms. in the
address block, and use Mr. in the salutation.
Three Parecranhs
In the first paragraph, clearly and concisely state why you are writing the letter. In
the second paragraph, provide details, and in the third paragraph, conclude and
restate the contact information, even though the letterhead includes the contact
information. Also, provide your hours of availability for a telephone call, includ-
ing your time zone. Present the contact information as follows: "You can reach
the company at [telephone number, email address] during our hours of opera-
tion 8:00AM-8:00PM CST, Monday-Friday." CST stands for Central Standard Time.
If your letter is a cover letter for a resume, include the times you are available for
a telephone interview in the third paragraph. And remember to include your time
zone as not all companies you are applying to are in the same time zone as you are.
Signature 13!nclr
The signature block includes a closing, a space for your signature, and a printed
line consisting of your first and last names. Generally, you include three lines
between the closing and the printed name for assistants and line workers, four
line spaces for lower-level managers and professionals, and five line spaces for
upper-level managers and directors.
If you cannot sign the letter because you are sending it electronically and
cannot scan the letter, "sign" the document with a forward slash, first and last
name printed, and forward slash as follows: !John Smith!. The forward slashes
indicate the document is signed.
Attachment/Enclosure
You do not need to list the attached or enclosed documents in this section
because the sender has referenced which documents are attached or enclosed
in the subject and/or the first paragraph of the letter. The simple rule is if the
sender uses "enclosed" in the letter, use "enclosure," and if the sender uses
"attached" in the letter, use "attachment." Do not mix and match; keep them
parallel. An example of a block cover letter is contained in Figure 5.3.
Your Name 4-
Street -0- Cell: )o<x-xxx-)(xxx
City, Texas Zip Email: yourname@email.net
-------_______________________ CO
e
December 3, 2015 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
&dig - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0
Dr. John Smith, President -0-

Relative Dimension Systems, Inc. _ __ _________ _____________________________flo
Time and Rela _ _ _ _ ____________
1234 Universe Way _______________________
Tyler, TX 75000-9876
RE: Software Developer II/Job No. 456789

Source: monstersoftheuniversenews.com
Dear Dr. Smith: -4- 69

Your advertisement for a Software Developer II/Job N a 456789 listed in monsters of the
universenews.com caught my attention as I have the necessary communication and theo-
retical skills and can work both independently and in a group. I have attactedienclosed my
resume ftr your review.
I will receive my Bachelor of Science degree in Computer Science from [insert university] in
[insert month and year]. I have used C/C++/Clt, Java, .Net, MySOL, HTML, XML,Lanci_Uni2t,L
Linus/OSXNVindows 8 for four years and am confident I can make a contribution to your
company. I have been told by my colleagues and teammates that I have excellent oral and
written communication skills, problem solving skills and theoretical skills as I was ins-trumen-
tal in saving our company from a recent cyber attack on our external servers.
I hope to hear from you about this position at Time and Relative Dimension Systems, Inc. in 0
the next few weeks. Please feel free to contact me for a telephone interview at 987-654-3210
or at yourname@email.net.
Sincerely, 4 -
/You r Name/
Your Name
Attachment /Enclosure •••
Figure 5.3 B l o c k Letter Format (continued).

1. Create a personal letterhead for all cover letters. Match your personal letterhead to your
resume letterhead so when printed, you can be easily found when the reviewer uninten-
tionally puts your cover letter into the resume review pile.
2. Make your name larger than the rest of your personal letterhead. When your cover letter
and resume are finally printed, your name will stand out.
3. Include your mailing address in your letterhead.
4. Use your personal cell number as your contact number. Do not take personal calls at
your current place of employment.
5. Use your personal email address. Do not share an email address with a spouse. Avoid
personalized email addresses like sexymama@flash.net unless you are trying to acquire
certain professional employment.
6. Use a hyperlink for your email and web page (if you have one). Web pages can be great
tools for acquiring employment. They can contain projects, writing samples, wikis written
by you, and personal blogs. Warning: make sure your personal blogs are professional
and well written.
7. I f you need to center the letter on the page, increase/decrease space between the letter-
head and the date and the date and the addressee.
8. Use words and numbers in written documents. Use numbers for the date in documents
that are number centric.
9. Use standard spacing from the addressee through attachment/enclosure.
10. D o the research to identify to whom you should address the letter. Find the name of the
vice president, president, or human resources representative of the company. This infor-
mation is readily available through the Internet in a variety of places, such as the NYSE if
the company is publically traded and the Secretary of State's office in the state of incor-
poration. Searching and using this information indicates that you are ambitious and will-
ing to do the extra work for excellence.
11. Find the street, city, state, and zip address. Find out the headquarters information via a
simple web search to illustrate that you will invest and pursue information.
12. U s e a colon after the salutation for business letters and a comma for personal letters.
13. I n the introduction paragraph, use key words and phrases found in the advertisement.
Specifically, state the job title and job number and where you found the job listing.
14. State the hard skills you have that are listed in the job advertisement.
15. State the soft skills you have that are listed in the job advertisement
16. U s e either attached or enclosed, but not both. Attached means you are sending your
cover letter and resume via electronic or fax. Enclosed means you are putting your cover
letter and resume into an envelope and mailing it to a physical address.
17. I n the body, of the letter, describe your skills as they apply to the advertisement.
18. I n the conclusion paragraph, ask for the appointment or phone interview or take a softer
approach as in this paragraph. Include your telephone number and your email address.
19. U s e a standard sign-off for your closing. Sincerely is the most commonly used sign off for
business letters; do not try to be fancy with Respectfully, Yours Very Truly, or Cordially.
20. U s e a comma after your sign-off.
21. Place your signature after your sign-off. Use 3 spaces, or 4 "enters" from Sincerely to
your printed name.
22. U s e attachment or enclosure to match your introductory paragraph.
Figure 5-3 (continued).

Modified Block
The modified block format is a modification of the block format, It contains the
same eight elements as the block format; however, the spacing of the elements
on the page is changed. The description of the elements will remain the same
and just the formatting changes will be discussed for the eight elements.
Letterhead
In modified block format, the letterhead may still be centered, left justified,
right justified, or split.
Date
In modified block format, the date may be left justified, centered, or right justified
and will generally follow the format of the letterhead. If the dominant informa-
tion in the company's letterhead is evenly disbursed across the top of the letter, the
date may be placed left justified, centered, or right justified. If the dominant infor-
mation in the company's letterhead is centered, the date is generally centered,
Addressee
The addressee will be left justified, as in block format.
Suoject
The first line of the subject line may be indented with one tab. A tab is gen-
erally between five to eight spaces, depending on the default setting of the
word processing program. The second and all subsequent lines of the subject are
indented with two tabs.
Salutation
The salutation is left justified as with the block format.
111 r g P P r c i r 4 l s
Should the subject line be indented, the first line of each paragraph will also be
indented with one tab. After you use the tab function for a first line indent in
many word processing programs, the program mistakenly thinks you want to
indent the entire paragraph. You must then use either the dropdown menu, the
formatting shortcuts, or the ruler to make a manual adjustment so the second
and all subsequent lines in the paragraph go back to the 1-inch margin setting.
Signature Block
The signature block, including the closing and the printed first and last names of
the sender, should fall between six or seven tabs to the right. The signature block
will be just past center. Do not use the center or right justified tools; use left or full
justified and tab six or seven times so the signature block is placed just past center.
Att7,71-lm,7?ntlFrICICII!rr?
The notation for attachment or enclosure is left justified or full justified at the
left 1-inch margin. It is not below the signature block. An example of a resume
cover letter using modified block format is seen in Figure 5.4.
CHAPTER 5 TELEPHONE, TEXT, EMAIL, LETTERS, AND MEMOS • 101
Your Name -4-

Street — , „ C e l l : xxx-xxx-xxxx
City, Texas Zip s - s , E m a i l : youremail@email.neth,
0
December 3,
o
Tiberius (Jim) Kirk
o
SUBJ: Marketing Manager, Job No. A-6789

Theladders.com posted November 28, 2012
Dear Mr. Kirk: - * 0

Nimroy Green, an executive at Stargazers Institute, suggested that I contact you as .0.
I have the skills you are looking for in a Marketing Manager. Enclosed is my resume for your
review. 1
I received my B . V. with honors from UCLA and have five years of business experience,
including leading a team of five people on the branding campaign for Rolling Green Think -*
Tank. I have a track r!ecord of successesfully transforming small budgets into big marketing
ideas.
I would like to talk to you personally about my credentials and would be available
for an initial telephone interview between 4:00PM-5:00PM, MWF, CST. My cell number is -4-
987-654-3210. If you prefer, you can reach me at my email address: yourname@email.net.
Sincerely,
/Your Name/
Your Name
Enclosure - *
Figure 5.4 Modified Block Letter Format (continued).

1. Format your name to be larger than the rest of the text in your letterhead design.
2. Include your mailing address.
3. Include your cell phone. Do not put your current employer phone number here.
4. Include your personal email address. Avoid: 1) sharing email addresses with other family
members or significant others, 2) highly personalized email addresses, i.e., sexymama@
email.com.
5. For a Modified Block Letter format, indent the first line of each paragraph, at the SUBJ line,
and at the signature block. In modified block format, the date may appear left justified,
centered, or right justified.
6. Avoid numbers only in the date. In written documents, use words and numbers in the date.
Do not use ordinals—e.g., is', 2nd, 3rd. and 4th. (The st, nd, rd, and th are spoken, but not
written in dates). Use cardinal numbers—e.g., 1, 2, 3, and 4.
7. U s e ( ) and "" to put the actual name the person uses professionally. In this case, Tiberius
Kirk is known as Jim Kirk.
8. Use the job title and job number in the advertisement. (By the way, it's "ad," not "add," and
spellcheck will not catch that mistake.)
9. Use a colon and not a comma in business letters.
10. I n paragraph 1, explain why you are writing and state that you have your resume as a sep-
arate document. Create a unique cover letter and resume for each application, including
all online applications.
11. Before you refer to a personal connection in your cover letter, ask permission from your
personal contact.
12. Use enclosed if you are sending the letter via United States Postal Service and attached if
you are sending via email or Internet.
13. I n paragraph 2, describe your credentials for the position. Do not restate your resume.
14. Use abbreviations for well-known phrases without first writing out the phrase. ("IBTAN" is not
a commonly known abbreviation.) Do not use text abbreviations in formal business letters.
15. I n paragraph 3, request an interview and give your availability, including cell and home
telephone numbers and email address.
16. Use Sincerely, as it is the most commonly used phrase. Use alternatives—e.g., Yours truly,
Respectfully, Cheers,—sparingly.
17. Enter four returns after the comma after Sincerely and then type your name. Sign all letters
if you have PDF capacity. If not, use forward slashes and insert your name.
18. I f you send your letter by mail, use enclosure. If you send it via email or internet, use
attached and attachment.

MEMOS
Despite popular belief that email has replaced the memo
format, the memo remains one of the most useful tools in
business and technical writing. Memos convey information MEMO _1
to an audience. The subject matter of memos varies widely
and includes informal reports and proposals, instructions,
and policies and procedures. Transmittal memos are used
instead o f transmittal letters within a company. Memos
may be either short (one-half to one page) or long (two to
five pages). Should a memo exceed five pages, a different
format is generally used instead of the memo format. The
elements of the memo format are:
1. Title
2. Date
3. To
4, From
5. Subject (SLII3.1) or Regarding (RE)
The title of the memo is "Memorandum" or "Memo" and is centered. The
date, to, from, and subject fields are left justified or full justified at the left
1-inch margin. After the labels for date, to, from, and subject fields, use a colon
and a tab so the information is easily read. Should a subordinate or assistant
write the memo on behalf of a manager, the manager will read and approve
the memo. Therefore, it is not uncommon to find the manager's initials after the
"from" field.
Reduce the subject to no more than three to five words generally, so the
reader has enough information to understand the purpose o f the memo but
not so much information that the reader does not need to read the memo for
important details.
Memos may be short or long, depending upon the subject. If your memo
is more than four to five lines, divide the text with headings and subheadings
to break up the information. If you are using the memo format for an infor-
mal report or proposal, headings become necessary and you must use the head-
ings that are standard for a report or proposal. At a minimum, you will use the
following three headings for informal reports or proposals:
• Introduction
• Body or Discussion
• Conclusion
A sample short memo is shown in Figure 5.5, and a sample long memo is
shown in Figure 5.6.
MEMO
DATE: D e c e m b e r 27, 2015

TO: B u s i n e s s and Technical Communication Students
FROM: P r o f e s s o r Schlobohm
SUBJECT: Business Memo Format
The written memo format is different from the email format. Specifically, the writer has to create the
date, to, from, and subject fields. Additionally, the writer has to title the document as a memo by using
either MEMORANDUM or MEMO in all caps. In email, the date, to and from fields are done automati-
cally, however, the subject must be filled in for every email.
Not all business memos will be written via email, and therefore, the writer needs to learn this business
memo format. As an example, several types of employment memos must be written and posted on
an employee notice board per federal and state law guidelines regardless of whether or not it is sent
electronically.
The business memo can be short (1/2-1 page), expressing one idea or piece of information or long
(2-5 pages) and act as an informal report or proposal.
Figure 5.5 S h o r t Memo Format.

CHAPTER 5 TELEPHONE, TEXT, EMAIL, LETTERS, AND MEMOS 4 1 0 5
MEMORANDUM

TO: B u s i n e s s and Technical Communication Students
FROM: M a r i b e t h (Betsy) Schlobohm, J.D.
SUBJECT: E m a i l Format for Business
Introduction
Email is a different format from written memo format, Email format must include the following:
• Subject line
• Salutation
• Signature block
Discussion
Subject Line
All email should contain a subject line so the reader may quickly go through their email and prioritize
reading and response. Your subject line should be direct and to the point. Reduce it to necessary
words and information. Do not use it to wrap into your email, as that is not professional.
Salutation
All email should have a salutation to the reader. Address the reader personally, if you know them per-
sonally, or address the reader formally if you do not know them. Follow the protocol set forth in your
company's employee handbook. If there is no protocol, use "Dear First Name" or "First Name when
you know them and "Dear Mr./Ms. Smith" when you do not know them.
Always use a comma after the salutation. For example, "Dear Mr. Smith," as email is a type of informal
letter.
Signature Block
Always insert a signature block into your email. Yes, your recipient can contact you by replying. Yes,
you may think it is irrelevant, but include the signature block anyway because that element carries
important information about your position and your company and transfers the sense to the reader
that you are professional in your written communication. If you fail to include your signature block,
you are sending out a "white noise" message that you are careless in your work, that you do not care
whether or not the reader replies to your email, and that you do not take your position at the company
seriously.
You should include at a minimum the following information in all external email sent from work:
• First and last name
• Job Title
• Email address as a hyper link
• Direct telephone number or your business' main number or both
• Company's name and address
Figure 5.6 L o n g Memo Format (continued).

A sample is as follows:
Jane Smith, Sr. Developer
Company Business Group
Company Name
Street
City, State Zip
Direct Line: 555-123-4567
jsmithOcompany.com
You should include at a minimum the following information in all email sent within the company:
• First and last name
• Job title
• Email address
• Direct telephone number
Your signature block will look like:
John Smith, Customer Service I

jsmith@company.com
555-123-4567
You can set up a signature block that will appear each time you open a new email and you can set
up several signature blocks. Go to insert signature and open it, draft a signature, name it and save
it. Do this for as many different work signatures you will need, i.e., formal external communication or
informal internal communication. At a minimum, always include pertinent contact information for the
specific audience.
Conclusion
Your business and technical email will improve and will be better received by managers when you
use subject line, salutation, and signature block for all email.

CHAPTER 5 TELEPHONE, TEXT, EMAIL, LETTERS, AND MEMOS 4 1 0 7
CONCLUSION
In this chapter we have addressed some of the short forms, formats, and equip-
ment used for communication in business and technological industries. We have
explored the telephone and its uses as well as those of text messaging, email,
letters, and memos. Each has its strengths and weaknesses. Before sending any
message, weigh the pros and cons of each format so you select the best format
and thus yield the most favorable results.
EXERCISES
1. Consider the following scenario. Determine whether you should use text messaging, email,
and/or telephone. Support your answer with principles from this chapter.
You are a group leader for a major project in your company. You have a minor deadline
looming in the next 48 hours and your team is busy working on the project even though
you've been called into an emergency meeting of other project leaders. Your team texts you
about a problem they are having. The problem could be a serious issue or it could resolve
itself in 15 minutes. Your meeting will last the rest of the afternoon. What do you do and
why?
2. You are a new hire for a company. You've just received an email from your new team leader
introducing you to the team. How do you respond to the email? Do you reply? Reply all?
What is your time frame for reply? Other issues? Discuss fully supporting your answer with
principles from this chapter.
3. Choose one of the following five topic areas and write a short memo. You must research the
topic beyond an initial web search. Choose a Fortune 1000 company for your research.
a. Decide whether the company should upgrade its computer security. Explain.
b. Explain the costs for upgrading the company's computer systems.
c. Design the power grid for 100,000 users. Draw the schematics and explain.
d. Design a working "green" engine. Draw viable schematics and explain.
e. Explore all current accounting packages and explain why the company should choose a
certain package as the administration seeks a new accounting package for its tax business
group.
4. Write a good news letter. Choose from one of the following good news letters: transmittal,
order acceptance, hiring, goodwill, or recommendation.
S. Write a bad news letter. Choose from one of the following bad news letters: job rejection,
Out of stock/discontinued item, or deadline delay.
6. Write a memo explaining five key differences between a report and a proposal.
7. Consider the following scenario. One of your managers who has been with the company
for a long time uses all caps in email. It annoys everyone in the company; however, the
manager persists. No one has spoken to the manager about the all caps emails, but things
are getting tense at the workplace. What, if anything, should be done? Should the manager
be fired? Should the manager be warned? Should no action be taken? Explain.
109
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INTRODUCTION
Reports, proposals, and white papers are ways of documenting ongoing proj-
ects within any company and any industry. Projects may begin with a proposal
that is accepted for research. The research is reduced to reports (e.g., lab and
feasibility reports) and may become white papers for industry conferences.
111
Because written documentation is required for each step in the process of any
project in any industry, reports, proposals, and white papers are key elements
of every project.
You should consider proposals, reports, and white papers as a continuum
rather than each as a linear process. Your project can start with a proposal,
report, or white paper. Once the project has begun, the documentation begins,
and you can find several good sources for project management documents on
the Internet. One such source is www.projectmanagementdocs.com, which
includes project dashboards and project management documents for the entire
process of any project in any industry.
Key documents within a project include activity logs, cost estimates, assump-
tion logs, change logs, change requests, duration estimates, issue logs, meeting
agendas, meeting minutes, milestone lists, performance reports, project funding
requirements, proposals, quality checklists, quality
metrics, requests for proposals, statement of work,
QUICKTIP
and white papers. This chapter, however, will be
Reports, proposals and white papers share
two common elements: limited to review of reports, proposals, and white
1. Front matter, and papers because those documents have common ele-
2. Back matter.
ments, including front matter and back matter.
FRONT MATTER
Front matter contains the parts of formal documents that appear before the
actual introduction, body, and conclusion to the report, proposal, or white paper.
Front matter consists of the cover, title fly, letter or memo of authorization, let-
ter or memo of acceptance, letter or memo of transmittal, table of contents, list
of illustrations, and executive summary. Table 6.1 lists each front matter element
and gives a brief description for each element.
I I I I M I M M I L F r o n t Matter Elements
Cover Title
Prepared for: First and Last Names, Title (first line)
Company Name (second line)
Prepared by: Team Members or Work Group Name with Team
Members
Date: Use words and numbers, i.e., July 4, 2013 or
4 July 2013
Title Fly* Title

*Not always a required element.
Adds formality to the project documentation.
Table 6.1 F r o n t Matter Elements (continued).
CHAPTER 6 REPORTS, PROPOSALS, AND WHITE PAPERS • 113
Letter/Memo of Authorization One-page letter or memo to a work group from a team lead
or manager to authorize:
• Funding
• Personnel
• Project scope and limitations
• Deliverables
• Deadlines
Form of good news letter.
Letter/Memo of Acceptance One-page letter or memo from the team lead to the manager
that authorizes the project and includes:
• Acceptance of the project
• Confirmation of understanding of project as described by
manager authorizing project
• Questions regarding any element not fully understood in
the authorization
Letter/Memo of Transmittal One-page letter or memo from team lead to manager that
accompanies the project documentation and deliverables
upon completion.
Transmittal is a "mini sales pitch" for the project and in less
than ten-page reports may replace the Executive Summary.
Table of Contents Table of Contents begins with the List of Illustrations.
Page numbering begins with the Table of Contents being
Roman "i."
In reports of less than ten-pages, the Table of Contents and
List of Illustrations may be on the same page.
In reports of more than ten-pages, the Table of Contents and
List of Illustrations are split onto two pages.
List of Illustrations List of all illustrations in the document organized by three
basic categories:
• Figures
*Tables
• Charts
List of Illustrations is numbered as Roman "H."
Table 6.1 (continued).
•
Executive Summary
Front Matter Elements
The Executive Summary is a crucial element. It is a condensed
summary of the entire report (typically one-page and up to
five to ten percent of the report's length). All of the possible
elements are listed below:
1. Purpose statement (one sentence)
2. Scope of project (one to two sentences)
3. Limitations of project (one to two sentences)
4. Methodology (one to three sentences)
5. Results (one to three sentences)
6. Discussion (two to three sentences)
7. Recommendations (one to three sentences)
Executive Summary starts on page 1 of the project report.
BACK MATTER
Back matter contains the parts of a formal document that follow the actual report,
proposal, or white paper. Back matter may consist of one or more of the follow-
ing: references, appendices, glossaries, and indices. Basically, back matter includes
all project documentation that is too bulky to be placed into the project report
because it would disrupt the flow of the report but essential and thus not left out
of the report because it gives the audience a complete understanding of the report.
Table 6.2 lists each back matter element and gives a brief description for each.
REPORTS
Reports are the backbone of all project documen-
QUICKTIP tation. Once a project begins, reports are made
Write the Executive Summary last. It is a at each step of the process in the project. Reports
combination ''sales pitch" and concise include daily logs, change logs, activity logs, cost
summary of the project highlights. estimates, duration estimates, issue logs, meeting
minutes, milestone lists, performance reports, proj-
ect funding requirements, feasibility reports, lab/test reports, status reports,
quality checklists, quality metrics, and final project reports. Discussion of project
documentation through reports will be limited to the following four key reports:
• Feasibility reports
• Lab/test reports
• Status reports
• Final project reports
Feasibility Reports
Feasibility reports are designed to be used at the beginning of a project. To com-
plete the project, you may identify several risk factors and options available. Not
all of the potential options can be pursued due to either cost or time constraints or
both, and therefore, feasibility reports are very important. The recommendations
set forth in feasibility reports determine the course of companies and their futures.
Back Matter Elements Jodi=

References R e f e r e n c e s / W o r k s Cited/Bibliography depending on style format—i.e., MLA,
APA, IEEE, Chicago, West
Appendices A p p e n d i x is a general term for the documents that may be contained in
back matter and may include:
1. Diagrams
2. Site plans
3. Schematics
4. Drawings
5. Calculations
6. Resumes or curriculum vitae of team members
7. Financials—complete and comprehensive breakdown of all project costs
from start to finish, including:
a. Personnel
b. Facilities
c. Equipment
Glossaries G l o s s a r i e s are an alphabetical list of all technical and/or business terms used,
including definitions, within the entire document.
Indices I n d i c e s are alphabetical lists of all key words or phrases within the entire
document.
Table 6.2 B a c k Matter Elements.
Feasibility reports may be formal or informal and therefore may or may not
include all of the potential elements for a formal feasibility report. The elements
for a formal feasibility report are listed in Table 6.3. Should the author need less
formality, use only the cover, table of contents, and list of illustrations from the
front matter and references from the back matter.
Industry Background
The industry background may include the history of the company, history o f
the company's markets and products, and potential for future growth in the
company's current markets and product lines. The industry background may
also include exploration of new markets and product lines that are within the
technological grasp or could be within the technological grasp of the company
through joint venture or merger or contractual relationship with other compa-
nies and/or service providers.
Problem Statement
The problem statement is a one- to two-sentence description of the problem
that needs to be addressed.
Options
You should review systematically all options that will address the problem.
Use bullet points or numbers, depending on the number of available options
Feasibility Report Elements

Front Matter S e e Table 6.1
Feasibility Report 1. Industry Background

2. Problem statement
3. Options available
4. Assessment of available options, including:
a. Risk assessment
b. Costs and benefits
c. Alignment with desired business objectives
d. Legal/Regulatory problems in the current environment
e. Fit to project constraints set forth in any Request for Proposal
(RFP) or governmental agency contract or agreement
f. Impact on company profitability
g. Technical fit for company enterprise architecture
5. Recommendations, including:
a. Best option
b. Rationale for rejection or recommendation for further
analysis, including:
i. Continued research and development
Continued testing
Overall project viability
Back Matter S e e Table 6.2

Table 6.3 Feasibility Report Elements.
(see Chapter 3), to list all available options. After creating the options list, assess
each options viability by considering the following points:
1. Risk assessment. Risks associated with the option would be explored.
2. Costs and benefits. Costs for facilities, equipment, and personnel to drive
the project would be stated and the benefits of those costs would be
explored.
3. Alignment with desired business objectives. No business engages in
development of intellectual property that is not in alignment with their
business objectives. How closely the option aligns with the business
objectives of the company are explored.
4. Legal/Regulatory problems in current environment. The federal, state,
county, and local municipality laws are set forth for each option.
Additionally, all agency regulations affecting the option must be explored.
Legal counsel is generally retained for in-depth review of all legal issues
surrounding the viability of any project.
5. Constraints. Fit to project constraints set forth in any Request for Proposal
(RFP) or governmental agency contract or agreement.
6. Impact on company profitability. Any impact on company profitability,
good and bad, is explored and reported on.
7. Technical fit for company enterprise architecture. The report will include
a detailed section on the technical fit for the project within the company
enterprise architecture.
Recommendations
In the recommendations section, you choose and present the best option for
moving forward. In choosing the best option, you give the rationale for reject-
ing all other options and suggest initiation or continuation o f research and
development and testing.
Lab/Test Reports
Once the company or organization has decided to
proceed with the project, the project is sent to a QUICKTIP
research and development team that will estab- Place Lab/Test Report Elements into a
lish hypotheses, design labs and tests for the proj- simple table per Figure 6.1. Tables keep the
ect, and make reports of its findings. These lab/test elements easily accessible for future use.
reports will be used to shape the project and there-
fore are key reports. Lab/test reports have limited front matter (cover, table of
contents, list of illustrations) and back matter is limited to the essentials. The key
elements of all lab/test reports are set forth in Table 6.4.
Front Matter S e e Table 6.1

Lab/Test Report Elements •
Lab/Test Report 1 . Test title—brief, concise, descriptive
2. Statement of the problem
a. Complete sentences explanation of the problem
b. Preliminary observations
c. Background information
d. Question(s) trying to answer
3. Hypothesis/Hypotheses
a. Write the possible outcome for the test (and solution to the
problem)
b. Hypotheses are written in complete sentences
c. Use an if/then statement for hypotheses, i.e., "If you sleep eight
hours, then you should be rested."
4. Materials List—list all materials used in the lab/test
5. Procedure
a. Complete sentences explanation of the lab/test
b. This is a step-by-step guide through the procedure
c. Steps should be clear enough for anyone reading the report to
duplicate the test
6. Results/Outcomes
a. Complete sentences explanation of results
b. Results will include:
i. Data tables
Observations
Lab notes
iv. Graphs
v. Charts
vi. Other illustrations
Table 6.4 Lab/Test Report Elements.
M r - - 111 L L a b / T e s t Report Elements

7. Conclusions
a. Using complete sentences, report conclusions as follows:
i. Accept or reject hypothesis or hypotheses
Explain why a hypothesis is either accepted or rejected using lab data
Summarize data, including: averages, highest, lowest. DO NOT
REPEAT RESULTS. This is just a summarization.
iv. Discuss possible errors in the experiment design and how the
experiment design may be improved
v. Apply test data to real-world applications
&Notes
By creating a simple table, per Figure 6.1, the lab/test report remains clear, con-
cise, and well organized.
Status Reports
General Overview
Status reports, also known as progress reports, give team members and upper-
level managers key information about the teams progress. Status reports ensure
that all team members remain in sync and that all managers and company exec-
utives are apprised of the project's status throughout the duration of the proj-
ect. In addition to the team and managers being informed of the project status,
clients are also kept abreast of developments.
Status reports also provide a continual format for evaluating work done, in
process and to be done. Status reports discuss problems, pose potential solu-
tions, and force the establishment of a work schedule.
Formatting
Status reports can be formatted into letters, short or long memos, and formal
reports depending on the detail required by superiors, the client and the needs
of the project. Status reports may be either formal or informal. Less formal sta-
tus reports will have less front matter and back matter. Reduce the front and
back matter according to the formality of the status report.
All status reports have an introduction, body, and conclusion and contain the
following elements as set forth in Table 6.5.
Introduction
Elements contained in the introduction should be reduced to no more than the
first 2-4" of the report document. The purpose should be set forth in one or two
clear and concise sentences. The project objectives should be numbered or bulleted
and should be set forth concisely and clearly. The scope of the project (what the
project will cover) should be set forth clearly in one to three sentences. The limi-
tations (what the project will not cover) should be set forth clearly and concisely
= Lab/Test Title Insert name of lab or test here—e.g., Fluids Te s t 7 1 1

Date Date the lab/test was conducted, e.g., 01/01/2013. [Numbers only are
sufficient in lab/test reports].
Prepared for:
Prepared by:
Statement of Problem
Hypothesis/Hypotheses Hypothesis 1:
Hypothesis 2:
Materials List List all materials, including raw materials, equipment and specifica-
tions so the lab/test contained in the report may be duplicated.
Procedure Make a step-by-step list of instructions for repeating the same exper-
iment. Any variance in how the experiment was done could lead
to different results, or if the instructions are unclear, could lead to
unnecessary variance in results.
Results/Outcomes List in complete sentences. Use numbered points for each new result.
Conclusions List in complete sentences. Use numbered points for each new
conclusion.
Notes List in complete sentences. Use numbered points for each new note.
Notes are notations on changes for each time the experiment is
done and for each time elements contained in the experiment are
changed and the changes alter the results.
Figure 6.1 Lab/Test Report Sample Using a Table Format
Status Report Elements

Front Matter S e e Table 6.1.
Status Report i n t r o d u c t i o n :
1. Purpose
2. Specific objectives
3. Scope and limitations
4. Date the project began
5. Date the project is scheduled for completion
6. Names of team members, including contact information
7. Company/organization the project is being completed for
Body:
1. Work accomplished between current date and last status report
2. Work currently in process
3. Work to be done between this status report and the next status
report
Table 6.5 Status Report Laments (continued).
Status Report Elements

4. Report of any unexpected changes or problems, including discussion
of potential solutions
Conclusion:
1. Reassure higher-level managers or the client that all is going
according to the work schedule
2. Make recommendations for how to handle unexpected changes and
how to deal with problems that have arisen
in one to three sentences. Contact information for team members should include
first and last name, title, email, and direct phone line at a minimum. Whom the
project is being completed for is also contained in this section.
body
In a nutshell, the body of the status report sets forth the past, present, and future
of the work on the project. In the report, discuss problems encountered, change
orders requested, and potential solutions for problems. No project runs com-
pletely smoothly, but every project can and should be completely documented.
Conclusion
Perhaps one of the key and crucial points of the conclusion is to reassure the
upper-level managers and the client that the project is progressing according to
plan. If you cannot assure your manager and client of this, offer solutions and
end the status report on a positive note.
Individual and Group Status Reports

Status reports may be individual o r group status
QUICKTIP reports. Individual team members have a responsi-
Status reports may be hourly, daily, weekly, bility for keeping all other team members apprised
or monthly, depending upon the project. of their individual progress. And, the entire team
has a responsibility f o r keeping all other teams
working on the same project and higher-level man-
agers apprised of their teann's status. Figure 6.1 sets forth a sample individual
status report in memo format. and Figure 6.2 sets forth a sample group status
report in memo format.
INDIVIDUAL STATUS REPORT MEMO

TO: P r o j e c t Manager
FROM: Y o u r First and Last Name
SUBJECT: Individual Progress Report
Outline 1:
Assignment: 1-2 sentence explanation regarding what you have been assigned to complete on the
group's project
Completed: 1-2 sentence explanation on what you have completed to date regarding your groups
pro;ect
Remaining: 3-5 sentences on what the individual has remaining to do on the team's project
Time line: Use a table, time line or chart showing the teams entire project and the individual's specific
assignments within the project
Problems Encountered or Anticipated: Explain in 1 paragraph
OR
Outline 2:
Introduction:
Summary of Activities:
Results of Activities;
Future Activities:
Expenses: Used when there is an expense report attached to a status report
Conclusion:
Figure 6.2 Individual Status Report in Memo Format.

GROUP STATUS REPORT MEMO

TO: P r o j e c t Manager
FROM: X Y Z Group (names of all group members in parentheses)
SUBJECT: G r o u p Status Report
PROJECT PURPOSE: I n one paragraph (3-5 sentences), succinctly state the purpose of the project.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES: T h e specific objectives of the project are as follows:

• Develop xyz product line
• Develop software to test
• State the main objectives of the project succinctly using 2-10 bulleted points
SCOPE OF PROJECT: T h e project is designed to

Set forth succinctly the scope of the project in one paragraph.
LIMITATIONS OF PROJECT: T h e scope of the project has limitations, specifically, those that follow:
• Bullet limitations. Be succinct.
PROJECT BEING DONE FOR: e . g . , upper management, another corporation—state

corporate partnership, group within corporation and be specific. Use one phrase to state who the
project is being done.
PROJECT START DATE:
PROJECT COMPLETE DATE:
Pr P r o b l s e m
Encountered/
Group W o r k A s s i g n m e n t W o r k W o r k P r o p o s e d
i.Members Assigned D u e Date C o m p l e t e d Remaining Resolutions
Name 1
Name 2
Name 3
Name 4
Name 5
Name 6
Table 1. Project Time Line, may use a Modified Gantt Time Line.
Figure 6.3 G r o u p Status Report in Memo Format (continued).

CHAPTER 6 REPORTS, PROPOSALS, AND WHITE PAPERS • 1 2 3
CONCLUSIONS: e . g . , "The project is on schedule. All problems encountered have been addressed
through the above solutions."
OR
e.g., "The following problems have been encountered and successfully dealt with per the above,
however, we have identified a few remaining problems as follows:
• Bullet problems remaining and proposed solutions and request guidance from Project Manager
or request meeting with Project Manager to discuss.
The project has run into the following unexpected changes:

• Bullet unexpected changes.
The group makes the following suggestions for dealing with the unexpected changes:
• Bullet suggestions for dealing with changes.
The group will complete the project on time and will submit their final project report on [insert final
project report due date]. The group will be prepared on that date to give a power point presentation
and will also be available for questions. Please let us know if you have any questions prior to this
date.'

124 * BUSINESS AND TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION
Final Project Reports

General Overview
After you have completed a project, but before you begin to celebrate, write
the final project report. The final project report may be preceded by a formal
slide show presentation before the upper-level managers so you can explain
key points within the final project report. Presentations will be discussed in
Chapter 8.
Formatting
You may format final project reports as letters, memos, informal o r formal
reports, but generally they are formatted as formal reports and will contain
all potential front and back matter in addition to elaborate reports, which will
include illustrations, tables, charts, and time lines.
All final project reports contain an introduction, discussion, conclusion, and
recommendations. The introduction elements of the final project report will
remain the same for all final project reports. The project parameters will deter-
mine the discussion elements, all of which should be included for review. The
team will determine which discussion elements are necessary for the final proj-
ect report to be thorough, clear, and concise. Do not eliminate an element from
the final project report because including it will require extra work. You would
rather your report be inclusive as the final project report will be used as the basis
to determine if additional research and development dollars will be invested
into new product lines, ideas, or services.
The conclusion and recommendations section will include the report sum-
mary and the recommendations elements. Table 6.6 sets forth all potential ele-
ments for consideration as part of the final project report.
Introduction
The introduction for the final report consists of three elements: background,
scope, and limitations. The background gives a historical context for the report
and introduces the laws and regulations and the codes and standards as a back-
drop for the report.
The scope and limitations of the project are identified in the introduction.
The scope is a brief explanation of what the project entails. It introduces the
project deliverables, which will be discussed in the body of the report. The limi-
tations are a crucial element in the introduction. Limitations tell the managers
reading the report what is not going to be discussed and what is not going to be
part of the deliverables. Together the scope and limitations define the boundar-
ies of the project and are essential in the final project report.
Discussion
The discussion section of the final report contains all of the information about
the deliverables and discusses the laws and regulations, codes and standards,
costs and benefits, future add-ons and developments, market conditions, and
marketability of the new idea/product/service being reported.
rurrPrIt MnrkPt Conditinn

The discussion generally begins with the current market conditions because cur-
rent market conditions reveal holes in technology, consumer desires, and needs
for ergonomics, speed, and better technology at an affordable price point.
Final Project Report Elements

Front Matter See Table 6.1.
Final Project Report 1. Title
2. Introduction
a. Background
b. Scope
c. Limitations
3. Discussion
a. Current market conditions
b. Laws and regulations
c. Codes and standards
d. Deliverables
i. Idea/Product/Service
Specifications
Materials list
iv. Gantt time line, including work schedules, tasks, goals, and
milestones
v. Design constraints
vi. Project modifications
vii. Project demonstration
e. Costs and benefits
i. Facilities
IL Equipment
Personnel
f. Future add-ons and developments
g. Marketability
4. Conclusion and recommendations
a. Conclusions
b. Recommendations
Back Matter S e e Table 6.2.
Table 6.6 Final Project Report Elements.
Laws and Regulations

Just because consumers are ready for new technology does not mean they will
be able to have it or that technology will be at a price point that the consumer
can afford. In addition, laws may prohibit the development of certain technolo-
gies, like personal satellites in space. Regulations by various governmental agen-
cies may also prohibit the development of certain technology. Therefore, you
need to explore and document the legal and regulatory constraints on technol-
ogy as part of the final project report. If no legal or regulatory constraints exist,
you should document that information as well in the final project report.
Codes and Standards

Codes and standards are similarto but different from laws and regulations. Codes
and standards are promulgated by professional associations and are designed
to make sure consumers, employees, companies and organizations work safely.

Codes may include codes of ethics, building codes, and technology codes, to
name a few. Standards are accepted practices and may or may not be reduced
to codes; however, they are essential as guidelines for acceptable business prac-
tices. Standards may include acceptable accounting principles, Underwriter's
Laboratory (UL) and other professional standards.
Deliverables
Perhaps the largest single section within the discussion will be the actual deliv-
erables of the project. The deliverables section includes a discussion of the idea/
product/service including the specifications and materials for the deliverables.
This section will include a Gantt or other time line that sets forth all of the objec-
tives, tasks, and deadlines.
In this section, document design constraints and limitations and tests and
outcomes will be documented, which reveal required modifications. Projects
change and evolve, and the original design may be inefficient and scrapped for a
more efficient and cost-effective design. You will need to explain and document
all of this within the final project report. Additionally, include a project demon-
stration, perhaps within the final project slide show presentation, or a separate
project demonstration at a test site for the client receiving the deliverables.
You will present costs and benefits related to facilities, equipment, and per-
sonnel associated with the project in this section. Costs and benefits may also
contain an analysis for the costs associated and anticipated for a larger project.
In many cases, you will present these costs in a comprehensive table that may
appear as an appendix; however, explain the costs in the discussion section of
the final project report.
You may also report future add-ons and developments discovered as part of
the project. The addition of this section will start the process for the next proj-
ect. Also, the marketability of the current project will be explored.
Conclusion and Recommendations

The conclusion will summarize the final project report and the recommenda-
tions will set forth succinct recommendations for:
• Next steps on the current project
• Future developments and add-ons
• Marketability
A sample of the front matter of a final project report from the cover through
the Executive Summary is shown in Figure 6.4.
FINAL REPORT TITLE

[Should be clear, concise. descriptive]
Prepared for:
First and Last Name of Recipient, Title
Company Name
Prepared by:
Team Name:
Team Members First and Last Names, Titles
[May include email and direct telephone for each team member]
DATE
[Final Report Date in words and numbers]
Figure 6.4 Final Report Front Matter (continued).

FINAL REPORT TITLE

[Title Fly contains the title of the final project only and is used in formal reports.]


1234 Universe Way * Tyler, TX 75000-9876 * 800-987-654-3210 * 001-801-555-1212 * Fax 801-555-1213
httpsll:wwwtardsi.com customerserviceatardsi.com
The future is now. Embrace it.
May 8, 2013
Via Fax No. 901-234-5678 and

Via Regular Mail
Jim Kirk, CEO T O P S E C R E T 0

RE: P r o j e c t Authorization - * 0
Hand-held Sonic Apparatus
Codename: Sonic Driver
Project Number: 123-456-987000
Dear Jim: . 4 - 0
State the "Good News—e.g. , Time and Relative Dimension Systems, Inc. is pleased to
award Stargazers Institute the design contract for the hand-held sonic apparatus. Stargaz-
ers Institute had the most forward thinking vision for the hand-held device.
Set forth the project parameters—e.g., The project parameters are set forth in the design
specifications, attached. Deliverables must be presented for first test on or before January
1, 2014, at the Time and Relative Dimensions Systems, Inc. rift site at Cardiff Wales, U.K.
Additionally, final test must be completed on or before September 11, 2015.
Conclude with summary and contact information—e.g., Time and Relative Dimension
Systems, Inc. looks forward to working with Stargazers Institute on this project. Should
there be any questions or concerns, please contact our Project Manager, Rose Tyler,
as she has great plans for this little device. She can be reached at rtyler@trdsi.com,
800-987-654-3210 x 123.
Sincerely,
Time and Relative Dimension Systems, Inc. - * 0
Dr. John Smith, President
Cc: R o s e Tyler, Project Manager 0

Attachment - 4 -
Figure 6.4 (continued),

1. Notation for fax number and delivery via regular mail is set forth before the addressee
information. This information is included as legal documentation for the transmittal of the
authorization.
2. Include "Top Secret" on documentation for all trade secret projects.
3. Include RE: or SUBJ: with relevant project information. In this case, the type letter, project
number, name, and code name are included.
4. U s e first names between good colleagues; however, use a colon in formal letters
(instead of the less formal use of a comma, which is reserved for email and/or personal
correspondence).
5. I f your company includes its name in the signature block, do so to be consistent. Additionally,
include a signature line with information regarding the signer printed under the signature line.
6. Include the names of persons receiving a copy of the correspondence but not included as
additional addressees in a "Cc" block.
7. I f paragraph 2 states that documents are attached, include an attachment with this letter.
Sometimes the notation is accompanied by a list of attachments should they not be set forth in
the letter or in the RE: or SUBJ: line, e.g.,
Attachment: Specifications
Diagrams
Personnel Contact Information

Stargazers Institute Telephone: 800-555-2553

1234 Enterprise Drive Facsimile: 901-234-5678
Fort Baker, CA 98765 www.stargazersinstedu
May 8, 2013
Dr. John Smith, President T O P S E C R E T

1234 Universe Way
Tyler, TX 75000-9876
RE: P r o j e c t Acceptance - 4 -
Dear John:
Confirm Acceptance—e.g., Stargazers Institute accepts the Hand-held Sonic Apparatus

(Code name.- Sonic Driver) Project Number: 123-456-987000, hereinafter "Sonic Driver"
Stargazers Institute looks forward to a long and prosperous relationship with Time and Rela-
tive Dimension Systems, Inc.
Clarify project understanding—e.g., As a clarification, the first test is scheduled for comple-
tion on or before January 1, 2014, at the Time and Relative Dimension Systems, Inc. Cardiff
Wales, U.K. location and not at the Tyler Texas, U.S.A., location. Stargazers Institute will be
making monthly status reports prior to the first test.
Summarize and include contact information—e.g., Stargazer Institute's Project Manager

will be our Chief of Science, D r Horatio Spock, P h . D . He may be reached directly
at hspockdoc@stargazersinst.com, 800-555-2553 x 2838 should you have any questions
regarding monthly status reports or other matters. Stargazers Institute looks forward to
this exciting adventure into the unknown reaches of science and mathematics.
Cheers,
James T. Kirk, CEO
Cc: H o r a t i o Spook, M.D., Ph.D. •

1, Match the date position with the style of the company letterhead. In this case, the date
appears left justified, which matches both the letterhead style and the block letter format,
2. Include "Top Secret" as required on all trade secret projects.
3. U s e RE: or SUBJ: to include relevant project information. In this case, the type letter, proj-
ect number, name, and code name are included.
instead of the less formal use of a comma, which is reserved for email and/or personal
correspondence.
5. Sign the letter here.
6. Include the "official" printed name of the company officer who signs the document. The
CEO, in this case, may sign his name in a more familiar way such as "Jim Kirk."
7. Include the names of additional recipients of the letter; in this case, the title of the addi-
tional recipient, is included in the "Cc" section.

Stargazers Institute Telephone: 800-555-2553

1234 Enterprise Drive Facsimile: 901-234-5678
Fort Baker, CA 98765 www.stargazersinstedu
January 15, 2016 - 4 -
Dr. John Smith, President T O P S E C R E T -*-

Time and Relative Dimension Systems. Inc.
1234 Universe Way
Tyler, TX 75000-9876
RE: F i n a l Report . 1 -
Dear John:
Sets forth the document being transmitted and attached to the letter. A l s o sets forth that
deadlines were met and other pertinent information—e.g. Stargazers Institute is pleased to
present its Final Report, attached, on the Hand-held Sonic Apparatus, Code Name: Sonic
Driver Project Number 123-456-987000. The project is brought to Time and Relative Dimen-
sion Systems, Inc. on time and within budget.
Sets forth project highlights—e.g., After several project design modifications required by test,
the final design works over spec. Specifically the sonic laser beam is able to cut through
carbonite steel in less than .001 seconds, which beats spec requirements. Additionally the
titanium casing is lightweight and flexible for field applications. T h e Final Report, attached,
sets forth the entire project. John, you have got to hold this Sonic Driver in your hand. I t s got
the power and elegance of a sword with the power capacity exceeding an F-18 fighter jet.
Sets forth good will for continued business relationship and contact information in addi-
tion to summarizing the current project. Formal presentation of the final report is offered,
if it is not already expected—e.g., Stargazers Institute looks forward to a long and pros-
perous relationship with Time and Relative Dimension Systems, Inc. Stargazers Institute
is available for presentation of this Final Report, including actual product demonstration
at either the Tyler Texas, U.S.A., or the Cardiff, Wales, U.K. locations of Time and Rela-
tive Dimension Systems, Inc. Should Time and Relative Dimension Systems, Inc. wish to
schedule a formal product demonstration and presentation, contact me at my direct line:
901-234-5671 or 800-555-2553 x 5671.
Sincerely,
James T. Kirk, CEO - * 0

Attachment - * 0

1. Match the date position with the style of the company letterhead. In this case, the date
appears left justified, which matches both the letterhead style and the block letter format.
2. Including "Top Secret" is required on all trade secret projects.
3. U s e RE: or SUBJ: with relevant project information. In this case, the type letter, project
number, name, and code name are included.
instead of the less formal use of a comma, which is reserved for email and personal
correspondence.
5. Sign the letter here.
6. Include the "official" printed name of the company officer who is signing the document.
The CEO, in this case, may sign his name in a more familiar way such as "Jim Kirk,"
7. Note "attachment" as this is a transmittal letter.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
List of Illustrations
Executive Summary 1
Introduction 2
Background 2
Scope 2
Limitations 2
Discussion
Current Market Conditions 3
Laws and Regulations 4
Codes and Standards 5
Deliverables 6
Idea/Product/Service 8
Specifications 8
Materials 9
Gantt time line, including work schedule, tasks,
goals and milestones 1 0
Design Constraints 1 1
Tests and Outcomes 1 3
Project Modifications 1 5
Project Demonstration 1 7
Costs and Benefits 1 9
Facilities 1 9
Equipment 2 0
Personnel 2 0
Future Add-Ons and Developments 2 2
Marketability 2 3
Conclusions and Recommendations 2 4

Conclusions 2 4
Recommendations 2 5
References 2 6
Appendices
Appendix 1. Team Resumes 2 7
Appendix 2. Technical Terms Glossary 3 2
Appendix 3. Business Terms Glossary 3 8
Appendix 4. Site Plan 3 9
Appendix 5. Project Financials 4 0
Figure 6.4 (continueo)

LISTS OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figures
Figure 1. Gantt time line 1 0
Figure 2. Design drawing 1 1
Tables
Table 1. Equipment Costs 2 0
Charts
Chart 1. Sales Projections 2 3

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The Executive Summary is also sometimes called an Abstract. It is the last document drafted and the
first document read after the Table of Contents and List of Illustrations.
The Executive Summary is the most important single document in the final report because busy
executives may just read this one document and pass on the project. It must be compelling and
cover the highlights of the entire project.
Use headings for Introduction, Discussion, and Conclusions and Recommendations. Under the Dis-
cussion heading, use necessary sub-headings to highlight the project strengths.

PROPOSALS
Proposals are the next document in the arsenal of a good technical and business
professional. You frequently begin a project by proposing to develop or explore
the development of new ideas, products, and services. Proposals may be open or
closed, solicited or unsolicited, and informal or formal.
After the organization or company has accepted a proposal for develop-
ment, a team will be assigned to the project. And the report process, as devel-
oped above, begins.
Request for Proposal (RFPs)

Sometimes, the organization does not have the resources or desire to acquire
the resources to prepare for a project. In this case, the entity may outsource its
project to the lowest bidder. Cities, counties, states, and the federal govern-
ment outsource their projects. These entities create "Requests for Proposals"
(RFPs), and companies within industries specific to the proposal area will bid on
these RFPs. Contracts are awarded frequently to the lowest bidder. Sometimes,
the lowest bidder is not selected because it is not a minority-owned business or
is not known for its quality or qualifications within the project area. RFPs can
require certain qualifications as pre-qualifiers for bid acceptance by the entity
seeking proposals.
Open vs. Closed

The bidding process in an RFP may be open or closed. In a closed bid, only certain
companies or service providers are requested to make a bid. In an open bid, the
bidding is open to all companies or services providers who meet the RFP criteria
to make a bid within the open bid period. Should bidders tie in winning the
bid, the RFP establishes how the corporation will break a tie—e.g., by personal
interview with the bidding company or service provider, by determining which
bidder was the last successful bidder for a project with the entity requesting the
current bid, or by other means.
Solicited vs. Unsolicited

Proposals are either solicited or unsolicited. Solicited proposals are responses to
RFPs or are solicited by upper-level managers to various teams and work groups
within a company. As an example, an internal, solicited proposal could be sent
to all teams and work groups within the Research and Development Depart-
ment of the company. When automakers are initiating new vehicle designs, they
solicit their research and development teams for proposals. This solicitation for
proposals may take the form of a letter of authorization, discussed more thor-
oughly in Chapter 5.
When an individual, team, or group sees the need to develop an idea, prod-
uct, or service line that the company is not currently pursuing but that would
fit in the company's product lines, that individual, team, or group may make an
unsolicited proposal to its upper-level managers. When this occurs, as the upper-
level managers have not requested the proposal, the proposal would be unsolic-
ited. Prior to sending Out any unsolicited proposal, you should contact the direct
line manager and receive permission to research and draft the proposal so it will
be received in a light most favorable to the unsolicited proposal. Unsolicited
proposals can be more challenging because the recipient does not yet recognize
the need for the proposed idea, product, or service. Therefore, the challenge is
to persuade the recipient that a need exists and then that the proposing party
has the best solution to that need.
Formatting
Proposals may be informal or formal. Informal proposals may be written in letter
or memo format and may be transmitted via email. An example of an informal
proposal is set forth in Figure 6.5.
MEMORANDUM
DATE: M a y 1, 2013
TO: A d r e s s e e , Title
FROM: Te a m Member 1, Team Member 2, Team Member 3, and Team Member 4
SUBJ: C o n f l i c t Resolution Certificate Program
Introduction
Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) has seen tremendous growth over the past 20 years as an alter-
native to lawsuits. To serve as a mediator in most states, individuals must undergo professional
training. In STATE, the statutory requirements for court-appointed mediation cases is 40 hours o f
basic training, with an additional 24 hours required to mediate family law disputes (although many
programs offer 30 hours) (Section 154.052, STATE Civil Practices and Remedies Code).
This proposal involves developing and offering a program designed to meet these requirements for
individuals who want to enter into private mediation practice, attorneys who want to expand their
current practices, potential mediators for community-based mediation centers, or organizations who
want to have a credentialed mediator on their Human Resources staff.
As a group, we have excellent relations with ORGANIZATION, the Dispute Resolution Center for the
COUNTY. They offer mediator training programs themselves (see below) but currently have wait-
ing lists of approximately eight to 15 people per month for both the basic and family programs. We
anticipate lump-starting this program by recruiting students from these waiting lists, and employing
their CEO and TRAINING DIRECTOR as instructors in the course. The immediate overflow would be
96-180 students per year in total.
Eventually we hope to expand demand for these programs both by stealing share from the local
competition (see below) and by creating significant value for our graduates.
Current Landscape
Three local organizations currently offer similar mediation training. UNIVERSITY 1 offers certificate
programs in mediation. Their 40-hour course costs $0.00. Their 30 hour (family) course costs $0.00.
More details can be found at: http://wvvw.address.
UNIVERSITY 2 offers a MA, graduate certificate and ad-hoc professional seminars in Dispute
Resolution and Conflict Management. The graduate certificate requires 21 credit hours, and the
MA requires 42 credit hours. Note that three credit hours (approximately) meets the 40 clock-hour
requirements. Each credit-hour costs $0.00 if enrolled in the MA or graduate certificate programs
and $0.00 if taken on an ad-hoc (non-credit) basis. Thus achieving the required 40 hour training
would cost between $0.00 and $0.00 at UNIVERSITY 2's program. More details can be found at:
http://www,address.
Figure 6.5 Informal Proposal (continued),

ORGANIZATION is the Dispute Resolution Center for COUNTY. They offer mediation training as part
of their programs. Their 40 hour course costs $0.00. Their 30 hour (family) course costs $0.00. They
offer a 25% discount for taking both for a total financial outlay of $0.00 for both courses. More details
can be found at: http://www.address.
Proposed Rates and Logistics
We propose beginning this program by offering similar pricing and levels of service as offered by
ORGANIZATION. We anticipate charging $0.00 per participant for the 40 hour course, and $0.00
per participant for the 24 hour course. ORGANIZATION currently offers courses with 12 students
each, but we believe that a course of 20 students will be both sustainable and more profitable. If we
enrolled all the students on the ORGANIZATION waiting list each year (96-180) and offered a course
of size 20 we would be offering between five and nine courses per year.
We hope to be able to teach the basic course over five, eight-hour days. Friday and weekend class
times will enable working professionals to attend; ORGANIZATION currently offers its courses 9am-
5pm Thursdays through Mondays (the next course is scheduled for DATES). We believe that offer-
ing a course which meets eight hours each day over three weekends (e.g. Friday/Saturday. Friday/
Saturday, Friday) will increase the appeal for this audience.
We hope to be able to teach the family course over three, 8 hour days as the statutory requirements
require eight (8) hours of training in three separate family-related subjects. ORGANIZATION offers its
courses 9am-4:30pm Wednesdays through Saturdays, yielding 30 hours (the next course is sched-
uled for DATES). We would hope to offer this course over two consecutive weekends (e.g. Saturday,
Friday/Saturday), and ideally back-to-back with the basic course. Thus a student could complete
both courses over four consecutive weekends.
Profit Estimates
For each set of "x" students in the basic course, we estimate:
Tuition Revenue: $0.00 x "x" $ 0 . 0 0
Costs: 25% for SCHOOL: $ 0 . 0 0

9% for PROGRAM: $ 0 . 0 0
Instructors: $0.00/day $ 0 . 0 0 (divided among multiple instructors)
Coffee breaks: $0.00/day $ 0 . 0 0
Lunches: $0.00/day $ 0 . 0 0
Course materials: $0.00/student $0.00
Total costs $ 0 . 0 0
Profit: $ 0 . 0 0 / s e c t i o n of "x" students

For each set of "x" students in the family course, we estimate:
Tuition Revenue: SOx "x" $ 0 . 0 0
Costs: 25% for SCHOOL: $0.00

9% for PROGRAM: $0.00
Instructors: $0.00/day $0.00 (may be split among multiple
instructors)
Coffee breaks: $0.00/day $ 0 . 0 0
Lunches: $0.00/day $ 0 . 0 0
Course materials: $0.00/student $0.00
Total costs $ 0 . 0 0
Profit: $ 0 . 0 0 / s e c t i o n of "x" students
We anticipate having only minimal advertising expenses at the start of this program, as we will be
primarily recruiting from the ORGANIZATION waiting list. Once the programs are up and running,
we hope to build a cushion of expenses to cover advertising and other ancillary expenses.
Future Expansion
Continuing Education Credit: Professional mediators and attorneys must maintain a minimum of
15 hours per year of continuing education credit for continued membership in the STATE Media-
tor Credentialing Association (SMCA). If our initial program is successful, offering an additional
credentialing program (both to our pool of graduates and to other qualified professionals) would
provide a possible additional source of revenue.
Distance Learning: Currently almost all mediation training programs are taught in-person. However,
there is some evidence of demand for a distance-education version of these programs. TEAM
MEMBER 2 met with current students of the UNIVERSITY 2 Conflict Resolution Program who live in
Kansas and other areas of Texas. These students claim that a contingent of UNIVERSITY 2's current
students would prefer a distance learning (or blended learning) program were one available.
Each of these expansion possibilities would require its own market analysis before launching.
Nonetheless, we believe they have potential to expand our audience and the profitability of the
program more generally.
Qualifications
The current team members are qualified to teach and manage this program.
TEAM MEMBER 1: TEAM MEMBER 1 i s a w i t h the following qualifications.

[e.g. write a short paragraph (three to five sentences) introducing qualifications].

TEAM MEMBER 2: TEAM MEMBER 2 is a with the following qualifications. [e.g. write
a short paragraph (three to five sentences) introducing qualifications].

Formal proposals require that you use a formal proposal format. The formal
proposal format will include front matter, back matter, and the proposal. The
proposal will be divided into three parts: introduction, discussion, and conclu-
sion and recommendations.
Because proposals are designed to persuade, they address the current needs
within the company from the company's clients or from the general public. Pro-
posals pose solutions, forecast market conditions, and make recommendations
for moving forward. The elements of a formal proposal are contained in Table 6.7.
Discussion
In this section, the discussion elements are similar but not the same as the formal
project report elements. One of the biggest changes is that you should include
a section on the qualifications o f both the organization submitting the pro-
posal and the team members working on the proposal. The qualifications sec-
tion shows how this company and team are the most qualified for the proposed
project, should the proposal be accepted.
An example of a formal proposal presented to the judiciary of a county
from the alternative dispute resolution section of that county's bar association
is included as Figure 6.6. As you can see from this sample, not all of the ele-
ments in the above outline are included or are addressed lightly. Remember, you
design each proposal for a particular audience to ensure the highest probability
of success. The better you know the audience, the closer the writer may tailor
the proposal to the specific needs, desires, and expectations of the audience.
Form! Proposal Elements

Front Matter S e e Table 6.1.
Formal Proposal Elements 1. Introduction
a. Background
b. Scope
c. Limitations
2, Discussion
a. Market trends and developments
b. Problem(s)
c. Solutions(s)
d. Costs and benefits
Facilities
Equipment
Personnel
e. Qualifications
i. Company
All team members
3. Conclusion and recommendations
a. Conclusion
b. Recommendations
Back Matter S e e Table 6.2.
Table 6.7 Formal Proposal Elements.
Alternative Dispute Resolution Case Referral System for County
Presented to:
District Judges
County, State
Presented by:
Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) Section Executive Committee

Team Member 1
Team Member 2
Team Member 3
Team Member 4
Presentation Date: June 1, 2013
Figure 6.6 Formal Proposal (continued).


Table of Contents
Executive Summary 1
Introduction 2
Discussion
Early Mediation Referral By Courts 4

District Judges Revise Current Order to Mediation 4
Phase 1 4
MSP List Components 5

MSP List Delivery and Update 5
MSP List Mediator Materials 5
District Court Referral Options 5
Additional Referral Options 5
Phase 2 5
University Compliance With Pro Bono Guidelines 5

University Quarterly Reports to District Courts 6
County Guidelines for Referral of Cases: Status Quo 6
County Guidelines for Referral of Cases: Requested Change 6
Exit Survey 6
Phase 3 7
County Bar Executive Director Manage Courts Mediation Referral Program 7

Partial Funding of Executive Director through ADR Section Membership Dues 7
Conclusion 8
References 9
*Appendices
Appendix 1—MSP ListApplication 1 0
Appendix2—ExitSurvey 1 1
Appendix 3— Pro Bono Referral Report Form 1 3
Appendix 4—Application for Reduced Fee Mediation 1 5
Appendix 5— Guidelines for Referral of Cases 1 7
'Appendices have not been included in this sample unsolicited, formal proposal

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Status Quo
The ADR Section proposed changes to the requirements for inclusion on the Mediator Service Pro-
vider List (MSP List) including more stringent requirements for number of cases mediated, Continuing
Legal Education (CLE), membership in a second ADR organization, and a commitment to reduced
fee cases. The ADR Section discussed the need for early and more frequent mediation referrals and
increased use of other ADR models. Additionally, the ADR Section addressed the deficiencies of the
current referral model for all of County's current ADR referral needs.
Program Requirements: "One-Stop-Shopping"
The District Judges request "one-stop-shopping" by developing a program to:

• Serve as the primary referral source for all Court annexed mediations
• Use a MSP List equitable rotating system
• Match cases to mediator specific skills
• Assure timely follow up and reporting on all referred cases
• Provide Courts with statistical reports on mediation outcomes
• Maintain a current MSP List
• Collect any necessary fees to implement the referral system
Recommendation: Phased in Referral Program
The ADR Section believes a three-phase referral program is the most effective, expedient, and flex-
ible solution for both interim and future ADR services in County. With a phased in approach, the ADR
Section can immediately service the needs of the Courts regarding referrals while carefully designing
a plan for the future, including a more dynamic role for the growth of ADR in the County.

INTRODUCTION
Status Quo: DRCs and Private Service Providers
The ADR Section reviewed the functionality of statutory Dispute Resolution Centers (DRC) in coun-
ties that additionally have an active alternative dispute resolution service provider community. It was
noticed that in counties that have a DRC, there is also an active alternative dispute resolution com-
munity, including service providers in: mediation, arbitration, summary jury trials, and collaborative
law. The DRC and the active alternative dispute resolution community survive in their symbiotic rela-
tionship as the judiciary is also very active. The judiciary makes its decision from the bench regarding
referral of cases to mediation, either to the DRC or to private alternative dispute resolution providers.
Statutory DRCs
It is noted that statutory DRCs do not refer their cases Out to private mediators for mediation. Statu-
tory DRCs keep all cases referred to them in-house for mediation. Statutory DRCs use volunteer
mediators, who are able to receive Court appointed mediations due to the volunteer mediator's will-
ingness to provide services free of charge to their county's DRC. And, statutory DRCs receive fund-
ing from the County Commissioner's Court through and up to $15 filing fee per case collected by the
County Clerk.
Judges Decision on Pro Bono v. Experienced Private Mediator
In statutory DRC counties, the bench is in the best position to decide whether the case is appropriate
for pro bona mediation or whether the case is more suitable for a more experienced private media-
tor. The parties are always free to: (1) present the Court with an agreed order for referral to the DRC
(when the parties determine they qualify for DRC services) or (2) an agreed order for referral to a
different private mediation service provider.
University Serving As Quasi DRC
County does not have a statutory DRC, however, University has stated that they are positioning
themselves in the County market as a quasi-DRC service provider. University is therefore placed in
an untenable position. A DRC keeps all cases referred to them from the Courts in-house, whereas,
University must refer all cases not meeting the current criteria for pro bono services out of their realm,
an act which is contrary to the functions of a DRC, or a quasi-DRC in this case.
The County Judiciary is in the best position to alleviate the untenable position that University has
been placed in by making referrals to both University and Qualified Private Service Providers on the
MSP List. All MSP List mediators have made a commitment to support the training goals of University
and the lower income needs of the citizens of County by providing co-mediations and observations
for University student mediators.
The solution for a strong symbiotic relationship is a strong MSP List, a strong quasi-DRC (University)
and a strong judiciary.

DISCUSSION
Early Mediation Referral By Courts
Statistically, "65% of cases settled when ADR was used, but only 29% of cases settled when it was
not. This difference provides some support for claims that ADR is a better process than litigation for
producing settlements among disputing parties T o r t cases were significantly more likely to settle
than employment discrimination cases (73% vs. 60%).1 Further, when ADR is used early in the case
process, the case reaches resolution more quickly.'
Satisfaction with the mediator, with the process and willingness to buy into their own solutions to their
problems makes early intervention mediation successful as shown above in the SMP program. Unfor-
tunately, due to attorneys wanting to complete their discovery and crank up billable hours, mediation
has taken a back burner in court appointed mediation cases.
It is well understood among practicing attorneys that up to 90% of what the case is about is known
before filing or within two months after filing the case. Why wait to have discovery completed before
ordering the parties to mediation? Therefore, proposed changes in when mediation occurs include:
• Court Orders issued for mediation early in the process
• Court Orders requiring completion of mediation early in process
District Judges Revise Current Order to Mediation
For a successful program, the District Judges would revise their Current Order to Mediation stating
in part that:
• Mediators must complete mediation within 90 days of Order date
• Mediators shall set the case for mediation within 30 days of Court's Order date
• Counsel must send Mediator a copy of any Agreed Motion to Appoint Alternative Mediator
concurrent with filing same with the Court
• Mediators who identify a pro bono case shall make a written report to the Court that they have
referred the case to University
Three Phase Solution
Phase 1: District Courts Receive Updated MSP List
MSP List Components

The ADR Section will deliver a current MSP List to both the District Courts and University on or
about DATE for use in referring cases to private mediators. The MSP List Application, see Appen-
dix 1, shall delineate the mediator's qualifications and contact information, including:
• Name, address, telephone, email address and web addresses in hyperlink
• Training (civil, family, CPS, other)
'Bingham, Lisa Blomgren, ID., Tina Nabatchi, Ph.D., Jeffrey M. Senger, J.D. & Michael Scott Jackman. M,RA (2009).
'Dispute Resolution and the Vanishing Trial: Comparing Federal Government Litigation and ADR Outcomes", Ohio
Slate Journal on Dispute Resolution, Vol. 24:2 2009, P. 258-259,
2Ibid, p. 259,

Experience (number of cases completed)

• Areas of practice
• Commitment to pro bono mediation services
MSP List Delivery and Update

The new MSP List shall be:
• Updated annually
• Delivered to Courts in both electronic and hard copy
MSP List Mediator Materials

Each MSP List mediator will be provided the following forms:
• Exit Survey, see Appendix 2

• Pro Bono Referral Report Form, see Appendix 3
• Application for Reduced Fee Mediation, see Appendix 4
• Guidelines for Referral of Cases, see Appendix 5
District Court Referral Options

District Courts remain in control of choice. They may refer cases to either MSP List professional
mediators or to University for student mediators.
Additional Referral Options

MSP List mediators who have been referred a case by the Court which meets the reduced fee criteria
shall immediately refer that case to University and make a report to the Court regarding their referral
of the case to University.
When University identifies a case outside the criteria for reduced fee mediation, University shall
immediately refer that case to MSP List mediators using a rotating referral system and make a report
to the Court regarding said referral.
Phase 2: University Functionality As Quasi DRC
University Compliance With Pro Bono Guidelines

University shall maintain compliance with current pro bono mediator service requirements estab-
lished by County Commissioner's Court in conjunction with the District Courts. University shall be
required to make referral of all cases not in compliance with current pro bono requirements to MSP
List mediators with an accompanying report to the referring District Court. Electronic transmission
to the mediator is sufficient for notification of referral of the case from University, however, a written
report must be made to the District Court.

University Quarterly Reports to District Courts

University shall make quarterly reports to the District Courts on the first working day of January, April,
June and September. The quarterly reports shall contain the following information:
• Number of cases received from Courts
• Number of cases mediated by University
• Case outcomes
• Mediator satisfaction, per the Exit Survey
County Guidelines for Referral of Cases. Status Quo

The current contractual guidelines for referral to private mediation are as follows:
• In civil cases, amount in controversy does not exceed $25,000, the plaintiff's income does not
exceed $40,000 and the defendant's income does not exceed $40,000
• In family law cases, the combined income of husband and wife does not exceed $40,000
County Guidelines for Referral of Cases. Requested Change

As County's case load increases and as County's referral of cases to private mediator service pro-
viders dwindles even though County's median income and case size shows not all cases should be
referred to University as a quasi DRC. Revisions to the guidelines for referral of cases to mediation
are attached as Appendix 5.
Exit Survey
An Exit Survey, attached as Appendix 2, has been designed for voluntary use by all participants
in mediation regardless of whether they receive mediation services at University or through private
mediation service providers. The exit survey is designed to determine the participant's satisfaction
with the mediator, the process and the outcome.
Phase 3: Bar Association Executive Director
County Bar Executive Director Manage Court's Mediation Referral Program

It is proposed the Executive Director of the County bar association act as a manager of the Court's
Mediation Referral Program. The duties and responsibilities of this functionality shall be determined
by the County Bar Association, the District Judges and the County Commissioners at a later date.
Partial Funding of Executive Director through ADR Section Membership Dues

The ADR Section suggests a percentage of their annual membership dues be used for the Executive
Director's salary.

CONCLUSION
The ADR Section believes that an immediate return to an updated and more detailed MSP List would
be a positive outcome for mediators, District Courts, the Bar, litigants and the citizens of County.
University should retain its roll as a quasi-DRC in County thus providing its mediation students with
the maximum benefit from their classroom skills and offering an invaluable service to the ow income
community. The ADR Section is committed to collaborating with the University program by provid-
ing observation time and co-mediation (student paired with experienced mediator) to the pro bonol
reduced fee litigants in County. Each ADR Section member shall commit to providing two or more
reduced fee co-mediations and/or student observations per calendar year if requested by University.
The ADR Section will propose collaboration with the County Bar Association by sharing the cost of an
Executive Director responsible for managing the ADR Referral Program.
Finally, the ADR Section respectfully requests the District Courts consider referring cases to media-
tion or other ADR models earlier in the case history and more frequently than is currently the practice.

Bibliography
1Bingham, Lisa Blomgren, JD., Tina Nabatchi, Ph.D., Jeffrey M. Senger, J.D, & Michael Scott
Jackman, M.P.A. (2009). "Dispute Resolution and the Vanishing Trial: Comparing Federal Govern-
ment Litigation and ADR Outcomes", Ohio State Journal on Dispute Resolution, Vol. 24:2 2009,
p. 258-259.
p. 259.

WHITE PAPERS
White papers are the last of the big three documents that use both front matter
and back matter. White papers are also known as policy papers, position papers,
technology papers, product papers, or issue papers. They clearly and concisely
state a company's policy or position about a specific subject. When used in a
technical paper, they explain the architecture, framework, or technology with-
out getting into specifics. White papers may also state a problem and offer a
well-thought-out solution to a problem.
For example, in regard to governments, the landscape o f current events
changes daily and can cause nations to change their policies regarding how they
deal with other nations. In technology-based companies, white papers are used
to explain theoretical ideas and concepts and are springboards for research and
development teams.
You may also submit a white paper to a professional organization as a con-
ference paper or panel discussion. When submitted, white papers serve as an
introduction of an idea to a wider, professional audience. By their nature, white
papers are generally short and do not exceed three to ten pages. The elements
of a white paper are set forth in Table 6.8.
Alternative scenarios may need to be documented as various solutions to a
problem may in effect create a different scenario that in turn will also need analysis.
White Paper Elements

Front Matter Generally limited to Cover. Table of Contents and List of
Illustrations. (Table of Contents and List of Illustrations will be
on one page.)
White Paper Elements 1. Introduction of current situation
2. Problem statement
3. Proposed solutions
a. Short-term solutions
b. Long-term solutions
4. Alternative Scenarios
5. Conclusions and Recommendations
Back Matter G e n e r a l l y limited to: References, calculations, essential time lines,
graphs and charts
Table 6.8 White Paper Elements.
CONCLUSION
In this chapter we have reviewed the three most commonly used "work horse"
documents of all projects: reports, proposals, and white papers. The formats in this
chapter are not the only way; they are just one way for organizing the documents.
We have explored the formats for feasibility, lab/test, status, and final project
reports. We have looked at the differences between proposals and requests for
proposals (RFP). And, we have reviewed the purpose and formatting for white
papers. Each of the three—reports, proposals, and white papers—are essential
elements of an effective communicator's written communication arsenal.
EXERCISES
1. Write a formal proposal for a Fortune 500 company. Assume you are an employee of this
company and have been selected by your manager to propose the next big idea, service, or
product for the company. Remember to use facts and research to be persuasive. You must
also use illustrations, front matter and back matter and limit the document to 20 pages.
2. Write an informal feasibility report. Assume you are an employee of a Fortune 500 company
and your direct supervisor has selected you for the research and writing of a three- to
five-page report on whether it is feasible for the company to roll out its next game before
October 1 of this year. Support your determination with researched facts beyond an initial
web search.
3. Write a two- to four-page individual status report on your team's final project.
4. Write a two- to four-page group status report on your team's final project.
5. Write a 15-20 page final report on a team project. Your team has been tasked with writing
a report on the company's "next big thing," which can be an idea, service, or product and
may be either technical or business related. Assumptions: Your team is a work group within
a Fortune 500 company. Your team will be making a slide presentation to present to the
upper-level managers after the final report is completed.
6. Write a lab/test report using the format set forth in this chapter. Choose your topic from a
current course being taken at your university.
7. Write a three- to five-page white paper on a cutting-edge science, technology, engineering,

or mathematics topic that will be used to determine whether you will be selected to present
your entire research to a very important industry conference.
8. Write a seven- to ten-page formal grant proposal that will determine whether your research
will be funded by either a private or public grant foundation such as the National Science
Foundation or the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.
9. Scenario. The company is opening up a new international market in the Pacific Rim. The
potential expansion could be a multibillion-dollar return on a multimillion-dollar investment
by the company. You have been tasked with the lead on the expansion. You will have to
make many connections in many countries over the next six months. What communication
forms and formats will you use and why? Write an informal proposal to your manager
explaining your approach. Support your work with research using proper citation format
chosen by your instructor or university.
157
CHAPTER 7
S TA N D A L O N E A N D
S U P P L E M E N TA L
DOCUMENTS
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INTRODUCTION
Definitions and glossaries, instructions and specifications, statements of work,
policies and procedures, and manuals are all essential documents for writers in
business and technical professions. All of these documents may function either
as stand alone or as supplemental documents. As stand alone documents, they
may function as the basis for contracts between businesses, organizations, and
159
enterprises. As supplemental documents, they may function as supporting docu-

mentation to contracts, reports, proposals, and deliverables. Each of these docu-
ments provides technical and business professionals with the highest degree of
understanding of the depth and breadth of the company's or organization's
projects—past, current, and future. This chapter will provide background and
instruction on how to write each of these documents.
DEFINITIONS AND GLOSSARIES

Definitions
Each new technology forces the creation of new words, which are added to the
lexicon of the profession, the client, and the general public. In the late 1970s and
early 19805, few people understood what a central processing unit (CPU) was.
Now, you would struggle to find an elementary school student in an industrial-
ized country who does not know what a CPU is.
Definitions play a key role in general understanding. Once a word is defined,
everyone using that terminology has an immediate understanding and all are
communicating on common ground. Each field within the technical and busi-
ness professions has its own language. Lawyers speak legalese, engineers speak
engineering; mathematics and physics speak in equations, algorithms, and theo-
rems; and business professionals in marketing, management, and finance speak
in business terminology.
The purpose of understanding how to write new word definitions is not to
create budding lexicographers among business and technical professionals. The
purpose is to provide initiation in writing extended definitions used when new
technology is created and when new ways of doing business arise. When CPU
was first coined, it was given an extended definition. After more than 30 years
of use, the term CPU is rarely seen in definitions or glossaries, the term is now in
common use. If you see it in a glossary of terms, you will note that the definition
is reduced to a very brief definition.
If you look into any reputable dictionary, such asthe Oxford English Dictionary,
Merriam-Webster's Dictionary, or Black's Law Dictionary, you will find that all
extended definitions have eight elements in common:
1 Word origin
2. Word history
3. Examples
4. Negation
5. Division into parts
6. Similarities and differences
7. Analogy
8. Graphics
Word Origin
Word origin gives an explanation of where a word comes from. In many cases,
the word origin comes from Latin, Greek, Old English, Old French, or Old Ger-
man. The origin of the word, its etymology, and how the word appears in its
CHAPTER 7 STAND ALONE AND SUPPLEMENTAL DOCUMENTS • 161
original form are set forth. With new technology, terms may not have an origin
that can be connected back to some obscure language usage.
Word History
For technology terms, word history may be a more accurate starting point because
the term may be derived from a description of its actual function, as with CPU.
Regardless, if you write an extended definition, you should first consider word
origin before moving to word history. The word history is a short-form history
of the word's actual usage. Instead of calling something "x" on a project, the
project team may call it a mouse because of its small body being about the size
of a mouse and the shape of the wire, which makes its tail.
Examples
The third element of an extended definition is using the word in a sentence.
Using the word in context in a sentence helps other professionals and the gen-
eral public to get an understanding of the meaning of the word.
Negation
Negation is defining a word by explaining what the word is not. For example, a
mouse is not a rat or a cat or a dog. This negation may be simplistic and sound
more like Dr. Seuss than a definition, but the comparison helps the audience of
both technical and business professionals and the general end user public under-
stand the meaning of the word.
Division into Parts

Sometimes the best explanation of what something is, and hence, integral to its
extended definition, is to define the new terminology by dividing it into parts. A
personal computer (PC) consists of a monitor, keyboard, mouse, and CPU. In the
first glossary of terms, all of these words would have received extended defini-
tion treatment.
Similarities and Differences

Defining a term by stating what the term is like and what it is not like can make
the new term easily understood. The comparison can be made between concrete
objects or equipment, concepts, algorithms, or other elements that are used.
For example, a motorcycle is similar to a bicycle because it has two wheels and
is made for single passenger use, but it differs from a bicycle because it has an
engine, making the two-wheel, single-passenger vehicle a motorized bicycle or
motorcycle.
Analogy
An analogy is an extended comparison of the new QUICKTIP
terminology with something that differs and yet
has some similar qualities. For example, an armored Graphics can pull double duty as
personnel carrier (APC) is similar to a soccer mom's • Pictures of the term being defined and
• Diagrams of division into parts.
minivan. Both are vehicles designed to carry multiple
persons and their equipment. Of course, an APC is not a minivan and when the
diagrams, schematics, specifications, and blueprints are revealed, the differences
become apparent.
Graphics
Graphics are essential for extended definitions. Diagrams, schematics, specifica-
tions, materials lists, blueprints, graphs, tables, and charts aid in the explana-
tion and are essential for technical definitions and business processes. All of the
graphics must meet industry standards and principles.
After each new word has an extended definition with the eight elements,
the new words are placed into a glossary of terms and attached as back matter
to a final project report or proposal or placed into a new dictionary of technical
terminology for a certain industry.
Glossaries
.. -11-vi - ,.no,L v •,A glossary is a compilation of extended
. ) 0 1 Z S I . ' % foN.Oh'°)% n ' d e f i n i t i o n s t h a t are placed into alpha-
I ' b e t i c a l order. Glossaries create a quick
‘ossA , a , t O I N °S
1
°11
reference tool to the terms and content
10 V D _ OOSS o f a book o r manual. Glossaries may
est\ \Cic 6 4 t Ng "s St i(1:1 s t a n d alone as dictionaries or they may
be supplemental documents for reports,
Whtt 6 p r o p o s a l s , manuals a n d deliverables.
Xlat. Glossaries appear i n legal documents
11):?i-S\-.C\°\;:a13.6;:cCe_N.- C I : 2:'-' -Eci' l-i: defining terms
also
s eappear
contained
i r ai n sstatutes
i nscontracts.
o l and
G
_ gwVeViN \•() -N9t:CO' °e-, 12-\()' :VIE, ':legislation. Glossaries are very informa-
tive when read as separate documents
Glossaries
because they will give an understanding of the breadth of the topic area. They
are also useful as an appendix to a report, proposal, or manual. Glossaries are
essential f o r understanding new technologies, principles, and concepts and
therefore should be considered for inclusion when drafting any manual, pro-
posal, or report.
INSTRUCTIONS AND SPECIFICATIONS

Instructions
All consumer products and services have instructions. Instructions
may range from equipment installation for a server farm or to simple
instructions for putting together store-bought furniture. Instructions
can also be given to employees at work or may appear as orders in
the military. Instructions are an integral part of everyday life.
Everyone has endured badly written instructions. Opening the
instructions contained in the box with the new flat panel HD TV
brings with it a bit of trepidation because some of the instructions
are so convoluted that the average consumer cannot accomplish the
task without extreme frustration. Perhaps poor instructions are the
strategy of an industry of installation professionals

or the result of companies failing to write clear, con- QUICKTIP
cise, and easy-to-understand instructions. Regard- Simple instructions may use pictures to
less, if the consumer wants to assemble something, scale instead of complicated parts lists.
that consumer must be able to follow the instruc-
tions and complete the installation.
Good instructions all have similarities. They all have the following seven
elements:
1. List of equipment specifications
2. List of tools required for task completion
3. Diagrams identifying parts
4. Step-by-step process for task completion
5. Clear and concise language
6. Technical support and manufacturer contact information
7. Safety information
Before writing instructions, you must identify the person or persons who will
receive the instructions. Instructions for a child are different than instructions
for a college student. In essence, you must consider the audience's knowledge
and experience and write instructions for that specific audience's comprehen-
sion. Instructions for a professional audience differ from those for an end user.
In short, use the seven elements for good instructions and draft for the audi-
ence who will be receiving and using the instructions. Eliminate any instruction
in professional shorthand if the instruction is for a non-technical or non-business
audience. Draw a picture, use simple words, and always consider the needs of
the audience.
Specifications
Specifications, also known as "specs," are lists of specific requirements for build-
ing, repairing, maintaining, and using technical equipment, consumer products,
and certain services including water, electric, gas, cable, and fiber optic services.
When the functionality is working properly, it is "in spec," and when it is mal-
functioning, it is "out of spec" or 005.
Specifications are standardized expectations f o r functionality o f equip-
ment after rigorous testing of that equipment in extreme conditions. Anything
that has been standardized has a specification. All foods with labels on them,
all medications and over-the-counter medications, vitamins, and minerals, all
equipment for consumer use subject to Underwriter's Laboratory and/or Good
Housekeeping seals have specifications.
Technical professionals must understand hardware and software specifica-
tions. Without specs, a technical professional will not know how far the equip-
ment can be pushed before breaking down, overheating, or destroying data.
When a computer is overclocked, it will need a more robust cooling system to
compensate for the heat generated by the processor speed. Without specs, the
overclocking could potentially fry the hard drive.
New ships have a "shake down" cruise to check Out all equipment in the ship
and the ship itself determining whether the ship functions in spec, under spec,
or over spec. Sailors want to know how far over spec a ship can sail because
not all days at sea are sunny, and ships must sail under all weather conditions.
Military ships must also be able to function over spec in potential combat or
other extreme conditions. Hence, specifications are critical f o r all technical
professionals.
Key specifications may be reduced to a specifications sheet which may either
be a stand alone or supplemental document to deliverables. Whenever consum-
ers "build" their new computers from online retail stores of their favorite com-
puter companies, the consumers receive specification sheets on their new builds.
Garners want better video cards; business professionals want more SDRAM and
faster CPUs along with backup systems and firewalls for data encryption and
protection. Technical professionals, who must ensure that all business comput-
ers function properly 2417, must maintain and repair equipment (mobile devices
to server farms) and create firewalls and data encryption, all of which requires
knowing and understand specifications.
In writing specifications, the professional must include:
1. List of equipment parts, including serial numbers
2. Schematics or blueprints showing part placement
3. Description of functionality of all parts, including tables and charts
4. Written explanation of functionality
Specifications appear in repair and maintenance manuals and user or opera-
tor manuals. Without the standard set forth in specifications, equipment might
not run smoothly, and without equipment running smoothly, business and tech-
nology would not move forward. Specifications are also a part of the Statement
of Work because the parties will set forth what is required for the deliverables
to work in spec.
STATEMENT OF WORK
Definition
The Statement of Work (SOW) can set up the parties for failure and potential
litigation over millions of dollars of losses in time, materials, personnel, and
deliverables. The SOW sets forth the duties and responsibilities of all the parties
from project start to project delivery and conclusion. The SOW may stand as a
separate document or may be an exhibit or supplemental document attached to
a contract or other agreement between the parties.
Statements of work may be as short as one page or as long as 50 pages depend-
ing on the technical requirements and specifications which may either be con-
tained within the SOW or as attachments to the SOW. The SOW containing several
attachments may have front matter and back matter as set forth in Chapter 6.
Elements
A well-written SOW will have the following common elements:
1. Parties
2. Major milestones and deliverables
3. Testing
4. Tasks
5. Cost of resources
6. Payment schedule
7. Period for performance
&Special requirements
Parties
Setting forth the parties to the SOW may seem silly, however, it is not. It is advis-
able to specifically state the parties to the statement of work when the SOW
stands as a separate agreement and is not an attachment to a contemporane-
ously signed agreement between the parties. Companies have divisions, parent
companies, subsidiaries, or other entities and when the parties to the SOW are
fully defined, there is no mistake regarding whom to look to for performance
under the SOW.
Major Milestones and Deliverables

Major milestones and final deliverables are defined with specificity in the SOW.
Milestones and deliverables should be described in detail so there is no mis-
understanding on what must be delivered. Delivery dates are set forth clearly
within the SOW. The delivery date and place is set forth either as a specific date
and time or as a flexible date and time. When the SOW states, "Final deliver-
ables are due at the Dallas, Texas, facility at 12:00 noon CST on December 1,
2014," that is a specific delivery time and date that is not flexible. When the
SOW states, "The first milestone is due on or about December 1, 2014," that is a
flexible delivery date.
Testing
Testing should be set forth clearly in the SOW. There can be many stages of test-
ing involved in software, hardware, parts, and equipment deliverables. Before
the United States Air Force takes delivery on a new fighter jet, the parties will
have taken every material, every part, and the entire jet itself through a rigor-
ous series of tests. Whenever a new product is delivered and before it is put into
full production, there will be a critical testing phase where that deliverable will
be required to work at a minimum of in spec and will be expected to work for
a period of time over spec. Deliverables performing under spec will likely be
unacceptable and will require redesign. The party responsible for the expense
for under spec deliverables and the party paying for the redesign should be set
forth in the SOW. If not, it could cause multi-million dollar litigation.
Tasks
Tasks that support deliverables, like service manuals and product support take
time to create and cost money. The SOW should clearly designate which party or
parties is responsible for all tasks associated with the deliverables.
Cost of Resources
Resources, including equipment, facilities, and personnel, all have costs associ-
ated with them. As such, the parties to the SOW should always clarify which
party will be responsible for providing which resource used for the project.
Payment Schedule
A payment schedule is part of the SOW. Payment timing may be crucial to the
party researching, developing, testing, and making actual delivery. That party
may actually be several parties, and a SOW can be between several parties, each
taking a specific part of the SOW on an entire project. For example, one com-
pany may do the research on a material used in the new fighter jet, whereas
another company may be responsible for testing that material as it is used in the
final deliverable. Both companies will have fixed and/or flexible delivery dates
set forth in the SOW.
Period for Performance

The project start and end dates are included in the period for performance.
The project may conclude with the deliverables or may conclude at a date
after the product deliverables so that ongoing testing, product support, and
documentation,—including without limitation the delivery of service manuals
and ongoing product support—may be completed.
Terminology like "using best efforts" and "working to the standard of best
abilities" should be avoided as this terminology is vague and ambiguous and
may cause contract disputes. Write the SOW so that everyone, and not just the
IT experts or lawyers in the room, will understand the terms of the SOW.
Using a Gantt time line can be very helpful in the SOW, as a time line reduces
the possibility of ambiguity for major milestone and deliverable deadlines. You
should also prepare a payment schedule so all parties to the SOW know when
payments are due. Also create a glossary of terms including the definitions for
"completion," "substantial completion," "deliverables," "technical support,"
and "documentation"—a few of the terms that may need to be defined for clar-
ity to avoid disputes.
Drafting a strong and effective SOW takes time and project knowledge. You
must research to ensure that you do not eliminate any element of the project
in the SOW. Organize the SOW so project elements, milestones, deliverables,
and deadlines are clear to all parties. A good SOW will help the project run as
smoothly as possible, whereas a bad SOW will make the project torture every
step of the way.
POLICIES AND
e
PROCEDURES
P oticv W ',' Policies
Companies, organizations, universities,
P., p o l ‘ c v 6 e s c x ,Jed,F every military branch o f service, and
g O V e r o r o e n t r pc-NatfiE 2 every country has policies regarding
S t a t e r n e r i t o t II-Atev1,,I, the principles behind how to conduct
their business. Nations use policies to
\ c o p o r t a o t o c g a o \ - V i @t'5) lEi preserve their national interests. Com-
g 'q,
panies, organizations, and universities
E 2 use policies t o set forth acceptable
and unacceptable behavior by employees and publish those policies in employ-

ment handbooks. Most companies have policies in place that regulate employee
behavior—from tardiness to telephone and social media use. Policies define
expectations regarding behavior.
Policies may appear more like guidelines than actual rules. Well-written poli-
cies always have the same four elements in common:
1. Use clear and concise language
2. Contain one principle or concept per policy
3. Include warnings and set forth ramifications for failure to follow
4. Define how business will be conducted
Policies are an integral part of the workplace.
Procedures
Policies are implemented through procedures. Pro-
cedures are clear and concise step-by-step instruc- QUICKTIP
tions or systematic processes for implementation of Policies are implemented through
policies, rules, laws, o r guidelines. Standard oper- procedures.
ating procedures are step-by-step instructions fol-
lowed for achieving specific results.
Procedures exist in all professions. In law, procedures may be civil, criminal,
or administrative and are governed by rules of law determining their outcomes.
In medicine, procedures are operations conducted under strict medical guide-
lines and medical rules of ethics using specific equipment, medicine, and person-
nel. In business, meetings may be conducted using standardized parliamentary
procedures according to Robert's Rules of Order. And in technological profes-
sions, procedures are more commonly known as functions, routines, and sub-
programs. Well-drafted procedures are written in clear and concise language to
a specific audience and use step-by-step processes.
Procedures may be set forth in manuals and can direct the reader in how
to do something safely and efficiently. Several procedures may be necessary to
delineate how to implement one policy.
Regardless o f whether a person who is part o f an organization under-
stands the policies and procedures in place at any given point, all employees
are accountable, and their performances are measured by the
standards that their company or organization has established in
policies and procedures.
MANUALS
Manuals are compilations of instructions, procedures, and speci-
fications with illustrations that include diagrams, charts, tables,
pictures, schematics, and blueprints. Manuals are designed for
consumers, mechanics with technical knowledge, and other pro-
fessionals in both business and technology. Manuals teach people
how to do things like tear down and rebuild an engine, repair
equipment, and meet Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
compliance for air hours and repairs of airplanes and aviation
equipment. Manuals may stand alone or be supplemental documentation for

deliverables. Manuals may also be called guides or handbooks. Manuals include:
1. User guides
2. Owner's or operator's manuals
3. Technical manuals
4. Instructions
5. Maintenance manuals
With regard t o equipment manuals, each part within a machine is dia-
grammed, and instructions for repair and maintenance of each part within the
equipment is presented in clear and concise language.
Manuals may include both front matter and back matter, as set forth in Chap-
ter 6. Manuals may contain indices, laws and regulations, and codes and stan-
dards that you must meet for equipment to function properly and within the
framework of the laws, regulations, codes, and standards set forth by governing
bodies including federal, state, county, municipality, professional organization,
and agency responsible for promulgating the rules for the equipment.
Manuals may be online, available by subscription for technical or business
professionals, or free and available over the Internet. Manuals for gaming are in
an open-source environment where all players of the game may be able to add
information on how to defeat a foe, reach the next level, and play the game
more effectively and efficiently. Or manuals may be written by technical and
business professionals and edited by technical writers who are assigned to vari-
ous work groups for project completion. Regardless of how the manual comes
into being, manuals are an integral part of professional writing.
CONCLUSION
In this chapter we addressed definitions and glossaries, instructions and specifi-
cations, the statement of work, policies and procedures, and manuals. You can
use these documents separately or as supporting documentation for reports,
proposals, white papers, contracts, and party agreements. Statements of work
and manuals may also contain the other documents in this chapter internally
and as attached back matter. Each of these documents adds dimension, detail,
and quality to the written work product.
EXERCISES
1. Write a technical description for the piece of technology you use most. Include illustrations,
schematics, diagrams, and specifications as necessary.
2. Write a technical definition for the latest piece of equipment you have purchased. Include
illustrations, schematics, diagrams, and specifications as necessary.
3. If you are working on a team project, have each team member write a technical definition
for terminology being coined by your team working on the design of a new idea, product,
or service.
4. Rewrite the following technical definition of the term spider from www.techterms.com/
definition/spider by using information and the technical definitions elements learned in this
chapter.
SPIDER
www.techterms.comidefinition/spider
A spider is a software program that travels the Web, locating and indexing websites for
search engines. All the major search engines, such as Google and Yahoo!, use spiders to build
and update their indexes. These programs constantly browse the Web, traveling from one
hyperlink to another.
5. Write a glossary for your team's extended definitions created in Exercise 3 (above). Use
good editing techniques and place all of the group's extended definitions in alphabetical
order.
6. Wr i t e a set of instructions. For example, you may choose to write a set of instructions for
logging onto a computer at a company using security protocols, for making brownies, for
driving a car, for washing clothes, or for completing this assignment on writing a set of
instructions.
7. Write the specifications for (a) the company's internal computer system network for 100
PCs, 200 laptops, 500 cell phones, or (b) the company's office and technical equipment for a
25 member group.
8. Write one company policy from one of the proposed policy topics:
a. Computer security
b. Social networking
c. Use of company cell phones
d. Company email
9. Write one procedure from one of the proposed topics:

a. Interviewing of candidates for the company
b. Implementing a time clock for all employees
c. Emergency lockdown of a research laboratory
d. Company computer system backup
169
Use citations for all research. Be thorough and consider all potential applicable laws that may
have an effect on the implementation of the procedure.
10. Write the Table of Contents for a 300-500 page manual on one of the following topics:
a. Windows 8
b. OSX latest version
c. Java for Beginners
d. International business etiquette
e. Ethical conduct in the workplace
Be thorough and cover the topic fully. Be logical and design the Table of Contents so topics
flow logically from subject to subject within the Table of Contents. Include front matter and back
matter in addition to subject matter.
11. Write a statement of work for a new product or service that could be a joint venture
between two Fortune SOO companies or a Fortune SOO company and a government agency
as a government contract. Make sure all of the elements of a SOW are set forth in the
document.
CHAPTER 8
P R E S E N TAT I O N S
INTRODUCTION
Presentation giving is an integral part of professional life. Regardless of how

carefully you choose your major in college t o avoid presentation giving, all
professionals at some point will give presentations. So, instead of avoiding the
inevitable, you should learn how to give clear and concise oral presentations.
See Chapter 3 for slide presentation format used to accompany oral presentations.
171
Speech making is not the same as talking in conversation. Speeches are well
organized and designed for reaching a large audience at one time. Making a speech
is a learned behavior and not a natural outcome of opening the mouth to speak.
Speeches are designed for specific audiences and may be conveyed in person
or through electronic media. This chapter focuses on basic presentation giving
including informative, persuasive, and group presentations and speaker pres-
ence. The basic speech format including introduction, body and conclusion will
be encompassed within the presentation of the informative speech format. This
chapter will not explore special occasion speaking such as keynote, after-dinner,
oratory, or acceptance speeches. This chapter will explore the speaking occasions
experienced by most employees in the first five years of employment.
LIVE VS. ELECTRONIC MEDIA

With the digital age comes giving presentations that may exist through electronic
media after their initial delivery. Professional organizations regularly record
their speaker presentations and package them as learning materials, sometimes
charging their membership for presentation viewing. Many companies' human
resource departments record training materials and keynote speakers. There-
fore, every presentation potentially has two audiences: the initial audience and
the audience that downloads electronic media.
AUDIENCE NEEDS
Both the live and the digital audiences may or may not have the same or similar
needs. A live audience is less likely to "tune out" or shut off the message than
will an electronic media audience. The live audience knows there are upper-level
managers in the audience and, therefore, the audience pays attention not just
because of the motivation coming from the speaker, but also from the motiva-
tion coming from upper-level managers in the audience.
Upper-level managers are not present when a company employee down-
loads and views the presentation in pajamas and fuzzy slippers while drinking
coffee on a Saturday morning with the TV blaring in the background competing
for audience attention. Electronic media presentations may also be available on
company websites or youtube.com. It becomes important, therefore, for pre-
senters to be well prepared for live presentations. The thought of making a bad
presentation is terrifying, but with good preparation and training, speakers can
connect with their audiences, both live and electronically.
INFORMATIVE PRESENTATIONS
Each individual has a natural speaking style. People by nature are either informa-
tive or persuasive and, therefore, one of the speaking styles will come naturally
and one of the speaking styles will rely upon training until it becomes natural.
Use informative presentations to give reports and to demonstrate how a prod-
uct, service, or idea works or will work once the project is complete. Any time you
CHAPTER 8 PRESENTATIONS 4> 1 7 3
are responding to the query, "Tell me about it," you are engaging in information
giving, and hence, an informative presentation.
Each speech has an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. In fact, once you
learn the speaking format and outline, you can directly apply the training to
writing and your written documents will improve dramatically.
Introduction
When writing an introduction, many writers have some trouble organizing their
thoughts. The introduction for informative, persuasive, and group presentations
has two parts: the attention getter and the preview. The attention getter grabs
the audience's attention so the audience is ready to hear what the presenta-
tion will be about. The preview then gives the audience a quick overview of the
points that will be made in the presentation.
Attention Getters
QUICKTIP
Speakers generally choose one of seven of the most
Introductions for all speeches have two
commonly used attention getting devices. parts:
• Attention getter
• Preview
Hypothetical questions are generally used in a series
of three questions—e.g., Have you ever used a com-
puter? Have you ever seen an operating system without a start menu? Have you
ever used a wireless mouse? Hypothetical questions are perhaps the most used
device by beginning speakers because these questions are effective in capturing
the audience's attention. Do not wait for a response from the audience mem-
bers; they will not give one. They will stare at you in awkward silence. As the
speaker, move on with the next hypothetical question.
Startling Statements
Startling statements generally involve statistics generated from various sources.
Give t h e statistic and t h e source—e.g., "The Centers f o r Disease Control
reported 'x' incidents of flu in 2013, with "y" cases leading to death in patients
between [year] to [year]." When using statistics, you should provide approxi-
mately three statistics to capture the audience's attention and involve them in
the presentation.
Quotations
Use quotations when the words in the quote speak to the information you are
including in the presentation and the quote is from a well-regarded professional
in the business or industry. Consider the giants in business and technology. What
have they said that could be relevant to the speech? In using quotations, the
speaker would say, e.g., "Steve Jobs once said.
Humor
Use humor sparingly because the audience remembers jokes and jokers. Decide
if you want the audience to remember the joke or the concepts contained in the
presentation, because ten years after the initial presentation date, people may
still talk about the joke instead of the facts you presented. Also, some speakers
can tell jokes or use sarcasm and some cannot. Avoid sarcasm in foreign country
presentations because humor rarely translates between cultures—Le., what one
culture finds amusing will not have the same value in another culture.
Story
Use stories to personalize a presentation and relate to your audience. Audience
members relate to people who have changed a tire in the rain, spilled coffee on
themselves in the elevator, or overcome the computer crash at 3:00 AM before
the big presentation. If you can capture the audience's attention with a story
and create a relationship with your audience, a story might be the right atten-
tion-getting device.
Analocy
An analogy is an extended metaphor. Use analogies when you need to help
an unfamiliar audience relate to the topic through experiences with which the
audience is familiar. As an example, a family minivan might be a good analogy
to use for a military troop carrier. The audience might be able to relate to the
family minivan with its capacity to haul children and all of their paraphernalia
from soccer to ballet to gain a better understanding of the purpose of a troop
carrier carrying soldiers and their equipment to their destinations.
Lornoination
QUICKTIP
Advanced speakers may use a combination of any
Seven commonly used attention getting
devices are:
two of the above devices. For example, you can use
hypothetical questions in combination with a story—
• Hypothetical questions
• Startling statements e.g., Have you ever seen the blue screen of death
• Quotation on your computer? Have you ever overclocked your
• Humor computer and seen it smoke? Let me tell you about
• Story what happened to me at 3:00 AM last night (and
• Analogy then tell the story).
• Combination
Preview
After you (the speaker) get the attention of the audience through one of the
commonly used attention-getting devices, you will preview the points that you
wish to make in your presentation. This spoken preview is the equivalent to the
thesis statement given in a written document.
Many writers have difficulty with the thesis statement, so they leave it out of
their introductions. The thesis statement in writing is a concise sentence estab-
lishing what the written document will contain. The preview in the speech gives
the audience a one-to-two sentence introduction to the points that will be made
in the presentation. For example, you may say, "In this presentation, I will discuss
the two greatest science fiction television series of all time: Doctor Who and Star
Trek, and I will compare them regarding their science and technology, mythol-
ogy, and main characters." The audience immediately knows what your speech
CHAPTER 8 PRESENTATIONS G 175
will address and is prepared t o hear the presentation because the points that
will be made are clearly and concisely set forth.
Body
The body o f an informative speech gives information t o the audience. As
such, the most common means for the delivery of information include topical,
regional, chronological, and spatial patterns. Demonstration speeches are also
informative speeches as they demonstrate how to do a procedure or process.
Topical
Whenever there are various related topics or parts
of a whole in the presentation, the organizational QUICKTIP
pattern best suited for this purpose would be topi- Informative speech body organizational
cal. For example, new aerospace technology may be patterns:
broken down into topics such as propulsion, electri- • Topical
cal, and mechanical systems. • Regional
• Chronological
• Spatial
Regional
Demonstration speeches are also informative
When you divide the information into regions or divi- speeches.
sions in a company and analyze variables—including
sales, marketing, personnel, equipment and facilities, and production—and com-
pare and contrast the facts across the regions, you are giving an informative presen-
tation. For example, your presentation may include: the Southwest region has.,
the Northeastern region has , and so forth for all of the company regions or
divisions.
Chronological
Speeches that present the materials in a time orientation such as past, present,
and future are chronological speeches. If you focus on which event occurred
first, second, third, and so forth, you are using a chronological pattern. Chrono-
logical presentations are appropriate if you are exploring the events that led up
to a system experiencing a catastrophic failure and you are analyzing how to
prevent that failure from happening again. The chronological organizational
pattern is similar to the demonstration organizational pattern except that the
chronological pattern expresses matters in terms of time, whereas the demon-
stration pattern expresses matters in terms of steps in a process or procedure. An
example of a chronological pattern used in an informative speech might be the
chronology of events on 9/11. Such a speech might begin with the early morning
events in New York City and might conclude the body of the presentation with
the opening of the memorial at "Ground Zero."
Spatial
The spatial pattern is the last of the most commonly used formats for the body
of an informative presentation. The spatial pattern indicates how elements are
related to each other within space. For example, when you open a computer, you
find a mother board, video cards, SIMMs, and other elements. Each item in the
computer is related to each other item "in space," hence, spatially. This pattern is
similar to topical; however, in the spatial pattern, all elements are closely related
spatially; in the topical pattern, all topics may or may not be related spatially.
Demonstration
Whenever the presentation is about demonstrating how something works or will
work after the prototype is fully developed, that step-by-step analysis of func-
tionality is a demonstration presentation. Demonstration speeches are a form
of "show and tell" informative speech where the speaker walks the audience
through a procedure or the steps in a process. For example, a speech on how to
jail break a cell phone would be an informative, "how to' demonstration.
Conclusion
The conclusion for every presentation, including informative, persuasive, and
group presentations always has two parts: a summary and a concluding remark.
The summary and concluding remark are mirror images of the attention getter
and the preview, The summary is the mirror image of the preview and the con-
cluding remark is the mirror image of the attention getter.
Beginning and intermediate writers struggle
QUICKTIP almost as much with their conclusions as they do
with their introductions. The speech two-part
Conclusions for all speeches have two parts: conclusion method, once learned, will help the
• Summary speaker in writing conclusions in written docu-
• Concluding remark
ments as well.
Summary
The summary gives the speaker the opportunity to tell the audience one more
time what points were discussed in the presentation. The summary gets the audi-
ence ready to hear the concluding remark and, as such, is an essential element in
all speeches. In the preview section above, the speaker previewed the presenta-
tion for the two greatest science fiction television series: Doctor Who and Star
Trek. In the summary for this presentation, you would tell the audience that you
discussed the two greatest science fiction television series, Doctor Who and Star
Trek, regarding the science and technology, mythology, and major characters of
each series.
Concluding Remark
The concluding remark is the last thought you leave with the audience at the
end of your presentation. What is the one thought the speaker needs to leave
in the mind of the audience at the end of the presentation? What one thought
mirrors an element in the attention getter and remains memorable for the audi-
ence? This is the concluding remark.
Informative Speech Outline

Outline every speech to ensure that you have included all elements of the speech.
In the introduction, include an attention getter and preview. In the body, use
CHAPTER 8 PRESENTATIONS • 177
Informative Speech Title

I. Introduction
A. Attention Getter: Write two or three sentences getting the attention of the
audience. Use one or two of the attention-getting devices.
B. Preview: Write one or two sentences previewing the points that will be
made in the speech.
Body: Use one of the informative speech formats and use words or phrases
outlining the body of the speech.
Conclusion
A. Summary: Write one or two sentences summarizing the points made in
the speech.
B. Concluding Remark: Write two or three sentences concluding the
presentation and leaving a memorable thought in the mind of the
audience.
Figure 8.1 Informative Speech Outline,
one of the informative speech patterns. And, in the conclusion, include both
a summary and a concluding remark. The speech outline is a hybrid outline of
sentences and words and phrases and not a true "English-class" version of an
outline. An example of an informative speech outline is set forth in Figure 8.1.
In Figure 8.2, the informative speech outline is used to create an actual speech
outline. This outline demonstrates how the sentences, words, and phrases are
incorporated into one outline.
POSTER PRESENTATIONS
Poster presentations are a brief version of the information giving speech with
an emphasis on the question-and-answer session following the actual pre-
sentation. In a poster presentation, the presenter drops the attention getter
because a crowd has already formed around the poster and they want to hear
the speaker, When you are speaking, first briefly introduce yourself and then
state the purpose of the presentation by giving the preview to the presentation,
as in the informative speech above. Next, go through the points previewed in
the body of the presentation—in the same order as previewed—and finish the
presentation by summarizing the main points and opening the presentation to
questions from the audience. The outline for a poster presentation is set forth
in Figure 8.3.
Poster Presentation Question and Answer Session

The question-and-answer session for a poster presentation is the heart of the
poster presentation and is very similar to the question-and-answer session in
a group presentation. Whenever you have an audience, you should repeat the
questions asked by audience members to ensure that every audience member
has heard the question and that you understood each question asked. If you are
only presenting your poster to one person, you do not need to repeat the ques-
tion before you answer it.
Science Fiction on Television: Doctor Who and Star Trek

1Introduction
A. Attention Getter, Do any of you like watching television? Do any of you
like watching science fiction series on television? Have any of you
watched Doctor Who? Star Trek?
B. Preview. Today, I will give a presentation on why Doctor Who and
Star Trek are the two best science fiction television series of all time.
Specifically, I will discuss the science and technology behind the series,
the mythologies, and the main characters for each series.
11, Body
A. Science and Technology
1. Doctor Who
2, Star Trek
B. Mythologies
1, Doctor Who
2. Star Trek
C. Main Characters
1, Doctor Who
a. The Doctor
b. The Master
c. Doctor's Companions
2. Star Trek
a. Captain James Tiberius Kirk
b. Mr. Speck
c. Bones
d. Scotty
Conclusion
A. Summary. Today, I've explained why Doctor Who and Star Trek are the
two greatest science fiction television series of all time. I've looked at the
science and technology, mythologies, and main characters.
B. Concluding Remark. The next time you turn on the television and can catch
a science fiction program, I hope you get to see Doctor Who or Star Trek.
Figure 8.2 D o c t o r Who and Star Trek Informative Speech Outline.
Poster Presentation Title

I. Introduction
A. Attention Getter replaced with self introduction of speaker and the title of
the presentation
B. Preview—preview the main points of the presentation
Body—set forth the main points of the presentation as in the informative speech
A. Main point
B. Main point
C. Main point
Conclusion
A. Summary—summarize the main points contained in the body of the
presentation
B. Concluding Remark—open the presentation to questions from the
audience
Figure 8.3 Poster Presentation Outline

CHAPTER 8 PRESENTATIONS G 179
PERSUASIVE PRESENTATIONS
The presentation of proposals, requires the skill set of persuasive speaking. But,
before exploring how to give a persuasive presentation, two essential theories
regarding the ability to persuade an audience must be explored: Maslow's Hier-
archy of Needs and Monroe's Motivated Sequence.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Morality,
Oreetivity,
Problem sotyinig Self-actualization
Selkisteem, Confickmoe,
Adtlevemeni, Reaped of M e m
Respect by &here
Esteem
Love/belonging
Friendship, Falsify. Sense Inemacy
Security ca,c Emplorneni, Resources,

Moraety. ree Rainey. Mistlet, Progeny
Safety
ElfeatNeg, Food. Water, Sea Sligeci, Honmostesis, Excretion
Psysiological
iv•dslowls Hierarchy of Needs:

In 1943, Abraham Maslow wrote "A Theory of Human Motivation," which was
published in the Psychological Review. In this ground-breaking work, Maslow pos-
ited that human motivations generally move through a pattern of five stages as fol-
lows: physiological, safety, belongingness and love, esteem, and self-actualization.'
Maslow's theory was fully developed in his 1954 book entitled Motivation and
Personality. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is generally depicted in a pyramid with
the most basic needs at the bottom of the pyramid and the highest attainable
needs at the top of the pyramid. In essence, the basic needs must be met before
the higher needs can be realized. In short, people need to have food, clothing,
and shelter before they can feel safe. Once their basic needs are met and they feel
'Maslow, A.H. (1943). " A Theory of Human Motivation." Psychological Review, 50(4), 370-396.
Retrieved from http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Maslow/motivation.htm
'Maslow, A. (1954). Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper.
safe, they can think about their desires in belonging to a group and about love.
Once they are in a position to feel like they belong and are loved, they reach the
level of self-esteem, and finally, they are in a position to realize self-actualization.
All of these elements play into being able to reach an audience for the pur-
poses of persuasion. In business and technology fields, it is likely your audience
will be somewhere between the belongingness and self-actualization phases
and ready for persuasion. You can influence your audience with simple details
such as providing coffee service with snacks at the back of the conference
room to help the audience prepare for the presentation because their physi-
ological needs are being met. Additionally, you can give your audience mem-
bers a feeling of safety if you hold meetings during daylight hours or make
sure parking lots are well lighted when evening meetings are concluded giving
the audience a feeling of safety. Meet these initial comfort and safety needs
and your audience will be more prepared to receive a persuasive presentation.
Monroe's Motivated Sequence

In the 1930s, Alan H. Monroe first published his work on persuasion and the
motivated sequence.34 There are five elements to Monroe's Motivated Sequence:
attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action. These five elements have
been used in persuasive speech making since the middle of the twentieth century
to today. They are also used in advertising and commercials to entice audiences
to buy new products and services. Use Monroe's motivated sequence for persua-
sive presentations of new ideas, products, and services. The following is a discus-
sion of each of the five steps.
Step One: Attention

Grab your audience's attention by using a time-tested attention getter such as
hypothetical questions, startling statement, quotation, humor, story, or analogy.
Audience members need to know why the topic relates to them. You also need to
establish credibility with your audience. Once you have the audience's attention,
outline what the presentation will cover: i.e., deliver the preview to the speech.
Step Two: Need

The need step, explains what needs to change. The need phase is considered by
technical and business professionals as the phase that identifies what problem
or problems they need t o address. In developing the problem(s), the speaker
should give statistical data on what the current situation is in the marketplace.
If statistical data is not available, the speaker can give anecdotal examples of
what is happening in the marketplace. For example, when it became clear that
drivers were dangerous when they used cell phones while driving, the industry
responded with Bluetooth technology, information look-up assistants like SIRr,
and hands-free dialing. The audience receives a clear picture of what is wrong
and that something must be done.
-Irminger, D., Monroe, A. H., & Gronbeck, B. E. (1978). Principles and Types of Speech Communica-
tion, 8th ed.
'http://changingminds.orgitechniquesigeneralioverallimonroe_sequence.htm
Step Three: Satisfaction

The satisfaction step satisfies the audience with information about the need(s)
presented in step two. The satisfaction step is the solution to the problem(s)
presented. The audience receives a clear picture of how to solve the problem in
a step-by-step solution process. The speaker determines whether the problem(s)
presented are best solved through implementing solutions f o r individuals,
through companies, or via the government or society as a whole. And, the
speaker then guides the audience through the solution phase.
Unfortunately, many people end their presentations at this stage. When you
end the presentation with giving the problem and the solution(s), you have not
completed the two most important phases of Monroe's Motivated Sequence:
visualization and action.
Step Four: Visualization

The visualization step, tells your audience the consequences if the problem is not
addressed. Use graphic terms showing the audience a grim future should the busi-
ness fail to take action. For example, if a technology company realizes the competi-
tion is catching up in technology and that company also realizes it can develop the
"next big thing" and stay ahead of the competition, the presenter should show the
audience the future of the company should the company do nothing. Graphically
presented, the company's share in the market decreases, investor interest wanes,
and the company is ripe for takeover—a graphic and realistic image of a company
that fails to continue to innovate new technology, products, and service lines.
Step Five: Action

Now that the audience has a clear image of a terrifying future, you tell the audi-
ence what steps must be taken immediately to resolve the problem. In the least,
you will ask for research and development, and may even ask for the develop-
ment of a prototype. Regardless, in this step you always ask the audience to
make a personal commitment to the project being proposed and to participate
in the action that the company will take.
After Five Steps: Conclusion

After you ask the audience to act, conclude your presentation with a two-step
conclusion including a summary and concluding remark. In essence, you should
still summarize the points you make in your presentation and give a solid and
memorable concluding remark, which generally ties back into something said in
the attention getter presented in Step One: Attention.
Now that Monroe's Motivated Sequence has been explored, it must be incor-
porated into a persuasive speech format. Figure 8.4 shows the persuasive speech
outline using Monroe's Motivated Sequence.
When you use all of the elements of Monroe's Motivated Sequence, persua-
sion will take place and your presentation will help your proposal become a
funded research and development project leading to prototype development
within the company. This process does not guarantee that you will succeed, but
when you use the best tools for persuasion,—and Monroe's Motivated Sequence
is an excellent tool for persuasion,—you enhance your chances of success.
Persuasive Speech Title

I. Introduction
A. Attention Getter: Write it Out in one to three sentences.
B. Preview: Write it out in one to three sentences. "I will explore the need,
how to satisfy the need, visualize what happens when we do nothing,
and then ask you to take a first step.''
II, Body
A. Need: Define the need
B. Satisfaction: How can that need be satisfied
C. Visualization: What happens when nothing is changed and the status
quo is maintained
D. Action: Ask audience to take a step toward the solution
III, Conclusion
A. Summary: Write it out, e.g., "I have looked at the need and how to
satisfy that need. We have visualized the future of the company without
implementation of the solution, and I have asked you to take the first
step.
B. Concluding Remark: Write it out. Remember to wrap it back to comments
in your introduction.
Figure 8.4 Persuasive Speech Outline Using Monroe's Motivated Sequence.
GROUP PRESENTATIONS
A group presentation is typically another form
of an informative or persuasive presentation.
Group presentations differ from individual
presentations in that the team gives the pre-
sentation. For these team presentations, your
team generally chooses one of two common
formats for presentations: "Passing the Ball"
or "One Mouthpiece." In "Passing the Ball,"
the team members each participate in giving
part of the presentation. In using "One Mouth-
piece," one team member is delegated as the
team's presenter. Both "Passing the Ball" and
"One Mouthpiece" are generally used when the team is presenting a signifi-
cant presentation usually involving new work to the management of a company,
potential investors of a start-up, important decision makers, or upon some other
occasion where formal presentations are necessary.
When a formal presentation is not required, the team may change the pre-
sentation format to a more informal format including a panel discussion, sympo-
sium, or forum. These types of group presentations are delivered with colleagues
from various fields and companies.
Passing the Bail

There are certain tricks to give the impression to the audience that the team is
solid, hard-working, and united. By the time the team is ready for the final proj-
ect report, the team may or may not actually be that cohesive team portrayed in
the presentation, but teams should always present themselves as being united
during their presentations.
Some teams wear the same color dress shirts/blouses and ties or scarves or
wear golf shirts with the company logo. Although visually the team looks like a
team, less obvious techniques can be used. For example, team members should
introduce the next speaker and shake hands as the speaker exchange is made
at the podium. This technique is called "Passing the Ball". By using the "Science
Fiction on Television: Doctor Who and Star Trek" informative speech set forth
above in this chapter, the team format will be developed f o r a five-member
team.
First Speaker
The first speaker will give an introduction to the presentation. The first speaker
will give the attention getter just as it is given in the informative speech. The
preview, however, changes. In the team presentation, the first speaker will intro-
duce the team members and the part of the presentation each team member
will give as set forth in Figure 8.5.
When the first speaker has introduced each team member and each of their
roles in the presentation, the speaker reintroduces the next team member to
speak, restating that team member's role, and shaking the speaker's hand before
the next speaker takes the podium.
Second Through Fourth Speakers (in a Five-Member Team)

The second through fourth speakers will give their presentations on the topic
areas set forth by the first speaker and in the order established by the first
speaker. The internal speeches have a preview, body, and summary. The internal
speeches do not have an attention getter or concluding remark. The attention
getter is replaced with thanking the previous speaker for the introduction. The
concluding remark is replaced by introducing the next speaker on the team who
will give the next part of the presentation. The internal speech outline is set
forth in Figure 8.6.
First Speaker's Introduction

I. Introduction
A. Attention Getter. "Do any of you like watching television? Do any of
you like watching science fiction series on television? Have any of you
watched Doctor Who? Star Trek'?'
B. Preview: Our team will give a presentation on why Doctor Who and Star
Trek are the two best science fiction television series of all time.
1. John Smith will discuss the science and technology in the two series,
2. Rose Tyler will discuss the mythologies of the two series,
3. Martha Jones will discuss the main characters in both series, and
4. Amy Pond will wrap up the presentation with the conclusion and
open the floor to questions.
C. Reintroduce next speaker, John Smith, who will present on the science
and technology of the two series.
Fiaure 8.5 F i r s t Sneaker's Presentation Introduction Outline Usino "Passim] the Ball".
Internal Speaker's Outline

I. Introduction
a. Attention Getter—replaced with a "thank you for the introduction' and
hand-shake from your team mate.
b. Preview—preview the part of the presentation internal speaker will give
Body—set forth the main points of the presentation
a. Point 1
b. Point 2
c, Point 3
Conclusion
a. Summary—summarize points in the Body
b, Concluding Remark—replaced with re-introduction of the next speaker.
Figure 8.6 Internal Speaker's Presentation Outline Using 'Passing the Bali",
Final Speaker's Outline

I. Introduction
a. Attention Getter—replaced with a "thank you for the introduction'' and
hand-shake from your team mate.
b. Preview—preview the part of the presentation final speaker will give
Body—set forth the main points of the presentation
a. Point 1
b. Point 2
c. Point 3
Conclusion
a. Summary—summarize points made by all speakers as follows:
1. John Smith discussed the science and technology in the two series,
2. Rose Tyler discussed the mythologies of the two series,
3, Martha Jones discussed the main characters in both series, and
4. I wrapped up the presentation with the conclusion and open the floor
to questions.
b, Concluding Remark—conclude the entire team presentation reflecting
back to a statement or concept set forth in the team's introduction given
by the first speaker.
c. Question-and-Answer Session. Open the floor to the Question-and-
Answer Session.
Figure 8.7 Final Speaker's Presentation Outline Using "Passing the Ball"
Fifth and Final Speaker

The final speaker's speech begins with thanking the previous speaker for the
introduction. The final speaker is responsible for summarizing the entire presen-
tation. The summary names each speaker and the part of the presentation given
in the order the speakers delivered their presentations. The final speaker is then
responsible for giving a concluding remark on the entire presentation. In giving
the concluding remark, the final speaker references some of the points given in
the introduction's attention getter. After concluding the presentation, the final
speaker opens the floor to questions. The outline for the final speaker's presen-
tation using "Passing the Ball" is set forth in Figure 8.7.
Changing Speakers—Final Word

Responsibilities may change according to the number of team members giving
parts of the presentation. Should the team only have three members, the mem-
bers should not be getting up and sitting down for small presentation parts.
The sections each member covers should be contiguous and continuous to limit
the up and down, "bouncing ball" confusion created by too many presenter
switches during one presentation.
One Mouthpiece
In the "One Mouthpiece" format for group presentations, the strongest speaker
is generally given responsibility for the entire presentation of the team's proj-
ect. This technique works well for teams that are not confident about their
speaking ability and know they have one strong presenter on their team with
a lot of presentation experience. Using this technique, however, does not show
the audience the team is necessarily a solid, unified team. In using this format,
the solo presenter's presentation looks very similar to either the informative or
persuasive presentation with minor adjustments. The group's presenter intro-
duces all of the team members in the introduction. The team members may sit
together—either in the first row with the audience or behind the speaker during
the presentation. The presenter may recognize team members' areas of exper-
tise during the presentation and then call on those team members to answer
specific questions after the presentation. In this case, the presenter will repeat
the question from the audience member, call on the appropriate team member
to answer the question, move to the side or background while the team member
answers, and then return to the podium after the question to carry on with the
question-and-answer session.
Panel Discussions, Symposiums, and Forums

Panel discussions are a favorite format for business and professional conferences.
In a panel discussion, all of the panel members learn in advance the topic they
will cover in the presentation. Each panel member has subject matter expertise.
The moderator introduces each panel member giving their name and qualifica-
tions to the audience. After the introductions, the moderator introduces the
topic to the audience and guides the panel members in a lively, extemporane-
ous discussion. The moderator starts the panel discussion with thoughtful ques-
tions, problems and scenarios. The panel members then will give well-developed
responses to the moderator's questions, problems, and fact scenarios.
In a symposium, the moderator introduces a topic and several subject mat-
ter experts give short presentations on one or more aspects of the symposium
topic. Subject matter experts are chosen for their expertise, speaking ability, and
their diverse, intellectual opinions on the topic. There is no lively and spontane-
ous discussion between the speakers. Each speaker exposes various and diverse
opinions on the topic, but no speaker speaks directly to any other speaker in the
symposium format.
Forums differ from both panel discussions and symposiums as they give the
audience an opportunity to participate in the topic discussion. In a forum, the
moderator introduces the panel, gives a few, brief remarks about the topic,
and opens the floor for questions from the audience. The moderator handles
the audience question session as described in this chapter. City government is

a good example of the public forum format in action. Citizens of a community
may participate in the topic under discussion in their city. Participation is limited
to one to three minutes per discussion participant. Sometimes the participants
give comments only and sometimes the participants will give comments and ask
questions of the panel members.
Managing Question-and-Answer Sessions

Question and answer sessions do not just happen. They need to be managed.
There may be several questions after a new and key presentation. Only one
question can be taken at a time. The team member assigned to manage this
session controls the floor and calls upon the audience members in an orderly
fashion. No matter how big or small the audience, the speaker should:
• Accept a question from the floor
• Repeat the question
• Call upon the group member responsible for that section
• Move to the side as the team member comes to the podium to respond
• Move back to the podium as the team member completes the answer
• Accept the next question from the floor
Repeat the Question

The question is always repeated by the team member regardless of the size of
the audience for two reasons:
• Not all in the audience may have heard the question.
• The question may not be fully understood.
It does not matter how small the room is or how small the audience is. Not
all people may have heard the question being asked. The audience may not have
been paying attention to the question. Therefore, the team member repeats the
question. Further, the audience member's question may be very convoluted or
several questions within one question. In this case, the team member deciphers
the question or questions being asked and makes sure the right question(s) are
before the team for answering.
No matter how large or small the audience, repeating the question(s) to be
answered by the team controls the question-and-answer session and keeps the
team in control of their presentation. Therefore, always manage the question-
answer session.
PRESENTATIONS IN AN INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENT

In Chapter 2, we took an in-depth look at audience analysis, including language
and cultural differences. Language and cultural differences need t o be taken
into account when writing for audiences from different backgrounds and coun-
tries. This holds true for presentations to international audiences as well. The
key to successful international presentations is to remain calm and adapt to the
customs, culture, language, technology, and surroundings. The norms for pre-
sentation giving within the United States are not the same as the norms for giv-
ing presentations in different parts of the world. In almost all cultures outside
the United States, you need to establish a personal relationship with a com-
pany or individuals representing that company before you establish a business
relationship.
Agents, Customs, and Language

Because U.S.-based companies may not have business relationships in the coun-
try where they want to do business, they may employ agents for developing
business opportunities for them in various countries. If in-country agents are not
employed, businesses may choose instead to hire native speaker employees or
to train their current employees in languages and customs so the company can
do business in other countries. Native speakers may be familiar with the business
customs in various countries, whereas non-native speakers may not have busi-
ness customs proficiency for various countries.
Some of the customs in various countries may be perceived as unethical by
American business practice standards. For example, bribes are never acceptable
business practices; however, other cultures may accept marketing gratuities,
which may make shipping goods less difficult through the customs procedures.
In some countries, you may need to give a presentation without a projector
and sitting down to present to 30 or more colleagues. In this case, turn your
laptop toward the audience, sit down, and present to the room. Hand gestures
may also be considered unacceptable when you are presenting. (We will discuss
gestures in the section entitled Speaker's Professional Presence.)
Generally, you need to travel to various countries for presentations to firmly
establish business relationships. Thus, you must consider cultural norms and
expectations related t o technology and other concerns, including the use o f
interpreters and language processing technology.
Using Technology in Presentations

When using technology in presentations, you should call, email, Skype, iChat°,
or FaceTime ahead o f the trip overseas. Each company has specific require-
ments of outside presenters when it comes to protecting company intellectual
property. In some companies, you will be allowed to use your laptops but all
ports will be sealed. If there is any evidence at all that you have tampered with
the sealed ports, the company may confiscate your laptop to review all of the
materials on your hard drive.
Some companies do not permit laptops and only permit certain sizes of USB
drives. Other companies confiscate all USB drives and will not permit them on
property. Should your USB drive be confiscated, you may retrieve the drive after
presentations are over and you are leaving the premises.
Some companies do not permit portable projectors on the premises for pre-
sentations. If you are presenting to one of these companies, the company will
provide a projector and you will need to confirm beforehand that the equip-
ment will be compatible with your presentation software and hardware.
In some instances, you may need to email your presentation before the pre-
sentation date so the company can preview your materials.
Regardless of the platform or constraints on technology, you must find solu-
tions so you can give your presentation.
When Technology Fails a n d It Will Fail

Once you have determined your technology platform and ensured that it com-
plies with the host company, you should ensure that when you turn on the power,
your laptop starts. Remember: Technology frequently fails, and you must plan
ahead to deal with potential issues. Have several backup plans in place. Store the
presentation in several platforms including email, cloud, USB drive, laptop, and
even CD. Check compatibility between PowerPoint, Prezi, and Keynote or other
slide presentation programming; and have an extra battery or power source.
You do not want to spend time and money only to get to a client's home office
in a foreign land and not be able to present the information because of a tech-
nology failure.
Using Interpreters and/or Language Processing Technology

If you cannot hire native speakers or get current employees trained in language
skills, you may need to retain interpreters for better communication. Even if you
have some language knowledge in the language spoken, you should use inter-
preters. If you are using interpreters, speak to the company representative, not
to the interpreter. The company representative will respond to you and not to
the interpreter.
Language processing software is still not developed to the point necessary
for true native speaker interaction. One day, however, language processing
technology will function in real time and function accurately, without difficul-
ties currently experienced in the technology. At this point, the software is not
as reliable as native language fluency, learned language fluency, or the use of
interpreters.
Avoid Slang and Sarcasm

When speaking in an international environment as in writing for an interna-
tional audience per Chapter 2, it is important to limit the use of contractions,
slang, and sarcasm. Instead of saying don't, the speaker would use do not. Elimi-
nation of contractions helps to reduce the confusion your audience might expe-
rience. Avoid slang words or words that are culturally specific to the U.S. For
example, hipster or slacker should not be spoken during international business
trips. Instead, grammatically correct American Standard English should be used.
Avoid sarcasm which may amuse your colleagues but the humor of sarcasm may
be lost on an international audience. Humor is also culturally transmitted, there-
fore, avoid making humorous statements because they may be humorous to the
speaker but insulting to the international audience.
SPEAKER'S PROFESSIONAL PRESENCE

Because of the communication barriers that may exist in any speaking situa-
tion, you must prepare well, know your topic, and be enthusiastic; use appro-
priate hand gestures, body movements, facial expressions, vocal inflection,
and grammar; and dress appropriately for the speaking situation. When pack-
aged together, all of these skills reflect upon your professional presence and
demeanor.
CHAPTER 8 PRESENTATIONS 4 189
Good Preparation
An audience can tell if you are prepared for a presentation. Prepared presenta-
tions are organized and have an introduction, body, and conclusion. Prepared
speeches preview important points that will be made in the presentation. You will
use vivid language that highlights and enhances the points of the presentation.
Speakers who are prepared stay within their time limitations. If you prepare
for a presentation, you will anticipate questions
that your audience will ask and answer those ques- QUICKTIP
tions in your presentation or during question-and-
Good speakers prepare by using:
answer sessions after your presentation. You will
• Topic knowledge and enthusiasm
practice delivering your presentations. And, you
• Hand gestures
will know your topics because you have researched • Eye contact
them, have worked with the projects and the peo- • Facial expressions
ple, and have made yourself an expert in your topic • Vocal inflection and tone
areas. • Good grammar
Good speakers also convey an energy and enthu- • Appropriate dress
• Body movement
siasm about their topics.
Topic Knowledge and Enthusiasm

Speakers may be chosen because they are the team leaders for their projects or
because they are the best speakers and therefore are perceived as the best rep-
resentative for their teams' projects. Regardless, if you are chosen to speak for
your team, you need to understand the topic area for the presentation. You can
acquire this knowledge through research, training, skill, or experience or any
combination thereof.
Actors may be able to fake emotions like enthusiasm; however, employees
are not actors, and they either do or do not have project enthusiasm, Project
enthusiasm is energy that is contagious and infectious. That energy can ignite
a team to solidarity and can energize an entire audience. Together, knowledge
and enthusiasm will go a long way in making any presentation memorable.
Hand Gestures
Most U.S. natives convey a lot of information with our hands, such as how large
the fish was in the fish tale or how many sodas were consumed from the con-
cession stand at the ballpark. We also convey information by placing our hands
on our hips or by crossing our arms. Hand gestures are essential for conveying
information along with the words when we communicate. Some people actually
find it almost impossible to speak in conversations without using their hands.
If you use your hands frequently, be aware that gestures used in normal con-
versation are not the same as those you will use when you speak to an audience.
Behind a podium or in front of the audience, your gestures will be larger than
they are during a conversation at a table with friends. Gestures in speaking start
at your side, go to the waist and make the point, and return to the side. When
you present, your gestures should use more than the hand; they use the arms.
If you keep your gestures at the waist level, your gestures will appear very
small to the audience and give the impression of a lot of movement that is going
nowhere and is not contributing to the overall presentation or your presence.
Speakers will often use hand gestures such as counting fingers to note the
points they will make in their speech. Native speakers from different countries
start their numbering with different digits. In the U.S., number one is associated
with the index finger and the numbering continues through the fingers, with the
thumb counting as number five. In Europe, number one is associated with the
thumb and the numbering continues, with the pinkie being associated with
number five. In other parts of the world, the numbering begins with the pinkie
as number one and continues to the thumb as number five. Thus, you should
note that the first point is not always expressed with the same digit (finger or
thumb) and moves accordingly across a global perspective.
Another interesting perspective about hand gestures is that not all cultures
use them in presentations. In some cultures, speakers should keep their hands
and arms locked to their sides. In military culture, presentations are given in the
"at ease" position. While these hand gesture variations are suitable for presenta-
tions in a country or in the military, they are not the preferred hand movements
for U.S. business culture. In the U.S., you may use appropriate and engaging
hand gestures during presentations.
Eye Contact
Rumor says that if you look at the tops of your audience members' heads, you
will not fear presenting. That rumor is false information. In addition, when you
look at the tops of your audience members' heads, you do not connect with your
audience and you appear to be odd, Instead, find a few people in the audience
who are giving you positive nonverbal feedback—those who nod when they
agree, who look engaged as they lean forward, and who make good eye con-
tact. Seek these people on the left, center, and right, and present to them—as
if they were your best friends and you were all in your living room. Your eye
contact will become better and you will appear more confident.
When using slides for your presentation, gesture to the slide with the arm
closest to the slide instead of your arm farthest away from the slide. When you
gesture with your closest arm to the slide, your face will be more open to your
audience and the arm closest to your audience will be free to use for hand
gestures.
Avoid reading your slide presentations to your audience. When you read
your presentation, the audience only sees the back of your head. Thus, you can-
not know if the audience is receiving the presentation and understanding the
materials when there is no eye contact between speaker and audience. When
speakers just read their slides, audiences wonder why they attended or why the
speaker did not just email the presentation, and why they are wasting their time
instead of working on their own projects. Therefore, eye contact is essential as
it helps engage the speaker with the audience.
Facial Expressions
A speaker's facial expressions reveal a lot about the speaker's enthusiasm for the
topic and the audience. In U.S. business culture, people smile and have cheerful
faces when they present. Your smile differs from a simulated smile. When you
truly smile, your eye muscles are engaged in the smile. When you simulate a
smile, the eye muscles are not engaged. An audience can generally tell the dif-
ference between a real and a fake smile.
Vocal Inflection, Tone, and Emphasis

When people are engaged in conversation, they may speak louder or faster,
especially on points where they are highly committed. We all know when some-
one is highly invested in a particular point because that person expresses passion
when delivering words. Speakers who deliver their words in one tone, or mono-
tone, do not capture the attention of their audiences. Speakers who deliver
their words in a manic frenzy, likewise, do not capture the attention of their
audiences. Somewhere in the middle, when speakers vary their rate (speed of
speaking) and their tone (volume and expression), they keep their audiences
engaged in the presentation.
Emphasis given to different words in a presentation can change the meaning
of the words from sarcasm to sincerity. Take for example the sentence, "I really
like giving presentations." If the speaker emphasizes "really," in the sentence,
the audience can sense if the speaker is being sarcastic or sincere. This ability to
transfer the meaning behind the words through emphasis on various words is
part of every presentation.
Good Grammar and Pronunciation

Using grammatically correct sentences is as important as writing grammatically
correct sentences, particularly because presentations live on past their initial pre-
sentation date with electronic media. Proper grammar, word choice, and verb
tense are essential.
In addition to using proper grammar, you need to pronounce your words
properly and clearly. You should consider how to pronounce words that are com-
mon throughout the world. Words like aluminum and patent, which are com-
mon in technical and business professions, are pronounced differently in U.S.
English than in British English. Both pronunciations are correct and acceptable;
therefore, before judging a colleague's pronunciation of a common word, con-
sider where the colleague learned English. If you want to research how to pro-
nounce various words before you present, you can conduct a simple web search
for "word pronunciation," which will lead t o numerous websites that give
audio pronunciation files of the words in question. In some applications, you
can choose U.S. English or British English pronunciations. Therefore, a speaker
should be prepared to properly pronounce words.
Appropriate Attire
The definition of appropriate attire changes from business to business and from
industry to industry; however, men and women do have standards for business
dress and business casual in the U.S. and around the world. (Use the information
regarding appropriate attire for presentations and for employment interviews
discussed in Chapter 9.) Generally, when speakers present outside the U.S., they
should dress in business dress because most countries dress more formally than
do professionals in the U.S. Also, the term "business casual" runs the gamut
from an old t-shirt, shorts, and flip flops to pressed khaki or dress pants, button
down shirt, belt, and sports jacket. Some companies use dark washed blue jeans
and a sports shirt and some companies eliminate the need to wear a tie with a
dress shirt and call that "business casual." The following descriptions are guide-
lines for twenty-first-century dress. In addition to applying these descriptions,
look at other professionals in your company or industry and learn from them.
Your attire is important because your audience evaluates your credibility by
how you appear. And an audience that believes the speaker is not credible will
be more difficult to engage in exciting new developments in business and indus-
try. So, pay attention to your attire.
Women
Business attire for a woman typically includes a skirted business suit, dress with
jacket, or a pants suit. The blouse, dress shirt, or light sweater under the suit
should be closer to plain than frilly and should never be shear. Accessories may
include rings, earrings, pin, watch, and scarf, but wear accessories in modera-
tion; do not wear a ring on every finger and do not wear multiple rows of ear-
rings. Remove face piercings, especially if you are presenting to an international
audience. For shoes, wear simple low heels, not more than two to three inches
high, as the speaker will be on her feet for an extended period of time. These
are twenty-first-century standards for various industries.
Business casual for women in the U.S. can span from dark washed jeans or
casual slacks with a sporty collared shirt to dress pants and a nice blouse. In
dressing, a female professional must understand during any work day, she may
leave the office and visit a client or attend an upper-level management meet-
ing. Therefore, avoid wearing well-worn jeans, and opt for khaki, blue, or black
casual slacks. Keep a neutral-toned jacket on a hanger at your workstation. Wear
leather shoes with an athletic sole rather than athletic shoes. A ball cap is never
an accessory unless you are working for Major League Baseball.
Men
Business dress for men includes a business suit, dress shirt, tie, and a belt and
socks that match the color of your dress shoes (black or brown). Do not wear
athletic socks and shoes.
Men have an alternative for business dress. They may also wear khaki pants,
button-down shirts, and sports jackets. The tie may be optional, depending on
the speaking occasion. Belts, shoes, and socks are not optional.
For business dress, remove facial and ear piercings and pull longer hair back
and away from the face. Trim your beard and mustache and remove your hat
or turban unless such attire is required by your religion. Also, polish your shoes.
Business casual for men ranges from the khaki pants, dress shirt, sports jacket,
belt, shoes, socks, (no tie) to dark washed jeans or khaki pants and a nice but-
ton-down sports shirt, belt, shoes, and socks. Notice, the belt and socks are not
optional accessories for men. The ability to dress casually for speaking will depend
on several factors, including your industry, occasion, audience composition, and
company norms. You should dress appropriately for any speaking occasion.
As with women, keep a neutral-colored sports jacket, spare tie, and dress
shirt at your workstation in case you find yourself in an unplanned upper-level
management meeting or meeting with a client.
Body Movement
Some speakers are lively and move around during their presentations. Some hide
behind the podium, giving their presentations as quietly as possible. Somewhere
in-between is a good place to be for presentation giving. The important element
to remember would be to avoid repetitive and, hence, annoying motion. For
example, the speaker who does a two-step shuffle, like awkward dance moves,
creates a rhythm that becomes expected by the audience, which then becomes
more attracted to the movement than to the speaker's presentation. Table 8.1
below lists some of the most annoying movements speakers make and how to
avoid them.
In short, the best way to avoid all annoying movement is to remember to
stand up straight, stop wiggling and fidgeting, remember to smile, wear low
heels, polish your shoes, spit out that gum, empty your pockets, and relax your
hands at your sides when you are not gesturing. OK, now go and give the speech.
Annoying Movements And How To Avoid Them

Behavior How To Avoid
Two-step shuffle—like dance Align your feet with shoulders, 6-12" apart.
steps and different from pacing
Rattling keys or other pocket Leave keys or other pocket items on the table before
items standing up for the presentation.
Pen pointing and spinning Leave the pen at the table. Use professional pointers if nec-
essary to point out essential items in slides, but do not play
with your slide pointer.
Gum Remove gum or food from your mouth for your presenta-
tion. Besides being rude, gum and food obstructs your abil-
ity to speak clearly.
Playing with belt Wear a belt every day so you adjust to the belt as a normal
clothing accessory and thus are comfortable wearing one.
Shoe shining on back of pant Stand on both feet when you present.
legs
Ankle twirling in high heels Avoid wearing high heels when you present. Stand on both
feet 6-12" apart and align your feet with your shoulders
when you present.
Hair twirling and/or flipping Pull hair back and away from your face.
Slumped posture Stand up straight and pull your shoulders back.
Pacing and walking in a rut, back Standing still is not required, but use a relaxed stance with
and forth feet 6-12" apart and aligned with shoulders to help stabi-
lize your posture and keep you from pacing. Be conscious
of excessive movement.
Table 8.1 SpeaKer Behavior Modification Techniques.
You will do fine. You know the materials. You are passionate about your subject.
And, you will give a very good presentation.
CONCLUSION
You will find that over time, presenting will become a natural part of your role
in business and industry. In this chapter, we have introduced informative, per-
suasive, and group speaking. You will need to adjust your style, attire, and pur-
pose for each speaking situation, but learning the basics of all speaking formats
will allow you t o be flexible and to present better presentations throughout
your career.
EXERCISES
1. Your company opened up an office in a foreign land. You are going to head that operation.
From your research, you learn that, in that country, one gives "market incentives" to various
officials as normal business interaction in country. You know the language of the country
conversationally; however, you do not know all of the cultural customs of the people.
Should you retain an agent? Should you proceed alone? What is your best course of action
and why? Choose a specific country for research. Write a short report to the company on
your findings. Include your conclusions and recommendations.
2. An older employee at your place of work, a mid-level manager, has a tendency to write
email in all caps using flourishes of red, bold, and italics. The email from this manager is
annoying at best and has the tendency to create tension in the work place. What should
be done and why? Write a brief memo to your direct manager indicating your researched
suggestions on this matter.
3. Informative speeches: Give a three- to five-minute informative speech on any topic

approved by your instructor. Create a slide presentation with no more than ten slides to
accompany this informative speech. Remember to use a title slide, references slide, and
contact information slide. These three slides will count toward your ten-slide maximum for
this presentation.
4. Persuasive speeches: Give a five- to seven-minute persuasive speech on your proposal to

your company's management team. The topic of the proposal and its accompanying slide
presentation is the proposal for a new idea, product, or service for the company to institute,
create, and/or design. As in Exercise 3, prepare a maximum of ten slides, three of which are
the title, references, and contact information.
5. Impromptu speeches: Using the 52-card grid located after Exercise 10, choose a
corresponding playing card from the deck of cards. You will have one minute to prepare
and give a one- to three- minute speech using the principles of introduction (attention
getter and preview), body, and conclusion (summary and concluding remark).
6. Group presentations tune-up. Using the 52-card grid located after Exercise 10, choose
a corresponding playing card from the deck of cards. Your team will have five minutes
to prepare and give a three- to five-minute presentation, using the "Passing the Ball"
technique for maximum group participation. Your team must effectively use the principles
of introduction (attention getter and preview), body, and conclusion (summary and
concluding remark).
7. Sit on your hands across from a classmate or colleague. Have a conversation about the
weather, school, or food. After a five-minute conversation, discuss how easy or hard it was
to talk without using your hands.
195
8. Vocal inflection and tone exercise. Say the following phrase and each time the phrase is
said, emphasize the next word in the sentence as follows:
I want to give a speech today. I want to give a speech today.
I want to give a speech today.
Notice how the meaning of the sentence changes with each word being emphasized in the
sentence. This also happens when we are speaking in presentations. Emphasis matters.
9. Write an introduction for a recent news article. Include both the attention getter and
preview your would use. Explain your choices for attention getter and informative speech
pattern.
10. Write a conclusion for the presentation in Exercise 9. Make sure the summary and
concluding remark mirror the attention getter and preview.
11. Give a one to three minute poster presentation using either the informative or persuasive
speech format. Be prepared to take questions on the presentation for five minutes using
the question-and-answer format.
CHAPTER 8 PRESENTATIONS 4 1 9 7
.1Ir
Card Impromptu Speech Topics Exercise Individual: 1-3 minute speech with 1-minute
preparation time Group: 3-5 minute speech with 5 minutes preparation time
HEARTS CLUBS DIAMONDS SPADES
Disadvantages of grow- Advantages of having Disadvantages of Advantages of social 2
log old house plants online dating networking
Advantages of work- Advantages of our- Advantages of purchas Disadvantages of owning 3
ing before enrolling in chasing a new car ing a used car a computer
college
Advantages of 4G LIE Disadvantages of Advantages of using Disadvantages of using 4

networks eating at fast food wireless networks DVR technology
restaurants
Disadvantages of learn- Advantages of being Disadvantages of bor- Why everyone should 5

ing a foreign language an only child rowing money from drink energy drinks
friends or relatives
—
Advantages of Disadvantages of Advantages of becom- Disadvantages of paying 6
regular dental care moving to a foreign ing an American citizen federal income taxes
country
Disadvantages of not Why everyone should Advantages of public Why Dr Who is better 7
speaking to your siblings shop at Wal-Mart transportation than Star Trek
(or relatives)
Why movies are Disadvantages Why speed dating is Disadvantages of lying to 8

better than watching of caring for a a good alternative to your parents
television neighbor's pets while introductions from
they are friends, relatives, or
out of town matchmakers
Advantages of Skypeg or Disadvantages of email Advantages of working Advantages of being a 9

iChat(13/ to air travel for in business while going to college vegetarian
business
Advantages of working Advantages of making Advantages of home- Disadvantages of IIFID 10

for a small company good grades in school work assignments technology
Why cooking at home is Why good Why studying math and Why caring for sick rela- JACK
better than eating out English grammar science is better than tives is important
is important working at a fast food
restaurant
Advantages of using sex Why the legal drinking Advantages of working Disadvantages of QUEEN
appeal to get out of a age should be 21 in for a large corporation caffeine
speeding ticket the U.S.
Why baseball is Why football is better Disadvantages of being Why rock and roll is bet- KING
better than cricket than soccer a movie star ter than classical music
— — _
Why flying in an Disadvantages of Advantages of being Advantages of working ACE
airplane is better than vacations married overtime
taking a train
Any topic with an Advantage or Disadvantage may be turned to the opposite intent by the student for
their one minute impromptu speech. For example, "I have been asked to speak about the disadvan-
tages of being a nerd. As I can think of no disadvantages, I will speak of the advantages of being a nerd
instead."
CHAPTER 9
G A I N I N G , R E TA I N I N G , A N D
A D VA N C I N G E M P L O Y M E N T
INTRODUCTION
Communication skills play a key role in obtaining, retaining, and advancing your
employment prospects. After all, for a professional, communication is required
to make a persuasive argument to be selected to fill a job, to keep that job, and
to advance. This chapter addresses the actions you should take and the skills you
should hone in order to procure and enjoy a successful career.
199
THE JOB SEARCH PROCESS

Even in times when the job market is robust, finding the right job can be chal-
lenging. In tough economic times, finding that job is usually even more chal-
lenging. Knowing how to find job opportunities, understanding how employers
go about finding and selecting their employees, and distinguishing yourself in
ways that will make businesses want to hire you will be keys to establishing and
maintaining a successful career.
Finding Opportunities
Finding your way to a job usually requires research. You can pursue job oppor-
tunities through a variety of ways, and building a plan that involves more than
one of these ways will increase your chances of securing a job. These means of
pursuing job opportunities include the following:
• Searching job postings
• Connecting with employers who may not have job postings for the type of
job you are seeking
• Using your school's career services office
• Networking
Searching Job Postings

Job postings may appear in many different places. Most companies have job
postings on their websites. Additionally, many businesses will post jobs on
national or even international Internet search service sites, You will also find
that companies post open positions in newspapers (print and online), industry
journals, and association newsletters, and through college and university career
services offices.
Job postings represent openings that companies are seeking to fill. For you
as a job seeker, open positions are good because companies have real needs to
fill. However, job postings may also mean that your competition may be sub-
stantial because the job is posted publically. To be considered for the position,
you must tailor your correspondence, particularly your cover letter and resume,
to the posted position in a way that demonstrates that you can perform the job
and are the best candidate for that job. We will address the writing and tailoring
of your cover letter and resume more fully in this chapter.
Very importantly, follow all of the instructions on the posting that the com-
pany provides in its application-process directions. If you fail to meet a dead-
line, to mail your correspondence to the proper recipient, or to download the
required materials as instructed in a posting, you may not be considered for a
job, even if you are among the most qualified.
Connecting with Employers

You would probably consider a number of companies to be good employers
for the type of work that you want to do. However, they may not have current
openings for suitable positions. You would still be wise to reach out to these
companies, even in the absence of any job postings that relate to your qualifica-
tions. They may be planning in the near future to post positions that match your
CHAPTER 9 GAINING, RETAINING, AND ADVANCING EMPLOYMENT • 201
interests and skills. Or, if they do not have any plans to hire for your type of work
in the near future, they may have positions a little further out in the future. You
will still benefit if you contact these employers and express an interest for what-
ever positions may come about, even if the payoff is far into the future. Send a
cover letter and resume to the employers of your choice and get your resume
into their databases, and network with people who work at the company.
Networking
If you have never used a network to seek and find job opportunities, you may
find it difficult to know where to begin. However, you probably have more of a
network than you already know. Perhaps your parents or working siblings know
people in your field of interest. Your professors are also likely to know people at
businesses who may have opportunities in your field of study.
Reach out to anyone who may be in your field or may know people in your
field. If you or your family members do not know many, start with your class-
mates and your school's career services office. If you are a member of an industry
group such as IEEE, AMA, ACM, or any of the many groups of college and profes-
sional organizations for various fields, consider the members of your organiza-
tion as a potentially valuable part of your network. And if you are not already in
an industry group or professional association for your field, join one.
You can also research companies, obtain the names and positions of people
who hold positions that matter to your field of work, and reach Out to them.
Let them know of your career interests and your desire to secure an internship,
summer job, or full-time employment after graduation. Share your resume and
inquire about others you should contact. As you reach people you do not know,
ask them if they would be so kind as to meet with you for a few minutes. Use
that time to learn more about their companies, the profile of candidates they
typically hire, and any hiring prospects for the timefrarne that you are seeking.
Even if these contacts know of no immediate job opportunities, stay in touch
with them and develop ongoing relationships so that your network may grow.
You will likely find that your network is not only useful in securing a job oppor-
tunity after college but also for advancing your career in the pursuit of new
opportunities in the future. Additionally, your network can keep your knowl-
edge sharp about industry happenings. And your network may be useful later
when you and your company need to hire people from other companies in the
industry.
In addition to the networking that you can create through reaching out
to those you know and researching people in your field through the Internet,
you may find networking help in an automated fashion. Today, various online
networks for business purposes also can add to your networking options. You
may use these online networks as a means to keep in touch with others, includ-
ing to inform them of updates in your work and to stay updated on news from
their work. Join one or more of these online networks and reach out to others
online to join your network. In time, and as your network grows, you will find
yourself connected to others in the chain of the network whom you did not
previously know.
Ultimately, if you enact a plan that involves pursuing job postings, contacting
employers who do not have openings, using your school's career services office,
and networking with members of your field, you will enhance your chances of
procuring a job in your field and advancing your career opportunities.
Using School Career Centers

Although the title of the office that assists students and graduates to procure
employment opportunities varies from school to school, the mission of the staff
who perform this assistance is usually similar. Aside from providing students with
job postings, resume writing assistance, career or job fairs, and connections with
employers who interview students (often on campus), the staff members of these
departments can advise you on possible contacts for employers in your indus-
try. Their contacts may include alumni who work at companies in your industry
and hiring managers or human resources representatives from the companies.
Therefore, you may find that becoming familiar with the services and capabili-
ties of your school's career services or placement office is a good investment in
your pursuit of career opportunities.
A FEW IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS

The following are important matters to consider and possible actions to take.
Sanitize Social Media Accounts

Ensure that your social media sites do not contain embarrassing or inflamma-
tory pictures or information. You may use your TwitterTm, FacebookTM, or other
social media accounts to communicate with friends, but potential employers can
see what you post on your account or what has been tagged or retained on
other people's accounts. Thus, ensure that your accounts do not contain any-
thing inappropriate. If you already have inappropriate material, remove it. (Of
course, even after you have removed it, a company might still be able to find
it from viewing cached material. Still, removing inappropriate information is
recommended.)
Prepare for Background Checks

Stay on or get on the right side of the law. Many businesses perform background
investigations when they extend job offers, and some businesses also conduct
periodic background or drug checks of current employees. These background
investigations typically involve confirmation o f education and employment
experience, drug screening, and investigation into whether employees have
any credit problems or criminal activity (misdemeanor or felony). Once again,
the best thing you can do is to not risk opportunities by engaging in any ill-
advised or illegal behavior. But if you have engaged in any inappropriate behav-
ior, stop. Be aware, too, that drug detection methods are becoming more and
more sophisticated and can sometimes detect the presence of illegal drug usage
in a person's system as far back as several months or longer. As for a poor credit
record, your problem may not involve the law, but it could tell a company some-
thing about your level of responsibility. Furthermore, companies will sometimes
hesitate to hire employees with poor credit records if the position calls for the
use or management of the company's money or resources.
Be Ethical
Do not misrepresent yourself in any of your communications. Only claim expe-
riences that you have had and achievements that you have truly obtained. If
a business finds that you have enhanced your records, typically through back-
ground investigations, or through false information that you have provided
in resumes, cover letters, or interviews, this information will usually end any
chance you have to secure an opportunity you may seek. Even if the company
does not catch in the hiring process that you fal-
sified your background, that false information can
catch up with you later in your career, often when a QUICKTIP
promotion comes about or a new opportunity arises Prepare for employment by:
at another company. When applicants or employees • Sanitizing social media accounts
have been caught lying about or embellishing their • Preparing for background checks and
records, the penalty is often not only job ending but resolving legal issues
• Being ethical
often career impacting or even career ending.
THE HIRING PROCESS

Companies employ different hiring processes. Therefore, we cannot list all of the
steps that an applicant should take to pursue a job opportunity. However, many
aspects o f different companies' hiring processes have commonality. Become
familiar with expectations that are common from one employer to another
and prepare to enter the hiring process with these common points in mind to
increase your chances to achieve your objective to secure the job you want.
Resume Writing and Processing

Employers' Processes
Many businesses have automated their resume processing and may require, or
at least request, that applicants submit resumes electronically. The resumes are
routed to databases where they are retained for as long as a few years. Com-
panies that accept paper copies of resumes often scan the paper resumes into
their electronic databases. Thus, know that your resume will likely be placed in
a company's resume database with many thousands or more of other resumes,
because how resumes are placed in databases affects how they are used. Some-
times, before a resume is placed in a company's database, an employee of the
company will review the resume to determine if it merits consideration among
the pool of applicants who are applying for a particular position. These employ-
ees might include recruiters, human resources generalists, or hiring managers. In
other instances, resumes are sent directly into the database. From the database,
the resumes can be retrieved based upon a report requested for the positions
for which the resumes were submitted. In other instances yet, resumes are often
retrieved by key word searches used by the company.
Key Word Searches

The common practice t o search for key words helps companies to sift quickly
through their large stockpiles of resumes and narrow the pools of candidates to
those who meet requirements of their positions. For example, if a recruiter needs
to fill a position for a computer programmer who is proficient in programming

C++, that recruiter can search for all resumes in the system that note C++. After
narrowing down the pool through this first step, the recruiter could further nar-
row the selected pool by performing searches that align with the job posting,
such as requirements associated with years of experience, specific college majors,
or any other qualifications. Similarly, a manager who wants to hire an entry-
level accountant could create a pool of candidates from the large database by
performing a search that would provide all resumes that reference accounting
degrees and perhaps narrowing the pool further by including only resumes that
have graduation dates of the past one to two years. Often, potential employers
do not read resumes in detail until completing the process of narrowing the pool.
Tailoring Your Resume

Because companies store resumes in databases for
QUICKTIP key word searches of skills, education, and experi-
Employers narrow the pool of candidates by ence, your resume must contain the key words that
using sophisticated Boolean web searches. recruiters, human resources generalists, o r hiring
Prospective employees need to tailor their managers are likely to use in their searches. You can
resumes for each application. ensure this by using the very terms in job postings.
Consider the job postings in Figures 9.1 and 9.2.
These job descriptions give direct clues as to what terms will likely be used
in database searches. Your resume would be most likely to surface in the search
performed by a recruiter or hiring manager if it included as many of the terms
found in the posting as possible.
ABC Corporation XYZ Company

ABC Corporation, a leader in the commercial XYZ Company, a leader in software ingenuity
construction industry, seeks an experienced worldwide, is seeking an entry-level Software
Project Manager for its New York branch. Engineer I who wants to ride the skies to a suc-
The successful candidate will have a BBA cessful career with an industry leader. The suc-
from an accredited U.S. college or university, cessful candidate will have a four-year degree
five years project management experience, in Computer Science, o r similar degree o r
fluency in MS Office 7 Enterprise, OSX, and equivalent work experience, will have six to 12
a willingness to meet with clients, general months of internship experience, be fluent in
contractors, and sub-contractors. C++/Ot, Java, .Net, Java Beans, Linux/Unix, OSX,
The successful candidate must have excel- HTML, XML, MSOS8 for mobile platforms, and
lent problem-solving skills be able to work PERI_
in a fast-paced environment.
Additionally, the successful candidate will have
ABC Corporation i s a world-recognized excellent written and oral communication skills,
industry leader. We pride ourselves in pos- be suited for working in a team environment,
sessing attention to detail, being great writ- and be motivated by success and innovation.
ten and oral communicators, and finding A+
XYZ Company is a dynamic work environment
talent.
and an EEO Employer. If interested in this posi-
If interested, please contact Jacob Steel, tion, please contact Henry Zapa, Jr., Software
Recruiter, ABC Corporation, 123 Big Con- Recruiter, XYZ Company, 987 Big Dreams Hwy.,
struction Drive, NY, NY 10945 Burbank, CA 90310, hzapajr@xyzcompany.com.
Figure 9.1 Project Manager Advertisement. Figure 9.2 Software Engineer
Honesty
Of course, you should only include in your resume the terms and skills you see in
a job posting if they truly represent your experience and achievements. A resume
that contains falsehoods is as serious in the world of employment as a plagiarized
paper in the academic world. You do want to highlight your strengths and the
best things about you—after all, you are trying to sell your skill set to an employer.
But your resume should only include information and claims that are factual.
Writing and Designing Your Resume

You should begin to prepare your resume by understanding what positions in
your field of interest require, and then design and write your resume.
Name and Contact information
Your name and contact information should appear at the top of your resume. You
can choose where you place this information: align it with the left margin, center
it, or even align it with the right margin. Most resume designs use either the left
margin or center of the page for placement. Because you are the subject of the
resume, your name is similar to the title of any other type of document. So, use
font choices that set your name apart from the main font used in your resume. You
can distinguish your name from the fonts used in the main content of your resume
in a variety of ways. These choices commonly include bold or larger font (or both).
Objective
Your name and contact information should be followed by your objective.
This statement does not have to be constructed of complete sentences. In fact,
because the resume should be one to two pages, well-constructed and orga-
nized fragments are preferred in all sections of the resume. The objective state-
ment should provide employers with a clear understanding of the job or types
of jobs you are seeking. Ideally, it should also include points that help in your
overall goal of persuading your reader to believe that you merit consideration
for the very objective (a specific job) that you are seeking. For example, in addi-
tion to noting the job or types of jobs you are pursuing, you can also state some-
thing about your qualities, your academic achievement, or your experience that
make you a good candidate for your desired employment. In short, you should
be specific and you should make sure that it includes the following three things:
• The job title or role you are pursuing
• The technical skills you possess that align with the
skills required in the job posting of the position QUICKTIP
• The "soft skills," such as communication, work Job title where hard skills + soft skills will
ethic, or other attributes that you possess assist the company, e.g., Software Engineer
that align with the soft skills noted in the job where Java, JavaBeans, C/C++/C#, html,
xml, good oral and written communication,
posting for the position
and problem solving skills will assist the
Even if you only adjust your objective section for company.
each job to which you apply, your resume is more
likely to help you be considered for the job.
A common alternative to an objective that enjoys wide use today is a sum-
mary section. Typically, you use an objective if you are a young professional and a
summary if you have more experience in your field.

QUICKTIP If you prefer this over an objective section, be sure to
Tailor your resume objective or summary for clearly state points that will best help employers see
each position that you apply for. how hiring you would benefit their organizations.
Education
The section that follows your objective or summary statement can vary, depend-
ing upon whether you are an entry-level or experienced applicant. For most col-
lege students or recent graduates, the academic background—and particularly
the field of study—are going to be the most significant element of an employer's
initial evaluation of an applicant's resume, especially if the position requires a
certain level of education. Therefore, the next category in your resume is usually
"Education." For more experienced applicants, "Employment" (or "Experience")
would be the next category, as it is usually more in line with what an employer
will seek for positions beyond the entry level.
In your education section, list your degree(s) and major(s) first, followed by
the name of your school(s) and any other noteworthy information. Remember
that employers will usually first want to see if applicants possess the right field
of study (major). If your resume is among those selected for the pool of appli-
cants, leading with your degree and major field of study will help ensure that an
employer who scans resumes quickly will see that you have the right degree for
the job. If you have attended more than one college, list your schools in reverse
chronological order (beginning with your current or most recent school).
Grade point average (GPA) is important to some employers and not impor-
tant to others. If your GPA is high, note it in your education section. If your GPA
is average, you decide whether you want to include it. Naturally, if your GPA is
low, you should leave it off the resume and try to accent your employment wor-
thiness in other ways.
Employment
When listing your work experience, you should not only provide your job title,
employer, location, and dates of employment but also provide a concise descrip-
tion o f your responsibilities and accomplishments. Begin each description o f
your responsibilities and accomplishments with strong action verbs and ensure
that all verbs in each section are parallel.
Like the objective section of your resume, the employment section provides
you with an opportunity to tailor your resume t o particular job postings by
including as many of the terms you can find in the posting, especially any job
requirements, that can be used to describe your experience. As with your col-
leges, your employment should be listed in reverse chronological order.
If you are seeking an entry-level position and all of your previous experience
has been in jobs that do not relate directly to the career you are pursuing, you
need not be concerned, Employers understand that those who they hire into
entry-level positions do not usually have a lot of experience. Employment of any
kind can demonstrateto an employer that you have performed the responsibilities
required by an employer. You may even identify aspects of your work duties and
achievements that can bridge to the position you are seeking, and bridging your
past experiences to the position you are seeking can be persuasive if done well.
Of course, if you have had internships or part-time work in your field of interest
during your course of study, you will certainly enhance your prospects by noting
them on your resume.
Involvement
To demonstrate to your employer that you are not one dimensional (in either
academic success or experience), highlight your involvement in activity outside
the classroom or job. Give employers a sense of your involvement in your school
and/or community by listing your student or community organizations and vol-
unteer efforts.
If you held a position of leadership in a group, note your role and responsi-
bilities. In making their hiring decisions, employers often place a high value on
leadership and extracurricular involvement, because they know that people who
care about their communities and have experience leading others make good
employees and potential future leaders for their businesses.
Once you have documented your involvement and leadership, determine
what heading is best for introducing this section. Applicants will often use sec-
tion titles such as Leadership, Volunteer Work, Community Service, Student
Involvement, Extracurricular Activities, or some combination of these.
Personal
If you are going to provide personal information, do so toward the end of the
resume. Ensure that the information is useful to your potential employer and
not something that is truly deeply personal that does not enhance your market-
ability. For example, you could use such a section if you wish to let an employer
know that you are a U.S. citizen or a green card holder, or that you are avail-
able for employment after a certain date. (Note that you will share some of this
information on a job application and legal paperwork, so do not include this
information if space on your resume is an issue.)
References
Many applicants will end their resumes with notes indicating that they will fur-
nish references on request. If you choose to do so, truly have references and
communicate first with these people to ensure that they will serve as references
so that you can provide their names and contact information quickly if asked to
do so. Whereas the phrase, "References available on request" is a standardized
phrase at the end of resumes, the phrase is not critical and could be replaced if
a more critical element would otherwise be left out of the one-page resume. If
companies require you to provide references, they will expect that you provide
them regardless of whether you have noted on your resume that you will do so.
The references sample provided in Figure 9.5 gives both professional and
personal references, as companies may request both. When companies request
both professional and personal references, they will generally require up to
three professional references and two personal references.
Now consider the resume received by ABC Corporation from the candidate in
Figure 9.3 for the job posting in Figure 9.1 (provided earlier). Note the resume's
alignment with the job posting and see the explanation points provided below
the resume.
Your Name •A-

Street C e l l : xxx-xxx-mo(
City, Texas Zip E m a i l : yourname@email.net
OBJECTIVE Commercial Construction Project Manager where skills in commercial con-

struction management, high-end finish out, information technology, retail
and GSA projects combined with Microsoft 7 Enterprise and OuickBooks
Pro will assist the company.
SKILLS 20 years experience in commercial construction project management and

general contracting
3 years experience in high-end (over 1.5 million) single family homes
2 years experience in Information Technology (switch & hub site) construction
2 years experience school bond issue public bid projects
2 years experience in GSNGovernment interior finish projects
6 years experience in fast track retail construction
0'
COMPUTER SKILLS Microsoft 7 Enterprise and QuickBooks Pro
PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE
General Contractor A B C Construction, Inc., City, State M a y 2001-present

'-
President of a general contracting company responsible for putting together teams of
construction professionals to complete various commercial and industrial interior finish
construction projects, including client development, job estimates, bid proposals, sched-
uling and supervision of all subcontractors.
Project Manager RealCast Telecom, City, State O c t 2000-May 2001
Responsible for general contractor selection and construction consulting for switch & hub
sites for RealCast Telecom.
Senior Project Manager M a i n S t r e e t USA Corp., City, State J a n 2000-Oct 2000
Responsible for managing subcontractors, project managers, and superintendents through

the commercial construction process. Personally closed over 16.8 million dollars in commer-
cial construction contracts in the first quarter of 2000. Managed the complexity of Information
Technology commercial construction.
Representative clients: Bank, N.A., Restaurant Corp., Retailer, Inc., and GSA contracts.
Figure 9.3 Sample Business Resume Experienced.

CHAPTER 9 G A I N I N G , RETAINING, AND ADVANCING EMPLOYMENT • 2 0 9
General Contractor X Y Z Construction, Inc., City. State N o v 1991-Jan 2000
President of a general contracting company responsible for building a commercial and

residential construction company from $O to $1 million dollars annually in 3 short years and
then maintaining a steady business and customer base. Responsible for job estimates, bid
proposals, presentations, supervision of all subcontractors, job timelines, and construction
permits.
Representative clients: Property Management Corp Real Property, Inc., Telecom, Inc. and
XYZ Telecom, Inc.
General Manager B u i l d i n g Construction, City, State A u g 1989-Oct 1991
Responsible for all phases of interior finish project management. Responsible for new client
development.
Vice President LMN Commercial Corp., City, State D e c 1982-Jul 1989

and Shareholder
Vice President and C.O.O. of a regional interior finish construction company. Personally
responsible for completing over 15 million in commercial construction contracts annually
ranging from high-end commercial to fast track, large building multimillion dollar projects to
GSA/Government interior finish projects. Managed over 16 superintendents. Head estima-
tor of all projects for 2 years.
EDUCATION B a c h e l o r of Business Administration, Management, 1979

University of State
REFERENCES AVAILABLE UPON REQUEST

1. Use the same letterhead for your resume, cover and thank you letters.
2. Use your personal cell number.
3. Use your personal email address. If necessary, set up a gmail account.
4. Always include the objective or a summary. Objective Formula - Job Title and Job No.
where skills in hard skills and soft skills will assist the company.
5. I f you are an experienced professional, place skills and experience above education.
6. P u t technical skills after job skills. Make it simple for the reviewer to choose your resume
out of the 15,000 resumes for this position.
7. P u t job title, company and dates worked (most recent first) on one line to save space.
8. S e t forth productivity and contribution highlights. Use responsibilities and duties only if you
have no highlights.
9. Include ten-15 years of most recent experience. Use skills section to include actual num-
ber of years of experience for one-page resumes.
10. Move education to the end of the resume if you are an experienced professional.
11. U s e this phrase to indicate references are available and make sure you have two to three
professional references and one to two personal references.

CHAPTER 9 G A I N I N G , RETAINING, AND ADVANCING EMPLOYMENT 4> 211
Next, consider the resume received by XYZ Company from t h e candidate in

Figure 9.4 below as an applicant for the job posting depicted in Figure 9.2 of this
chapter. Again, note the explanations provided below the resume.
r
Your Name A- J C e l l : -4-
Street Address E m a i l : -*
City, State Zip Code w w w : .*
o,
OBJECTIVE Software Engineer I where skills in C/C++/C#, PERL, .Net, Java, Java Beans,
HTML, XML and excellent written and oral communication, time manage-
ment and team lead skills will assist the company.
EDUCATION M . S . in Electrical Engineering, The University of Texas at Dallas, Anticipated

May, 2013 0--
G.P.A. 3.73/4.0
Courses: List relevant courses only if you have very little actual experience
B.B.A., The University of Texas at Dallas, May 2011

G.P.A. 3.87/4.0 M a j o r : Management Minor: Finance
Courses: List relevant courses only if you have very little actual experience
TECHNICAL Programming Languages: C /C++/C# J a v a P E R L

SKILLS S c r i p t i n g Languages:
Web Technologies: HTML XML
Database Technologies: Oracle MySQL MSAccess
Operating Systems: LinuxtUnix OSX Windows 7
Enterprise
Software Applications: MS Office
'-
CERTIFICATIONS Cisco, Microsoft or other
0,
SKILLS 3 years experience in teams environment
2 years experience in problem solving (academic)
2 years experience in test development
1year experience in software development life cycle (SDLC)
0'
LANGUAGES W r i t t e n and oral fluency in English
Written and oral fluency in Mandarin (native)
MEMBERSHIPS IEEE. Student Member, 2009-current

tr)
AWARDS AND Robotics Team Member, National Champions, 2006
HONORS
Figure 9.4 Sample Technical Resume.

PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE
Job Title Company Name, City, State D a t e s in Reverse Order
Key duties and responsibilities of current position. Unless you are currently performing the
job, state your duties and responsibilities in past tense, i.e., Developed new application for
UNIX based technologies; promoted team efforts within a five member team; etc.
Job Title Company Name, City, State D a t e s in Reverse Order
Continue with job history in reverse chronological order.
ACADEMIC PROJECTS AT STATE UNIVERSITY
Project Title: B r i e f description of project. S e m e s t e r in Reverse Order

Technologies:
AVAILABILITY I n t e r n s h i p : Fall 2012 Full Time: May 2013
VISA STATUS F - 1 Visa

pr
REFERENCES AVAILABLE UPON REQUEST

CHAPTER 9 G A I N I N G , RETAINING, AND ADVANCING EMPLOYMENT • 2 1 3
1. U s e the same letterhead for your resume, cover letters and thank you letters.
2. U s e your personal cell number. Do not use business numbers.
3. Use a personal email address. Create another email address if you have an inappropriate
address like "sexymama0email.com." Keep the hyperlink so an employer can email you.
4. Set up a web page for your projects and writing samples. Make sure you are not in violation
of any copyright or intellectual property laws on your website. Include the hyperlink.
5. Include the objective or summary. Modify for every application. A good formula for an objec-
tive is as follows: Job Title and Job No. where hard skills + soft skills will assist the company.
6. Recent college graduates with little work experience should place education before work
experience. After you have significant work experience, education may become less impor-
tant, depending upon your industry.
7. Include your grade point average (GPA) and the rating scale, unless you are not particu-
larly proud of your GPA.
8. Include relevant courses only if you have little experience.
9. Highlight your technical skills if you are a technical professional.
10. Create columns by using tables or tabs to set skills apart for easy review.
11. When you do not have a certain skill, leave it off the resume.
12. List certifications that apply to the position.
13. Summarize your skills. Make it simple for the reviewer to choose you. Set key hiring points
in the first four inches of your resume.
14. U s e "languages" to refer to spoken languages and not computer languages. If English is a
second language, list other languages.
15. Include professional memberships.
16. List professional awards and honors.
17. Delete "job title" and insert actual job title. Do the same for the company and the dates
of employment. Start with your current position and work backward. Explain any gaps in
employment.
18. I f you are low on experience, set forth academic projects that simulate real world
experience.
19. Insert the actual project title. Start with the most current semester and work backward.
20. Note when you are available for work, including internship and full time employment.
21. Insert "Visa status" only if you are not a U.S. citizen or citizen of the country where you are
making the job application.
22. I f space allows, include this phrase and be prepared to present two to three professional
and one to two personal references.

Now view the reference sheet template provided in Figure 9.5 below.
Your Name
Street C e l l : xxx-xxx-xxxx -4- 1
City, Texas Zip E m a i l : youremail@email.net
REFERENCES -4-
Professional References
NarKe, Title
Company
Street Address
City, State Zip
Telephone:
Email:
Name, Title
Company
Street Address
City, State Zip
Telephone:
Email:
Name, Title
Company
Street Address
City, State Zip
Telephone:
Email:
Personal References
Name, Title
Company
Street Address
City, State Zip
Telephone:
Email:
Name, Title
Company
Street Address
City, State Zip
Telephone:
Email:
Figure 9.5 References

CHAPTER 9 G A I N I N G , RETAINING, AND ADVANCING EMPLOYMENT 4 2 1 5
1. U s e the same letterhead for resume, cover and thank you letters, as well as for your sheet
of references.
2. Use personal cell number.
3. Use personal email address. If necessary, set up a gmail account.
4. Use first level headings.
5. Use second level headings.
6. Include all relevant contact information. Confirm with your references prior to placing their
name on your reference list.
7. U s e the reference's preferred telephone number.
8. Use the reference's preferred email address.

Cover Letters
In the past, when resumes were mailed or hand delivered to employers, cover
letters were expected to introduce the resumes. With the hiring process shifting
to electronic mailing and storing, cover letters are not always required. Some
companies have gotten to a point where they do not even pay attention to
cover letters. They separate them from resumes, deposit the resumes in their
databases, and discard the cover letters. However, many companies still expect
cover letters, even if their processing has shifted to electronic methods. In fact,
some "headhunter" or professional recruiting organizations will require appli-
cants to have cover letters for the candidates they present to employers.
Writing Your Cover Letter

The objective of your cover letter should be to get the reader to read your
resume and consider you seriously for an interview for the job. To achieve this
objective your cover letter should:
• Demonstrate that you are familiar with the company and the position to
which you are applying
• Highlight compelling aspects of what you would bring to the position that
cannot easily be determined from your resume
• Show good will toward your readers through favorable comments about
the employer and appreciation for the employer's consideration
Your cover letter should be written in the format of a business letter. You can
use either block or modified block style. (Sample letters in both block and modi-
fied block format are in Chapter 5.)
Whenever possible (and it is almost always possible), find the name o f an
appropriate recipient at the company t o which you are applying. If you are
applying to a specific job posting and the posting does not have the name of
the appropriate recipient, call the company's switchboard or search the Internet
to find the name of the appropriate hiring manager, leader of human resources,
or head of recruiting. Address the individual with the proper prefix (Mr., Ms., Dr.,
Rev., or other appropriate prefix) and the person's last name. You should only
address the recipient by first name when you know that recipient well.
Your opening paragraph should provide a clear statement of purpose, includ-
ing the position for which you are applying, and a statement of good will that
also demonstrates that you have researched the company.
After your introductory paragraph, the body o f your cover letter, which
should typically consist of two to three paragraphs, should address aspects of
your experience and personal qualifications that uniquely qualify you for the
position.
Your closing paragraph should summarize your key points, reflect your appre-
ciation for the reader's time and consideration, and leave the reader with a dip-
lomatic call to action, such as following up with you or expecting a call from you.
Be sure to conclude your letter with an appropriate business closing, such
as "Sincerely," followed by three to four line spaces (for your signature) and
your printed name. The entire letter should be no more than one page in most
circumstances.
CHAPTER 9 GAINING, RETAINING, AND ADVANCING EMPLOYMENT 4 217
Your completed cover letter and resume should be error-free. Review your
resume and cover letter several times and try to have someone else look at your
resume to ensure that there are no errors.
INTERVIEWING
Interviewing Methods
Businesses employ various methods for interviewing their applicants. These
interviewing methods include:
• Phone interviews
• Face-to-face interviews
• Live interviews through distance technologies
Phone interviews
Because interviews require an investment in time and money, many
businesses try to winnow their pools o f applicants by conducting
phone interviews. Phone interviews could come at any point in the
interviewing process, but the initial or exploratory interview is com-
monly performed by phone. However, a company may use the phone
for its entire interviewing process, although most businesses like to
meet the person and therefore usually will require the applicants to
be on site for at least one part of the interview process.
Preparing for a phone interview requires the same kind of prepa-
ration as preparing for a face-to-face interview, which we will address
in the next section. Also, as with a face-to-face interview, you must
be on time for a phone interview. Additionally, in keeping with a
face-to-face interview, you should retain the names of those who
interview you by phone and use those names respectfully at times
throughout the conversation. However, keep in mind differences when you are
interviewed by phone.
A phone interview benefits you because as an applicant in a phone inter-
view, you can have notes on hand, something you cannot easily do in a face-
to-face interview. If you want to address key points or questions, you can keep
such notes in front of you. These notes can include key information and financial
statistics of the company, bullet points of reminders of what you would want
to say when certain topics arise in the conversation, and questions you want to
make sure the interviewer answers in your phone conversation.
Ensure that your location for the phone interview is free from external
noises or interruptions by other people. (This also means being out of hearing
range of music, flushing toilets, barking dogs, and loud traffic.) Speak with suf-
ficient volume to ensure that your interviewers hear you. If you have difficulty
hearing your interviewers, which can frequently happen when interviewers
are using speakerphones or mobile phones, let your interviewers know that
you cannot hear them. You would rather ask your interviewers to repeat their
questions or get closer to a speaker than to assume what they have said and
address their questions in a way that could be different from what they were
asking.
Use similar rules of etiquette in a phone interview to those that you would
apply in person, including making proper introduction, being mannerly through-
out, and thanking your interviewers• , for their time and consideration.
Expect that phone interviews will not enable you to read your interviewers'
body language. You may struggle to determine in a phone interview whether
interviewers are impressed or concerned about something that you have said
unless they provide some audio clues. Listening for these clues can be helpful.
A "yes," an "umhumm," or polite laughter may be signs that your interviewers
agree with or appreciate what you have said. Unless your interviewers express
concerns about your responses, negative reactions from interviewers are usually
harder to recognize because you cannot see their faces. Silence may seem bad
but is probably neutral. In the absence of auditory cues, try to remain positive
and continue to answer questions completely and concisely to the best of your
ability.
• I nFace-to-Face
face-to-face interviews, y o u have
interviews
4010 ',IT-3 g r e a t e r opportunities t o c r e a t e a

s s t r o n g e r first impression. Your objec-
tive, of course, should be for that first
impression t o be a positive one. Start
– 2 b y being w e l l groomed and dressed
professional ly.
75, E v e n i f t h e j o b does n o t require
business dress, you should dress in busi-
r, a 2
0 rf)E ness attire for the interview (unless you
g a r e otherwise instructed b y a human
resources contact) t o establish a good
first impression and to let the employer know that you want the job. When you
dress well for an interview, you send a message that you take the interview seri-
ously. When you are dressed well, the employer can see that you are capable
of appearing professional, and although the job may not require professional
dress from day to day, you can be counted on to dress professionally if the need
arises to send you to a client site or an event that calls for
professional appearance.
V f Be punctual f o r any interview, and t h a t certainly
includes a face-to-face interview. Show up for the inter-
view early, or at the very least, no later than on time; do
. n o t be late.
In the U.S. and most countries in the western hemi-
sphere, you should give a firm handshake to those you
',, (2 meet—men and women. Remember the names of any-
- o n e to whom you are introduced and use their names
periodically when addressing them during the interview,
V2,) especially at the conclusion of the interview when you
( o _2
• " as E
t h a n k them for their time and consideration of you for
022.1'.:(... N E 2 t h e job.
Distance Technology Interviews

Companies are turning t o various videoconference or distance technologies
when face-to-face interviews are not possible or when travel costs would be
expensive. These technologies include widely marketed internet-based software
technologies like Microsoft's Skypegt and Apple's FaceTime®. Some companies
have in-house proprietary videoconference technology, and others use systems
that are created and marketed by telecommunications companies. The quality
of videoconferencing delivery can range from choppy with delays in audio that
is not synchronized with the movement of the speaker to sophisticated systems
that can make the parties involved in the exchange forget sometimes that they
are not in the same room.
Most of the actions that make for a good face-to-face interview apply to vid-
eoconference interviews, as well. Of course, distance technologies do not allow
for handshakes. Additionally, with most systems, you will be challenged to look
interviewers in the eyes. However, with most technologies, as long as you look at
the screen that displays the people who are interviewing you, the camera that is
placed on you will give interviewers the feeling that you are looking at them, or
are at least looking in their direction. Therefore, you should try to focus on the
interviewers on the screen in a similar manner to the way that you would look
your interviewers in the eyes in face-to-face interviews.
Different Types of interviews

In addition to using different methods for conducting interviews, businesses
have different interviewing cycles that may consist o f multiple interviews.
Although the terms may vary from one business to the next, the types of inter-
views employers typically conduct include:
• Initial or exploratory interviews
• Technical or team interviews
• Hiring interviews
Whether performed by phone, face-to-face, or through distance technolo-
gies, companies will commonly have an initial or exploratory interview. The pur-
pose of this initial or exploratory interview is to determine if the interviewers
find a possible match of interest between the employer and you, the applicant.
If the interviewers identify a basis for a possible match of interest, „.--
the company may then request to interview you with a small team of
people, usually those who perform the type of work that you would
be doing. In such an interview, the team members typically try to
determine if the applicant can perform the technical requirements of
the job and if the applicant seems like a possible match who would be
helpful to the team to accomplish their workload.
A third type of interview would involve a meeting with the man-
ager who has hiring authority for the open position. Oftentimes, this
is the person for whom the applicant will be working if the applicant
is extended an offer and accepts the job. Sometimes the hiring leader • -
will extend an offer to an applicant at the conclusion of the interview. 4
Very often, though, the hiring leader will have other applicants to
interview and will extend an offer to the preferred applicant after all interviews
are completed.
Businesses may conduct variations on these interviews, including condensing
the process. In other words, the process could involve as little as one interview
that accomplishes what the company seeks to get Out of its interviewing process,
or it could involve several interviews that address different aspects of the initial
exploration, determination of technical skills, and meeting of the manager for
whom the applicant will work. These interviews may be performed in as little as
a portion of one day or in steps over the course of separate days.
Some businesses—including consulting, financial, and information technol-
ogy firms that hire top graduating seniors from select universities—conduct
national searches that begin with extensive culling of applications and resumes,
followed by an invitation to visit a main campus of the firm on a given day or
set of days. These visits usually involve presentations to applicants by members
of the firm, multiple interviews, an opportunity for applicants to tour the firm's
facilities, and possibly meals with members of the firm's leadership team.
Preparation
Although you should have already performed some research in the stages dur-
ing which you composed your cover letter and resume, you should expect to
take your research deeper for any company that has requested to interview you.
The Internet and university and public libraries are great sources for background
on companies. Pay particular attention to the company's financial standing, as
reported in quarterly and annual reports. Find which products or services are
most successful for the company and which products or services are being added
or improved. Read the reports of industry analysts to develop an understanding
of the company's position within the industry and prospects for the future. Read
news articles involving the company, including those that may address any good
or bad news or highlight any involvement in the community.
Once you are armed with sufficient research about the company, document
questions that surface and view the interview as an opportunity to get your
questions answered. The best interviews usually develop into a two-way dia-
logue, and if you are prepared to demonstrate your knowledge of the company
and find out more about it in the interview, you can make the interview very
conversational. Most importantly, you can determine if the company is a match
for you, just as the employer will determine if you are a good fit for the company.
Figure 9.6 shows the 25 most commonly asked interview questions of a col-
lege graduate who is seeking a first job after graduation, as identified by Bovee
and Thi II in Chapter 19 of their book, Business Communication Today, 9t" Edition.'
In addition to these 25 most commonly used interviewing questions, employers
will ask the following two questions at some point in the process:
• Tell me about yourself.
• What are your salary/compensation expectations?
'Courtland L. Bovee and John V. Thill, Business Communication Today, Pearson-Prentice Hall,
9t" Edition, (2008).
CHAPTER 9 G A I N I N G , RETAINING, AND ADVANCING EMPLOYMENT • 221
25 COMMON INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
QUESTIONS ABOUT COLLEGE

1. What courses in college did you like most? Least? Why?
2. D o you think your extracurricular activities in college were worth the time you spent on them?
Why? Why Not?
3, When did you choose your college major? Did you ever change your major? If so, why?
4. D o you feel you did the best scholastic work you are capable of?
5. Which of your college years was the toughest? Why?
QUESTIONS ABOUT EMPLOYERS AND JOBS

6. What jobs have you held? Why did you leave?
7. What percentage of your college expenses did you earn? How?
8. Why did you choose your particular field of work?
9. What are the disadvantages of your chosen field?
10. Have you served in the military? What rank did you achieve? What jobs did you perform?
11. What do you think about how this industry operates today?
12. Why do you think you would like this particular type of job?
QUESTIONS ABOUT PERSONAL ATTITUDES AND PREFERENCES

13. D o you prefer to work in any specific geographic location? If so, why?
14. H o w much money do you hope to be earning in 5 years? In 10 years?
15. What do you think determines a person's progress in a good organization?
16. What personal characteristics do you feel are necessary for success in your chosen field?
17. Tell me a story
18. D o you like to travel?
19. D o you think grades should be considered by employers? Why or why not?
QUESTIONS ABOUT WORK HABITS

20. D o you prefer working with others or by yourself?
21. What type of boss do you prefer?
22. Have you ever had any difficulty getting along with colleagues or supervisors? With instructions?
With other students?
23. Would you prefer to work in a large or a small organization? Why?
24. H o w do you feel about overtime work?
25. What have you done that shows initiative and willingness to work?
Figure 9.6 To p 25 Questions Asked of New Hires.

BOVEE, COURTLAND L.; THILL, JOHN V. BUSINESS COMMUNICATION TODAY 9th Edition, 02008. Reprinted by permission
of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Tell Me About Yourself

The tell-me-about-yourself question should be treated like a mini speech or an
elevator pitch. You should be able to tell anyone in 30-45 seconds three things
about yourself and give examples of each of these things. For example, "I'm a
self-motivated, intellectually curious, team player." "I am self-motivated because
even though my family doesn't have money, I applied for every scholarship and
also hold a part-time job. I am intellectually curious because I built my first com-
puter when I was nine years old, and I am a team player because I enjoy bouncing
new ideas off colleagues and working on team projects. So, in short, I am self-
motivated, intellectually curious, and a team player." This interviewee has given
the interviewer a concise and well thought-out synopsis of his or her good points.
What are Your Salary/Compensation Expectations?

The point in the interviewing cycle at which the employer raises the salary ques-
tion will vary from company to company, but it will be asked. Be prepared. Walk
into the interview with a good sense of what your skills are worth in the market-
place. We will address this further in this chapter when we consider compensa-
tion negotiation.
Practicing for the Interview

Naturally, applicants will be nervous for interviews, but those who are more pre-
pared are less apt to carry that nervousness through the interview. Imagine the
types of questions that an employer will pose. A good place to begin is with the
job posting. Because the employer's main purpose in conducting the interview is
to determine if you meet the requirements of the position, the interviewer will
likely ask questions that pertain to the required skills and qualifications as stated
in the posting. The Internet is also a good place to find typical questions that
employers are likely to ask in interviews. (You can find many useful sources for
interview preparation on the Internet. Careercup.com and glassdooncom are a
couple of the many sites that can assist you.) At the very least, ask yourself ques-
tions you find on the Internet and respond to them so that you can determine
how they sound or if you should refine some of your responses. If you can, ask a
friend, family member, roommate, or colleague to pose questions. Conducting
the practice interview with others more closely simulates an employer's inter-
view and can sometimes bring you the added nervousness to learn how to man-
age in a practice interview before the job opportunity is on the line.
Participating in the interview

Employers will pose questions that either ask you to respond to how you would
go about doing certain things, questions about what you did in the past when
faced with certain circumstances, or some combination of both. Many employers
like to ask questions oriented to what you have done because it gives them a bet-
ter indication of what you will likely do if placed in similar circumstances in the
future.
Answer as honestly and as completely as possible, and do not ramble in your
responses. When possible, try to cite examples of your work, academic experience,
CHAPTER 9 GAINING, RETAINING, AND ADVANCING EMPLOYMENT 4 223
leadership responsibilities, or community service that help interviewers know that

you have experiences that will serve well when put to the test by their company.
Like the content of your responses, your physical communication is impor-
tant in the interview. Be sure to sit up straight and show that you are interested
in the conversation and the opportunity. Look the interviewer in the eyes when
responding. If more than one interviewer is interviewing you, make eye contact
with everyone so you can connect with all of the interviewers. Feel free to ges-
ture naturally with your arms and hands so that you do not appear to be stiff
and so that you can naturally release any nervous energy.
At the conclusion of the interview, again shake the hands of your interview-
ers. Thank them for their time, reiterate your interest in the position, and let
them know that you will eagerly await their decision. If interviewers have not
indicated the timetable for their final decision, you can ask when you can expect
to hear from them with their hiring decision.
Third Parties
Some businesses employ third parties to help them find and hire employees.
These third parties go by various names, including recruiting agencies, search
firms, and talent finders. As an applicant, you should think of them as extensions
of the companies they represent. Therefore, you should communicate with any
third party by setting the same standards and following the same approaches
as you would any employer in developing and designing your cover letter and
resume and preparing for the interview.
You may also find that third parties can be useful for your job search. These
agencies represent many employers. Their recruiters may be aware of current
job openings or openings that their clients, the businesses doing the hiring,
anticipate. Reaching out to them and getting in their databases can help lead to
an opportunity.
Compensation Negotiation
Some job postings include a figure or range for the salary or hourly rate of the
position. Many do not. Therefore, you are likely to have to perform research to
determine a reasonable expectation. Your research should include any or all of
the following:
• Compensation averages compiled and posted on the Internet by employ-
ment websites, job search agencies, and Department of Labor data
• Figures from your college or university's career services office
• Anecdotal information from friends, colleagues, or those whom you know
in the industry who would be willing to give you an idea of what might be
a fair compensation range for the position you are seeking
Armed with data, you can negotiate more intelligently when the time comes.
The employer should usually determine the timing of the compensation conver-
sation. Show interest in the company and the position and save the discussion
about compensation for the point in the process that the employer wants to
address it. However, you should be prepared for the conversation to come up at
any time. Some companies will ask you about your salary expectations early in
their hiring process, just to determine if your expectations are in line with the
range that they are likely to be willing to pay. If you give a figure in response to
the employer's request for one early in the hiring process but you do not want
to be ruled Out of consideration, you would be wise to qualify your response and
indicate that your figure is not firm and that you will be flexible as you are more
interested in finding out details about the job opportunity.
If the interviewing process is at or near its conclusion and the employer
extends an offer, you can decide if the offer is reasonable, based on several
factors. One of these factors should be your research on what employers are
paying for similar jobs elsewhere. Another should pertain to future potential.
If the employer has not clearly stated what to expect and the possible or likely
intervals for future compensation review, then you may ask about that in the
salary negotiation process so that you have a good understanding of the bigger
or longer-term compensation picture.
If you are satisfied with the offer, you may wish to accept it on the spot.
If you have any doubt or want to have further time to consider it, thank the
employer for the offer and let the employer know that you are pleased to have
the opportunity extended to you. Add that you will follow up with an answer
by whatever timetable is agreed upon (and then, of course, do so by the agreed
upon day and time).
If the compensation that is offered is lower than you were hoping, share your
data from your research to help the employer understand why you may expect a
higher starting salary. Ask if the employer would consider increasing the offer to
a level that is more in line with your research of the market for similar positions.
If the employer agrees to provide an offer more in line with your expectations,
then your research and negotiation will have paid off. But you may find that the
employer is not prepared to raise the offer. At that point you can inquire as to
whether there is any chance of increasing the frequency of your salary reviews
so that if you are performing well your salary or bonus opportunities can bring
you more quickly up to the compensation level you are seeking.
Ultimately, the decision to accept an offer will be yours. You will need to
decide if the salary or wage offered by the employer is acceptable, regardless of
whether it meets your expectations set by the compensation research you per-
formed. At times, especially in tough job markets or when trying to gain some
experience to enhance your marketability, you may determine that it makes
sense to take a job offer, even if it pays less than you had hoped it would.
Follow Up
Follow up each interview with an electronic message or written letter to those
who interviewed you. You should compose your follow-up messages or letters
within the 24-hour period after each interview. A handwritten or printed letter
with your signature can be an effective way of distinguishing you from other
applicants, but when time is important, as it usually is when an interviewing
process involves quick decisions on the part of the employer, an email note is
acceptable.
In the introductory paragraph o f your follow-up letter or email message,
express your gratitude to the interviewer for the opportunity to meet and dis-
cuss the job opening. In the body of the message, which needs to be only one or
two paragraphs, reiterate your interest in the position. Remind the interviewer
of the most important skills, attributes, and qualifications that you would bring
to the position. In your concluding paragraph let the interviewer know that you
look forward to hearing the employer's decision regarding the next step in the
process or the hiring decision, depending upon where you are in the interview-
ing process.
MAINTAINING AND ADVANCING YOUR CAREER

Obtaining a job is only the first step in applying your communication skills for
your career. Once you have procured a job, your skills will be called upon to
keep it. How you go about your work will also affect your opportunities for
advancement.
Communicating well and applying appropriate etiquette is important in
gaining an edge. Many of the guidelines and principles noted in other chapters
of this book involving email messaging, letter writing and other forms of corre-
spondence, constructing persuasive proposals and reports, thinking about your
various audiences, and delivering professional presentations come into consid-
eration in the maintaining and advancing o f your career. Additionally, being
timely and respectful of others in the carrying Out of all communication can go
a long way toward ensuring your success.
You will need to challenge yourself throughout your career to continuously
improve your communication skills. Watch newscasters and read the work of
journalists and other writers. Listen to speeches. Become a critic who values and
tries to apply the good skills that are evident when hearing or reading a well-
crafted communication and be aware of mistakes made in the communication
of others, not for the purpose of being critical of them, but rather, to know how
you can communicate better.
CONCLUSION
Preparing for the job search, seeking employment, interviewing for jobs, and
retaining employment once the job has been accepted, have been discussed
in this chapter. You cannot substitute hard work and attention to detail. With
patience and persistence, job seekers can achieve and keep employment and
advance in their careers.
EXERCISES
1. Find an online posting of a position in your field of study. Construct a cover letter and
resume for the posting. Be sure to customize your documents for the posting,
2. Using the same job posting you found for completing activity 1, pair up with a member
of the class and conduct mock interviews. Have your classmate interview you, and then
switch roles and interview your classmate, using your respective job postings to generate
questions.
3. Using your mock interview as if it were a real interview with the company that posted the
job, compose a follow-up or thank you letter to the employer.
4. Research compensation statistics for a position in the field that you will likely pursue. Create
a one-page overview of the compensation picture for the job.
5. Bring a job posting to class that you could apply for. Circle all of the key words you have
in your skill set. Use the key words to create an objective using the objective equation
discussed in this chapter.
6. Prepare answers to the top 25 questions asked of all potential new hires, Be prepared to
share your answers with the class.
7. Prepare an elevator pitch answering the question: "Tell me about yourself."
8. Research and find two technical interview questions. Answer the questions and bring your
questions and answers to class for discussion.
227
CHAPTER 1 0
SOCIAL M E D I A A N D
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
INTRODUCTION
In 1961, Leonard Kleinrock wrote the first paper on packet security, thereby
establishing the mathematical theory of packet networks. I n September 1969,
his host computer became the first node of the Internet, and on October 29,
1969, the first message was communicated over the Internet.' By 1997, the first
'Kleinrock, Leonard. (2009) Leonard Kleinrock's Home Page, available at: www.lk,cs.ucla.edu/
index.html, retrieved 2/2/13.
2Ibid.
229
•••'.'vvvvvv•facebook..con-1
facebogk
social network site, SixDegrees.com, was on the Internet.'
By 2002, kids were creating their own web logs, later
shortened to blogs. By 2003, Linkedln and MySpace were
established, and by 2005, YouTube and Facebook were
on the Internet.4 Twitter came into being and joined the
social network site phenomenon in 2006.5
Historically, as these exciting developments were hap-
pening in the then "computer science networking indus-
try," businesses were building their brands by increasing
their intellectual property. Businesses also were employing
people, and their employees were signing employment
agreements. And, businesses were entering into discussions
for joint ventures with manufacturers and other companies
1/11-1-1
JOO
!..T.1111 in industry requiring companies and individuals to enter
eAct.•
'fi•
into non-competition and non-disclosure agreements.
This chapter will explore the explosion of social media
by companies and individual employees and the nexus
between social media, intellectual property, and employ-
ment, non—disclosure, and non—competition agree-
ments affecting employment. Specifically, we will define
social networks, address screen reading, and explore the
uses of social media by individuals and businesses. Also in
'boyd, danah m., and Nicole B. Ellison. (2008) "Social Network Sites: Definition, History, and Scholar-
ship," Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, International Communication Association,
210-230. Note: boyd does not capitalize her first or last name, and therefore, even though the
general rule is to have a capitalized letter at the beginning of a sentence, in this case there is no
capitalization due to the preferred spelling of the author, boyd, being referenced. Further, there is
no [sic], which would indicate an error in the original text as there is no error.
'Ibid., p. 212.
'Ibid.
CHAPTER 10 SOCIAL MEDIA AND INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY G 231
this chapter, we will define intellectual property and review employment agree-
ments, non-competition agreements, and non-disclosure agreements.
SOCIAL NETWORK SITES DEFINED

boyd and Ellison define social network sites (SNS) as "web-based services that
allow individuals to
1. construct a public or semi-public profile within a bounded system,
2. articulate a list of other users with whom they share a connection, and
3. view and traverse their list of connections and those made by others within
the system."
boyd and Ellison identify the uniqueness of SNS as enabling users to "articu-
late and make visible their social networks" and not to allow individuals to meet
strangers, that would be a broader definition encompassed within "networking."
Since 2008, social networking has evolved more broadly into the ability to
establish an online profile designed to both set forth individual belief systems
and establish online networking with strangers who may or may not share those
individual belief systems.
INTERNET AND SOCIAL NETWORKING SITE USAGE

According to the Pew Research Center April 2012 survey, "82% o f American
adults use the Internet and 66% have a high-speed broadband connection at
home." I n the Pew Research Center report on adult use of social networking
sites published on August 26, 2011, 65% of adult Internet users say they now use
social networking sites like Facebook or Linkedln, which is up from 61% in 2010
and 29% in 2008.9Women of all ages and young adults between 18 and 29 as one
group are the "power users of social networking," with 89% of this online group
using social networking sites, generally, and 69% of this group using social net-
working sites daily.1' As of May 2011, the population using social networking sites
does not significantly differ, determined on the basis of race, ethnicity, household
income, education, or where the user lives (urban, suburban, or rural)."
Some of the most popular social networking sites include Facebook, Twitter,
Pintrest, Linkedln, and YouTube. In addition to social networking sites, online
users with specific interests may send and receive RSS feeds on a daily basis. RSS
feeds may be on any subject of particular interest or may be general news feeds
from sites such as Reuters news service.
'Ibid., p. 211.
'Ibid.
'Pew Research Center (2012) "Internet Use and Home Broadband Connections" available at:
www/pewinternet,org/infographics/2012/Internet-Use-and-Home-Broadband-Connections.aspx,
retrieved on 1/12113.
'Madden, Mary, and Kathryn Zickuhr (2011). "65% of Online Adults Use Social Networking Sites,"
Pew Research Center, available at: http://pewinternet.org/Reports/2011/Social-Networking -Sites.
aspx, retrieved on 1/23/13.
''Ibid., p. 3.
"Ibid.
SCREEN READING: THE "F" PATTERN PHENOMENON

In a study conducted by Jakob Nielsen, it was discovered that people generally
read 25% slower on a computer screen in comparison to a printed page.12 In addi-
tion to reading slower onscreen, Jakob Nielsen discovered through eye tracking
tests that people read web pages in an F-shaped pattern—two horizontal stripes
followed by a vertical stripe.' Whether people are moving from "book fluency
to screen fluency, from literacy to visual ity" (as postulated by Kelly14 and Rosen's
or whether we are headed to reading in a "shallower, less focused way" (as pos-
tulated by Mangen'' and Bauerlein"), for greater
readability in blogging or social media networking,
QUICKTIP writers should put their most important thoughts in
In writing for screen readers, the first two paragraphs with essential materials set
• Put key points in first two paragraphs forth in headings as the screen reader races down
• Use left margin headings for main points the page in the vertical stripe before scrolling to the
down the page
next page.
CREATING, MONITORING, AND SANITIZING PERSONAL

SOCIAL MEDIA USAGE
Creating
Creating a personal social media page is simple. Pick a site, complete a simple
questionnaire, upload your web-based address book, and go live: you now have
an online presence. The problem is not creating the personal media page. With
the power users group of social networking, composed of young adults between
18 to 29 years of age and women, you can easily participate. In fact, some people
say that online networking is addictive.lb
As an example, if college students waited until they were 18 years old and
freshman in college before setting up their social media accounts and i f they
then posted only five posts per day during the four years they were undergradu-
ates, they each would post 7,300 posts on their individual web pages. The posts
could vary. They could be pictures of friends, 2151 birthday parties with those
infamous red plastic cups, likes of various other web pages, and other posts.
These 7,300 personal posts would not account for the times individuals were
"tagged" in someone else's pictures or for their other social media participation.
'Alex Beam (2009-06-19). "I Screen, You Screen, We All Screen," The Boston Globe, available at:
www.boston.com/aeimedia/articles/2009/06/19/paper_vs computer screen.
"Nielsen, Jakob (2006-04-17). "F-Shaped Pattern for Reading Web Content," available at: w w w
.useit.cornia I ertbox/read i ng_pattern. htm I.
"Kelly, Kevin (2008-11-21). "Becoming Screen Literate," The New York Times, available at: w w w
mytimes.conV2008/11/23/magazine/23wwin-future-t.html.
"Rosen, Christine (2008). "People o f the Screen," The N e w Atlantis, Number 22, Fall 2008,
pp. 20-32, available at: www.thenewatlantis.com/publicationsipeople-of-the-screen.
"Mangen, Anne (2008). "Hypertext Fiction Reading: Haptics and Immersion," Journal of Research
in Reading, Vol. 31(4), pp. 404-419.
'7Bauerlein, Mark (2008-09-19). "Online Literacy Is a Lesser Kind: Slow Reading Counterbalances
Web Skimming," The Chronicle of Higher Education (Washington, DC), Vol. 54(31), p. B7, available
at: http://chronicle.com/free/v55/iO4/04b01001.htm.
"Madden, Mary, and Kathryn Zickuhr (2011). "65% of Online Adults Use Social Networking Sites,"
Pew Research Center, available at: http://pewinternet.org/Reports/2011/Social-Networking -Sites.
aspx, retrieved on 1/23/13.
CHAPTER 10 SOCIAL MEDIA AND INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY • 233
If college students take politically, racially, ethnically or religiously charged posi-

tions or use expletives or both in their posts on their individual web pages, by
the time they are ready to graduate and gain their bachelor's degrees, they are
virtually unemployable.
Here's what comes for many as a big surprise. Companies look at web pages
prior to making job offers. In fact, a 2012 survey conducted by CareerBuilder
reported that 37% of companies use social networks to investigate job candi-
dates, and of this 37%, 65% use Facebook as their primary source.'9 Whereas
getting employment is a key to success after achieving a degree, you need to
monitor and sanitize your personal social media pages.
Monitoring
Users of social media sites need to be vigilant in monitoring their online images.
Set your social media privacy settings high enough to limit unauthorized access
to your personal web pages. However, be aware: just because you limit others'
access to your online materials does not mean that those items are not acces-
sible to enough people who may not have set their settings as high and certain
pictures become public knowledge on friends' web pages. Thus, even if you seek
to maintain your privacy online, others may publish information about you so
that anyone can view that information.
Another setting that should be monitored is
photo tagging. Before someone can tag a photo and QUICKTIP
put your name over a picture, you want to ensure Set your preferences so that you must
that you must give permission so you can look at approve all picture tags before your name
the picture and determine if it would be acceptable appears on a questionable image,
to be associated with the activity depicted in the
picture.
Face it: not all users have the time or the inclination to police their own
personal social media image while they are in the 18 to 29 age group. Trends
change quickly and hip college-age folks move quickly on trend. Who cares,
right? Well, you should care because 37c/0 of companies look at social media sites
prior to making job offers. Evidently, employers care. And, because they care,
you want to monitor what your online presence reflects, and you should sanitize
to protect your image after all of that carefree living during college.
Sanitizing
The thought of reviewing 7,300 posts is daunting, but the total is probably more
like 50,000 to 150,000 posts because many social media users use more than one
social media site. Knowing that many individuals would need a way to sanitize
personal online images, apps like FacewashTM were created." FacewashTM looks
at wall posts, status updates, photos, likes, and "dirty" words. Other tools include
RepplerTm and SocioCleanTM also act to clean up an online image. Universities are
Scherzer, Lisa (2013). "Mining Your Facebook Profile for Dirt," The Exchange, Yahoo! Finance,
available at: httplifinance.yahoo.comiblogsithe-exchangeimining-facebook-profile-for-dirthtml.
20Scherzer, Lisa (2013). "Mining Your Facebook Profile for Dirt," The Exchange, Yahool Finance,
available at: http://finance.yahoo.com/blogsithe-exchangeimining-facebook-profile-for-dirthtml.
also getting involved and helping their students sanitize their social media sites
with university proprietary software. Regardless of new sanitizing software, the
offending pictures and comments remain on some server somewhere, so before
posting, think twice.
In addition to using a tool or an application, users should search the World Wide
Web for their names. If your name is common, use quotation marks around the
name to limit the web hits. And look closely at the results. Companies are looking to
see if candidates present themselves professionally. Simply put, you want to ensure
that an online search for you does not expose drinking, derogatory remarks about
colleagues or the company's products or services, and pictures that are not G-rated.z1
The best course of action is simple: start sanitizing personal social media now
by being diligent. As a professional, you will find that your reputation is impor-
tant and you should protect it. You will need time to build a reputation, and it
can be ruined easily by failing to monitor and sanitize social media.
SOCIAL MEDIA USE IN EMPLOYMENT

National Labor Relations Act
The National Labor Relations Act (NLRA) governs the relationship between
employee and employer regarding social media usage both in and out of the
workplace. In 2012, the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) issued three
reports regarding social media in the workplace. According to Jon Hyman, a
partner in the labor and employment group of Kohrman Jackson & Krantz, LLP,
"The first two reports focus primarily on what is, and what is not, protected con-
certed activity under the N L R A . In summary, the NLRA gives all private-sector
employees (whether or not in a labor union) the right to engage in protected
concerted activity—to talk between and among themselves about wages, ben-
efits and other terms and conditions of employment."" Hyman further reports
that the third NLRB report on social media addresses
the NLRB's Office of General Counsel's opinion on
QUICKTIP company social media policies. The takeaway from
Start sanitizing social media presence this third report is that "[i]t is very difficult for a
prior to the lob search because 37% of business t o craft a social media policy with any
all companies look at social media before substance behind it that will pass muster with the
making hiring decisions.
NLRB's Office of General Counsel."23
Corporate Social Media Policies and Guidelines

Companies have three goals for creating social media policies and guidelines:
(1) remain compliant with other company policies, (2) educate employees on
proper social media usage, and (3) promote and build their brands.24 Your com-
pany may maintain an additional list of other policies with which all employees
22Lauby, Sharlyn (2012). "Tips for updating Your Company's Social Media Policy," available at:
http://mashable.com/2012/10/06/social-media-policy-updateitips-for-updating-your-company's-
social-media-policyhtml retrieved on 01/24/13.
23Ibid.
"Ibid.
CHAPTER 10 SOCIAL MEDIA AND INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY G 235
must comply with during employment. These other policies synchronize with social
media policies and include:
1. Employee handbooks
2. Blogging guidelines
3. Tweeting guidelines
4. Intellectual property policies
5. Anti-harassment policies
6. IT guidelines
7. Standards of business conduct
8. Sexually explicit or otherwise offensive material policies
9. Employee agreements
10. Non-disclosure agreements
11. Non-competition agreements
Many of these policies exist to make sure a company's brands, in addition to
the company's brand partners, are protected against attack while the company
permits its employees the maximum authority to speak freely with friends and
interact with the general public as quasi-public relations personnel on the grass-
roots level.
Many major corporations have elected to use guidelines and principles
instead of policies for employee social media site usage. What may be written
on a social media site is covered by various other employment policies contained
within the employee handbook. As these other policies cover what an employee
may disclose about the company and its brands without violating any terms of
employment, the company does not need to create a social media policy govern-
ing employment. Guidelines and principles in fact encourage employee usage of
social media because they then become informal spokespersons for the company
and make their company appear more accessible to the general public. Also, as
the NLRB is not sending out a clear signal to
companies regarding acceptable social media
policies, guidelines and principles assist com-
panies in avoiding potential litigation.
Almost daily, the news reports that an
employee has been fired for posting some-
thing, without prior thought of the conse-
quences for the "innocent" post—A teacher
is suspended without pay for posting a pic-
ture o f underage minors w i t h duct tape
across their mouths," A a waitress is fired for
posting a picture of a comment made on a
guest check." In these instances, social media
"Lopez, Christina (2013). "Teacher Posted Facebook Photo o f Students with Duct Tape," Good
Morning AmericaNahoo News, available a t : http://gma•ahoo.comiteacher-posted-facebook-
photo-of-students-with-duct-tape.html.
"Stableford, Dylan (2013). "Applebee's Defends Firing of Waitress Who Posted 'God' Receipt," The
Sideshow, Yahoo News, available at: http:finews.yahoo.comiblogsisideshow/applebees-defends-
firing-of-waitress-who-posted-'God'-receipt.html.
policies were in place, but the social media policies were not the basis for the
suspension or the firing; the employee behavior was. The image of minors may
not be displayed in a public place without prior written permission of the par-
ents or guardians. And, guests are the business of a restaurant and they have a
right to privacy. By posting a receipt online, the privacy of a guest was compro-
mised in violation of the company's other policies.
As recently as October 2013, a 22-year-old woman was fired after wearing
a Boston Marathon bombing victim costume." In this instance, the woman had
a large web presence and not only did she receive hateful tweets but she also
received death threats after being tracked down online at her home address."
In this case, the lines of acceptable and unacceptable behavior were blurred—
not only by this woman's tasteless costume but also by the spiraling hatefulness
experienced by her in tweets and real death threats.
In short, whether the company does or does not have a social media policy
is irrelevant in many instances. Employees must perform their jobs while paying
attention to company policies affecting employment, including a social media
policy, guidelines, or principles, as the case may be.
Blogging Guidelines
The best way to look at whether a post on a social network site will get the user
fired would be to ask some questions prior to posting. Some of the key questions
to ask would include:
1. How would this post be perceived on the front page of The New York Times?
2. Does this post violate another company policy?
3. Does this post create bad will regarding a company brand, product, or service?
4. Does this post disparage a competitive partner to the company?
5. Does this post hide my employment with the company and deceive the
public in any way?
6. Does this post reveal software code in violation of intellectual property or
trade secrets?
7. Does this post commit the company to obligations beyond the company's
agreements?
If you can answer "yes" to any of these questions or anticipate that the infor-
mation you are posting may harm your company, your position, or your reputa-
tion, do not post.
Tweeting Guidelines
Most tweeting guidelines are related to whether the user should use teams/
groups or individual accounts and how to deal with impersonation or name
squatting. In these instances, companies give employees guidelines on how to
use the media most seamlessly for the benefit of the company and for the enjoy-
ment of the employee.
"Sole, Elise"Woman's Boston Marathon Bombing costume: What it Says About Everyone," Yahoo
Shine, Available a t : http://nz.lifestyle.yahoacomigeneralifeatures/article/419687335/womans-
boston-marathon-bombing-costume-what-it-says-about-everyone/ Retrieved: 11/8/13.
'I bid.
CORPORATE USES OF SOCIAL MEDIA

In addition to using social media to investigate potential hires and to monitor
employee behavior, companies use social media in marketing and advertising. In
marketing, companies have web-only offers for their products. Additionally, they
have web marketing campaigns designed for their exact target market because
they can achieve a higher return on investment from marketing through social
media than they can from mailer campaigns to specific zip codes.
In addition to marketing campaigns, companies
are using social media for new product campaigns
including contests and couponing. Web commer- QUICKTIP
cials are less expensive to produce and may appear Corporations use social media to:
on the company's website, before web broadcasts • Build their brands
of first-run network television shows, and on other • Research potential employees
partner websites. In short, no twenty-first-century • Market and advertise
• Build public goodwill
marketing and advertising campaign would be com-
plete without the Internet generally and social net-
working specifically.
NEWSWORTHY USES OF SOCIAL MEDIA

As we have seen, social media is used by individual employees and by the cor-
porations they work for. Several news stories have sensationalized some indi-
viduals' behavior because of their use of social media. Some of the newsworthy
events include a Florida restaurant owner firing all of the employees through
text message.29 The employees of this particular restaurant were upset because
their boss chose such an impersonal way of firing them all. From the boss' per-
spective, the boss avoided all the unpleasantness associated with firing staff and
closing down a restaurant.
One woman became an Internet sensation i n late September 2013 f o r
uploading her resignation onto YouTube.-rn In this woman's YouTube, she dances
around her work late at night with signs stating why she is resigning. She is care-
ful, however, not to mention the name of the company for which she worked
or to name her boss at that company. Additionally, she did not include company
signs in the background of the dance YouTube. The woman worked for a video
media company that was more concerned in the number of views each video
got than in the actual quality of the video itself—ironic because the woman's
YouTube resignation was viewed by millions, we could argue that she learned
her employer's lessons well: get the hits and forget about dance quality.
One of the most recent newsworthy uses of social media was by a 19-year-old
man who was arrested but could not reach a parent with his one telephone call
from the police station. '1 He was polite to the police officers, so they allowed
"Florida restaurant owner fires employees by text message", available at: httpi/www.yahoo.com/
blogs/sideshow/florida-restaurant-fires-employees, retrieved: 7/15/13.
"'This May Be The Coolest Way Ever To Quit Your Job", The Huffington Post, available at: http://
www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/09/quit-your-job, retrieved: 10/1/13.
''Sprinkle, Tim, "Skip the phone call: Teen uses Facebook to bail Out of jail", available at: http://
news,ya hoo.comiski p-the-phone-ca ll-tee n-uses-facebook-to-ba i l-o ut-of-jai l-0041 30507.htm I,
retrieved: 10/26/13.
him one more "call," whereby he used his smart phone to send Out a message
to all of his Facebook friends that he had been arrested for disturbing the peace
and needed someone to post bail for him. Within approximately 30 minutes,
one of his friends read the plea for help and went down to the jail and bailed
him out." However, since everything on Facebook is easily searched through any
search engine, posting that you have been arrested may make you a less desir-
able job candidate for any company in the future.
Think before you leap. Consider the consequences for one indiscrete Face-
book post, as it could cost you your dream job.
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
Black's Law Dictionary defines intellectual property as "[a] category of intangi-
ble rights protecting commercially valuable products of the human intellect. The
category compromises primarily trademark, copyright, and patent rights, but
also includes trade-secret rights, publicity rights, moral rights, and rights against
unfair competition."" According to the definition, intellectual property is a form
of property closely guarded by any business as one of its most valuable assets.
As a professional, you may b e
responsible to write some of the com-
pany's intellectual property should
the company not retain legal counsel
or a technical writer. Therefore, you
E people-=
should have a basic understanding of
intellectual property, including trade-
0 E
o n e law exam
:
Pe m o n o s t i c marks, copyrights and patents, and
''" their importance to the company.
per
'may'.51.1goo
9—used non-rival
•="
In late 2012, Hostess Brands, Inc.,
announced the liquidation of assets
in bankruptcy. Hostess Brands, Inc. is
the owner of several iconic American
brands including: "Hostess, Wonder, Nature's Pride®, Dolly Madison®, Drake's®,
Butternut®, HomePride® and Merite."34 Each of these companies under the Host-
ess Brands, Inc. umbrella has name brand products whose recipes and brands are
worth millions and perhaps billions of dollars.
As separate assets, Hostess Brands, Inc. operated 33 bakeries, 553 distribu-
tion centers, approximately 5,500 delivery routes, and 527 bakery outlet stores
throughout the U.S. and had approximately 18,500 employees." The facilities
and equipment values for the hard assets owned by Hostess Brands, Inc. may or
may not have been worth as much as the intellectual property values contained
in the brands and recipes. Hostess protected its brands and recipes, even through
the bankruptcy. In short, intellectual property rights are closely guarded and
highly valued by all companies no matter the industry.
3211Did.
33Blacies Law Dictionary (2009). Bryan A. Garner, Editor in chief, West: Thompson Reuters, St. Paul,
MN, p. 881.
"ht-tplihostessbrands.com/Closed.aspx
"Ibid.
Trademarks
Black's Law Dictionary defines trademarks as "[a]
word, phrase, logo, or other graphic symbol used by QUICKTIP
a manufacturer or seller to distinguish its product or Intellectual property includes
products from those of others. The main purpose of • Trademarks
a trademark is to designate the source of goods or • Servicemarks
services. In effect, the trademark is the commercial • Copyrights
substitute for one's signature."''b • Patents
• Trade Secrets
To receive federal protection as a trademark, the
word, phrase, logo or graphic symbol must meet cer-
tain criterion, including that it must be "(1) distinctive rather than merely descrip-
tive or generic; (2) affixed to a product that is actually sold in the marketplace;
and (3) registered with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office."37 Trademarks in the
broader sense also include servicemarks. Servicemarks "identify and afford protec-
tion to intangible things such as services.",, When companies fail to register their
trademarks with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, they are protected under
common law only and are distinguished with the TM mark. After the registration
process is completed with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office and approval is
given, the TM mark changes to a registered trademark and is distinguished with the
mark. Trademark applications may be filed online at wwvv.usptagov.
Copyrights
Copyright is "[t]he right to copy; specifically, a prop-
erty right in an original work of authorship (including
literary, musical, dramatic, choreographic, pictorial,
graphic, sculptural, and architectural works; motion
pictures and other audiovisual works; and sound
recordings) fixed in any tangible medium of expres-
sion, giving the holder the exclusive right to repro-
duce, adapt, distribute, perform, and display the
work."39
Copyleft is slang for "[a] software license that
allows users to modify or incorporate open-source
code into larger programs on the condition that the
software containing the source code is publicly dis-
tributed without restrictions."4° Copyleft is not a legal
term and is used in slang as the antithesis of copy-
right, which is a legal term.
As patent protection would require the delivery of
software key codes, many companies have refused to
"Black's Law Dictionary (2009). Bryan A. Garner, Editor in Chief, West: Thompson Reuters, St. Paul,
MN, p. 1630.
"Ibid.
"Ibid., p. 1491.
"Ibid.
"Black's Law Dictionary (2009). Bryan A. Garner, Editor in Chief, West: Thompson Reuters, St. Paul,
MN, p. 386.
patent their technology and have chosen

to seek copyright protection instead as
their technologies
• torial, include musical,
graphic, audiovisual, pic-
and sound
• recordings. Additionally, their technolo-
gies are original works and their author-

-= ship is ripe for protection under copyright
•, guarded trade secrets.
law without delivery of vital and closely
Copyrighted materials after 1976 are

• Agoverned
c t of 1976, which
in the U.S.substantially revised
under the Copyright
the previous copyright laws. U n d e r

the Copyright Act of 1976, an author's
work is protected for the lifetime of the
• d a t e of creation of the work. There is no
author plus 50
• requirement years,
that themeasured from the
work be published
for protection and the legal theory o f

"fair use" became a statutory defense to
a claim for copyright infringement,' Fair
use is a legal theory that permits limited
use of an author's work without the author's permission for use in, for example,
a book review or a parody of the work. The nexus between plagiarism and the
Fair Use Doctrine are explained later in this chapter more fully.
Copyrights are filed in the U.S. Copyright Office. Applications are available
online at www.copyright.gov. Once copyrighted, the works have a ©, generally
followed by the phrase, "All Rights Reserved" followed by the date of the incep-
tion of the copyright.
Patents
Legally, a patent is represented by an official docu-
ment that grants the holder a "governmental grant of
a right, privilege, or authority."42 Several types of pat-
ents exist, including land patents, business-method
patents, design patents, improvement patents, Inter-
net patents, method patents, process patents, and
utility patents. In land patents, the government con-
veys public lands to a private individual. In business-
method patents, the applicant sets forth a series of
process steps that when taken as a whole represent a
business method. Design patents are granted for "a
"Ibid., p. 387.
"Ibid., p. 1234.
new, original, and ornamental design for an article of manufacture," thereby

protecting a product's appearance and n o t its functionality.'" Improvement
patents are granted for improvements in designs on original patents, basically
keeping up the original patent through the improvements in design as the prod-
uct or brand grows. Internet patents are a "type of utility patent granted on an
invention that combines business methods and software programs for Internet
applications."44 Internet patents are also known as cyber patents. Utility patents
are patents granted for inventions involving "a process, a machine, a manufac-
ture, or a composition of matter (such as a new chemical). Utility patents are the
most commonly issued patents."45 These are the most commonly known patents.
Patents are held in the name of the inventor and not in the name of the com-
pany; however, individuals through employment agreements do not take their
patents with them when terminating employment with the companies where
the research was done. The individual relinquishes the patent to the company
under the terms of the employment agreement signed between the parties
prior to the development of the patented materials. You should be aware o f
this policy when you sign an employment contract.
Applications for patents are found online at www.uspto.gov. Even though
the applications are readily available, all would-be inventors should contact
legal counsel specializing in patent law, including trademarks and copyrights,
prior to filing any application. Filing a patent application is as specialized an
endeavor as the creation of the work to be patented, and legal counsel can be
of great assistance in protecting all intellectual property rights.
Trade Secrets
Trade secrets reflect business information that is kept confidential by compa-
nies to retain their business advantage over the competition. Trade secrets are
defined by the majority of courts as "a formula, pattern, compilation, program,
device, method, technique, or process that (1) derives independent economic
value, actual or potential, from not being generally known or readily ascertain-
able by others who can obtain economic value from its disclosure or use, and
(2) is the subject of reasonable efforts, under the circumstances, to maintain its
secrecy."4 The majority definition, which is the most widely accepted definition
across all court jurisdictions, is found in the Uniform Trade Secrets Act.
The courts, however, are split on the definition o f trade secrets and the
minority of courts define trade secrets as IiInformation that (1) is not gener-
ally known or ascertainable, (2) provides a competitive advantage, (3) has been
developed at the plaintiff's expense and is used continuously in the plaintiff's
business, and (4) is the subject of the plaintiff's intent to keep it confidential.""
The minority definition is found in the Restatement of Torts 5757.46
"Ibid., p. 1235.
"Ibid.
"Ibid., p. 1236.
p. 1633.
"Ibid.
Regardless o f the definition, t h e important ele-

E, ment to take away from trade secrets is confidentiality
and the fact that companies will go to great lengths
z, to protect what they hold to be confidential. Compa-
5
nies make employees sign employment agreements,
which may include non-competition agreements, and
make potential business partners sign non-competition
agreements and non-disclosure agreements prior t o
entering into contract negotiations for joint ventures
and strategic partnerships. Trade secrets are highly
prized assets and are just as important as other intel-
lectual property held by corporations.
PLAGIARISM AND THE FAIR USE DOCTRINE

By the end of the twentieth century, the Internet was in constant use for quick
research for anything—from a recipe for dinner to complex, cutting edge, scien-
tific research. Universities started to store their library collections on the Inter-
net. Governments all over the world created web pages for their administrations.
Political parties set up web pages and the dot-corn companies started selling
goods and services over the web without store fronts. With the surge of business
over the Internet, the need to keep pace and set up web pages increased. Within
the first few years of the twenty-first century, we now commonly see individuals
with their own websites,
Plagiarism
While setting up a web page, the person formatting the page may take little
consideration for the ownership o f the illustrations or the text content con-
tained on the web page. This is a big mistake because of the ownership of the
intellectual property rights. But, it's just so easy to do it because it's just two
mouse clicks away from having that gorgeous picture on my web site. Do not
fall into the trap. Get permission from the creator of the work to post that illus-
tration or text on your web site. Sometimes there will be a license fee involved.
Pay it. Sometimes all you will need is a letter of permission to use the illustration
or text because the author wants to see their work spread across the web and
the author is willing to permit the use of their work without payment. Various
authors could clearly state they either do or do not waive their intellectual prop-
erty rights on the author's own web site.
Plagiarism has been in the political and intellectual news in recent years. Jane
Goodall, the noted primatologist, used Wikipedia in one of her recent books
without citation and she got caught.49 Searches for Jane Goodall now include
plagiarism.
"Sampson, Tim, "Jane Goodall Appologizes for Plagiarizing Wikipedia", available at: http://www
.dallydot.comiculture/jane-goodall-plagiarized-wikipedia/, retrieved: 10/26/13.
CHAPTER 10 SOCIAL MEDIA AND INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY • 2 4 3
Another high profile plagiarism case involves Germany's education minister

who was forced to resign in 2013 after being stripped of her doctorate degree
due to plagiarism.haAdditionally, Germany's Chancelor Angela Merkel was forced
to deal with her political opponents in an election year due to academic plagia-
rism by one of her cabinet mennbers.51
The lesson to be learned is simple: failure to give proper citation to the per-
son with the original idea, thought or illustration, regardless of whether it is
directly quoted or just paraphrased, can lead to being fired or worse. One simple
citation mistake can strip a person of their college degree or even worse, ruin a
reputation that took years to develop.
Companies have become very cautious about the illustrations and text their
employees have placed into their company internal and external documenta-
tion. Companies cannot afford lawsuits over intellectual property rights. As
such, many companies have written policies requiring that all illustrations and
text used in company documentation, both private and public, be created by the
company and its employees and remain the company's intellectual property. In
effect, this avoids the plagiarism problem.
Fair Use Doctrine

Regardless of a company's policy regarding intellectual property rights, illustra-
tions and text may be copied for limited use and in limited situations. Initially
these limited-use situations were carved out by litigation. At present, the copy-
ing of intellectual property is permitted for limited use by federal statute under
Title 17 U.S.C. Section 107, which sets forth the Fair Use Doctrine.
In essence, the Fair Use Doctrine permits the copying of intellectual property
for limited purposes including for criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching
(including multiple copies for classroom use), scholarship, or research. Factors
that are considered in determining fair use include
1. The purpose and character of the use, including whether such use is of a
commercial nature or is for non-profit educational purposes;
2. The nature of the copyrighted work;
3. The amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to the
copyrighted work as a whole; and
4. The effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the
copyrighted work."'
When a paragraph of text is copied from the original document for any of
the permitted purposes under fair use, and that text original source is properly
cited, as in this text, the Doctrine of Fair Use applies.
50Breldhardt, Annika, " M e r k e l confidante resigns i n German plagiarism scandal", Reuters,

available a t : http://www.reuters.corniarticle/2013/02/09/us-germany-minister-resignation-
idUSBRE91804I20130209, retrieved 10/26/13.
5217 U.S.C. Sec. 107, available a t http://www.cornell.eduiuscode/17/107.shtml, retrieved: 10/26/13.

17 U.S.C. Sec. 107 — Limitations on exclusive rights: Fair use, available at: http://www.law.cornell
.edu/uscod &text/17/107, retrieved: 10/26/13.
The Doctrine of Fair Use will not apply, f o r example, when a university is
doing a public performance of a play. In this case, even though the performance
is for an educational purpose, the university will profit from the sale of tickets
to the performance and the author's entire work (the play) will be performed. In
this case, the university must contact the author or the author's agent to secure
a license after paying a fee to use the copyrighted materials. The license will
specify the use of the play, including dates of performance and the location of
the performance. The license will only be good for the specified place and per-
formance dates.
If you ever doubt while in school if an item is copyrighted, give proper cita-
tion to the source. If you have any doubt in business, contact the author or their
agent, as the case may be, and pay the appropriate licensing fees.
Remember: citation is required, even when a direct quotation is not being
used. If the materials are generated from another person's thought process and
not your own, you are required to give credit to the source if you use thoughts
acquired from others. Your thoughts can build on their thoughts, but you must
give credit to the person who first had the original thought or who first estab-
lished a line of reasoning as you are now basing your line of reasoning on top of
that other person's thoughts, writings, and intellectual property.
EMPLOYMENT AGREEMENTS
Many corporations have their professional and management employees sign
employment agreements as part of the hiring process. Employers invest a lot of time
to educate new hires on the company's products and services and on various cur-
rent projects. Employers want to ensure that, when employees go to work for com-
petitors, they do not take with them any of the company's business or intellectual
property. The termination clauses in employment agreements are crucial for all par-
ties to the agreement: to the employer, who is interested in retaining control of its
intellectual property when a highly prized employee leaves, and to employees, who
want to make sure they are employable upon termination of their employment.
When employees do not have employment agreements, they are employed
"at will," which means that the employee is not under an employment contract
and their employment may be terminated at any time and for any reason or no
reason whatsoever in some states. Being employed at will is a double-edged
sword. On the one hand, the employer can control its staffing issues, but on the
other hand, the employer has no control regarding whether or not a former
employee goes to work for a competitor.
QUICKTIP If a prospective employee is asked t o sign an
employment agreement, that employee would be
Employment agreements may include
wise t o seek the advice o f legal counsel prior to
• Noncompetition clauses
• Nondisclosure clauses signing the agreement so the employee fully under-
stands the legal points within the agreement.
NON-COMPETITION AGREEMENTS
Because companies so highly value their intellectual property, they sometimes
have non-competition agreements within their employment agreements, which
restrict former employees from going to work for competitors for a period of
time generally not exceeding one year. In the law, non-competition agreements,
or non-competes, are defined as "[a] promise, usually in a sale-of-business, part-
nership, or employment contract, not to engage in the same type of business for
a stated time in the same market as the buyer, partner, or employer."54 Courts
generally disfavor non-competition agreements as restraints of trade, and there-
fore, these agreements must be carefully worded not to over-reach in how they
protect one party to the complete detriment of the other party. Chapter 1 con-
tains a discussion of the ethics surrounding the use of non-competition agree-
ments. Again, prior to signing a non-competition agreement, seek legal advice.
NON-DISCLOSURE AGREEMENTS
Non-disclosure agreements, also known as NDAs or confidentiality agreements,
are legally defined as "[a] contract or contractual provision containing a per-
son's promise not to disclose any information shared by or discovered from a
trade-secret holder, including all information about trade secrets, procedures, or
other internal or proprietary matters."55 NDAs may be signed prior to contract
negotiations between competitors or may be signed by beta testers of computer
software. In exchange for agreeing not to disclose to others what they may learn
in confidential or closed doors meetings, the people who sign NDAs get to play
with all the latest software and find the bugs in it or enter high-level discussions
regarding cutting-edge technologies and business products and services.
CONCLUSION
The development of the Internet permitted the creation of social networking
sites for personal enjoyment and professional fulfillment. The proper use of social
media can enhance employment, while the improper use of social media can
thwart employment prospects. Individuals and companies have become adept
at using social media for developing friendships and business relationships to
marketing and advertising new products and services pushing company brands
further into contemporary use in the twenty-first century. Making connections
by using social networking sites and blogging and tweeting will continue.
Businesses will continue the need to protect their intellectual property because
they may actually benefit more from this property than from the actual bricks
and mortar, equipment, and facilities comprising the businesses. Companies will
continue to have their employees sign employment agreements, which may con-
tain both non-competition and non-disclosure agreements. Employees may have
their employment terminated for failure to honor their company's policies and
procedures and for failure to value the company's intellectual property rights.
In short, as a user of social media, remember to think before posting and after
posting realize that a post is a permanent record on some server somewhere. So,
how will this post look on the front page of the web? How will this post line
up to the company's intellectual property policies? Employment Agreements?
Other Agreements? What does that post look like when it's trending now?
"Ibid., p. 420.
55Ibid., p. 1152.
EXERCISES
1. List and explain five advantages for including social media in your job search.
2. List and explain five disadvantages for having a social media presence in your job search.
3. List all of the social media outlets you currently are connected with. Which is the most
useful for you in your career and why? Which is most useful for you in your personal life
and why? Are they the same? If so, explain.
4. List and explain five ways a company can incorporate social media into its connectivity with
its consumers.
5. Define and explain one unique way a company can incorporate social media to generate
sales or excitement for a new product or service.
6. How can an engineering firm incorporate social media into its company culture?
7. How can a computer gaming company incorporate social media into its company culture?
8. How would you design a social media website for your company?
9. What intellectual property rights should a company protect? Why? Why not?
10. List and explain five advantages for signing an employment agreement.
11. List and explain five disadvantages for signing an employment agreement.
12. Present an example of a trademark. Explain why your example is an excellent example of a
trademark.
13. Present an example of a servicemark. Explain the difference between a trademark and a
servicemark.
14. Should copyright be linked to the lifespan of the author plus 50 years? If yes, explain. If no,
explain.
15. What would be the advantages of having no software copyrights? Explain. Then, explain
the disadvantages of having no software copyrights, from a business prospective.
16. Should individuals be permitted to take their patents with them when they terminate their
employment with a company? If yes, why? If no, why? Explain.
247
APPENDIX A
AMERICAN ENGLISH
MECHANICS GUIDE
There are small differences between British English and American English beyond
the occasional word choice, spelling, and idiomatic phrase. Additionally, there
are differences with the use of the articles: a, an, and the. This guide is specific to
American English mechanics and will include information on punctuation, capi-
talization, sentence structure basics, and mechanics trouble spots. No emphasis
will be given to spelling. If you are working in the United States, set your com-
puter to "American English" settings and if you are working in Great Britain
or its former colonies, set your computer to "British English" settings. This will
catch most of the spelling differences.
PUNCTUATION
Periods
Periods are used at the ends of sentences. Sentences need to have a subject and
an object (noun or pronoun and verb) as in, "I am." Sentences generally have
an object which modifies the noun or pronoun as in "I am late", which describes
what " I am." In standard American English, the word order in a sentence is
subject-verb-object.
Commas
Commas are used to:
• Separate dependent and independent clauses
• Set off a person's title after the person's name
• Separate the salutation from the letter body in email and personal letters
Examples:
Dear Mr. Stone,
Jack Stone, President of Flagstone Brothers,
Dr. Stone, searching for his stethoscope, dropped his pen on the floor
249
Oxford Commas
The Oxford Comma a.k.a. the Harvard Comma is the comma right before
the and in a list of items. The use o f this comma is stylistic. Some publica-
tions require its use and some will not. The best advice is to be consistent
throughout the writing, and adapt when needed to either use or not use
this comma.
Examples:
Peanut butter, jelly, and bananas together make a wonderful sandwich.
Pencils, pens (fountain and ball point), and markers (dry erase and permanent)
are all useful writing utensils.
Semicolons
A semicolon is a form o f punctuation used t o separate t w o independent
clauses that are related to one another. Semicolons are used to separate a
list of points that contain commas. Semicolons are used where a conjunction
could be used.
Examples:
The train will arrive soon; it's going to make one more stop before it reaches the
platform.
Some people write technically; other people write creatively.
Colons
A colon is a form of punctuation used before a list, a description, explanation,
or definition.
Examples:
Patriotic colors: red, white, and blue, do not go together with Christmas colors:
red and green.
The colors of the rainbow are: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.
Everyone loves a double rainbow; the colors o f the rainbow are: red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.
Exclamation Points
An exclamation point is a form of punctuation used to show surprise or strong
emotion. Exclamation points are not generally used in technical writing.
Example:
Stop! Calm down! Get him to the emergency room now!
Question Marks
A question mark is a form of punctuation used to show a quizzical expression.
Question marks are generally not used in technical writing.
APPENDIX A AMERICAN ENGLISH MECHANICS GUIDE • 251
Example:
Which paint color looks best?
Where is that proposal you sent via email?
How many people are coming to the party?
Quotation Marks
Quotation marks are used to set off the ownership of material, dialogue, collo-
quialisms, and any other word, phrase, or other quoted information.
Examples:
"To be or not to be, that is the question," is a quote from Shakespeare.
He said, "That's an amazing photograph. Did that really happen?"
That's a real "needle in a haystack."
Apostrophe
An apostrophe is a form of punctuation used to mark possession and an omis-
sion, as in contractions or for poetic effect.
Examples:
The company's rules and regulations are in the company handbook.
don't believe you. (Do not)
O'er the yond pond, shimmering in light. (Over)
CAPITALIZATION'
The basic rules surrounding capitalization are capitalize the:
1. First word in each sentence;
2. Pronoun /
3. First, last and "important words" in a title, excluding articles (a, an, and
the), prepositions (of, in, by, to, etc.), and conjunctions (and, or). The
exceptions to this rule would be APA and IEEE citation styles, which only
capitalize the first word in the reference.
4. Proper nouns, including:
a. Names of people and companies: John Smith, Microsoft Corporation;
boCity, state, country, and other specific places: Dallas, Texas, United States,
Mississippi River, and Six Flags Over Texas.
i. Exceptions:
1. Compass directions: north, south, east, and west
2. Directions: north side of town
3. Combination of proper nouns where the proper noun for a place is
first: Appalachian mountains
4. Descriptive terms for locations: Mohave desert
'Adapted from "Capitalization", Available at: http://grammar.accommneteduigrammaricapitals

.htm Retrieved: 11/19/13. Note: This reference also includes a PowerPoint and Quiz on capitalization.
c. Celestial bodies: Venus, Earth, Mars, Milky Way.

i. Exceptions:
1. Earth is not capitalized unless it is in relationship to other celestial bod-
ies, i.e., "I live on earth."
d. Newspaper, journal, and book titles: The Dallas Morning News
e. Day, months, and holidays: Wednesday, May, Christmas.
1.Exception: Do not capitalize names of seasons, i.e., fall, spring
f. Historical events: the Civil War, WWII
g. Races, nationalities, and languages: English, French, German.
i. Exception: generic terms like white and black which are words for race.
h Religions and religious terms: Christianity, Judaism, Hindu, God.
i. Course names: Small Group Communication, Professional and Technical
Communication.
i. Exception: generic terminology for courses, i.e., I'm taking micro-biology
this semester.
j. Product brand names: Kleenex, PowerPoint, Keynote.
5 Proper names of relationships when used as a person's name, including:
a, My Mom is the best mom in the whole world.
b. Did you see my Granny in the play? I think grandmothers are so cool.
c. Did you ever meet my Uncle Harry? He's a really incredible uncle.
d. Exception:
i. Vocations and terms of endearment are generally not capitalized, including:
1. Most attorneys are hard-working.
2. My professor taught us how to think critically.
3. She's such a cutie pie.
SENTENCE STRUCTURE BASICS

The Articles: A, An, and The
The articles a and an represent one item. The word a is used before consonants
and an is used before vowels. The is an article used to represent a noun or pro-
noun that is the only one or a specific one.
Examples:
I need a piece of paper and a pen to write down this address.
An apple a day can help you gain good health.
The director of this film is from England.
A director could potentially be from any country.
Comma Splice (C.S.)

A comma splice occurs when a comma is used instead of using the proper for-
mat, which would be either a semi-colon or a period.
Example:
The STEM fields are the most exciting career areas f o r twenty-first cen-
tury students, t h e STEM fields are science, technology, engineering, a n d
mathematics.
Fragments (Frag)
Sentence fragments occur when:
• There is no verb to accompany a sentence subject
• A phrase (dependent or independent) is masquerading as a sentence
• A gerund is masquerading as a verb
Example:
Cherry's bright future.
Gerund
A gerund looks like an " -ing" verb, but really acts as a noun within the sentence.
Examples:
When we were children, we ran around the yard playing freeze tag.
Singing in harmony, the band played on.
Run On (R.0.)
A run on sentence is composed of two or more independent clauses that have
been joined together without the proper use of a conjunction and/or the neces-
sary punctuation or both. A run on sentence may be short or long in length due
to improper punctuation.
Example:
Jack and Jill ran up the hill to fetch a pail of water, Jack fell down the hill while
Jill was picking daisies.
Subject-Verb Agreement (S-V) and Verb Tense

English is not the easiest language to learn when it comes to subject-verb agree-
ment. English has past, present, future, present perfect, past perfect, future per-
fect, present progressive, past progressive, and future progressive tenses in both
singular and plural forms. Table A.1 shows the conjugation of the verb to be.
Tense S i n g u l a r P l u r a l
Present I am W e are
You are Y o u are
He/she/It is T h e y are
Past I was W e were
You were Y o u were
He/she/it was T h e y were
Table A.1 Ve r b Conjugation for To Be.

Tense Singular Plu;11-111

Future I will be We will be
You will be You will be
He/she/it will be They will be
Present perfect I have been We have been
You have been You have been
He/she/it has been They have been
Past perfect I had been We had been
You had been You had been
He/she/it had been They had been
Future perfect I will have been We will have been
You will have been You will have been
He/she/it will have been He/sherd will have been
Present progressive I am being We are being
You are being You are being
He/she/it is being They are being
Past progressive I was being We were being
You were being You were being
He/she/it was being They were being
Future progressive There is no future pro- This is true both for the
gressive tense of the verb singular and plural of
to be as there is no ex- to be.
pression of will be being.
The future state is ex-
pressed simply in will be.
Table A.1 (continued)
MECHANICS "TROUBLE SPOTS"

i.e. and e.g.
I.e. is used to give more information. E.g. is used to give an example.
Examples:
Neutral paint colors, i.e., beige, grey, and green are used to sell houses.
Using neutral pronouns can make sentences more complicated and long, e.g.,
"He or she should use his or her book to read the chapter before his or her class."
Affect and Effect

Affect is a verb, Effect is a noun.
Examples:
The tragic pictures from the latest world disaster affected her
Many people will be homeless as an effect of the disaster.
Because, Since, and As

The word since often refers to how much time has passed, as in "Since yester-
day, all I've thought about is you." Sometimes, a sentence with since can be
interpreted in two ways, and that is when you should avoid using since to mean
because." Take this ambiguous sentence:
"Since they spoke, she's had second thoughts." (Since could mean from the
time that or because. )
A similar problem arises with the word as, which can also mean because.'
Bored of, bored by, bored with

Bored of is incorrect. The correct usage is either bored by or bored with.
Examples:
Incorrect: I'm bored of this class.
Correct: I'm bored with this class. I'm bored by this music.
Fewer and Less

If you can count the number of items (count nouns) use fewer. If not, you're
probably referring to mass nouns so use less. Time, money and distance are
exceptions—use less for these too. So even if you can count how many hours
a meeting lasted for, you'd say, "The meeting lasted for less than two hours."3
Examples:
Can we get by with fewer balloons for the birthday party?
Less furniture in this room would make the room look larger.
I or Me (when not alone)

The rules regarding whether to use o r me in conjunction with another person
can be a little tricky, but if you will remember to test them by putting them in
the sentence standing alone, you will likely choose correctly.
2B.T. Mills, "Because," "Due To," "Since," and "As", QuickandDirtyTips.com, Available at: http://
www.quickanddirtytips.comieducation/grammaribecause-due-to-since-and-as?page=1 Retrieved
11/19113. Note: This reference also give examples regarding how to avoid wordiness using because
instead of longer, more wordy versions.
3"GrammaticallySpeaking",Availableat:http://m.staples.caisbdcaten_CA/creiprograms/grammarquizi#
.Unwl3N_cNkHwfacebook Retrieved: 11/12/13.
Example:
Betsy and Ilme went to the movies. To check the correctness of this statement,
say, " I went to the movies." This also makes sense. Substitute I for me." "Me
went to the movies." Immediately you know this is wrong. So, the correct phras-
ing is, "Betsy and I went to the movies."
Its and it's

Its indicates possession. It's is a contraction meaning, "it is" or "it has."
Examples:
The cat is playing with its string.
It's a fine day for a walk.
Lay and Lie

Lay requires a direct object and lie does not.
Examples:
I need to lie down and take a nap.
You can lay those books down over there.
Of and Have
The word of should never follow could, should, and would. Use have instead.
Examples:
Correct: Yo u should have checked the grammar guide before writing that
report.
Incorrect: Yo u should of checked the grammar guide before writing that report.
Sit and Set

Sit requires a direct object and set does not.
Examples:
I need to sit down.
Please set the vase on the dinner table.
That and Which

A clause containing that is necessary, whereas, a clause containing which can be
removed from a sentence without changing the meaning of the sentence.
Examples:
The accessories that came with the camera make all the difference.
My house, which used to have purple trim, is now painted with white trim.
There, Their, and They're

There indicates a place.
Their indicates possession.
They're is a contraction for they are.
Examples:
Put the flower vase over there.
Their new car really handles well in wet weather.
They're really a sweet couple.
Whether and Weather

Hear and Here
Be and Bee
Whether and weather, hear and here, and be and bee sound alike, but they
have entirely different meanings. Whether is used as a conjunction and has a
similar meaning to if. Weather refers to climate. Hear refers the act of hearing.
Here refers to a place or location. Be is a verb, i.e., I am, you are, he/she/it is, and
a state of being. Bee is an insect.
Examples:
I need to know whether you're going to the grocery store today or tomorrow.
If you do not like the weather in Texas, just stick around a little bit longer as it
will change.
Did you hear that?
Your tour starts here.
Be a good sport and kill that bee, will you?
Who and Whom

Who is used when referring to the subject of the sentence. Whom is used when
referring to the object of the sentence.
Examples:
I cannot think who would have left such a mess in the office break room.
Whom did you see at the state fair yesterday?
Whose and Who's

Who's is a contraction meaning "who is" or "who has."
Whose indicates possession.
Examples:
Who's got the time to help me?
Whose book is this?
Year's and Years'

Year's and years' are expressions of time or temporal expressions. When used to
express a u n i t o f time, t he apostrophe is placed before the s f o r one year and
after the s for more than one year.
Examples:
I will be over the hill in one year's time.
I will be twenty-one in two years' time.
Your and You're

Your indicates possession. You're is a contraction meaning "you are."
Examples:
Your shoes need to be put away.
You're not going to wear those shoes are you?
APPENDIX B
I E E E C I TAT I O N F O R M AT
Appendix B will review the IEEE Citation Style including: books, handbooks,
reports, conference technical articles, online sources (FTP, wwvv, email), patents,
standards, theses, dissertations, unpublished works, periodicals, and general
reference rules.
Very rarely IEEE Citation Style has no citation format for a particular reference
source, Should this occur, substitute Chicago Book Style for IEEE Citation Style.
BOOKS
Basic Format
[1] Author's First Name Initials Author's Surname (last name), "Title of chapter
in the book," in Title of the Published Book, xth ed. City of Publisher,
Country if not USA: Abbrev. of Publisher, year, ch. x, sec. x, pp. xxx-xxx.
NOTE: with three or more authors, use et. al. for all authors after the first named
author.
Examples
[1] M. Schlobohm and C. Ryan, Business and Technical Communication:
A Guide to Writing Professionally, 1" ed., Dubuque: Kendall-Hunt, 2013.
[2] J. D. Rothwell, "Technology and Virtual Groups," in In Mixed Company:
Communicating in Small Groups and Teams, 8'" ed. Boston: Wadsworth
Cengage Learning, 2013, pp. 382-407.
[3] S. D. Lane et. al., Communication in a Civil Society, 1 ed., Boston: Pearson,
2014.
[4] J. Jacobs, Kindle Fire HD Manual: The Complete Guide to Getting the Most
Out of Your Kindle Device, Kindle Edition, Amazon, 2014.
HANDBOOKS
Basic Format
[1] Name of Manual/Handbook, xed., Abbrev. Name of Co., City of Co., Abbrev.
State, year, pp. )0/ -xx.
259
Examples
Li I The Official Boy Scouts Handbook, 1" ed., Boy Scouts of America, 1911,
[2] IBM 082 Version 10.5 for Linux, UNIX, and Windows, IBM Corp., Armonk,
NY, 2014.
REPORTS
Basic Format
[1] Author's First Name Initials Author's Surname, "Title of report," Abbrev.
Name of Co., City of Co., Abbrev. State, Rep. xxx, year.
Examples
[1] "Chicago Bridge & Iron Company N. V. 2013 Annual Report," CB&I Co., The
Hague, NL, 2013.
[2] R. A. Hart, et. al., "Design review of a proposed flowloop," Southwest
Research Institute, 2007.
CONFERENCE TECHNICAL ARTICLES

Basic Format
[1] Author's First Name Initials Author's Surname, "Title of paper," in
Unabbreviated Name of Conf, City of Conf., Abbrev. State (if given), year,
pp. xxx--)oor.
Format for electronic conference article with no page numbers
[1] Author's First Name Initials Author's Surname [two authors: Author's First
Name Initials Author's Surname and 2'd Author's First Name Initials Author's
Surname][three + authors: Author's First Name Initials Author's Surname
etal.], "Title of Article," in [Title of Conf. Record as it appears on the
copyright page], [copyright year] [IEEE or applicable copyright holder of
the Conference Record]. Doi: [Digital Object Identifier (DOI) number]
Format for unpublished paper presented at conference
[1] Author's First Name Initials Author's Surname, "Title of paper," presented
at the Unabbrev. Name of Conf., City of Conf., Abbrev. State, year.
Examples
[1] R. Guzman-Cabrera, et. at., "Clasificacion semi-supervisada de documentos
usando informacion no estructurada," Presented at the IEEE International
Congress on Innovation and Technologial Development (CIINDET), 2010.
[2] R. A. Hart and S. J. Kleis, "A numerical model for double-diffusive
convection in a stratified fluid subjected to lateral heating," presented
at the Meeting of the Solar Energy Division of the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, Washington, D.C.
ONLINE SOURCES
Full Text Publication (FTP) Format
[1] Author's First Name Initials Author's Surname. (year). Title (edition) [Type of
medium]. Available FTP: Directory: File:
APPENDIX B IEEE CITATION FORMAT • 261
Example
DI R. J. Walter. (2013), "Steelwise: bracing for nonbuildings similar to buildings,"
Modern Steel Construction [Online]. Available FTP: http://www.cbi.com/
media-center/publications/technical-articles-conference-papers.
WWW Format
[1] Author's First Name Initials Author's Surname. (edition) "Title of page,"
(Title of site), [Online]. (year, month day). Available: http://www(URL)
(Accessed: Access date).
Examples
[1] J. Smith, (nth ed.) "Long distance phone calls," (T.A.R.D.I.S. Operations
Manual) [Online]. (2542, April 1). Available: https://wwwuniversaltranslator
.net (Accessed: April 5, 2014).
[21 C. Reames, "Measuring stem nut wear using the SNAP process,"
(Valvemagazine.com), [Online]. (2012, Aug. 10). Available: http://www.cbi
.com/images/uploads/technical articles/Stem Nut Reprint.pdf (Accessed:
April 5, 2014).
Email Formats
[1] Author's First Name Initials Author's Surname, (year, month day). Title
(edition) [Type of medium]. Available email: Message:
[2] Sender, (sender's email address), "RE: subject of message," Email to Recipient
(Recipient's email address) day month year.
Examples
[1] J. Smith. (2014, April 1). TA.R.D.I.S. Parking Brake Malfunctions Talk
[Online]. Available email: thedoctor@universalmessages.net Message:
T.A.R.D.I.S. Talks.
[21 M. Schlobohm (Maribeth.schlobohnn@university.edu), "RE: Memo assign-
ment," Email to T. Student (tstudent@university.edu) 4 April 2014.
PATENTS, STANDARDS, THESES, DISSERTATIONS,

UNPUBLISHED WORKS
Patents Format
[1] Author's First Name Initials Author's Surname, "Title of patent,: U.S. Patent
xxxxxxx, Abbrev. Month, day, year.
Example
[1] J. J. Baecker, et. al., "Vacuum compatible water vapor and rinse process
module," U.S. Patent 5.820.692, Oct. 13, 1998.
Standards Format
[1] Title of Standard, Standard number, date.
Examples
pi Standards in Cloud Computing (Cloud Profile), IEEE P 2301 Working Group,
2014.
[2] Standards in Cloud Computing (Intercloud), IEEE P 2302 Working Group, 2014.
[3] IEEE Standard for Higher Performance Protocol for the Standard Digital
Interface for Programmable Instrumentation, 488.1, 2003.
Master's Theses Format
[1] Author's First Name Initials Author's Surname, "Title of thesis," M.S., thesis,
Abbrev. Dept., Abbrev. Univ., City of Univ., Abrev. State, year.
Example
[1] R. A. Hart, "An experimental and numerical investigation of double-
diffusive convection in a stratified fluid subjected to lateral heating," M.S.,
thesis, Univ. Houston, Houston, TX, 1997.
Ph.D. Dissertations Format
[1] Author's First Name Initials Author's Surname, "Title of dissertation,"
Ph.D. dissertation, Abbrev, Dept., Abbrev, Univ., City of Univ., Abbrev. State,
year.
Example:
[1] R. A. Hart, "Measurement and control of complexity effects in branched
microchannel flow systems," Ph.D. Dissertation, Univ. Texas, Austin, TX,
2012.
Unpublished Work Formats
[1] Author's First Name Initials Author's Surname, private communication,
Abbrev. Month, year.
[2] Author's First Name Initials Author's Surname, "Title of paper," unpublished.
Examples
[1] C. Ryan, private communication, May 2014.
[2] R. Ball and M. Schlobohm, "Chuck vs. the perfect woman," unpublished.
PERIODICALS
NOTE: When referencing IEEE transactions, the issue number should be deleted
and month carried.
Basic Format
[1] Author's First Name Initials Author's Surname, "Name of paper," Abbrev.
Title of Periodical, vol. x, no. x, pp. xxx -xxx, Abbrev. Month, year.
Examples
[1] J. G. Browning, "A long time ago, in a courtroom far, far away," Tex. Bar J.,
vol. 77, no. 2, pp. 158-161, Feb. 2014.
[2] J. Podgers, "Going app over the model rules," A. B. A. J., vol. 99, no. 12,
p. 61, Dec. 2013.
[3] M. Tacca, et. al., 'Cooperative and reliable ARQ protocols for energy harvesting
wireless sensor nodes," IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications, vol. 6,
no. 7, pp. 2519-2529, July 2007.
APPENDIX B IEEE CITATION FORMAT • 263
[4] R. A. Haet and A. K. da Silva, "Self-optimizing thermally-adaptive

microfluidic flow structures," Micro fluidics and Nanaluidics, to be
published. *
• Always use this style when the paper has not yet been accepted or
scheduled for publication. Do not use "to appear in."
ADDITIONAL GENERAL REFERENCE RULES

References in Text
• References appear on the line in square brackets inside the punctuation.
• Grammatically, they may be treated as footnotes as follows:
o as seen in Smith [3], [4].
o as in [2], [3] — [8].
o Smith [3] and Jones [9].
• Grammatically, they may appear as nouns as follows:
o as demonstrated in [1]; according to [5] and [6] — [10].
References Within a Reference

Do not use ibid. or op. cit. These refer to a previously cited reference in the docu-
mentation. Instead, repeat the earlier reference number. In the event the new cita-
tion is on a different page than the previously cited source, use the following:
[1, pp. 3—15]
[1, Fig. 2.5]
[3, Ch.10, pp. 213—215]
[2, Schematic 6]
References With URL in Addition to Print Source

If there is a URL in addition to a print source, citation for the URL is done at the
end of the print reference.
Reference Abbreviations for Source, Month, and More

Always check for abbreviations of words at the IEEE Citation website. Abbrevia-
tions exist for:
• Publication names
• Universities
• States
• Months
• And more
References Page
• Use left-side justification for the title, "References"
• Start a References page with a page break from the documentation instead
of starting the References page at the end of the document
REFERENCES
Chapter 1
1. "Ethics." Oxford Dictionaries, available a t http://oxforddictionaries.com/
definitionienglishiethics, retrieved: 3/19/14.
Chapter 2
1. Clark, Irene L. Concepts in Composition: Theory and Practice in the Teaching
of Writing, Second Edition, 2012. Routledge, New York and London, p. 109.
2. "Culture." Merriam-Webster, available at http://www.merriam-webstercom/
dictionary/culture, retrieved: 3/19/14.
3. Ibid.
4. Chu, Sauman. "Cross-Cultural Comparison o f the Perception o f Symbols."
Journal of Visual Literacy, Vol. 23, No. 1, Spring 2001,69-80.
5. Keskar, Gulab. "Color Psychology and Its Effect on Human Behavior." Officer
Technology, Research and Technology Center. Asian Paints, Ltd. Turbhe New
Mubai.
6. Ibid.
Chapter 3
1. Martin, Gary, " A picture is worth a thousand words," available at: http://
www.phrasesoorg.ukimeanings/a-picture-is-worth-a-thousand-words,
retrieved 10/30/2012.
2. PosterPresentations.com, available at: http://www/posterpresentations.com,
retrieved 8/13/13.
3. Lerner, Kevin, "The Psychology of Color in PowerPoint Presentations," avail-
able a t : http://www.presentationteam.comt presentation-tips/powerpoint-
tips/psychology-of-color-in-powerpoint-presentations, retrieved 11/4/2012.
Chapter 4
1. Pennington, Art. "What Project Team Size is Best?", available at: http://www
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3/19/14.
2 "Janis, Irving L. (1972) "What is Group Think?", available at http://www.psysr
.orgiabout/pubs_resources/groupthinV/020overviewhtm, retrieved: 2/5/13. See
Janis, Irving L. (1972). Victims of Groupthink. New York: Houghton Mifflin.
See also Janis, Irving L. (1982). Groupthink: Psychological Studies o f Policy
Decisions and Fiascoes. Second Edition. New York: Houghton Mifflin.
3. "What is Six Sigma", from iSix Sigma Website, available at http://www.isixsigma
.cominew-to-six-sigmaigetting-started/what-six-sigma/, retrieved 1123/13.
265
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six_sigma_organization.htm, retrieved 1/23/13.
5. Ibid.
6. Tuckman, Bruce (1965). "Developmental sequence in small groups," Psycho-
logical Bulletin 63(6): 384-99. doi:10.1037/h0022100, PMID.
Chapter 6
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Michael Scott Jackman, M.P.A. (2009). "Dispute Resolution and the Vanishing
Trial: Comparing Federal Government Litigation and ADR Outcomes", Ohio
State Journal on Dispute Resolution, Vol. 24:2 2009, p. 258-259.
2. !bid, p. 259.
Chapter 8
1. Maslow, A.H. (1943), "A Theory of Human Motivation." Psychological Review,
50(4), 370-396. Retrieved from http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Maslow/motivation
.htm
2. Maslow, A. (1954). Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper.
3. Ehninger, D., Monroe, A. H., & Gronbeck, B. E. (1978). Principles and Types of
Speech Communication, 8th ed.
4. http://changingminds.orgitechniquesigeneral/overall/monroe_sequence.htm
Chapter 9
1. Courtland L. Bovee and John V. Thill, Business Communication Today, Pearson-
Prentice Hall, 9"1 Edition, (2008).
Chapter 10
1. Kleinrock, Leonard. (2009) Leonard Kleinrock's Home Page, available at:
www.lk.cs.ucla.edutindex.htnni, retrieved 2/2/13.
2. Ibid.
3. boyd, danah m., and Nicole B. Ellison. (2008) "Social Network Sites: Defini-
tion, History, and Scholarship," Journal of Computer-Mediated Communica-
tion, International Communication Association, 210-230. Note: boyd does not
capitalize her first or last name, and therefore, even though the general rule
is to have a capitalized letter at the beginning of a sentence, in this case there
is no capitalization due to the preferred spelling of the author, boyd, being
referenced. Further, there is no [sicl, which would indicate an error in the
original text as there is no error.
4. Ibid., p. 212.
5. Ibid.
6. Ibid., p. 211.
7. Ibid.
REFERENCES • 267
8. Pew Research Center (2012) "Internet Use and Home Broadband Connec-
tions" available at: vvww/pewinternet.org/infographics/2012/Internet-Use-
and-Home-Broadband-Connections.aspx, retrieved on 1/12/13.
9. Madden, Mary, and Kathryn Zickuhr (2011). "65% of Online Adults Use Social
Networking Sites," Pew Research Center, available at: http://pewinternet.
org/Reports/2011/Social-Networking -Sites.aspx, retrieved on 1/23/13.
10. Ibid., p. 3.
11. Ibid.
12. AlexBeam (2009-06-19). " I Screen, YouScreen,WeAl I Screen," TheRoston Globe,
available a t : www.boston.com/ae/media/articles/2009/06/19/paper_vs_
computer_screen.
13. Nielsen, Jakob (2006-04-17). "F-Shaped Pattern for Reading Web Content,"
available at: www.useit.com/alertbox/reading_paffern.html.
14. Kelly, Kevin (2008-11-21). "Becoming Screen Literate," The New York Times,
available at: www.nytimes.com/2008/11/23/magazine/23wwin-future-t.html.
15. Rosen,Christine(2008)."PeopleoftheScreen,"TheNewAtlantis, Number22, Fall
2008, pp. 20-32, available at: www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/people-
of-the-screen.
16. Mangen, Anne (2008). "Hypertext Fiction Reading: Haptics and Immersion,"
Journal of Research in Reading, Vol. 31(4), pp. 404-419.
17. Bauerlein, Mark (2008-09-19). "Online Literacy Is a Lesser Kind: Slow Reading
Counterbalances Web Skimming," The Chronicle of Higher Education (Wash-
ington, DC), Vol. 54 (31), p. B7, available at: http://chronicle.com/free/v55/
iO4/04b01001.htm.
18. Madden, Mary, and Kathryn Zickuhr (2011). "65% of Online Adults Use Social
Networking Sites," Pew Research Center, available at: http://pewinternet.
org/Reports/2011/Social-Networking -Sites.aspx, retrieved on 1/23/13.
19. Scherzer, Lisa (2013). "Mining Your Facebook Profile for Dirt," The Exchange,
Yahoo! Finance, available at: http://finance.yahoo.com/blogs/the-exchange/
mining-facebook-profile-for-dirt.html.
20. Scherzer, Lisa (2013). "Mining Your Facebook Profile for Dirt," The Exchange,
Yahoo! Finance, available at: http://finance.yahoo.com/blogs/the-exchange/
mining-facebook-profile-for-dirt.html.
21. Ibid.
22. Lauby, Sharlyn (2012). "Tips for Updating Your Company's Social Media
Policy," available a t : http://mashable.com/2012/10/06/social-media-policy-
update/ti ps-for-updating-your-company's-social-med ia-pol icy. html retrieved
on 01/24/13.
23. Ibid.
24. Ibid.
25. Lopez, Christina (2013). "Teacher Posted Facebook Photo of Students with
Duct Tape," Good Morning America/Yahoo News, available at: http://gma.
a hoo.comiteacher-posted-facebook-photo-of-students-with-duct-tape.html.
26. Stableford, Dylan (2013). "Applebee's Defends Firing of Waitress Who Posted
'God' Receipt," The Sideshow, Yahoo News, available at: http://news.yahoo.
com/blogstsideshow/applebees-defends-firing-of-waitress-who-posted-
'God'-receipt.html.
27. Sole, El ise"Woman's Boston Marathon Bombing Costume: What it Says About
Everyone," Yahoo Shine, Available at: http://nz.lifestyle.yahoo.com/general/
featu res/a rticle/419687335/womans-boston-marathon-bombing-costume-
what-it-says-about-everyone/ Retrieved: 11/8/13.
28. Ibid.
29. Florida restaurant owner fires employees by text message", available at:
http://www.yahoo.com/blogs/sideshow/florida-restaurant-fi res-employees,
retrieved: 7/15/13.
30. 'This May Be The Coolest Way Ever To Quit Your Job", The Huffington
Post, available a t : http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/09/quit-your-job,
retrieved: 10/1/13.
31. Sprinkle, Tim, "Skip the phone call: Teen uses Facebook to bail out of jail",
available at: http://news.yahoo.comiskip-the-phone-call-teen-uses-facebook-
to-bail-out-of-jail-004130507.html, retrieved: 10/26/13.
32. Ibid.
33. Black's Law Dictionary (2009). Bryan A . Garner, Editor i n Chief, West:
Thompson Reuters, St. Paul, MN, p. 881
34. http://hostessbrands.com/Closed.aspx
35. Ibid.
Thompson Reuters, St. Paul, MN, p, 1630.
37. Ibid.
38. Ibid., p. 1491.
39. Ibid.
Thompson Reuters, St. Paul, MN, p. 386.
41. Ibid., p. 387.
42. Ibid., p. 1234.
43. Ibid., p. 1235.
44. Ibid.
45. Ibid., p. 1236.
46. Ibid., p. 1633.
47. Ibid.
48. Ibid.
49. Sampson, Tim, "Jane Goodall Appologizes for Plagiarizing Wikipedia", avail-
able at: http://www.dailydot.comiculture/jane-goodall-plagiarized-wikipedia/,
REFERENCES • 2 6 9
50. Breidhardt, Annika, "Merkel confidante resigns in German plagiarism scandal",

Reuters, available at: http://wwwreuters.com/article/2013/02/09/us-germany-
minister-resignation-idUSBRE91804T20130209, retrieved 10/26/13.
51. Ibid.
52. 17 U.S.C. Sec. 107, available at: http://www.cornell,edu/uscode/17/107,shtml,
53. 17 U.S.C. Sec. 107 — Limitations o n exclusive rights: Fair use, available at:
http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/107, retrieved: 10/26/13.
54. Ibid., p. 420.
55. Ibid., p. 1152.
Appendix A
1. Adapted from "Capitalization", Available at: http://grammarccc.commnet.edu/
grammar/capitals.htm Retrieved: 11/19/13, Note: This reference also includes a
PowerPoint and Quiz on capitalization.
2.13.T, Mills, "Because," " D u e To," "Since," a n d " A s " , QuickandDirtyTips.com,
Available at: http://vvvvw.quickanddirtytips.cornieducation/gramnnaribecause-
due-to-since-and-as?page.1 Retrieved 11/19/13, Note: This reference also give
examples regarding h o w to avoid wordiness using because instead o f longer,
more wordy versions.
3. "Grammatically Speaking", Available at: http://m.staples.caisbdca/en_CNcre/
programs/grammarquiz/kUnwBN cNkHw.facebook Retrieved: 11/12/13.
INDEX
A American Psychological Association (APA)

Active voice, 3-4 style, 14
American English mechanics Apostrophe, 251
capitalization, 251-252 Audience
punctuation communication barriers, 25-26
apostrophe, 251 age, racial and gender differences, 27
colon, 250 culture and customs, 26-27
commas, 249 customs, 27
exclamation point, 250 education and experience, 25
Oxford comma, 250 language, 25, 26
periods, 249 religion and politics, 27
question mark, 250-251 cross-cultural communication,
quotation marks, 251 27-28
semicolon, 250 company culture, 31-32
sentence structure contractions, 30-31
articles, 252 gender neutrality, 30
comma splice, 252 generic forms of you, 31
fragments, 253 humor, slang, and idioms, 28
gerund, 253 symbols, gestures, and colors, 29
run on, 253 word usage and spelling, 29-30
subject-verb agreement and verb tense, decision makers, 23
253-254 end users, 24
trouble spots expense-report process, 24-25
affect and effect, 255 influencers, 23-24
be and bee, 257 primary audience, 23-24
because, since, and as, 255 purpose, 22
bored of, bored by, bored with, 255 information, 22
fewer and less, 255 persuasion, 22-23
of and have, 256 secondary audience, 23-25
hear and here, 257
i.e. and e.g., 254
I or me, 255-256 Back matter, 114,115
its and it's, 256
lay and lie, 256
sit and set, 256 Capitalization, 251-252
that and which, 256 Career maintaining and advancing, 225
there, their, and they're, 257 Charts, written documents
whether and weather, 257 bar charts, 42-43
who and whom, 257 Gantt time lines, 43-44
whose and who's, 257 line charts, 43
year's and years', 258 pie charts, 41-42
your and you're, 258 Chicago Manual of Style, 14
271
Collaborative working and writing negation, 161

concurrent writing, 73 parts division, 161
dividing-and-conquering method, 73 in sentence, 161
management and work styles, 64 similarities and differences, 161
scheduling and following timelines, 66-67 word history, 161
Gantt charts, 67 word origin, 160-161
status reports, 67-68 Distance technology interviews, 219
software applications, 73-74 Dividing-and-conquering method, 73
specializing method, 73
subject matter experts and editors, 74-75
talent maximization Editing, 8-11
administrative coordinator, 69-70 Email
project coordinator, 69 etiquette
project leader, 69 flaming, 88
Six Sigma model, 70-71 response time, 87
team members, 70 spam, 88
Tuckman's stages, 71-72 subject lines, 87
team size, 64 threads, 87
team vision establishment initial formats, 261
meetings, 65 all caps and no caps, 87
operating rules and principles, 64-65 attachments, 86
Colon, 250 deleted item, 86
Commas, 249 fields and folders, 84
Communication barriers, 25-26 grammar, 87
age, racial and gender differences, 27 high priority, 85
culture and customs, 26-27 reply vs. reply all, 85
customs, 27 salutations, 85
education and experience, 25 signature block, 85-86
language, 25,26 vs. letter, 83-84
religion and politics, 27 limitations, 84
Communication matrix, 81 vs. memos, 84
Concurrent writing, 73 Employment
Copyrights, 239-240 agreements, 244
Cover letters, 216-217 noncompetition, 244-245
Cross-cultural communication, 27-28 nondisclosure, 245
company culture, 31-32 background checks, 202
contractions, 30-31 career maintaining and advancing, 225
gender neutrality, 30 ethical aspects, 203
generic forms of you, 31 hiring process (see Hiring process)
humor, slang, and idioms, 28 interviewing (see Interviewing)
symbols, gestures, and colors, 29 job search process
word usage and spelling, 29-30 employers, 200-201
Culture, 26 job postings, 200
networking, 201-202
school career centers, 202
Definitions, 160 social media
analogy, 161-162 blogging guidelines, 236
graphics, 162 National Labor Relations Act, 234
INDEX • 2 7 3
policies and guidelines, 234-236

tweeting guidelines, 235 Gantt charts, 67
social media accounts, 202, 203 Glossaries, 162
Ethics Grammatical errors
attribution, 13-14 articles, 9
codes o f ethics, 13 commas, semicolons, and colons, 9-10
definition, 12 gerunds, 10
employees safety and security, guidelines, 11
1 5- 16 parallel structure, 10-11
employment agreement, 14-15 pronouns, 10
intellectual property respect, 14 run-ons, 10
noncompetition agreements, 15 sentence fragments, 10
nondisclosure agreements, 15 subject-verb agreement, 9
Etiquette, 11-12 Group presentation
email One Mouthpiece format, 185
flaming, 88 Passing the Ball format, 182-185
response time, 87
spam, 88
subject lines, 87 Hiring process
threads, 87 cover letters, 216-217
Exclamation point, 250 honesty, 205
job postings and descriptions, 204
F key word searches, 203-204
Face-to-face interviews, 218 resume
Fair Use Doctrine, 243-244 education, 206
Feasibility reports employment, 206-207
elements, 115, 116 involvement, 207
industry background, 115 name and contact information, 205
options, 115-116 objective, 205-206
problem statement, 115 personal information, 207
recommendations, 117 references, 207, 214-215
Final project reports sample business resume experienced,
elements, 126 208-210
formal slide show presentation, 124 sample technical resume, 211-213
formatting writing and processing, 203
codes and standards, 126-127
conclusion and recommendations,
127-138 IEEE citation style
current market conditions, 125 books, 259
deliverables, 127 conference technical articles, 260
discussion section, 124-125 handbooks, 259-260
introduction, 124 master's theses format, 262
Formal proposals, 145-155 online sources
Forming stage, team development, 72 email format, 261
F pattern phenomenon, 232 FTP format, 260-261
Front matter, 112-114 W W W format, 261
Full text publication (FTP) format, patents format, 261
260-261 periodicals, 262-263
IEEE citation style (continued) hiring interviews, 219-220

Ph.D. dissertations format, 262 initial/exploratory interview, 219
reference rules, 263 technical or team interviews, 219
reports, 260
standards format, 261-262
unpublished work formats, 262 Job postings, 200
Informal proposals, 140-144 Job search process
Informal vs. formal communication, 80,81 employers, 200-201
Informative presentations job postings, 200
body networking, 201-202
chronological pattern, 175 school career centers, 202
demonstration, 176
regions or divisions, 175
spatial pattern, 175-176 Lab/test reports
topics, 175 elements, 117-118
conclusion sample, 119
concluding remark, 176 Letters
summary, 176 bad news, 94
introduction formats, 94-95
attention getters, 173-174 block, 95-99
preview, 174-175 modified block, 100-102
outline, 176-177 good news, 89
Informative speech outline, 176-178 sample thank-you letter, 92-93
Initial/exploratory interview, 219 sample transmittal letter, 90-91
Institute of Electrical and Electronics letterhead, 88-89
Engineers (IEEE), 14
Instructions, 162-163
Intellectual property Manuals, 167-168
copyrights, 239-240 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, 179-180
definition, 238 Master's theses format, 262
patents, 240-241 Memos
trademarks, 239 elements, 103
trade secrets, 241-242 headings, 103
Internal vs. external communication, 80,81 long memo format, 105-106
Interviewing short memo format, 104
compensation negotiation, 223-224 Modern Language Association (MLA) style, 14
distance technology interviews, 219 Monroe's Motivated Sequence
face-to-face interviews, 218 action, 181
follow up, 224-225 attention, 180
participation, 222-223 conclusion, 181
phone interview needs, 180
auditory cues, 218 outline, 182
benefits, 217 satisfaction, 181
preparations, 217 visualization, 181
practicing for, 222
preparation, 220-222
third parties, 223 National Labor Relations Act (NLRA), 234
types Networking, 201-202
INDEX • 2 7 5
Non-competition agreements, 244-245 customs and language, 187

Non-disclosure agreements (NDAs), 245 language processing software, 188
Norming stage, team development, 72 slang and sarcasm avoidance, 188
using interpreters, 188
0 using technology, 187-188
Oxford comma, 250 live vs. electronic media, 172
panel discussions, 185
persuasive presentation
Passive voice, 3-4 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, 179-180
Patents, 240-241,261 Monroe's Motivated Sequence, 180-182
Performing stage, team development, 72 poster presentations
Periodicals, 262-263 outline, 178
Periods, 249 question-and-answer session, 177
Persuasive presentation question and answer sessions, 186
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, 179-180 symposium, 185
Monroe's Motivated Sequence, 180-182 Procedures, 167
Ph.D. dissertations format, 262 Professional and technical communication
Phone interview editing, 8-11
auditory cues, 218 ethics
benefits, 217 attribution, 13-14
preparations, 217 codes o f ethics, 13
Plagiarism, 242-243 definition, 12
Policies, 166-167 employees safety and security, 15-16
Poster presentations, 46-47 employment agreement, 14-15
fonts, 47 intellectual property respect, 14
graphics, 47-48 noncompetition agreements, 15
layout, 47 nondisclosure agreements, 15
outline, 178 etiquette, 11-12
question-and-answer session, 177 platforms and their uses, 81,82
Presentations structure
audience needs, 172 body, 6
forums, 185-186 conclusion, 6
good speakers preparation email message, 7
body movement, 193-194 introduction, 6
business attire, 191-192 time and space limitations, 7-8
eye contact, 190 style
facial expressions, 190-191 design, 5-6
grammar and pronunciation, 191 research orientation, 2-3
hand gestures, 189-190 shifting writing orientation, 5
tone and emphasis, 191 voice, 3-4
topic knowledge and enthusiasm, 189 writing styles, 2
vocal inflection, 191 Project manager advertisement, 204
group presentation Proposals
One Mouthpiece format, 185 formatting
Passing the Ball format, 182-185 discussion, 145
informative (see Informative presentations) formal proposals, 145-155
international presentations informal proposals, 140-144
agents, 187 open vs. closed, 139
Proposals (continued) color, 5 0 , 5 5

request for proposal (RFPs), 139 background colors, 55
solicited vs. unsolicited, 139-140 greyscale, 55
Punctuation illustration, 57
apostrophe, 251 RGB and HSL color wheels, 55
colon, 250 titles and text, 57
commas, 249 warm or cool, 55
exclamation point, 250 contact information slide, 50
Oxford comma, 250 f o n t size and style, 57
periods, 249 grammar and citation, 48-49
question mark, 250-251 hidden slides, 59-60
quotation marks, 251 illustrations, 58
semicolon, 250 points per slide, 59
professional templates and backgrounds, 49
0 references/bibliography/works
Question mark, 250-251 cited slide, 50
Quotation marks, 251 slides per minute, 59
title slide, 49-50
visual composition
Reference rules, 263 change up, 57-58
Reports open window, 57
feasibility words per slide, 58
elements, 115,116 Social media
industry background, 115 corporate uses, 237
options, 115-116 creation, 232-233
problem statement, 115 in employment
recommendations, 117 blogging guidelines, 236
final project (see Final project reports) National Labor Relations Act, 234
lab/test reports policies and guidelines, 234-236
elements, 117-118 tweeting guidelines, 236
sample, 119 F-shaped pattern, 232
status reports (see Status reports) monitoring, 233
Request for proposal (RFPs), 8,139 newsworthy uses, 237-238
sanitizing, 233-234
usage, 231
School career centers, 202 Social network sites (SNS), 231
Semicolon, 250 Specializing method, 73
Sentence structure Specifications, 163-164
articles, 252 Spider, 169
comma splice, 252 Statement of Work (SOW)
fragments, 253 cost of resources, 165-166
gerund, 253 definition, 164
run on, 253 milestones and deliverables, 165
subject-verb agreement and verb tense, parties, 165
253-254 payment schedule, 166
Six Sigma model, 70-71 period for performance, 166
Slide presentation tasks, 165
animation, 59 testing, 165
INDEX 4 2 7 7
Status reports Trademarks, 239

elements, 118-120 Trade secrets, 241-242
formatting Tuckman's stages, team development,
body, 120 71-72
conclusion, 120
deliverables, 127
individual and group status reports, Unpublished work formats, 262
120-123
introduction, 118,120
laws and regulations, 126 White papers, 156
in team projects, 67-68 Writing instructions, 162-163
Storming stage, team development, 72 Writing specifications, 163-164
Structure Written documents
body, 6 all caps, 39
conclusion, 6 blueprints and equations, 44
email message, 7 bold, italics, and underline, 38
introduction, 6 bullets and numbers, 40
time and space limitations, 7-8 charts
Style bar charts, 42-43
active voice, 3-4 Gantt time lines, 43-44
design line charts, 43
headings and subheadings, 5 pie charts, 41-42
key messages, 6 diagrams and schematics, 44
passive voice, 3-4 font size, 37
research orientation font type and style, 37-38
credible sources, 3 headings, 36
thorough and balanced research, 2-3 illustrations, 41
shifting writing orientation, 5 line spacing, 40
writing styles, 2 maps and photographs, 45-46
margins, 36
no caps, 39-40
Technical or team interviews, 219 orphan, 37
Telephone, 81-82 tables, 45
Text messaging, 82-83 widow, 37

ECS 3390 - Business and Technical Communcations

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SECOND EDITION

BUSINESS AND TECHNICAL

MARIBETH SCHLOBOHM CHRISTOPHER RYAN

BUSINESS AND TECHNICAL

MARIBETH H L O B O H M I CHRISTOPHER RYAN

Copyright © 2013, 2014 by Kendall Hunt Publishing Company

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

Printed in the United States of America

About the Authors x i

CHAPTER 1 Principles of Professional and Technical Communication 1

Those Who Need to Know: End Users 2 4

CHAPTER 3 D o c u m e n t , Poster, and Presentation Design 3 5

CHAPTER 4 W o r k i n g and Writing Collaboratively 6 3

CHAPTER 5 Telephone, Text, Email, Letters, and Memos 7 9

Internal vs. External Communication 8 0

CHAPTER 6 R e p o r t s , Proposals, and White Papers 1 1 1

CHAPTER 7 S t a n d Alone and Supplemental Documents 1 5 9

CHAPTER 9 G a i n i n g , Retaining, and Advancing Employment 1 9 9

The Job Search Process 2 0 0

Prepare for Background Checks 2 0 2

CHAPTER 10 Social Media and Intellectual Property 2 2 9

where he graduated surnma cum laude; a Master of Arts in Advertising

Many technical and professional communication textbooks are currently i n

Maribeth Schlobohm C h r i s t o p h e r Ryan

Mari beth Schlobohm C h r i s t o p h e r Ryan

This chapter addresses foundational aspects of professional and technical

8 t e x t and understand points. The sentences

-8 short, concise sentences and paragraphs that

a fair hearing to different approaches to information. Furthermore, you should

Unlike other genres, technical writing is more accepting of passive voice, as

When the Subject Does Not Matter or is Unknown

When Variation May Be Appropriate

When Sensitivity or Diplomacy Is Preferred

Shifting Writing Orientation from Self to Audience

Designing for Easy Navigation

Placement of Key Messages

Consider the email message below:

Time and Space Limitations

Commas, Semicolons, and Colons

Sentence Fragments and Run-ons

Hey, do you need me to work Saturday?

"ethics." Oxford Dictionaries, available at httpl/oxforddictionaries.cornidefinitionienglishiethics,

Ethics are important to matters in business, and ethics arise in professional

Knowing and Doing Right versus Wrong

Giving Proper Attribution

Respecting Intellectual Property

Abiding by Employment Agreements

Honoring Noncompetition and Nondisclosure Agreements

Ensuring Safety and Security of Others

CANDIDATE FOR A PULLET SURPRISE

To rite with care is quite a feet

To be successful in achieving their goals, business and technical communicators

as it applies in communications that are oriented toward sales and advertising.

may hold sway over the decision maker's thinking. In

Those Who Need to Know: End Users

Example Using All Audience Types

OVERCOMING COMMUNICATION BARRIERS

Culture." Merriam-Webster, available a t httpi/www.merriam-webstercom/dictionarykulture,

time because they had schedules t h a t

Humor, Siang, and idioms

Symbols, Gestures, and Colors

Word Usage and Spelling

4Chu, Sauman. "Cross-Cultural Comparison o f the Perception o f Symbols." Journal o f Visual