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Rheological properties of selected dairy products

a a b
Jorge F. Vélez‐Ruiz , Gustavo V. Barbosa Cánovas & Dr. Micha Peleg
a
Biological Systems Engineering Department, Washington State University, Pullman, WA,
99164–6120
b
Department of Food Science, Chenoweth Laboratory, University of Massachusetts,
Amherst, MA, 01003
Published online: 29 Sep 2009.

To cite this article: Jorge F. Vélez‐Ruiz , Gustavo V. Barbosa Cánovas & Dr. Micha Peleg (1997): Rheological properties of
selected dairy products, Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 37:4, 311-359

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 Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 37(4):311-359 (1997)

Rheological Properties of Selected Dairy Products

Jorge F. Vélez-Ruiz and Gustavo V. Barbosa Cánovas*
Biological Systems Engineering Department, Washington State University, Pullman WA 99164-6120

Referee: Dr. Micha Peleg, Department of Food Science, Chenoweth Laboratory, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003.

* To whom all correspondence should be addressed.

ABSTRACT: This article reviews rheological properties of milk, concentrated milk, cream, butter, ice cream, and
yogurt, as well as the structure and some physicochemical properties of milk components. A brief description of
basic rheological concepts related to liquids, solids, and viscoelasticity is presented, including those rheological
models commonly used to characterize dairy products. Rheological behaviors exhibited by these dairy products,
including Newtonian in milk and concentrated milk, nonNewtonian in concentrated milk, cream, and yogurt,
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thixotropy revealed by concentrated milk, cream, and yogurt, and the viscoelastic characteristics displayed by
butter, ice cream, and yogurt, are analyzed, and relevant process variables affecting the rheological behavior of
dairy products are discussed. Also, to facilitate the comparison of test methods and identify the typical instrumen-
tation and models utilized in rheological characterization of dairy products, experimental conditions and equations
used for modeling are included in a tabulated form.

KEY WORDS: rheological properties, rheology of dairy products, milk, concentrated milk, cream, butter, ice
cream, yogurt.

I. INTRODUCTION tion of the world's milk supply reflects the ten-

A. Dairy Products
Milk is transformed for preservation purposes
and subsequent commercialization in various
forms. Dairy products include a diverse group of
foods made from milk, including concentrated
milk, cream, butter, ice cream, yogurt and ferment-
ed milks, cheese, and powdered milk, which are
the most commercially known, and other byprod-
ucts that are less marketable. These products are
very important from a nutritional, technological,
and economical point of view.
Of the total U.S. milk production (8.894 x
1010 lb) in 1990, approximately 60% was utilized
to produce cheese, cream, butter, ice cream and
frozen desserts, and evaporated, concentrated and
dry milk; the rest of the production was consumed
in fluid forms.174
World milk production has increased steadily
between 1 and 1.5% since 1980 and will probably
continue to grow at a similar rate.104 The utiliza-
dencies of individual countries. In 1989, around
30% was used to produce liquid milk products,
and 30% was utilized in the production of various
types of cheese.155 The rest of worldwide produc-
tion was processed to manufacture other dairy
products.
B. Importance of Rheological Properties
Rheology is a science related to the flow of
fluids and deformation of matter.46-97-115 Under-
standing the rheological behaviors of foods is impor-
tant in the following steps during manufacturing:
1. Quality control of ingredients and finished
products
2. Design and evaluation of process and unit
operations equipment
3. Characterization and development of food
products for consumer acceptability

1040-8398/97/$.50
© 1997 by CRC Press LLC
311
 4. Elucidation of the structure and relation-
ship among structure and textural proper-
t j es 5,42,77,122,126,151,164
Commonly, fluid milk and cream are consid-
ered examples of liquids, and hard cheese is an
example of a solid, but concentrated milk, yogurt,
butter, ice cream, and several types of cheese can
show an intermediate behavior identified as vis-
coelastic.26-115-153
In addition to rheological considerations, the
structures of dairy products are intimately associ-
ated with texture, which is recognized as one of
the principal attributes in quality.19 Texture per-
ception is related to the arrangement, disposition,
and interactions between particles of a given food
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product at the time it is exposed to a certain stress
or strain.43
II. NATURE OF MILK
A. Milk
Although milk has the appearance of a simple
liquid, its structure is very complex and not even
fully known.36 An understanding of the physico-
chemical characteristics of this biological fluid is
necessary to better understand the changes that
occur during processing and the properties of in-
termediate and finished dairy products.54
Chemically, milk is a complex material inte-
grated by several hundred constituents,54-115 many
of which have special significance even though
some are present in low concentrations. In gen-
eral, the components of milk are classified into
seven groups: proteins, lipids, carbohydrates,
minerals, pigments and vitamins, enzymes, and
miscellaneous compounds.54 From a physico-
chemical point of view, milk is a complex solu-
tion of salts, lactose, and other hydrophilic minor
organic components where whey proteins, casein
corpuscular micelles, and fat globules are dis-
persed.54-68 The physical state of the dispersed
phase represents two separate colloidal forms: a
suspension and an emulsion. This double colloi-
dal system provides milk with more divergent
product structures than most other food ingredi-
ents.36 Milk constituents that interact in various
ways lead to different microstructures and, conse-
312
quently, develop particular properties and struc-
tures, depending on the manufacture process ap-
plied to elaborate each dairy product.68
There are correlations between the microstruc-
ture and physical properties of milk products.
Microstructure, in turn, controls physical proper-
ties such as viscosity, elasticity, texture, suscepti-
bility to syneresis, firmness, spreadability, and
others. Although there is extensive literature on
the characteristics of dairy products, only a few
papers attempt to correlate structure and rheologi-
cal properties.
B. Milk Components
Proteins and lipids are the most important
milk components because their physicochemical
modifications affect the structure and overall be-
havior of dairy products.68 Lactose, for example,
only affects the structure of some dairy products.65
Milk proteins have the capacity to form a gel
consisting of a protein matrix with casein as the
main structural element. This matrix may contain
additional components such as whey proteins, fat
globules, lactic acid bacteria, and other ingredi-
ents. The ability to immobilize milk serum or
whey in a liquid phase is one of the most impor-
tant characteristics of the gel matrix.68-70
Casein is a major milk- protein present in the
form of globular particles called micelles that
are 100 to 300 nm in diameter and apparently
composed of submicelles with diameters of 10
to 20 nm held together by calcium phosphate.69
Various structural models have been proposed
for the casein micelles, and in some specific
positions have been allocated to the individual
components such as ocsl-, |B-, and K-caseins. In-
tact molecules of K-casein and the presence of
calcium phosphate are generally recognized as
essential for the integrity of the casein micelles.
In fresh milk, the micelles have smooth surfaces,
whereas in milk heated above 85°C for more
than 10 min, the insoluble complex formed by
the interaction of pMactoglobulin with K-casein
imparts a ragged topography to the casein mi-
celle surface.68
Fat is present in milk, forming fat globules
0.5 to 10 p.m in diameter. Fat globules are en-
cased in lipoprotein membranes or "secondary"
 globule membranes, which are the membranes of
the secretory cells of the mammary gland, physi-
cally modified by milking. The original mem-
brane is fragmented and is shed during the pas-
sage of the fat globule from the secretory cell into
the secretory alveole and into expressed milk; this
process leaves a single dense or secondary mem-
brane around the fat globule. Therefore, the mi-
crostructure of the fat globule membranes and its
stability vary and depend on the time elapsed
after the fat globule is secreted from the mam-
mary gland.68
Lactose is the characteristic carbohydrate in
milk. It is a disaccharide that occurs naturally in
either of two crystalline forms, a-monohydrate
and anhydrous P, or as an amorphous "glass" mix-
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ture of a- and P-lactose.61 It is present as an un-
dissociated molecule in a true solution. The lac-
tose molecule is not spherical, and its contribution
to imparting viscosity to the milk is not signifi-
cant.115 Some physical and chemical properties of
lactose are very important in the manufacturing
process of dairy products. On the other hand, its
slow solubility and ease of crystallization can be
a disadvantage in the manufacture of ice cream
when the mix is cooled to a low temperature. The
concentration of lactose in condensed milk is criti-
cal in protecting the texture of this milk product.
Additionally, the vulnerability of lactose in the
Maillard browning reaction is a problem in the
manufacture and storage of dried milk and dried
whey powder.65
Water is the most abundant constituent of
milk, and it plays a key role during the manufac-
ture of dairy foods. The presence of water be-
comes relevant through hydrophilic and/or hy-
drophobic interactions with the other milk
components.
Minor constituents, such as enzymes, gases,
minerals, vitamins, thickening agents, acidulants
and microorganisms, added or developed during
manufacture may promote interactions with ma-
jor components.36-70
C. Food Structure and Dairy Products
Traditional dairy products such as cream,
butter, and cheese are fairly common throughout
the world, and their compositions are basically
the same from one country to another.7 Dairy
products are based on (1) milk protein, such as
evaporated skim milk, yogurt, cottage cheese, and
dried whey powder, (2) milk fat, such as cream,
butter, and ice cream, or (3) a combination of
milk proteins and fats.67
Products such as yogurt and most cheeses are
characterized by a rigid protein matrix, and if fat
is present, it is dispersed into that matrix. On the
other hand, milk products based on fat do not
have a rigid protein matrix. They are in the form
of emulsions, either of the oil-in-water type such
as cream, or the water-in-oil type such as butter,
and if protein is present, it is dispersed in the
aqueous phase of the product.69 During manufac-
turing, the components of milk interact in various
ways that lead to different microstructures and
specific properties.
1. Milk Products Based on Proteins
Casein micelles are one of the most important
components of milk that make it possible to for-
mulate a variety of products with very different
characteristics, ranging from liquids such as evapo-
rated milk, and semiliquids such as yogurt, to
semisolids such as cheese.69 The ability of casein
micelles to interact with whey proteins and aggre-
gate and hydrolyze under the effects of low pH,
heat, and the presence of proteolytic enzymes, is
the most important property of milk for making
dairy products.66
In fresh milk and evaporated skim milk, heat-
ing causes denaturation of whey proteins and an
interaction between P-lactoglobulin and K-casein
of the casein micelle by means of disulfide bonds.
Milk gels induced by heat are closely related in
microstructure to evaporated milk gelled during
storage. The gels made by heating a suspension of
skim milk powder in water to 100°C have a three-
dimensional network of casein micelles connected
by thin, short fibers.66
Yogurt made from heated milk is firmer and
more resistant to syneresis, and its microstructure
is finer than yogurt made from unheated milk.
The liquid phase is immobilized in the interstitial
spaces in the protein network, the dimensions of
which depend on the casein concentration in the
313
 yogurt milk; the higher the protein concentration,
the smaller the interstitial spaces.66-69
In the case of cottage cheese, although its
microstructure is similar to that of yogurt, the
casein micelles forming the chains and clusters of
the cheese network are fused more tightly than in
yogurt. The network of this cheese is denser as a
consequence of shrinkage of the gel during cook-
While making cheese, the curds developed by
the chaining and clustering of casein micelles
gradually form a three-dimensional network; fat
globules retain their membranes and can be iden-
tified as single entities or as clusters interspersed
in the protein matrix.66-69 Changes in heat treat-
ments of milk, variations in mechanical treat-
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ments of the curd, the use of microorganisms in
cheese ripening, and different environmental con-
ditions during aging result in the generation of a
great variety of cheeses in which proteins, fat, and
other constituents interact in different ways.68-69
Spray-dried milk shows particles that can have
a very different surface structure.22 Particles ob-
tained by spray drying are mostly spherical and
contain vacuoles with occluded air, imparting a
porous appearance to the powder. The lactose
present in the particles is in an amorphous form.24
Spray-dried whole milk particles have diameters
ranging from 5 to 150 |im; fat globules and vacu-
oles are dispersed in a continuous phase that prob-
ably consists of amorphous lactose.22
2. Milk Products Based on Fat
In fresh milk, fat globules rapidly rise to the
surface (because of their low density) and form a
layer of cream. To prevent that separation, milk is
homogenized. The formed fat surface is rapidly
coated with surface-active material, casein and
undenatured whey proteins, that significantly con-
tributes to the stability of the emulsion.67
In cream, for instance, fat globules are dis-
persed at a high concentration and are affected by
any change; for example, whipping incorporates
a large volume of air into the cream and produces
a fat-rich foam.152
Ice cream is formulated as a complex system
of sugar and salt solutions, colloidal solutions and
314
suspensions formed by proteins and stabilizers,
and emulsions of fat and emulsifiers to retain its
porous form during freezing and low-temperature
storage.173
In contrast to other cheeses, in cream cheese
there is no rigid matrix as a result of stirring and
homogenization; the absence of a matrix makes
this cheese spreadable.66
Butter differs from the preceding fat-based
milk products because it is a water-in-oil emul-
sion in which water droplets smaller than 10 nm
in diameter form a very fine dispersion in semi-
solid milk fat.67
These particular characteristics of milk and
milk components are the origin of a great diver-
sity of dairy products; each manufacture process
and any variant of this will cause different effects
on dairy products. Although there are studies re-
lating the rheological measurements to structural
changes, such as protein denaturation in milk,
gelation in evaporated milk, age thickening in
sweetened-condensed milk, fat crystallization in
cream, butter, and ice cream, emulsion properties
in ice cream mixes, and protein network forma-
tion in yogurt interest in finding correlations
between food structure and the rheological prop-
erties of food products continues to grow every
day.
III. RHEOLOGY AND RHEOLOGICAL
MODELS
A. Strain and Stress
In rheology, strain and stress are two relevant
physical variables that need to be considered when
a material deforms in response to applied forces.
Strain represents a change in length with respect
to the original dimension. This parameter is es-
sentially a relative displacement, and there are
many definitions associated with this concept.
For instance, engineering strain is expressed by
the following equation:115-158-160
AL L-L
O
c
= = O_
(1)
L. L
where ec is the engineering strain (also called
Cauchy strain), AL is change in length, L is the
 final length after deformation of the material, and
Lo is the original length before deformation.
This definition is expressed in terms of a
simple shear. Strain is determined by displace-
ment gradients, and strain rate by velocity gradi-
ents. Strain and stress are tensor quantities and are
represented by nine components.13-31
Stress that relates the magnitude of the force
over the surface of application can be compres-
sive, tensile, or shear, depending on how the force
is applied. Nine separate components are required
to adequately describe the state of stress in a
material.31-158-181 The stress at any point in a body
may be represented by the following matrix:
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X
23 (2)
T
33.
where xi} is the stress tensor, the first subscript
indicates the orientation of the face upon which
the force is acting, and the second refers to the
direction of the force. This matrix may be simpli-
fied, depending on each specific physical system.
For instance, in steady, simple shear flow, also
known as viscometric flow, the matrix is reduced
to only five components.31-158
The relationship between any food material,
applied stress, and resulting strain defines the
rheological properties of the material. These rela-
tionships can be expressed either empirically or
Liquid
Viscoelastic
Solid
V
Material Function or
{ Stress }
X..
u
Rheological Equation of State
X.. = f ( 7 . . ,
FIGURE 1. Physical relationships between force, deformation, and material properties.
in terms of a rheological equation of state.31
Figure 1 illustrates the correspondence between
the physical forces and deformations, as well as
the functional relationships between stress and
strain.
B. Classification of Materials
A particular approach in which the rheologi-
cal behavior of a material is analyzed on a simpli-
fied deformation is called single shear or uniaxial
deformation. This approach is the basis for many
rheological measurement techniques and permits
the analysis of many food materials.31-77 Accord-
ing to Darby,31 the materials may be classified
Theologically with respect to their shear stress-
shear strain behavior in simple shear as solid,
liquid, or viscoelastic. This global classification
is shown in Figure 2.
Fluid, solid, and viscoelastic behaviors have
been observed in dairy products. Milk and evapo-
rated milk behave as Newtonian fluids, but con-
centrated milk behaves as a non-Newtonian fluid.
Cream and yogurt are also non-Newtonian fluids.
Whey gels and some types of cheese have been
characterized as solids with elastic behavior. Other
dairy products such as whipped cream, yogurt,
ice cream, and cheese have been characterized by
their viscoelastic nature.
{ Deformation }
y..) > { Strain }
ij ' u
315
 Rigid Solid (Euclidean) y=0
Linear Elastic Solid (Hookean) x = Gy
Nonlinear Elastic Solid x = G(y) y
Viscoelastic x = f (y, y, t...)
Nonlinear Viscous Fluid (non-Newtonian)
Linear Viscous Fluid (Newtonian)
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In viscid Fluid (Pascalian) x=0
FIGURE 2. Material classification in simple shear deformation.31
C. Solids and Liquids
When a force is applied to a solid material,
the response may be a straight line between re-
sulting stress and strain, as is characteristic of
Hookean or elastic solids. The basic relationship
known as Hooke's law relates the aforementioned
two variables.158-160-181
E=X- (3)
where E is the modulus of elasticity, x is the
stress, and y is the strain.
A material represented by Hooke' s model does
not flow and is linearly elastic. This model has
been used to describe the behavior of some foods,
such as food gels subjected to large strains, dry
pasta, egg shell, and hard candy subjected to strains
less than 0.01. 125 - 158
On the other hand, a material function for
liquid substances relates the shear stress and the
rate of strain in a useful relationship known as
Newton's model. This equation expresses the
concept of viscosity31-158-181 in the following way:
(4)
316
(G = constant) ^ Solid
x = r\(y) y
x = \iy (n = constant) ^ Fluid
where T) is the dynamic viscosity, coefficient of
viscosity, or simply viscosity, x is the shear stress,
and y is the rate of shear strain.
Those fluids that obey Newton's relationship
are identified as Newtonian fluids, while fluid
materials that do not follow this linear relation-
ship are known as non-Newtonian fluids.122-158
It is convenient to represent the flow behavior
of liquids by means of flow curves or rheograms,
that is, plots of shear stress or viscosity against
shear rate. Figure 3 represents the different types
of rheological behavior expressed by liquid
foods.5-77-158-181
The different types of flow behavior may be
fitted by means of mathematical models that have
been widely used in the rheological characteriza-
tion of food materials. The models most frequently
employed in food characterization are expressed
by Equations 5 to 8.5-122-158-181
Newton model x = T| y (5)
Power law model x = b{ y)" (6)
Bingham model x = x0 + y\py (7)
Herschel-Bulkley model
(8)

Shear
Stress
(O
Shear Rate
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FIGURE 3. Flow curves corresponding to different types of liquid behavior. BP, Bingham plastic; N, Newtonian
fluid; NN, non-Newtonian fluids; P, pseudoplastic or shear thinning; ST, shear thickening or dilatant behavior.
where:
Y Rate of shear strain = dy/dt or shear rate
i Shear stress
t Time
Viscosity
b Consistency index
n Flow behavior index
Yield stress
Plastic viscosity
Many other models have been proposed for
different fluid materials that may be more com-
plex or more specific and, consequently, are uti-
lized for particular products.158-181
In addition, if time is considered as another
variable, the fluids may show a thixotropic or a
rheopectic behavior. Thixotropy refers to a revers-
ible decrease in apparent viscosity with time at a
constant shear rate. This is generally due to a
reversible change in the structure of the material
with time under shear,5 with a limiting viscosity
ultimately being approached. Rheopexy is, in es-
sence, the opposite of thixotropy, that is, it repre-
sents an increase of apparent viscosity with time
at a constant shear rate.158
Many models have been developed to model
thixotropic and rheopectic behavior. The model
expressed by Equation 9 is a modification pro-
ST
Apparent
Viscosity
Shear Rate (Y)
posed by Mason et al. in 1987 to another previ-
ously established model.5-77
where in is the shear stress, b and n are the power
law parameters, b0 and bt are constants for this
model, / is time, and X, is a time constant.
M a n y authors 5 - 45 - 60 - 77 - 78 - 97 - 1 xu 15,122,124,126,148,15s h a v e
analyzed and discussed the rheological properties
related to the flow and deformation of food materi-
als, where more specific information may be found.
Sometimes the rheological behavior of foods
depends on the experimental conditions; for ex-
ample, evaporated milk has been characterized as
Newtonian by Fernandez-Martin,4 Bloore and
Boag,16 and Wayne and Shoemaker,180 and as a
non-Newtonian fluid by Randhahn,119 and Schmidt
et al.,140 and during its flow has shown thixotropic
behavior62 (Table 1). Also, sweetened condensed
milk has been characterized as non-Newtonian by
Alvarez De Felipe et al.,1 as thixotropic fluid by
Higgs and Norrington,57 and as a viscoelastic ma-
terial by Patil and Patel108 (Table 2). The same
material may even develop different flow behav-
iors, depending on the applied range of shear rate.
This irregular flow response is identified as struc-
tural viscosity by Darby.31
317
 u
09
TABLE 1
Rheological Characterization and Modeling for Evaporated and Sweetened Condensed Milk
Experimental
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Evaporated Milk
Relationship among viscosity and gel for-
mation of concentrated milk
Effect of solid content (0-30%) and tem-
perature on viscosity of milk
Rolling-ball Hoppler viscometer
Flow properties of concentrated milk affect-
ed by total solids content
Rotational rheometers
Effect of concentration (5-40%) in two
types of skim milk
Cannon-Fenske tube viscometers
Effect of heat treatment and solid content
(15-18%) on milk characteristics
Brookfield LVF viscometer
Process variables for skim milk
concentrates
Rotating bob Contraves viscometer
Effect of solid concentration and tempera-
ture on rheological behavior of milk
Equations used or proposed* Important remarks/classification11 Ref.
Fresh concentrated milk was dilatant 121
Newtonian behavior, followed by pseudo-
plasticity, and finally plasticity were observed
as a function of the gelation process
Plasticity increased with increasing preheat
treatment ES
Ail concentrates were Newtonian fluids 44
logr| = +(B0 A nomogram was constructed for rapid esti-
2
mation of milk viscosity PC
Non-Newtonian behavior below 40°C was 119
y = C 2 sinh(x//4 2 ) strongly influenced by shear rate
Concentrates exhibited 48% thixotropy
Flow properties of milk were affected by
the mean size of fat globules PC/ES
Age thickening occurred at 44°C in all 21
samples containing more than 40% solids
due to denaturation of milk proteins
Reconstituted milk was Newtonian PC/QC
At 4°C, all milks exhibited non-Newtonian 140
behavior of a pseudoplastic type
Heat treatments did not have a significant
effect on the flow behavior index TS/PC
In u = AQ + AJS + A2TSTc - A3Tc + AJc2 The viscosity of concentrates was related to 16
the total solids, temperature, protein content,
In n = 6 0 + B,fp+ B2Tp + B3TS - BJc and holding time PC
+B5tpTp + B6TpTc
K = Koexp(KiT) Concentrates showed thixotropy, character- 62
ized by two models PC
 Rheological characterization of skim milk Newtonian behavior over a concentration
concentrates range of 15.5 to 20.2% of solids
Weissenberg rotational rheometer Slight thinning nature PC

Viscosity measured between 45 and 65% All samples were non-Newtonian 128
of solids and temperatures of 40 to 65°C Flow behavior index was independent of
Brookfield viscometer = B1exp(C2/7")1.25x temperature PC

Sweetened Condensed Milk (SCM)

Flow properties of fresh and stored com- Fresh material showed a very slight diver- 135
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mercial SCM gence from Newtonian behavior

Concentric-cylinder Ferranti viscometer During age thickening, SCM showed thix-
otropy, due to aggregation of casein
micelles, and network formation ES/QC

Rheological properties of SCM Thixotropic coefficients decreased as the 57

Haake Rotovisco viscometer temperature rose
= (n 1 -n 2 )/ln(A/ 2 /A/ 1 ) Three methods of evaluation did not show
appreciable yield stress TS/QC

Effect of processing on SCM viscosity Processing notably affected the viscosity 98

Brookfield LVF viscometer The rate of thickening was much more
rapid at 40 than at 30°C PC/QC

Evolution of two commercial SCM during Both samples showed thixotropic behavior 63
storage time (5 months) that was enhanced by storage time
Rotovisco viscometer ES/PC

Commercial brands of SCM affected by Two of tho throo brands showed non- 1
structural changes during storage (45 d) Newtonian behavior
Concentric-cylinder Rheomat-15 viscometer Fluid consistency coefficient increased dur-
ing storage time
Micellar aggregation and association of
casein micelles with fat globules in-
creased during storage time ES/QC

Consistency of SCM as a function of stor- Initial deformation modulus and normal 108
age time at 35°C viscosity increased exponentially during
storage time for up to 39 d PC
u
 CO TABLE 1 (continued)
O Rheological Characterization and Modeling for Evaporated and Sweetened Condensed Milk
a
The meaning of every symbol is defined in the nomenclature section.
b
This classification is made considering the primary objective(s) established for each study.
ES, elucidation of structure; PC, process characterization or design; QC, quality control; TS, textural studies.
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Nomenclature:
Apparent viscosity (cP) n Flow behavior index (dimensionless)
—o Total solids (%) X Concentration of milk (%)
b0, b1t b2 Constants b Consistency coefficient (Pa • s")
AQ, A], A2 Constants T Absolute temperature (°K)
Bo, Bj, B2 Constants A), Ai, S,, C2 Constants
CQ, Cit C2 Constants
t Temperature (CC)
V Shear strain B Coefficient of breakdown with time (cP)
x Shear stress (dyn/cm2) Viscosities of two down curves (cP)
Viscosity at infinite shear rate (dyn • s/cm2) r,, t2 Times corresponding to m \h (s)
k~n Constants of the Ostwald De Waele model M Coefficient of breakdown with shear rate (cP)
A2,C2 Constants of the Prandtl-Eyring-Gesetz model A/,, N2 rpm corresponding to two down curves
A,B Constants of the Williamson model
v Kinematic viscosity (cSt) •n.56d-3oc Viscosity after 56 d at 30°C (P)
TS Solid concentration (% w/v) Viscosity after 7 d at 40°C (P)
m', b Constants
1 Shear stress (Pa)
Apparent viscosity (P) t Time (s)
K Consistency index (dyn • s"/cm2) A, B Constants of Weltman model
n Flow behavior index (dimensionless) t. Shear stress at equilibrium (Pa)
Viscosity (cP) p, a Constants of Hahn model
TS Total solids (%)
Tc Temperature of the sample (°C) X Shear stress (Pa)
A A A Constants D Shear rate (s~1)
tp Preheat time (s) t0, K n Constants of Herschel-Bulkley r
Tp r^2, / I 3 , AI4
Preheat temperature (°C)
Bo, S, Constants 5« Relaxation modulus (Pa)
Bd Decay modulus (Pa)
K B2, 63, 64,
Consistency index (Pa • s") t Time (s)
Ko, K. Constants T Relaxation time (s)
T Absolute temperature (°K)

Y Shear rate (5')

Apparent viscosity (mPa s)
m, b Constants
 Rheological measurements to determine the
flow properties of food materials have been con-
ducted under laminar flow conditions, including
several geometrical arrangements.5-13-158 The geom-
etries most commonly utilized are axial flow in a
capillary or tube, rotational flow between concen-
tric or Couette geometry, rotational flow between
a cone and plate, and torsional flow (also rotation-
al) between parallel plates.77-90-158
Even though the capillary and tube viscom-
eters present several advantages, such as simplic-
ity, thermostatic control, relatively high shear rates,
and very low cost, they are not able to measure
the time dependency of non-Newtonian fluids or
viscoelastic properties; therefore, rotational rhe-
ometers are primarily used to characterize the
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rheological behavior of dairy products. A number
of rotational rheometers, with different degrees of
versatility, are commercially available.
Details about the performance and specific
features of rheometers may be found else-
where.5-31-77-90-97-114-122-126-149-158-181 Regardless of
type, all of them quantify two basic parameters:
shear stress and shear rate. Some of the equations
used to calculate shear stresses and shear rates for
the four mentioned geometries are included in
Figure 4.
D. Viscoelasticity
Many non-Newtonian foods exhibit both vis-
cous and elastic properties, behavior that is known
as viscoelasticity. The properties of a viscoelastic
material may be evaluated using viscometric
methods.122-125-126
A viscoelastic material may show either lin-
ear or nonlinear behavior. A linear viscoelastic
material has properties that are dependent upon
time alone and not the magnitude of the stress that
is applied to the material. Nonlinear viscoelastic
materials exhibit mechanical properties that are a
function of time and the magnitude of stress
used.125
To express the viscoelasticity of a linear food
material, mechanical models incorporating two
basic elements have been utilized: the elastic
spring, which represents the instantaneous elastic
nature, and the dashpot, which expresses the pure
viscous flow. These two elements, when in a
series, constitute a Maxwell body, and when in a
parallel setup, a Kelvin-Voigt body.97-122-124158
Viscoelasticity parameters are represented by
mathematical equations in which the correspond-
ing modulus is expressed as a function of time.126
According to Steffe,158 to elucidate viscoelastic
behavior, there are several approaches that may
be divided into two major categories: static or
quasistatic methods and dynamic methods.
In the static method, the resulting curves will
depend on the combined effect of the elastic and
viscous components of the food material being
tested.90-126-158 Data obtained with static tests are
expressed in terms of creep compliance and the
stress relaxation modulus, which are shown in
Equations 10 and 11, respectively.125-158-181
J= (10)
"constant
X
(11)
I constant
where y is the strain, x is the stress, / is the creep
compliance, and G is the stress relaxation modu-
lus.
In dynamic tests, samples are subjected to
oscillatory motion or deformation that varies har-
monically with time. The strain or stress applied
to the sample is typically sinusoidal, and, in gen-
eral, the response of the stress or strain is depen-
dent on both shear frequency and the rate of shear
strain. With this type of test, there are several
important material properties, such as dynamic
viscosity, complex viscosity, complex modulus,
storage modulus, and loss modulus, which are
related by means of Equations 12 to 20.158
y = Yo sin(wf) (12)
x = x0 sin(wf — 8) (13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
' = G"/w
(17)
= x o /y o =[(G') 2 +(G") 2 ] /2 (18)
321
 Capillary
Tube AP R 4Q 7C AP R'
Y=
2L 7CR? 8LQ

sample 4Q r 3 1 dlnQ
+
(Non-Newtonian fluids)
a) Capillary geometry

sample 2 Q
.2
27C LRi
Y 1
2

T 1 1

7tLfl 2 2 )
Ri Rr.
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b) Concentric cylinder
Couette and Searle Type geometries
geometry

3T

2 n R sin -=--Go)

i2
Y=
'6o

3T
sample
2 7C Rz
c) Cone-plate geometry

g Tn =
271 R
r

L
3 +
dlnT ~i
~
din Y J

sample

1 YR = H

m T
T I ( Y R) = 3+
I 2R 2 7tR 3 Y R din YR

d) Plate-plate geometry

FIGURE 4. Common geometries in commercial rheometers and their basic equations. AP, pressure loss
= P, - P2; R, radius of the capillary or radius of the plate; L, length of the capillary; Q, flow rate; TW, shear stress
at the wall; T, measured torque; L, length of the bob; R;, radius of the bob; Q, angular velocity of the bob; Ro> radius
of the cup; 80, angle between the cone and the plate; Q, angular velocity of the cone; H, separation of the plates;
Q, angular velocity of the upper plate.

322
 viscoelastic substances, this wave is from 0 to 90°
(19) out of phase.5-153 These effects may be observed in
11" = G'/w (20) Figure 5.
Dynamic testing is becoming a common
where: method for characterizing the viscoelastic behav-
ior of foods. In dairy products, this methodology
Strain as a function of time (t) has been utilized, for example, to characterize the
7
Amplitude of the strain viscoelastic properties of yogurt gels by Shoe-
Yo
CO Frequency of oscillation maker et al.153 and Vlahopoulou and Bell,178-179 to
Amplitude of the shear stress follow the breakdown of yogurt structure by
%
5 Phase angle Ronnegard and Dejmek,132 and to differentiate the
G'y Elastic nature of the substance rheological properties of yogurt made from two
Tl'y Viscous nature of the substance kinds of milk by Biliaderis et al.12 (Table 2).
G' Storage (elastic) modulus Although there are many studies on the rheolo-
Dynamic viscosity gy of dairy products, there is a need to better under-
Amplitude ratio stand the flow behavior of these foods in order to
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G' Loss (viscous) modulus meet new research and industrial challenges.
G* Complex modulus
Complex viscosity
Out-of-phase component of complex IV. RHEOLOGY OF DAIRY PRODUCTS
viscosity
As a consequence of the complex composi-
In elastic solids, the sinusoidal force wave is tion of dairy products, their rheological character-
in phase with the deformation applied, whereas in ization was initially confined to empirical meas-
a perfect viscous fluid, it is 90° out of phase. For urements.153 Measurements such as time of efflux,

Strain
Stress

Elastic solid: Stress and strain in phase

Liquid: Stress and strain 90°out of phase Viscoelastic: Strainlags stress < 90

FIGURE 5. Stimulus response of foods to oscillatory tests.

323
 CO
TABLE 2
Rheological Studies on Cream
Experimental
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Effect of processing on the body of cream
Concentric cylinder viscometer
Flow characteristics of cream related to fat
content (0-50%) and temperature
(40-80°C)
Couette type viscometer
Rheological behavior of raw cream
Rotational viscometer
Effect of fat content (0-45%) on the
viscosity of cream
Analysis and modeling of data reported by
other researchers
Flow behavior of commercial thickened
cream (35% fat)
Rheomat 30 rheometer
Effect of fat content (0.1-30%) and tern-
perature (0-30°C) on viscosity of different
types of cream
Coaxial Haake-Rotovisco II rheometer
Rheological parameters/models 8
Body cream described in terms- of
viscosity (P)
Flow characteristics expressed as
viscosity (cP)
Viscosity predicted by:
log TI = /A ((]) + <()5/3) -4- log r|0
Viscoelasticity expressed as viscosity
(Pa • s) and shear modulus (Pa)
Consistency evaluated as viscosity (cP):
H = T! 0 (i-1.25/1-(p/cp max ) 2
9 = 9, +9 P +<Pi
Thickness expressed as viscosity (Pa • s):
Flow properties represented as
viscosity (cP):
lnfx = (2721.5/7") + 0.1F-8.9
Important remarks/classification" Ref.
Homogenization and pasteurization caused 116
the greatest physical changes
Homogenization produced a thicker cream,
less resistant to churning, and with a
greater tendency to acidity PC
Cream samples showed Newtonian 110
behavior
A was related to temperature
Development of nomograms for a rapid
evaluation of cream viscosity PC
Viscoelastic behavior modeled by Maxwell 120
body
Relaxation time was nearly independent of
fat content PC .
Experimental conditions explained the 175
differences reported by different authors
No aggregations of fat globules were
observed on microscopy - ES
Samples exhibited non-Newtonian flow and 40
shear degradation
Two samples were modeled by the power law,
while the third had a plastic
behavior QC
Viscosity varied linearly with fat content and 4
exponentially with temperature
The effect of fat content is much
greater at low temperatures PC
 Whipped Cream
Adaptation of an instrument to measure
changes in consistency during whipping
process of cream
Rheological characterization of commercial
whipped cream (45%)
Iwamoto coaxial viscometer
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Structural and rheological behavior of cream
(40% fat) through whipping process
Apparatus designed for analysis of whipping
process
Structural and rheological behavior of
whipping cream (40%)
Apparatus designed for this purpose
Evaluation and modeling of the thixotropic
behavior of cream
Ferranti-Shlrley viscometer
The meaning of every symbol is defined in the nomenclature section.
This classification is made considering the primary objective(s) established for each study. ES, elucidation of structure; PC, process characterization or design;
QC, quality control; TS, textural studies.
w
ro
ui
Consistency determined as torque (g-cm/s)
and hardness (dyn/cm2)
Consistency as viscosity (Pa • s)
evaluated at different times:
Viscoelasticity represented as elastic moduli
(Pa); consistency as viscosity (Pa • s):
J = i/G0 + 1/G, (1 - exp[-t/^G, ]) + t/r\n
Viscoelasticity represented as elastic
moduli (Pa); consistency expressed as
viscosity (Pa • s):
J = 1/GO -t/r]A]) + t/r]n
Rheological properties expressed by a
thixotropic coefficient (Pa) and a coeffi-
cient of thixotropic breakdown (Pa • s)
Whipping process of cream affected by 168
spindle speed, temperature, and sugar
content
Hardness curves are less useful than torque
curves PC
Cream exhibited pseudoplastic flow at low 152
shear rates, and changed to Newtonian
as the shear rate increased
The increasing viscosity with shearing time
was expressed by two-stage
equations PC
Processing was divided into four stages 157
Shear creep compliance fitted with a
Voigt and Maxwell body
Rheological parameters increased exponen-
tially during whipping process PC/ES
Processing was divided into four stages 101
Structural changes related to stages
Modeling of whipped cream was as a dispersed
system (mixed matrix) PC/ES
Rheological determinations were fitted satisfacto- 127
rily by the Weltman model
Both thixotropic parameters correlated with
the emulsifier concentration, stabilizer,
content, and maturity time QC/PC
 TABLE 2 (continued)
Rheological Studies on Cream

Nomenclature:
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TI Viscosity (cP) T|0 and T|, Cream viscosity at zero and t shearing time (cP)
A Rheological parameter K, and K2 Rate constants
<|> Concentration of fat (w/w fraction) C, and C2 Constants
TI 0 Viscosity of the separated milk (cP)
6 Temperature (°C) J Creep compliance (Pa)
Go Instantaneous elastic modulus (Pa)
T) Viscosity of the cream (cP) G, Elastic modulus of the Voigt element (Pa)
T|o Viscosity of the skim milk (cP) f Time (s)
<p Volume fraction of dispersed particles T|, Viscosity of Voigt element (Pa • s)
(p m a x Maximum packaging density of the dispersed particles T\N Newtonian viscosity (Pa • s)
(p, Concentration of fat (w/w fraction)
ipp Concentration of protein (w/w fraction) x Shear stress (Pa)
q>. Concentration of lactose (w/w fraction) A and 6 Constants of Weltman model
A initial stress to start shearing
dr\/dt Rate of change in viscosity (Pa) B Speed of structural breakdown
TI Apparent viscosity (Pa • s) f Time (s)
T)9 Apparent viscosity of equilibrium (Pa • s)
k Constant
u. Viscosity (cP)
T Absolute temperature (°K)
F Fat content (%)
 relative viscosity, consistency, hardness, and firm-
ness, among others, were commonly practiced
during the 1960s and 1970s, but the information
obtained from these tests was limited due to the
lack of theoretical support. This situation has pro-
gressively changed because the instrumentation
used for rheology studies has advanced notably in
the last 10 years.
A. Milk
Although whole milk is typically considered
a Newtonian fluid111-122 in which the caseins and
fat globules contribute significantly to its viscos-
ity value of 2.0 to 2.1 x 10"3 Pa • s,54-115 there are
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several papers that consider it a non-Newtonian
fluid as a consequence of the physicochemical
changes in milk constituents and the experimental
conditions used in the rheological determina-
tions.48-161-183
The physjcochemical properties of fat glob-
ules and proteins, the most affected of the milk
constituents, may be considerably altered by sev-
eral factors. The most significant factors are the
thermal process and mechanical operations af-
fecting the rheological behavior of milk.
1. Rheological Models
Independent of the focus of each study, the
rheological behavior of milk has been primarily
fitted by four models that correspond to different
approaches. The first approach is fit by the Einstein
equation modified by Batchelor (Equation 21)
and used for skin milk by Jeurnink and DeKruif.64
(21)
The second approach modeled the linear rheo-
logical behavior of milk by means of Newton's
equation4-44-180 and the non-Newtonian behavior
for using the power law equation.161-180 This ap-
proach has been applied more extensively to milk.
The third approach that expresses the viscoelastic
behavior of milk was fitted by a mechanical model
(Equation 22),162 and other modified models93-183
less frequently.
e" + ^e'~[(o') + (^]+(^yl (22)
This diversity of rheological characterization cor-
roborates the complex nature of milk.
Although the aforementioned models and oth-
ers have resulted in appropriate fitting of the rheo-
logical performance of fluid milk (Table 3), it is
difficult to make comparisons due to the diversity
of models, experimental conditions, and equip-
ment used during the rheological characterization.
In addition, some authors have developed specif-
ic parameters that only apply to very particular
situations, such as the lactic pseudoplastic index
and the thixotropic acceleration index utilized by
Garcia et al.48
2. Effect of Process Variables
Most published research papers discuss the
influence of three important variables of food
processing on the rheological behavior of milk:
thermal treatments, milk composition, and sample
temperature.
a. Thermal Treatments
Gryzowska and Tuszynsky52 conducted a
rheological examination of skim milk heated at
different temperatures and measured viscosity to
identify structural changes: temperatures less than
50°C had no measurable effect on viscosity, but
temperatures above 60°C caused an increase in
viscosity, even when applied for a short time.
Swartzel et al.161 studied the rheological charac-
terization of various UHT combinations and ana-
lyzed the changes that occurred during storage; in
particular, the gelation process was related to fat
level, process residence time, storage tempera-
ture, and storage time. Jeurnink and DeKruif64
followed the changes presented in skim milk ex-
posed to various heating times. They found that
the viscosity of milk increased after heat treat-
ments at temperatures above 70°C. The viscosity
327
 00
TABLE 3
Rheological Models for Milk

Experimental Equations used or proposed3 Important remarks/classification" Ref.

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Commercial milk = ao+aj~ Milk was considered a Newtonian fluid 44

Apparent viscosities Effect of temperature was more noticeable
Rolling-ball, Hoppler viscometer in first half of the studied range PC
Temperature range: 0-80°C

Whole/skim milk Heating (<50°C) had no measurable effect 52

Effect of different heating and cooling on viscosity; heating at S60°C caused an
treatments increase in viscosity, inclusive with short
Relative viscosity to study structural times
changes Newtonian fluid . ES/PC

Summer milks at three fat levels Age thickening was related to resident time, 161
Brookfield Synchro-lectric viscometer and storage temperature, storage time, and
Haake-Rotovisco RV-1 rheometer fat level
Power law model Process temperature was not significant
Non-Newtonian fluid PC/QC

Summer milks at three fat levels A three-element rheological 162

Wells-Brookfield Synchro-lectric cone-plate model for each fat content
geometry •Hi Elastic constant was the strongest
Viscoelastic characterization Viscoelastic behavior was influenced by fat
creep-relaxation test content PC/QC

Homogenized and skimmed milk

Maron-Belner capillary viscometer
h-(G/a2)] ° f milkmeaSuredatl0W 93
Ree-Eyring's generalized formula for a flow Aggregates of fat globules influenced the
system non-Newtonian flow ES

Different heat treatments on apparent Heated milk affected the consistency of -88
viscosity of UHT-treated milk yogurt
Haake-Rotovisco RV-3 Milk exhibited a slight deviation from
Newtonian behavior PC
 Effect of fat content (0-30%) and tempera- The effect of fat content on the viscosity is
ture (0-30cC) on viscosity of commercial greater at low temperature.
samples of milk Application of rheological properties to
Coaxial Haake-Rotovisco rheometer calculate pumping needs PC

Flow properties of milk at low shear stress, The differences in viscosity due to capillary 183
influenced by different capillary radii radius were very noticeable at high shear
Ree-Eyring's generalized formula for a flow stress
[sinh-\G/a2)]
system Mechanism developed to explain the
non-Newtonian behavior of milk PC/ES
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Influence of total solids on viscosity of commercial milk (b/y) Occurrence of a small but nonzero intercept 180
Rotational Weissenberg rheometer in rheograms produced a slight thinning
cone-plate geometry dependence of apparent viscosity.
Essentially Newtonian fluids over the range
of 121-485 s PC

Sterilized whole milk Pseudoplastic and thixotropic nature 48

Ferranti-Shirley viscometer Non-Newtonian behavior increased with fat
Cone-plate geometry content PC/QC

Changes in the viscosity of skim milk on heating Development of a modified viscosity model 64
r\ = T|/T| S = 1 + 2.5(p + /cHcp2
for different holding times Viscosity of milk increased for low shear
Ubbelohde capillary viscometer rates, shear-thinning fluid
Deer rheometer couette geometry Increased viscosity after heating was
caused by protein changes ES

Tho meaning of every symbol is defined In tho nomenclature section.

This classification is mado considering tho primary objectivo(s) established for each research. ES, elucidation of structure; PC, process characterization or
design; QC, quality control; TS, textural studies.

Nomenclature:
Ti Apparent viscosity (cP) r\ Viscosity (cP)
T Temperature (°C) 1 Subscript refers to Newtonian flow unit
a 0 , a,, a 2 Constants 2 Subscript refers to non-Newtonian flow unit
R Radius of the capillary (cm)
a Slope of the linear plot of T| VS. 1/f?
N Flow behavior index (dimensionless) y Shear rate (s~1)
ts Storage time (weeks) r| Apparent viscosity (cP)
f, t"s Modified storage time for quadratic models (weeks) a Shear stress (Pa)
CO
a, b, c, d Constants m Slope of the linear plot o vs. y
b y-lntercept of the linear plot a vs. y
 g TABLE 3 (continued)
Rheological Models for Milk

'e' Time rate of change of the strain rate (m/ms 2 )

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Er Retarded elastic parameter (Pa)

TI. Viscosity coefficient in the Kelvin model (Pa • s) t) Viscosity (cP)
e' Strain rate (cfeJdt) (m/ms) T Absolute temperature (°K)
Eo Initial elastic parameter (Pa) Av A2 Constants
'a' Time rate of change of rate of stress (daVdt2) (N/mzsz)
2
a' Rate of stress (da/dt) {N/m s)
F Shear stress at the capillary wall (dyne/cm 2 ) TI Viscosity of a highly dilute dispersion
G Rate of shear at the capillary wall (s*1) n.s Viscosity of the continuous phase
a, b Constants cp Volume fraction
ji Viscosity (cP) kH Huggins coefficient
T Absolute temperature (CK)
F Fat content (%)
 increments were attributed to the denaturation of
whey proteins, in particular pMactoglobulin.
b. Milk Composition
The influence of solid matter on rheological
properties was analyzed by Fernandez-Martin,44
who proposed a quadratic equation to relate vis-
cosity and solid content (Table 3). Wayne and
Shoemaker180 reported that despite the linear de-
pendence between the shear stress and shear rate
of milk with different concentrations, plots of
apparent viscosity vs. shear rate were slightly
shear thinning. It was concluded that these samples
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were essentially Newtonian fluids, and the occur-
rence of small nonzero intercepts represented the
existence of a very small yield value that was
neglected.
Fat content is one of the most important fac-
tors affecting the rheological properties of milk.
Swartzel et al.162 determined that the gelation pro-
cess modeled by a viscoelastic body was heavily
dependent on fat content. Mineshita et al.93 attrib-
uted the non-Newtonian behavior of fresh milk,
homogenized milk, and skim milk to different
mechanisms in the aggregation of milk fat drop-
lets. Bakshi and Smith4 found that commercially
processed milks exhibited a Newtonian behavior
and established that viscosity varied linearly with
fat content and exponentially with the tempera-
ture of milk. Garcfa et al.48 studied the viscous
behavior of sterilized whole milk at high shear
rates and observed that this product was
pseudoplastic, a tendency that was more notably
as the fat content was augmented.
c. Experimental Temperature
Because temperature has a strong influence
on all constituents of milk, the range of influence
should be clearly established. Fernandez-Martin44
proposed polynomial relationships between the
viscosity of different types of milk as a function
of temperature and concentration covering a range
of temperatures between 0 and 80°C. Bakshi and
Smith4 included the sample temperature as part of
the correlation proposed to evaluate the viscosity
of milk as a function of fat content in the tempera-
ture range of 0 to 30°C.
Table 3 includes the relationships proposed
by different authors to evaluate rheological prop-
erties of milk as a function of some process vari-
ables, as well as summarized information about
each investigation.
B. Concentrated Milk
The concentration process involves water re-
moval, reducing the interparticle spacings with
respect to fresh milk. As a consequence of high
temperatures during the evaporation process,
physicochemical changes occur within individual
milk components, particularly whey proteins and
casein. The specific structural modifications for
the two commercial types of concentrated milk,
evaporated and sweetened condensed, have an
important influence on their flow behavior.
Thermal treatment causes most of the changes
in the structure of milk concentrates. These changes
involve fusion of the protein micelles, and some-
times of the fat globules and protein bodies, form-
ing entirely new structures.18
1. Evaporated Milk
Evaporated milk contains all the original milk
solids in a reduced water volume.115 The homog-
enization and heat processes required for the man-
ufacturing of this dairy product to ensure good
storage properties strongly affect the colloidal state
of proteins and fat components. Schmidt et al.138
noticed, by means of electron-microscope obser-
vations made after the sterilization treatment of
three types of evaporated milk, that large agglom-
erates of fat and casein were formed as soon as
micelles dissociated into a large number of small
casein particles.
Most rheological studies have related the flow
properties of concentrated milk to solid concentra-
tion and gelation processes. Non-Newtonian behav-
ior has been reported by Rao et al.,121 Randhahn,119
331
 Schmidt et al.,140 Ibarz and Garcia,62 Velez et
al.,176 and Reddy and Datta,128 whereas Fernandez-
Martfn,44 Buckingham,21 Bloore and Boag,15 and
Wayne and Shoemaker180 considered it to have a
Newtonian behavior. This different rheological
characterization may be explained by the diver-
sity of manufacturing processes utilized in the
elaboration of evaporated milk, as well as the dif-
ferent test conditions applied.
2. Sweetened Condensed Milk
Sweetened condensed milk is essentially a
suspension of lactose crystals and colloidal pro-
teins in a saturated solution of lactose and su-
crose. This kind of dairy product is unlikely to
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show a simple Newtonian behavior.135 Samel and
Muers,135 Higgs and Norrington,57 Ibarz et al.,63
Alvarez De Felipe et al.,1 and Patil and Patel108
concluded that non-Newtonian behavior of this
dairy product may be attributed to molecular
aggregations.
The most important physical phenomenon in
sweetened condensed milk studied by researchers
is the age-thickening process. This thickening
process determines the level of consumer accept-
ability and is strongly influenced by the elabora-
tion process. The viscosity of this dairy product
must be high enough to prevent sedimentation
and fat rise but low enough to enable the product
to be poured easily from the container.98
With age thickening, a slow irreversible
change occurs in the size or shape of the casein
micelles, but the role of whey proteins in this
physical change is not clearly known. Samel and
Muers135 concluded that whey proteins do not
play a significant part in this process, and age
thickening was attributed to physical changes in
casein, whereas Alvarez De Felipe et al.1 suggest-
ed that whey proteins appear to play an important
role in the thickening process. Recently, Patil and
Patel108 found an exponential relationship between
consistency changes and the storage time of sweet-
ened condensed milk.
3. Rheological Models
To analyze the rheological behavior of con-
centrated milk independently of time, the Newton
332
and power law models have been very useful.
Rheological parameters, such as viscosity, flow
behavior index, consistency index, and apparent
viscosity, have been related to solids content
(Table 1).
Fern&idez-Martin44 and Bloore and Boag16 pro-
posed a polynomial relationship to fit viscosity as
a function of total solids and temperature:
log n = AQ + Axt + A2t2 + (£ 0 + Bxt + B2t2) S
(23)
Buckingham21 used a logarithmic relationship
to express the kinematic viscosity as a function of
solid concentration.
(24)
Reddy and Datta128 employed a linear relation-
ship to fit the flow index dependency on con-
centration, and a combined exponential-potential
functionality of a consistency index against con-
centration and temperature.
(25)
The Weltman and Hahn models, Equations 26
and 27, respectively, were utilized by Higgs and
Norrington,57 Ibarz and Garcia,62 and Ibarz et al.63
to evaluate the thixotropy of concentrated milk.
= A-Blogt (26)
x-xe) = p-at (27)
The viscoelastic characterization of concen-
trated milk by means of viscoelastic models has
been very limited. Patil and Patel108 expressed the
viscoelastic behavior by a generalized Maxwell
model. The rest of the consulted works have not
characterized the rheological behavior using vis-
coelastic models, as may be seen in Table 1.
Due to differences in approach of the above-
mentioned studies and the diversity of test condi-
 tions and equipment handled, a comparison of
results is rather difficult.
C. Cream
Cream is a dairy product very similar in com-
position to whole milk except for high-density
particulate matter, separated from the milk during
the centrifugation process.67-111 The most signifi-
cant difference in the different types of cream is
the fat content.7-42 Most creamy products are nor-
mally fluids as a result of the lack of a rigid
protein matrix.68
The non-Newtonian flow of cream with high
fat content at low shear rates was clearly estab-
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lished during the 1960s, and it was also recog-
nized that cream exhibits some degree of elastic-
ity.149 In this dairy product, the measuring
temperature has a definite role in the rheological
properties. At temperatures above 35 to 40°C, the
flow behavior of cream is Newtonian because at
this temperature or higher, most fatty acids are
liquids; 110 in contrast, the behavior is non-
Newtonian at temperatures below 35°C as a con-
sequence of the physical state of fatty acids and
the so-called cold agglutination in which the com-
ponents of cream, principally fatty acids, are ag-
glomerated.4-175 Sadowska et al.134 established that
cream containing 60% fat has a non-Newtonian
behavior in the tested range of temperatures (15
to 80°C); raw cream showed a yield stress follow-
ing the Bingham model, whereas thermally treated
cream followed the power law model.
Part of the complex rheological behavior of
commercial cream is due to the presence of hy-
drocolloid thickeners in the aqueous phase of the
emulsion.40 Microscopic observations of cream
structure, as well as studies of process parameters
affecting the physicochemical characteristics of
this product, have contributed to the identifica-
tion its rheological behavior.20-51-110
1. Whipped Cream
The whipping process has received more at-
tention than any type of cream.116-127-152-157 This
process incorporates a large volume of air into the
cream that transforms the oil-in-water emulsion
to a foam with a three-phase system: water, fat,
and air.20-68 The loss of fat globule membranes
during whipping and the adsorption of soluble
whey proteins modify the fat globule surfaces.20-51
The structure and the rheological behavior of
whipped cream are the result of interrelationships
between fat globules, air bubbles, and plasma
components.152 In characterizing its physical
changes, Tanaka and deMan168 adapted an instru-
ment to measure the changing viscosity of cream
throughout the whipping treatment. Min and Tho-
mas92 analyzed the effect of this manufacturing
process on the physical properties of cream, in-
cluding homogenization, pasteurization, cooling,
and aging. Shioya et al.152 followed the rheologi-
cal behavior of cream during whipping. This air-
incorporating process is characterized by two
stages related to a primary clustering of the inde-
pendent fat globules, and a coagulation process of
the fat globule clusters. Also, Shioya et al.152 stud-
ied the whipped cream affected by different vari-
ables in this process.
The transformation of cream during the whip-
ping process was observed and described by Sone
et al.,157 who suggested a mean frame composed
of free fat/fat globule complexes and joints of air
bubbles surrounded by free fat, fat globules, and
a thin protein layer in the whipped cream. It is
believed that whipped cream is a mixed matrix of
a soft O/W structure and a stiffer W/O struc-
ture.161 Sone et al.157 and Noda and Shiinoki161
conducted a viscoelastic analyses to correlate the
rheological behavior to the structure of whipped
cream. In both studies, the whipping process was
divided into four stages, with each stage being
related to the air incorporation and transformation
of the cream structure.
2. Rheological Models
In previous studies, the use of rheological
models on cream was limited. More interest was
dedicated to finding descriptive terms,112-116-168
empirical relationships,4-110-175 and torque measure-
ments.168
Recently, some investigations utilized rheo-
logical models (Table 2) to fit the flow behavior.
333
 Shioya et al.152 proposed a linear model to relate
cream viscosity and shearing time.
(28)
Dwyer and Dixon40 used the power law model to
express the non-Newtonian behavior, and the Tiu-
Boger model (Equation 29) to fit the rate of chang-
ing viscosity with time,
(29)
and Sadowska et al.134 modeled the flow nature of
raw cream by means of the Bingham equation and
the behavior of the thermally treated cream by
using the power law model.
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Raventos127 applied the Weltman model
(Equation 26) to fit the thixotropic behavior of
whipped creams. Randhahn and Reuter,120 Sone
et al.,157 and Noda and Shiinoki101 approached the
viscoelastic behavior of cream by means of me-
chanical models.
Rheological modeling of cream has been con-
ducted by some authors40-110-152-157-175 following
many distinct approaches. Cream has been con-
sidered an emulsion, a dispersion, or a fluid with
a given viscosity. These different approaches to-
gether with the utilization of many dissimilar in-
struments for cream characterization make it very
difficult to compare results.
D. Butter
Butter has an average composition of at least
80% milkfat, 16% water, 1.2% milk proteins, and
optional salt (2% or less). The exact composition
is conditioned to the overrun factor, which is the
ratio between the amount of nonfat constituents
and fat.133 Structurally, butter is an emulsion of
water droplets in a semisolid matrix of milkfat.
The water droplets may contain dissolved salt,
and they comprise about 15% of the total volume.
These droplets are discrete and at this concentra-
tion are separated by an average distance about
equal to their mean diameter of 6 to 10 |irn.26-110-115
The milkfat matrix is primarily responsible
for the texture of butter and consists of a three-
dimensional network of fat crystals enmeshed in
334
a liquid oil medium.143 Although the structure of
butter is relatively well defined, many changes
that occur in its properties are not well under-
stood.26 At low shear, butter behaves as viscoelas-
tic material, and when it is exposed to high shear,
the internal structure breaks down and shows plas-
tic behavior.26
1. Rheological Models
Two pioneer rheological studies on butter37-143
utilized mechanical models to characterize the
viscoelastic nature of butter by means of a creep
compliance test represented as:
(30)
Most authors have focused their investiga-
tions on evaluating or quantifying physical prop-
erties or quality attributes such as viscosity,81-83-
86,95,105,169 y j e i d s t r e s S ; 80-86,i69 hardness,2-32-34-73-109
2 17 32 34 41 I 83 86
a n d S preadability. - - - - -8 - - -95.io5,i7i A11 m e s e
attributes are strongly correlated with the con-
sumer acceptability of butter.
There are not many mathematical models
available in the literature to characterize the rheo-
logical properties of butter, as can be seen in
Table 4. Nevertheless, there exists a strong inter-
est in textural attributes, essentially those attributes
correlated with sensory assessments.
Several terms have been defined to evaluate
the texture of butter.26-72 According to Prentice,115
two rheological properties are principally related
to it, spreadability and firmness, with spreadabil-
ity being the most important physical property for
consumer acceptability. Spreadability reflects the
state of dispersion of the fat crystals and liquid
oil.34 A high relationship between spreadability
and hardness, and most methods used to evaluate
spreadability in fact measure the resistance of the
body to be deformed. The spreadability of butter
is affected by several factors, such as the ratio of
solid to liquid fat, size and shape of fat crystals,
mechanical treatments, aging, and temperature,
among others.34154 On the other hand, firmness is
related to the structural response to some external
 TABLE 4
Rheological and Textural Studies on Butter
Experimental
Rheological properties (40 and 62°F) using
static and dynamic tests Bellows Valvari
machine and Cantilever beam
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Mechanical treatment on the hardness of
butter
Cone penetrometer (15°C)
Work softening on the viscoelasticity of
butter
Shearing in a parallel plate and compres-
sion between parallel plates on a visco-
elastometer (10cC)
Rheological properties of butter
Weissenberg Rheogoniometer (5°C)
Textural properties of butter
Puncture tester
Modification of butter composition to
improve its spreadability (4.4, 10°C)
Penetrometer AOAC
Sensory evaluation
u
oi
Rheological parameters/models8 Important remarks/classification11 Ref.
Viscoelasticity expressed as viscosity Butter showed linear viscoelastic behavior, 37
(Ib • s/in.2), relaxation modulus (Ib/in.2) and represented by a viscous-Maxwell-
yield value (Ib • s/in.2) Bingham model
Butter has a higher elastic modulus at
lower temperatures ES
Rheological properties expressed as Butter showed a thixotropic behavior, with 33
hardness (kg/cm2) gradual recovery of hardness
Instantaneous bond breakage PC
Viscoelasticity represented as instantaneous Viscoelastic parameters affected by work 143
and retarded moduli (dyn/cm2), and softening and subsequent aging
viscosity (P); modeled by: Butter elasticity was almost totally recovered
Less of the Newtonian viscosity that was
lost was recovered PC
Flow properties as viscosity (P): Modification of an existing model to 105
calculate the viscosity of butter during
T1.=Tio{exp[2.59e+O.4O(p-1)q>e/(1-1.91(pe)] spreadability ES/PC
exp(2.5(pw/1-/clv9lv)}
Properties expressed as apparent viscosity Vlscoplastlc model proposed, to evaluate 169
(P) and yield value (d/cm2): the apparent viscosity TS
T]m(dhldt)+f = Fco/(9/2)cos(e/2)jt/j 1.49
Spreadability evaluated as hardness Hardness decreased 25-40% but was not
(kg/cm2) sufficient to improve the spreadability at
low temperatures TS/PC
Beneficial effect disappeared at storage
 CO
W TABLE 4 (continued)
Rheological and Textural Studies on Butter
Experimental
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Spreadability of butter using five methods
of testing
Extruder, compression tester, disc pene-
trometer, sectility tester, and cone
penetrometer
Subjective appraisal
High concentration of linoleic acid (24.5%)
on properties of butter (2, 10, and 13°C)
Cone penetrometer
Sensory assessment
Effect of polyunsatu rated fatty acids on
properties of butter (10°C)
Disc and Cone penetrometers
Physical properties of butter affected by fat
content (5 and 22°C)
Hardness with a relative scale
QC
Spreadability of butter at different
temperatures (5, 10, 15, 20, and 25°C)
Constant speed penetrometer
Sensory evaluation
Firmness of butter (5, 13, and 20°C) using
a new cone penetrometer
Precision penetrometer
Sensory evaluation
Hardness of butter affected by various
treatments
Penetrometer type, Metrimex (5 and 12.5°C)
Rheological parameters/models*
Spreadability expressed as firmness (N)
Physical properties evaluated as hardness
(mm/10)
Spreadability expressed as hardness (g/cm2)
Consistency or spreadability as
hardness (relative value)
Spreadability represented as hardness
(g/cm2)
Spreadability expressed as penetration
depth (mm/10) and cone stress (Pa):
Spreadability expressed as hardness (mm)
Important remarks/classification11 Ref.
All methods appeared to measure 38
essentially the same property (firmness).
Extrusion method had best precision
Disc penetrometer method was most
convenient TS
Butter with elevated levels of linoleic 73
acid was softer than conventional, but
it had poorer quality during storage
Plastic properties affected by churning
and phase inversion processes QC ,
Hardness of butter reduced significantly 182
with increasing in fatty acids QC
Consistency of butter determined by 171
solid fat content and manufacturing
conditions
Hardness had good correlation with
solid fat content
Hardness depending on temperature 34
Hardness value in the range
12-500 g/cm2 resulted in favorable
spreadability
At 5°C, was 810-815 g/cm2 QC
Development of an empirical model to 39
evaluate the firmness of butter
Firmness property related to the cone
dimensions, penetration depth, and test
temperature QC
Softening was increased by adding low 41
melting point butter fat (20-60%),
whipping, and incorporating
additives TS/QC
 Spreadability of butter (0 to 25°C) with a
new instrument
Single-pin maturometer
Sensory assessment
Rheological evaluation of 24 commercial
butters
Conic penetrometer, Helvan Helnor
Sensory evaluation
Rheological and textural analysis of
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commercial butter (5, 10, and 15°C)
Instron Universal Testing Machine and
extrusion viscometer
Comparison of different methods for
measuring the consistency of butter
Consistency measured on a disc
penetrometer, a sectilometer, and
cone penetrometer
Hardness and spreadability of commercial
butter
Sliding pin instrument
Sensory assessment
Viscoelastic properties of butter
(5, 10, and 15°C)
Instrument designed for creep analysis
u
S3
Spreadability expressed as reading of the
maturometer (g)
Hardness measured as a resisting force
(g/cm2)
Deformation measured as extrusion shear,
compression, and penetration yield value
(N/m2)
Flow characteristics expressed as yield
stress (N/m2):
Consistency expressed as yield stress
(Pa) and viscosity (Pa • s)
Hardness measured as resisting force (N)
Viscoelastic properties expressed as
retarded and instantaneous elasticity (Pa)
and viscous flow (Pa • s)
Instrument suitable to measure the spread- 17
ability of butter
Acceptable reproducibility
Detection of texture differences QC
Consistency was quite diverse 109
The consistency of butter was 1.9 to
9 times harder than spreadable
margarine QC
Instrumental values of quasistatic tests 72
were highly correlated to sensory values
Casson and Herschel-Bulkley
adequately fit butter flow PC
The three instruments gave results highly 95
correlated with spreadability
The disc penetrometer was the most exact
method for measuring in soft butter
Yield stress was sufficient
to measure a consistency TS
High reliability to measure hardness and 32
spreadability
Instrumental data adequately related to
sensory evaluation PC/QC
Instantaneous elasticity was time depen- 35
dent; retarded elasticity showed little
change
Elastic and viscous components decreased
rapidly with temperature PC
 CO
u
05
TABLE 4 (continued)
Rheological and Textural Studies on Butter
Experimental
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Rheological properties of butter made from
supercritically fractionated milk fat
Bohlin VOR rheometer
Buffalo Butter
Rheological properties of buffalo butter
during storage (-20, 0, 5, and 15°C)
Universal Cone Penetrometer, FIRA-NIRD
extruder, and Stormer viscometer
Rheological characterization of commercial
butter (5 and 15°C)
Stormer viscometer, Universal Cone
Penetrometer, and FIRA-NIRD extruder
Composition on the rheologica! properties
of buffalo butter
Stormer viscometer, Universal Cone
Penetrometer, and FIRA-NIRD extruder
Rheological evaluation of buffalo commer-
cial butter
Stormer viscometer, Universal Cone.
Penetrometer, and FIRA-NIRD extruder
Rheological parameters/models9
Viscoelastic properties measured as
complex viscosity (Pa • s), storage
modulus (Pa), and loss modulus (Pa):
G' = G'J"'
G" = G'of"
Rheological properties expressed as
penetration value (mm/10), extruder
thrust (kg), extruder friction (g/cm),
viscosity (P), and yield stress (dyn/cm2)
Rheological properties expressed as
penetration value (mm/10), extruder
thrust (kg), extruder friction (g/cm),
viscosity (P), and yield stress (dyn/cm2)
Rheological properties expressed as
penetration value (mm/10), extruder
thrust (kg), extruder friction (g/cm),
viscosity (P), and yield stress (dyn/cm2)
Rheological properties expressed as
penetration value (mm/10), extruder
thrust (kg), extruder friction (g/cm),
viscosity (P), and yield stress (dyn/cm2)
Important remarks/classification" Ref.
Improvement of the physical character- 154
istics of butter at temperatures above
refrigeration
Higher viscosity improved stability and
eliminated oiling off and moisture
migration at 34°C
Viscoelastic properties were related to
frequency by a power law equation QC
Hardness increased during storage time 80
Viscosity and yield stress were particularly
marked between 0 and 5°C
Extruder thrust decreased with storage
temperature QC/PC
Composition and properties of sample 81
varied within a narrow range
Viscosity and yield stress variations
between samples resulted in changes
of the physical state of fat PC
Increase in moisture content (10-35%) 82
changed all the rheological properties
Increasing nonfat solids from 1 to 3%
adversely affected the rheological
characteristics of butter QC/PC
The rheological parameters showed an 83 ,
interrelationship among themselves
The penetration value was proposed as
reliable to predict the spreadability of
buffalo butter QC/PC
 Buffalo butter affected by composition Rheological properties expressed as Buffalo butter w a s harder than c o w butter 84
Stormer viscometer, Universal Cone penetration value (mm/10), extruder, Hardness decreased with the addition of a
Penetrometer, and FIRA-NIRD extruder thrust (kg), extruder friction (g/cm), low-melting fraction from milk fat or
viscosity (P), and yield stress (dyn/cm2) vegetable oil PC

Rheological characteristics of buffalo butter
at 5 and 15°C affected by thermal
treatments of cream
Universal Cone Penetrometer, FIRA-NIRD
extruder, and Stormer viscometer
Sensory analysis
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Rheological properties expressed as
penetration value (mm/10), extruder
thrust (kg), extruder friction (g/cm),
viscosity (ps), and yield stress (dyn/cm2)
Spreadability w a s increased by thermal 85
treatments, but it w a s not sufficient to
give good spreadability at low
temperatures
The penetration value w a s significantly
more affected than extruder thrust by

heat treatments PC

Rheological studies of buffalo butter
affected by incorporation of vegetable
oils (5 and 15°C)
Universal Cone Penetrometer, FIRA-NIRD
extruder, and Stormer viscometer
Sensory assessment
Rheological properties expressed as
penetration value (mm/10), extruder
thrust (kg), extruder friction (g/cm),
viscosity (ps), and yield stress (dyn/cm2)
Incorporation of vegetable oils, significantly 86
increased the butter spreadability
The penetration value decreased, while
extruder thrust a n d friction increased
significantly at both temperatures
Viscosity a n d the yield stress changed
significantly with temperature PC

The meaning of every symbol is defined in the nomenclature section.

This classification is made considering the primary objective(s) established for each study. ES, elucidation of structure; PC, process characterization
or design; QC, quality control; TS, textural studies.

Nomenclature:
T). Viscosity of the butter (P) Y WC orr Shear rate at t h e tube wall
T|o Viscosity of the liquid oil fraction In the fat continuous phase (P) TW Shear stress at the tube wall
<p0 Volume fraction of fat crystals M Casson slope
cp w Volume fraction of water drops xyc Casson yield stress value
p, kH Constants
G' Storage modulus (MPa • s"')
T) a p P Apparent viscosity (P) Co Pseudo storage modulus at 1 Hz (MPa • s"')
dh/dt Speed of cone penetration (cm/s) f Frequency (Hz")
f Yield value (dyn/cm2) G" Loss modulus (MPa • s"")
F Penetration force (dyn) GQ Pseudo loss modulus at 1 Hz (MPa • s°")
9 Cone angle (°) T|* Complex viscosity (Mpa • s"*)
h Depth of penetration (cm) T|J Pseuso complex viscosity at 1 Hz (MPa • s"* 1 )
CO
co
CD
 w
o
TABLE 4 (continued)
Rheological and Textural Studies on Butter
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C Cone mass (g) n',rf',n* Flow behavior indices

determining the
A Cone angle (°) dependence of G', G",
and r\*, respectively
P Penetration depth (cm)
7 Temperature (°C)
B Firmness of butter
 force; it represents the elastic ability of fat matter
responding to compression forces.115
Five objective methods for evaluating the tex-
ture of butter have been identified:34-95-102-115 pen-
etration, cutting, extrusion, compression, and
spreadability. Of these five instrumental meth-
ods, compression and extrusion have been the
most utilized because they show precision, high
reproducibility, and simplicity.34-39-102 O'Connor
et al.102 reviewed the advantages and limitations
of these five techniques.
The main objective for many researchers in
dealing with butter manufacturing has been to
reduce the hardness or to increase the spread-
ability .2.33,41,73,82,84-86.143,182 T h i s objective h a s been
accomplished (Table 4) in many different ways:
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by adding low-melting fractions of milkfat "or
some additives, by blending polyunsaturated veg-
etable oils with milkfat, by altering the milkfat"
composition of special diets given to cows, by
applying different processes such as thermal treat-
ments of cream or mechanical treatments of but-
ter, and by reprocessing the butter, which alters
the original structure of fat crystals.
E. Ice Cream
Structurally, ice cream may be described as a
partly frozen foam with 40 to 50% by volume air
content. The continuous phase is a concentrated,
unfrozen aqueous solution containing soluble milk
salts, lactose, and added sugars. In this continu-
ous phase, the colloidal solids (i.e., proteins, salts,
and stabilizers) are dispersed, and the lipid phase
is in the form of an emulsion. Ice crystals exist as
a coarsely dispersed phase and occupy a major
portion of the space between air cells.10-n-100-173
Ice cream contains approximately 50% of its
water in the form of ice at 5.5°C, which is the
temperature at which ice cream is consumed. The
dimensions of ice crystals in ice cream signifi-
cantly affect the texture of the product; if they
exceed 40 to 50 \im in length, the ice cream
acquires a coarse texture. A smooth texture is
characterized by ice crystals shorter than 20 |Xm.67
The texture of ice cream depends mostly on
the physical properties of the cell walls. These, in
turn, are influenced by the size of the fat globules,
size and distribution of air cells, physical proper-
ties of the protein-emulsifier film adsorbed on the
fat globules, and physical properties of the pro-
tein film surrounding the air cells and clusters of
fat globules in this film.99 All constituents make
an important contribution to the rheological prop-
erties of ice cream.115
1. Rheological Models
Since 1965, when Sherman145-146 proposed a
theory for ice cream structure, knowledge of the
physical characteristics and interactions between
components has been well understood. Shama
and Sherman142 established a close relationship
between the parameters calculated from the creep
compliance data with the structural constituents
of ice cream (Equation 30). They proposed a
model in which the texture phenomena are repre-
sented by six measurable parameters, including
three elasticity components and three viscosity
components. Their experiments suggested that the
instantaneous elasticity (Eo) is affected primarily
by the ice crystals. One elastic modulus (E{) and
one viscosity component (r|2) are affected by the
weak stabilizer-gel network. The other elasticity
modulus (E2) is affected by protein-enveloped air
cells. The second viscosity component Cn,) is
mainly affected by the fat crystals, and a third
Newtonian viscosity parameter (x\N) by both fat
and ice crystals.
The modeling of flow properties for ice cream
has been restricted to the flow behavior of melted
ice cream and the viscoelastic nature of frozen
mixes. Flow properties have been fitted by linear
models144 and quadratic models14 where the dis-
persed phase volume concentration is the most
important facton49-50
(31)
Measurement of the rheological properties
of ice cream has principally focused on the
influence of different constituents on the qual-
ity attributes of this frozen dessert, as summa-
rized in Table 5. Those attributes are repre-
sented principally by texture76-145-147-148-170 and
v}scosjtyi14,25-27.49,50,91,139,144,156,163,177
Additionally, there are some reports that re-
late the rheological properties of ice cream to
341
 CO
ro TABLE 5
Rheological Characterization of Ice Cream
Experimental
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Rheological properties of ice cream in the
range of 60-800 s
Concentric cylinder Couette type
Texture of ice cream mix and frozen ice
cream at 4.5°C
Rotovisco viscometer
Effect of fat, overrun, and temperature on
the texture of frozen ice cream
Creep behavior studied at various tempera-
tures (-7 to -15°C)
Parallel plate viscoelastometer
Rheological properties of mix and melted ice
Rotovisco rheometer and coaxial cylinder
viscometer
Texture evaluation of ice cream body
General Foods Texturometer
Texture of ice cream affected by oil
globules size
Consistency measured indirectly
Structure and textural properties of
ice cream
Rheological parameters/models8
Viscosity (P):
T) = m(ydv) + C
Consistency expressed as viscosity (P)
Viscoelastic behavior evaluated as instanta-
neous elasticity, elastic moduli (dyn/cm2),
and viscosity components (P):
Viscoelastic behavior evaluated as
instantaneous elasticity, elastic moduli
(dyn/cm2), and viscosity, components (P):
Texture expressed as a texture profile curve
with four parameters: hardness (force),
cohesiveness (force), adhesiveness
(work), and gumminess (energy)
Texture expressed as rate of subsidence
(mm/min)
Viscoelasticity expressed as creep
compliance-time curves
Important remarks/classification" Ref.
Viscosities of ice cream mixes were related 144
to globule diameter ES
Viscosity decreased with increasing shear 145
rates ES/TS
Samples showed viscoelasticity 142
The creep behavior of frozen ice cream was
represented by a six-element model
Close relationship between viscoelastic
parameters and structural constituents
ES/TS/PC
Ice cream mix and melted ice cream had 146
viscoelastic behavior
Ice cream required six elements, whereas
melted ice cream required only four
ES/TS
Hardness, cohesiveness, and gumminess 76
increased with a higher level of
substitution of corn syrup
As the overrun increased, hardness and
gumminess decreased, whereas
adhesiveness and cohesiveness tended
to increase TS
Increasing the size of the oil globules 147
increased the rate of subsidence that
diminished the consistency ES
Textural properties of samples defined in 150
terms of physical parameters ES/TS
 Ice cream texture affected by different
sweeteners, overrun, and storage
temperature
Brookfield LVT viscometer
Sensorial evaluation
Relationship between fat globule membrane
and viscosity of ice cream
Ferranti-Shirley cone and plate viscometer
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Physical properties of ice cream affected by
polysaccharides
Haake Rotovisco
Organoleptic evaluation
Effect of stabilizers and temperature
(25-30°C) on viscosity of ice cream mix
Haake Rotovisco RV1 rheometer
Effect of aging on the rheology of ice cream
mix and melt
Wells-Brookfield synchrooloctric
Micro-viscometer (cone/plate)
Rheological properties of ice
cream mix as a function of two
sweeteners and whey substitution
Haake Rotovisco II viscometer
CO
CO
Texture expressed as force-time curves,
penetration stress (dyn/cm2), yield value
(dyn/cm2), and apparent viscosity (P)
Viscosities (P) evaluated for the fluid
medium (r)0) and for the mix (r|e)
Apparent viscosities (cP)
Viscosity (cP) expressed as relative
viscosity (rirel), apparent viscosity (p),
specific viscosity (TISP), and reduced
viscosity ( i ^ )
Rheological properties expressed as
apparent viscosity (Pa • s), initial and
retarded elastic parameters Eo and Er
(Pa), and viscosity r|, (Pa • s)
Rheological properties expressed as flow
index, consistency index (Pa • s"), and
apparent viscosity (Pa • s):
Ice cream mixes showed non-Newtonian 170
behavior
Viscosity and yield value inversely related
to overrun
Yield values from penetrometer in good
agreement with sensory valuation of
firmness TS/PC
Mixes behaved as non-Newtonians 14
Proposed model for fat globule membranes
to explain non-Newtonian behavior ES
Optimum viscosity for ice cream mix 27
between 25 and 75 cP
Most stabilizers gave mixes below the
optimum range PC
Increasing the hydrocolloid concentration 28
produced a nonlinear increase in mix
viscosity
The effect of shear rate on the viscosity of the
ice cream mix followed a power law
relationship PC
Flow properties of the mixes and melts were 163
quite stable up to 24 weeks
Model constants varied little between
samples stored at 20 and those at 30°C
The strongest element constant for all
samples was the elastic series PC
Ice cream mixes showed pseudoplastic 156
behavior, with a flow behavior index
between 0.48 and 0.55 QC
 TABLE 5 (continued)
Rheological Characterization of Ice Cream
Experimental
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Effect of fatty acid on rheological properties
of Ice cream
Haake Rotovisco RV 100 viscometer
Effect of homogenization pressure on
physical properties of Ice cream
Haake Rotovisco II viscometer
Effect of stabilizers on textural character-
istics of ice cream from sheep's milk
Brookfield DV II viscometer and a
penetrometer SUR
Physical properties of ice cream as a
function of substitution levels of arrowroot
Ostwald viscometer
Sensory evaluation
Flow characteristics of ice cream mixes as.
function of shear rate and stabilizer in
HTST holding tubes
Haake Rotovisco RV3 viscometer
Viscosity of ice cream affected by pasteur-
ization temperatures
Carry-Med rheometer
a
The meaning of every symbol is defined in the nomenclature section.
b
This classification is made considering the primary objective(s) established for each study. ES, elucidation of structure; PC, process characterization
or design; QC, quality control; TS, textural studies.
Rheological parameters/models9
Viscosity expressed in terms of cP and %
of penetrability
Viscosity measured in terms of cP
Flow properties evaluated as viscosity (cP)
and efflux time (s); firmness expressed in
penetration units [(1/10)mm]
Viscosity expressed as relative viscosity
Flow properties expressed as flow index,
consistency index (Pa • s"),
and apparent viscosity (cP):
Tl = Ky"~'
Flow properties expressed by viscosity
(Pa • s), consistency coefficient (Pa • s"),
and flow behavior index:
Important remarks/classification15 Ref.
An unsaturated fatty acid of monoglycerides 25
drastically increased the viscosity of the
ice cream mix QC
Homogenization affected the viscosity of the 139
ice cream mix caused by the dispersion
of fat globules PC
Stabilizers were very useful for improving 91
textural characteristics
The stabilizer recommended for this product
was xanthan gum at 0.2% or guar gum
at 0.3% QC
Increasing the levels of arrowroot powder 177
significantly increased the viscosity
Viscosity increased the smoothness of the
body QC
Mixes showed pseudoplastic behavior with 49
flow indices of 0.53 and 0.57 for 0.25 and
0.375% of guar gum, respectively
The apparent viscosity of the ice cream
formulations was 1.35 cP at 80°C PC
All samples showed shear thinning fitted by 50
a power law model
The flow behavior index was 0.7 for all
mixes, except with xanthan gum PC
 Nomenclature:
t| Viscosity (P) Tie Apparent viscosity of the mix (P)
dv Globule mean volume diameter (urn) Apparent viscosity of the fluid medium (P)
m, C Constants * Fat volume fraction
a, b Constants
s
J(t) Creep compliance (cm /dyn) Shear rate (s-1)
Jo Instantaneous elastic compliance (cm 2 /dyn) Apparent viscosity (Pa • s)
J,, J2 Retarded elastic compliance (cnWdyn) k=K Consistency index (Pa • s")
T|N Newtonian viscosity (P) n Row behavior index (dimensionless)
t Time (s) a Shear stress (Pa)
Times related with J, and Jz
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CO
en
 some aspects of the manufacturing process.
Schmidt and Smith139 determined the effect of
homogenization pressure on the physical charac-
teristics of ice cream, Goff and Davidson49 ana-
lyzed the flow behavior of ice cream mixes through
tubes during heat treatment, and Swartzel et al.163
studied the effect of storage on the rheological
properties of ice cream mix and melt (Table 5).
F. Yogurt
Yogurt is a protein network formed by casein
micelles entrapping serum and fat globules. The
casein framework of yogurt is relatively weak;68
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therefore, the distribution of the rest of the compo-
nents has an important effect on the rheological
behavior of yogurt. According to Tamime et al.,165-167
the microstructure composed of casein micelles
chains and clusters was similar for prepared yo-
gurts, but the way in which casein micelles are
linked to other components differed noticeably,
depending on the preparation process.
In yogurt and other cultured dairy products,
the physical character of the milk curd is of pri-
mary importance with reference to quality, tex-
ture, and body.87 It has been recognized for many
years that the combination of good firmness with-
out syneresis is essential for the superior quality
of yogurt.79
In general terms, for any type of yogurt, there
is a close relationship between consistency and
quality, although there have been contradictory
results when sensory evaluation has been in-
volved, due to the differences in human tastes.26
Labropoulos et al.87 pointed out three approaches
for improving the body and texture of yogurt:
(1) increasing viscosity by increasing total sol-
ids, (2) addition of stabilizers, and (3) control of
processing times and temperatures. Teggatz and
Morris172 mentioned the existence of a different
approach used by some European countries that
incorporates the use of ropy cultures to increase
viscosity and reduce syneresis.
Because the degree of denaturation of whey
proteins as a consequence of heat treatment is a
major factor affecting the texture of yogurt, several
studies on rheological properties focused on this
346
stage of the manufacturing process.29-30-89-96-107-130-140
In relation to the effect of heat on proteins, agree-
ment exists that conventional heat treatments
(VAT) of milk are better than UHT processes to
increase the viscosity of yogurt.87-88-106
1. Set and Stirred Yogurt
Yogurt is on the market in two forms: set
yogurt and stirred yogurt. In the former, the gel
structure is developed during the fermentation
phase inside the container, while in the latter the
structure formed during the bulk incubation is
broken down through the next process stages to
produce a semiviscous yogurt.117 Observations
made using electron microscopy revealed the
microstructure of set yogurt as an uninterrupted
three-dimensional network composed of chains
and clusters of casein micelles; on the other hand,
stirred yogurt showed fewer chains and more clus-
ters of micelles joined together by fibers.66
2. Rheological Models
Quality attributes such as texture, consistency,
firmness, curd tension, and flow properties have
been satisfactory measured and have allowed
improvement of the quality of yogurt for con-
sumer satisfaction; all of these attributes can be
related to sensory acceptability. Table 6 shows
that the studies conducted on both types of yogurt
have been focused on the influence of aspects
such as composition, different elaboration meth-
ods, and, principally, heat treatments on physical
quality. In quality determinations, mathematical
modeling is missing.
In the few works where rheological modeling
has been used, the power law model6-56-106-117-118-140
has been employed most frequently, and occasion-
ally the Herschel-Bulkley model6-106-117-118 has been
incorporated to fit the non-Newtonian behavior of
yogurt. Ramaswamy and Basak117-118 character-
ized the rheological behavior of commercial stirred
yogurt and found that the nonreversible structural
breakdown can be expressed in a three-cyclic
shearing sequence, where upward flow curves
 TABLE 6
Rheological Characterization of Set and Stirred Yogurts

Experimental Rheological parameters/models9 Important remarks/classification11 Ref.

Set-Type Yogurt
Consistency of commercial yogurt Curd tension as force (g); consistency as Consistency increased during storage time 103
Curd-O-meter and Brookfield viscometer Brookfield units Low correlation between instruments QC

Effect of heating and solid content on Penetration of undisturbed sample as Consistency of yogurt closely interrelated 140
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texture of yogurt force (g) and work (g-cm); consistency to heat treatment
Instron and Brookfield LVF viscometer expressed as apparent viscosity (P) Penetration forces and work increased with
solid content TS/PC

Effect of UHT and VAT treatments of milk Consistency measured as apparent UHT milk had higher viscosity than VAT 88
on flow properties of yogurt viscosity (cP) Yogurt showed an inverse relationship
Haake Rotovisco RV3 rheometer All samples exhibited thixotropy due to
disruption of the gel PC/TS

Effect of thermal treatments of milk on Curd firmness as penetration force (g); Shear stress was related to whey protein 89
rheology of yogurt consistency measured as shear stress denaturation
Cherry Burrel curd meter and Haake (dyn/cm2) Firmness of yogurt showed a relationship
Rotovisco rheometer similar to protein denaturation PC/TS

Effect of stabilizers (0.5-1.5%) on physical Curd firmness (g) Firmness was increased and syneresis 94
properties of yogurt decreased by increasing the protein
Cherry Burrel knife content QC

Effect of process preparation on structural Firmness of coagulum as penetration Firmness was affected by the starter culture 165
and rheological properties of yogurt reading (mm) Protein matrices depended of the fortifica-
Penetrometer Universal Model 1700 tion process of milk ES/PC

Yogurt viscosity affected by partial substi- Viscosity measured as apparent viscosity Partial substitution produced yogurts of
tution of powder milk (Pa-s)at10°C firmer coagulum, higher viscosity, and a
Brookfield Synchro-lectric viscometer reduced susceptibility to syneresis QC

§
 CO
00
TABLE 6 (continued)
Rheological Characterization of Set and Stirred Yogurts
Experimental
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Heat treatments on rheological properties
of yogurt
Cherry Burrel, Universal penetrometer,
Bostwick, Adams, and Brookfield
instruments
UHT treatments on yogurt texture
Instron Model TM, Brookfield LVT
Synch roelectric viscometer
Sensory evaluation
Effect of heat treatment of milk on flow
properties of yogurt
Haake Rotovisco model RV3
Effect of vat and continuous heating
systems on physical properties of yogurt
Instron testing machine and Haake
Rotovisco RV3 rheometer
Effect of elaboration processes on rheology
and structure of yogurt (Labneh)
Stevens LFRA Texture Analyzer
Rheological parameters/models'
Gel firmness as curd tension (g);
consistency as spreadability (cm),
fluidity (cm), and apparent viscosity (P)
Texture measured as initial breaking
force (g) and flow coefficient (g/cm2);
consistency expressed as relative
viscosity
Flow properties expressed as app.
viscosity (mPa • s), flow index, and
consistency index (Pa • s"):
0 = KD"
a-ao=KDn
Curd firmness as penetration force (g); con-
sistency as apparent viscosity (mPa • s)
Consistency as penetration force (g)
Important remarks/classification" Ref.
Gel firmness of yogurt greater for conven-
tional VAT than other treatments
Higher fluidity for yogurt UHT processed
milk than for VAT
Rheological behavior attributed to protein
changes PC
Batch heating resulted in firmer yogurt
Yogurt prepared by conventional heat
treatment showed higher penetration
force, flow coefficient, and viscosity than
UHT yogurt PC/QC
Apparent viscosities had different values:
VAT 550-568, HSTS 260-462,
UHT 170-333
Flow index for all treatments was 0.55-0.65,
while consistency values ranged from 0.3
to 1.0.
All yogurts showed a yield stress value PC
UHT miik had less firmness than HTST-
and VAT-processed milk
Residence time influenced the firmness of
HTST-processed milk
Firmness and apparent viscosity were
correlated to protein denaturation PC/TC
A decrease in consistency was related to
homogenization process that affected the
coagulum characteristics ES/PC
 Effect of heat on proteins and texture of
yogurt
Instron Food Testing Machine, model 1140,
and Haake Rotovisco RV2 rheometer
Effect of solid content and heat treatment
of rheology of yogurt
Rotational viscometer
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Yogurt hardness measured as penetration
force (g), consistency as viscosity
(mPa • s); and structure breakdown as
shear resistance (%) = 100 T)2/ri,
a = KD"
o-Q0=KDn
Yogurt exhibited thixotropic behavior 96
Hardness and viscosity of yogurt were
related to whey protein denaturation
Hypothetical model suggested for changes .
in casein micelles PC/ES
Increasing dry matter and severity of 130
treatment gave higher viscosity, rupture,
and yield point of yogurt PC
 o TABLE 6 (continued)
o Rheofogical Characterization of Set and Stirred Yogurts
Experimental
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Rheological and structural characteristics
of ropy and nonropy yogurt
Haake Rotovisco RV2 viscometer
Rheological analysis of yogurt using flow
and dynamic properties
Rheometrics Mechanical Spectrometer
RDS II and Carri-Med CS 100 rheometers
Rheological characterization of yogurt by
different tests
Posthumus funnel, penetrometer rotational
viscometer, and controlled viscoelastic
rheometer
Effect of temperature of UF on the structure
and rheology of Labneh Stevens LFRA
Texture Analyzer
Physical properties of yogurt affected by
proteolytic treatments
Brookfield RVT viscometer
Rheological properties of yogurt elaborated
with two types of milk
Bohlin VOR rheometer
Rheological parameters/models'
Consistency measured as apparent
viscosity (cP)
Viscoelasticity evaluated as elastic, viscous,
and relaxation moduli (Pa), and
consistency as viscosity (Pa • s)
Consistency as viscosity (cP) and efflux
time (s), texture as penetration force (g),
and viscoelasticity as elastic and loss
moduli (Pa)
Firmness of Labneh as penetration force
(N,g)
Firmness (Brookfield units) and apparent
viscosity (cP)
Viscoelasticity as loss and storage moduli
(Pa), dynamic viscosity, (Pa- s), and
complex modulus (Pa); rate of rigidity:
Important remarks/classification11 Ref.
Viscosity of ropy yogurt three times higher 172
than nonropy yogurt
Both types of yogurt showed a peak shear
stress, 150 Pa for ropy and 50 Pa for
nonropy yogurt ES
Dynamic tests exhibited four regions related 159
to structural changes in yogurt
At low strains, yogurt is primary elastic, but
at high strains becomes viscous
Thixotropic fluid PC/ES
Ropy yogurt viscosity two or more times 178
higher than nonropy yogurt
Penetrometer tests did not distinguish
yogurt types
Structural information of yogurts given by
oscillatory tests QC/ES
Microstructure was similar irrespective of 167
process manufacture
Firmness was affected by the method of
production, process temperature, and
homogenization passage ES/PC
Firmness and apparent viscosity of yogurt 47
influenced by extent of proteolysis QC
Rheological characteristics significantly 12
different for yogurt elaborated from skim
milk and ultrafiltered retentates QC/PC
 Rheological measurements of structural
changes in yogurt
Bohlin VOR rheometer
Viscoelastic properties of yogurt affected by
starter culture
Rheotech International rheometer
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Effect of starter cultures on linear visco-
elastic properties of yogurt
Rheometrics ES rheometer and Instron
Universal Testing Machine
Stirred Yogurt
Viscosity of stirred yogurt
Deer rheometer, Posthumus funnel, and
Tube viscometer
Two commercial stirred yogurts affected
by temperature
Haake Rotovisco RV20
Rheological properties of stirred yogurt
affected by flavoring ingredients
Haake Rotovisco RV20 rheometer
w
in
Viscoelasticity expressed as storage
modulus (Pa) and loss angle (°):
G' = G1'exp(-f/x1) + G'2 exp(-r/T 2 ) + G,'nl
Viscoelasticity measured as storage and
loss moduli (Pa)
Viscoelasticity measured as storage and
loss moduli (Pa); firmness expressed
as initial slope of force-penetration
curves (N/mm):
Consistency as apparent viscosity (mPa • s),
efflux time (s), and flow rate (1/h):
T|* =
Consistency expressed as viscosity (Pa • s):
c = a 0 + m{y)n
Consistency expressed as apparent
viscosity (Pa • s):
x\ = 0.0443 + 0.109P + 0.093P2 - 0.001C
+ 0.005PC
Structure breakdown and rheological 132
changes followed by oscillating tests
Breakdown curves described by empirical
model ES
Both moduli for the ropy yogurt decreased 179
during storage time (4°C)
The elastic component of yogurt was not
affected by secreted polysaccharide
Polysaccharide acted as a "filler" in the
network PC
An inverse relationship between G' and 131
tan 8 of yogurt was found
The attachment of mucogenic bacteria to
the protein matrix decreased yogurt
firmness TS/PC
The yogurt was non-Newtonian fluid with 56
with yield stress
A modified power law equation fitted the
rheological behavior PC
Samples exhibited yield stress 117
Flow curves modeled by Herschel-Bulkley
for upward portion and linear model for
downward part
Rheological properties and temperature
fitted by Arrhenius and Turian equations
PC/TS
Samples showed thixotropic flow with yield 118
stress
Pectin and raspberry concentrate affected
the flow index
Viscosity was predicted by a polynomial
equation PC
 w
UI
I)
TABLE 6 (continued)
Rheological Characterization of Set and Stirred Yogurts

Experimental Rheological parameters/models3 Important remarks/classification11 Ref.

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Structural changes in yogurt Viscoelasticity as storage modulus (Pa) and Storage modulus decrease was 132
Bohlin VOR rheometer loss angle (°): approximately proportional to strain
Breakdown curves described by the
G' = Gjexp^f/T,) + G'2 exp(-f/x 2 ) + G,'n( empirical model ES
Rheological characterization of yogurt Consistency as flow behavior index and Thixotropic flow was fitted by a Weltman
affected by ingredients consistency coefficient (Pa • sn): equation
Haake RV20 rheometer Ingredients had a significant influence on
T| = 0.0406 + 0.105P + 0.136P2 - 0.000156S rheological properties
+ 0.000054S + 0.00604PS Viscosity was predicted by a second-order
polynomial PC/QC

The meaning of every symbol is defined in the nomenclature section.

This classification is made considering the primary objective(s) established for each study. ES, elucidation of structure; PC, process characterization
or design; QC, quality control; TS, textural studies.

Nomenclature:
a Shear stress (Pa) T|J Extrapolated apparent viscosity (Pas)
D Shear rate (1/s) T Shear stress (Pa)
K and n Rheological constants K, C, N Constants for the model
a0 Yield stress value (Pa)
TI2 Viscosity of the down curve (Pa • s) y Shear rate (1/s)
TI, Viscosity of the up curve (Pa • s) a Shear stress (Pa)
Yield stress (Pa)
m Consistency coefficient (Pa • s)
k Apparent rate constant (1/min) n Flow behavior index
Gl Complex modulus at the completion of the gelation (Pa) Apparent viscosity (Pa • sn)
Go Complex modulus at time zero (onset of gelation) (Pa) f Frequency factor
GJ Complex modulus at time t (Pa) H. Activation energy (Kcal/mol)
R Gas constant
G' Storage modulus (Pa) T Absolute temperature
G\,G'Z Amount of fast and slow breakdown (Pa) at times f, and f2 (s) A, a Regression constants
x,, x2 Characteristic breakdown time constants (s) B,b Slope constants
Gi'n( Estimated G ' at infinite time (Pa)
i\ Apparent viscosity (Pa • s)
T|' Dynamic viscosity (Pa • s) P Concentration of pectin (%)
k Consistency coefficient (Pa • s) C Quantity of raspberry concentrate
Do Shear strain rate amplitude (1/s) S Quantity of strawberry concentrate
n Flow behavior index
 generally followed the Herschel-Bulkley model
and downward curves followed a linear relation-
ship. Further, Ramaswamy and Basak6-118 incor-
porated some additives to analyze their influence
on the rheological parameters of stirred yogurt,
obtaining good correlations for predicting viscos-
ity as a function of ingredient concentration.
The thyxotropic nature of yogurt was men-
tioned by several authors (Table 6), but no model
was used to fit it.6^96-117-118-159
Because the network structure of yogurt plays
an important role in the viscoelasticity of this
dairy product, the dynamic tests are finding an
excellent field of application in analyzing the vis-
coelastic nature of yogurt affected by process
variables and measuring conditions.12-131-132-159'178-179
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Biliaderis et al.12 used small amplitude oscil-
latory tests to follow the structure formation in
fermented yogurt. They observed a rapid rise in
the storage modulus, as well as a sudden de-
crease in the phase angle, that were related to the
transition from sol to gel, and applied a first-
order reaction kinetic model (Equation 32) to
estimate the rate of rigidity developed during
yogurt fermentation:
(32)
Ronnegard and Dejmek132 used Equation 33
to describe the breakdown curves outside of the
linear region for stirred yogurt obtained by means
of oscillating tests,
— ] + G2'expf— (33)
whereas Vlahopoulou and Bell179 employed dy-
namic tests to identify the viscoelastic differences
between ropy and nonropy yogurts. Although they
noticed that the oscillatory testing showed con-
siderable variation among batches, the storage
and loss moduli of the ropy gels were lower than
those corresponding to nonropy yogurts.
Although information about rheological prop-
erties does exist, several works have been focused
on the study of empirical aspects and consumer
preferences. Just recently, more fundamental and
scientific rheological aspects have been investigat-
ed, and the application of dynamic measurements
characterizing yogurt viscoelasticity is an example
of it.
V. FINAL REMARKS
Rheological and textural data have been com-
piled for milk, concentrated milk, cream, butter,
ice cream and yogurt. Although many of the re-
viewed papers did not establish a quantitative
relationship between rheological properties and
the structure of these dairy products, the written
information is useful for researchers working in
the different sectors of the dairy industry.
Important progress has been made in charac-
terizing the rheological behavior of milk and dairy
products. However, the use of rheological models
has been very limited, and most of the studies
have been restricted to analyzing rheological be-
havior by means of empirical tests and by using
instruments with a narrow application range.
Milk, concentrated milk, and cream have been
fitted by mathematical rheological models,
whereas butter, ice cream, and yogurt have prima-
rily been characterized by force-deformation tests.
Dynamic tests are gaining recognition as a way to
upgrade the actual knowledge of the rheological
properties.
Rheological models and instruments used to
characterize the aforementioned six dairy prod-
ucts are quite diverse, ranging from fundamental
and sophisticated to empirical and of doubtful
performance. There are no methods or instru-
ments recognized as standards for the rheological
characterization of each product. Standardization
of test methods and modeling for each dairy prod-
uct will promptly become an industrial norm.
Although rheological and textural data for
dairy products are available and there is more
accessibility to advance instrumentation, additional
research is needed. Studies based on scanning
electron microscopy and magnetic resonance,
optical, acoustic, and electrochemical biosensors
and digital image processing, among others, will
provide a better understanding of the relation-
ships between the structural components of each
353
 dairy product and their influence on rheological
properties. In addition, it is expected that various
contributions to the subjective-objective correla-
tions will come from sensory analysis.
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