SS symmetry

Article
IoT-Based Image Recognition System for Smart
Home-Delivered Meal Services
Hsiao-Ting Tseng 1 ID
, Hsin-Ginn Hwang 1 , Wei-Yen Hsu 2, *, Pei-Chin Chou 2 and I-Chiu Chang 2
1 Institute of Information Management, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 300, Taiwan;
appleapple928@gmail.com (H.-T.T.); hghmis@nctu.edu.tw (H.-G.H.)
2 Institute of Information Management, National Chung Cheng University, Chiayi 621, Taiwan;
pcchou@gw.cgust.edu.tw (P.-C.C.); ccumis104@gmail.com (I.-C.C.)
* Correspondence: shenswy@gmail.com; Tel.: +886-5-272-0411 (ext. 34621)

Received: 20 June 2017; Accepted: 11 July 2017; Published: 21 July 2017

Abstract: Population ageing is an important global issue. The Taiwanese government has used
various Internet of Things (IoT) applications in the “10-year long-term care program 2.0”. It is expected
that the efficiency and effectiveness of long-term care services will be improved through IoT support.
Home-delivered meal services for the elderly are important for home-based long-term care services.
To ensure that the right meals are delivered to the right recipient at the right time, the runners need to
take a picture of the meal recipient when the meal is delivered. This study uses the IoT-based image
recognition system to design an integrated service to improve the management of image recognition.
The core technology of this IoT-based image recognition system is statistical histogram-based k-means
clustering for image segmentation. However, this method is time-consuming. Therefore, we proposed
using the statistical histogram to obtain a probability density function of pixels of a figure and
segmenting these with weighting for the same intensity. This aims to increase the computational
performance and achieve the same results as k-means clustering. We combined histogram and
k-means clustering in order to overcome the high computational cost for k-means clustering.
The results indicate that the proposed method is significantly faster than k-means clustering by
more than 10 times.

Keywords: Internet of Things; long-term care 2.0; image segmentation; k-means clustering; histogram

1. Introduction

1.1. Background
Population ageing is an important global issue [1]. Countries are forced to develop long-term
care-related strategic planning and resource reorganization [2]. The rapidly ageing population has
been the biggest concern for the Taiwanese government [3]. Taiwan’s elderly population will reach
14.5% of the total population in 2018 to create an elderly society, while this will be as high as 20.6% in
2026, transforming Taiwan into an extremely elderly society [4]. With the rapid growth in the elderly
population, the resulting long-term demands and family care responsibilities will become increasingly
heavy. In order to construct a long-term care system that meets the needs of the elderly as well as the
physically and mentally handicapped, the Executive Yuan of Taiwan passed the “10-year long-term
care program 2.0” on 29 September 2016 [5]. Meanwhile, the Taiwan government strongly applied the
use of various Internet of Things (IoT) applications in the “10-year long-term care program 2.0”. It is
expected that the long-term care system will be improved through information and communication
technology (ICT) support [6,7].
“Ten-year long-term care program 2.0” is divided into A, B, and C levels for service. A-level
is institutional care; B-level is community care; and C-level is family care [8]. This will be linked

Symmetry 2017, 9, 125; doi:10.3390/sym9070125 www.mdpi.com/journal/symmetry

Symmetry 2017, 9, 125 2 of 12

by information and communication technologies (ICTs) to overcome the dilemma of long-term care
services having different standards and lacking integration.
Based on the vision of the “10-year long-term care program 2.0”, Taiwan is building an IoT
system of long-term care in order to overcome the shortcomings of the existing long-term care
services. Managing the nutrition of the elderly in home-based care was difficult when the 1.0 plan was
implemented. Therefore, this was prioritized in the application of IoT technical assistance in this newer
plan [9]. This study uses the IoT-based image recognition system to design smart home-delivered meal
services and to provide an integrated service to provide nutrition to home-based elderly individuals.
During the long-term care program 1.0, it was difficult to audit the service. Implementing smart
home-delivered meal services will help solve this long-standing problem.
At the time that meals are delivered, we will use this application to confirm that our service can
be delivered to the right person in the right place and at the right time. At the same time, information
about the elderly individual’s physical status, psychological status, and dining status can also be
collected. Following this, we pass the relevant information through the IoT technology for analysis,
calculation, and interpretation. Eventually, the results of analysis will be sent back to the long-term
care 2.0 care management unit for case assessment, risk forecasting, and care management aspects.
The core principle of this IoT-based image recognition system for smart home-delivered meal
services is the statistical histogram-based k-means clustering (HKMC) for image segmentation.
Segmentation is a process of decomposing certain interesting objects or some constituting regions that
have similar characteristics [10–12]. The simplest methods of image segmentation involve thresholding.
The thresholding method is a technique of segmenting an image depending on the intensity value of
pixels and the intensity nature. We can segment objective or defective areas away from the background
through a thresholding method when their gray-scale values are significantly different from the
image’s background. This method can also be applied to the medical images of X-ray-computed
tomography [13,14]. Due to the different structures of the human body possibly having a similar
radiopacity, it is not easy to partition them through adjusting imaging parameters. The solution is the
thresholding method of segmentation.
Until now, there have been several well-known thresholding methods, such as Otsu’s method [15],
the maximum entropy method [16], k-means clustering (KMC) [17,18], and so on. K-means clustering [8,9]
requires the input of every pixel one by one in every iterative process, which slows down the
computational speed. When an image is larger than 25 megapixels, the segmentation results of
the original KMC cannot be displayed in real time. For this reason, the time-consuming phenomenon
of the k-means algorithm is regarded as a fatal shortcoming in our study.
Therefore, this study proposes the k-means clustering method based on the statistical histogram.
Without altering the basic sense of the KMC method, we can retain the image segmentation effect of the
algorithm in addition to enhancing the time and speed of image calculation. The present study used the
image segmentation dataset of University of California Berkeley Electrical Engineering and Computer
Sciences (UC Berkeley EECS) to perform an experiment, which compares the image segmentation
effect and time rate of the original method with the ones of the k-means clustering method based on
the statistical histogram. The results show that the method we propose is much faster than traditional
k-means clustering. In the multi-level segmentation of the traditional k-means, more clusters can
lead to a clearly slower speed due to the increase in the number of clusters. However, there is a
significant increase when HKMC is applied. Although the clustering numbers of segmentation are
the control variables, the operation time for HKMC is significant less when compared to that of the
original k-means.
Symmetry 2017, 9, 125 3 of 12

1.2. Related Works/State-of-the-Art

1.2.1. Image Recognition Systems

Image segmentation technology is an important research topic in the field of computer vision,
which is the necessary basis for the application of image recognition systems. Zhang [19] adopted the
gray image histogram alignment algorithm to develop a Matlab-based image recognition system. The
Matlab-based image recognition system has a higher recognition rate. However, the system has some
limitations related to potential applications. For example, the Matlab-based image recognition system
only recognizes images in the standard face database of Orlando. However, the actual face images
are often affected by many factors that can influence the recognition rate of the Matlab-based image
recognition system. Therefore, the Matlab-based image recognition system is unable to have a wide
range of applications. Dai et al. [20] proposed a new feedforward neural networks (FNN) algorithm for
image recognition to solve that drawback of the traditional FNN approach. With the traditional FNN
approach, important information regarding the correlations of elements within the original matrices is
lost. On the other hand, expanding the matrix inputs into vectors usually causes a high dimensionality
and increases the complexity. The new FNN algorithm was found to be effective for handwritten
digits and face-images. Zhang et al. [21] combined the independent component analysis (ICA) and the
extreme learning machine (ELM) algorithms to solve the image recognition speed problem, which is
valid for face recognition. Due to the training of the image recognition classifier being time-consuming,
Cao et al. [22] used the bag-of-words (BoW) method to recognize images of landmarks, although this
can only be used for landmark recognition.
The person delivering meals to the elderly may have time constraints and may pay little attention
to recording the results of the service. This distortion of the images will limit IoT-related services.
Therefore, this study applies the image segmentation technology to improve the efficiency and image
quality to overcome the abovementioned problems, such as the time-consuming nature, image quality,
and image content type (e.g., only face or landmark recognition).
With the progress of information technology, the arrival of the Internet of Things era has increased
the demand for image processing as well as an increasing number of hardware devices with camera
lens for manufacturing, business behavior, and even in daily life. Different applications of information
systems gradually rely on the automated image recognition technology to complete a variety of new
applications. The IoT-based image recognition applications are shown as follows. Researchers have
used the combination of IoT and image recognition systems to provide intelligent services for museum
visitors. They designed an indoor location-aware architecture that enhances the museum’s user
experience and created a wearable device to provide visitors with an interactive cultural experience,
which automatically provides visitors with cultural content related to the observed artwork [23].
One of the most important factors in human survival is agricultural production, with many
experts committed to making agricultural production better, more stable, and productive. In the field
of agricultural science and technology, Chang et al. [24] integrated the Internet of Things and image
recognition systems to design a monitoring system for persimmon cultivation. The study deployed
weather boxes and WiFi cameras on farmland to collect local weather data, images, and crop growth
data. This system provides an accurate identification of persimmon growth stages.
The advancement of information technology has played an important role in medical care, having
become a hot area for industrial and academic research in recent years. At present, some related
research has used the IoT and image recognition systems to help solve the problem of population ageing.
Mano et al. [25] used cameras and image processing in the Internet of Things to help patients and/or
elderly individuals to devise a system to handle portraiture recognition and emotional recognition to
assist patients and/or the elderly individuals to recover faster from illness. Therefore, based on the
above research and applications, this study is based on the perspective of pension health management,
and aims to design a smart home-delivered meal service to improve the meal delivery process and
strengthen a friendly service management design. The core idea of this study is to extend the concept
Symmetry 2017, 9, 125 4 of 12

of continuous collection of information on the health of the elderly. Caregivers can use the relevant
devices to continuously and remotely care for elderly individuals without disturbing their lives.

1.2.2. K-Means Clustering Method Based on the Statistical Histogram

The histogram is a two-dimensional statistical table. The two coordinates are the statistical sample
and the measurement of this property [26]. In the field of image processing, the histogram is used
to count a gray-scale image, with the horizontal axis being the gray-scale value and the vertical axis
being the number of pixels of the gray-scale value [27]. In addition to providing useful statistical
information, it is useful for the enhancement of the image as well as to compress and segment image
processing [28]. Some related works on HKMC are introduced as follows.
Studies were conducted using k-means clustering and histogram-clustering methods to track
tumor objects in magnetic resonance (MR) brain images. The study used the HKMC method to
convert the gray-scale MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) images into color images, before effectively
separating the tumor from the image to assist the pathologist in distinguishing the lesion area and
size of the tumor [29]. Another study aimed to analyze color space characteristics, including hue,
saturation, and color. The study extracted pixel features by selecting the hue or intensity based on
the pixel saturation value as the primary attribute to identify the objects in the image more precisely.
In this study, the histogram maintains a uniform color conversion, allowing the image to undergo
window-based smoothing during retrieval [28]. In addition, there also has been research related to the
integration of the HKM motion detection with segmentation technology instead of using only a simple
and universal segmentation method [28].

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials
For the convenience of evaluating the segmentation results and the computational performance,
our research images were captured from UC Berkeley EECS’s specialized segmentation dataset on
an online address [30]. The images were copyright-free. Due to the abundance, we selected three
categories from the segmentation dataset, which were figures, landscapes, and buildings. There were
two images selected for each category, resulting in a total of six images for evaluation. In addition,
the image pixel size has two types of specifications, which were 321 × 481 or 481 × 321.

2.2. K-Means Clustering

This is a clustering process used to classify training samples so that samples within a cluster are
more similar to one another than samples belonging to different clusters. It is employed for similarity
measures to classify samples, which depends on the object characteristics. Many clustering approaches,
each with their own special characteristics, have been demonstrated [18]. In this paper, the k-means
clustering method is used to classify the pixels into a certain number of clusters, with this classification
approach changing a gray-scale image in a multi-level image in the end.
K-means clustering [17,31] is a simple unsupervised learning algorithm, which classifies the given
data into a certain number of clusters (k-clusters). First, the procedure of k-means calculates the
centroid for each cluster. The best way to position all centroids is to place them as far away from each
other as possible. Each point is then associated with the nearest centroid according to some criteria.
Following this, we re-calculated and updated these new k-centroids. After updating the position
of each centroid, a new binding is repeated for the new point. In the loop, the k-centroids updated
their location step by step until there were no more changes. The k-means approach, similar to other
clustering techniques, minimizes an objective function to achieve the smallest squared error. The aim
of the algorithm is to minimize the objective function:
Symmetry 2017, 9, 125 5 of 12

k n
J= ∑ ∑ k x i − c j k2 , (1)
j =1 i =1

where xi represents each observation; cj is the mean of points in cluster j; and k and n stand for
the number of clusters and observations, respectively. In Equation (1), the cluster centroids can be
regarded as prototypes for the clusters. For the purpose of minimizing the objective function, the
cluster centroids are chosen so that the highest values are assigned to the samples closest to the
corresponding cluster centroids.

2.3. K-Means Based on Histogram Clustering

Histogram-based k-means clustering (HKMC) also aims to minimize the value of Equation (1);
thus, it is not different from the iterative method of the original KMC. The difference between these two
methods is the pixels’ entrance process. Instead of utilizing the one-by-one process, HKMC conducts
pre-processing through calculating the number of the gray-scale values. Following this, HKMC obtains
a discrete p.d.f. (probability density function) of the gray-scale values, which can also be represented
as a discrete statistical histogram form. After this pre-processing, we entered the histogram into the
HKMC with weighting and the gray-scale values. In other words, HKMC combines the iterative
method with the statistical histogram.
The Algorithm 1 of the proposed HKMC is interpreted as follows:
In step 1, we separated the random k-centroids according to the discrete p.d.f. In step 2,
we computed the distance of the gray-scale values for each initial centroid, with the gray-scale value
then assigned to the closest centroid cluster. In step 3, we recalculated the centroids (namely, the new
centroids) for each cluster using the gray-scale values and their weighting. Finally, we repeated steps 2
and 3 until converge was achieved.
The HKMC ensures convergence, although this does not guarantee that the optimal solution
will be obtained. The factors influencing the convergence are the number of clusters and the value of
the initial centroid. HKMC still encounters the local minimum problem, similar to traditional KMC.
For this reason, this should be conducted several times in order to obtain more accurate segments.

Algorithm 1. Histogram-based k-means clustering

For (i = 0, i < K, i++) // Initial the K centers
InitialCenter [i] = rand ();
Do loop
Center [i] ← InitialCenter [i]
End
For (Gray_value = 0, Gray_value < 256, Gray_value ++)
If (Float_absolute_value (Gray_value-Center [i]) ≤ Minimal_ distance)
Cluster [i] ←Gray_value
NewCenter [i] ←
n −1
(∑ii=
=0 Cluster [i] × NumbOfPixels)/n
Center [i] ← NewCenter [i]
End
Center [i] = NewCenter [i]
End

2.4. Speed Evaluation

In order to evaluate the computational performance precisely, our study considered the image size
and time units. The size of each image is 154,401 (321 × 481 or 481 × 321) pixels, with its processing
time taking less than one second. Thus, we adopted ticks as the time unit for assessment, which is equal
to one microsecond. We repeated 20 runs for each image. In addition, the experimental environment
was the Microsoft Windows 7 Professional Edition Service Pack 1 64-bit through the Intel Core i7 2600
Symmetry 2017, 9, 125 6 of 12

processor with 8 GB memory (DDR3 1333 4GB × 2). The algorithm development tool was Microsoft
Visual C++ 6.0.

2.5. Privacy/Trust Viewpoint Design

In the planning and design of smart home-delivered meal services, we considered the use of
privacy optimization technology. Incorporating the protection principles for the privacy of personal
data into theSymmetry
overall 2017,system
9, 125 design is the basis for the concept of privacy design in addition 6 of 12to being a
key factor for the success of IoT applications.
Intel Core i7 2600 processor with 8 GB memory (DDR3 1333 4GB × 2). The algorithm development
In the tool
design of the system,
was Microsoft Visual C++ we6.0.conducted a privacy impact analysis (PIA), so that potential
privacy risks can be controlled.
Symmetry
Symmetry
Symmetry
Symmetry 2017,
2017,9,
2017,
2017, 9,9,9,xxxxFOR
FOR
FOR In
FORPEER
PEER
PEER
PEER addition,
REVIEW
REVIEW
REVIEW
REVIEW we also planned to import personal data666management 6of
ofof13
of 1313
13
2.5. Privacy/Trust Viewpoint Design
systems and verification operations, such as ISO 27001, BS-10012, ISO 29100, or ISO 29191.
Intel
IntelCore
Intel Corei7
Core i7i72600
26002600processor
processorwith with8888GBGBmemory
memory(DDR3(DDR31333
13334GB
4GB××××2).
2).The
Thealgorithm
algorithmdevelopment
development
In addition, Inwe
theIntel Core
planning
also
i7 2600
considered andprocessor
processor
design the ofwith
smartGB
with
obligation
GB memory
memory (DDR3
(DDR3
home-delivered
to protectmeal
1333
1333 4GB
4GB 2).
2).
services,
personal
The
wealgorithm
The
data
algorithm
considered
and
development
development
the rightthe use of
of individuals
tool
tool
tool
tool was
wasMicrosoft
was
was MicrosoftVisual
Microsoft
Microsoft Visual
Visual
Visual C++
C++
C++
C++ 6.0.
6.0.
6.0.
6.0.
privacy optimization technology. Incorporating the protection principles for the privacy of personal
to know. Before wethe
data into2.5.
started the service,
overall system design
we informed the individual about the use of their images and
is the basis for the concept of privacy design in addition to being
2.5.Privacy/Trust
2.5.
2.5. Privacy/Trust
Privacy/Trust
Privacy/Trust Viewpoint
Viewpoint
Viewpoint
Viewpoint Design
Design
Design
Design
our privacyaobligations; sought his/her
key factor for the success of IoT applications. consent and authorization; and obtained personal verbal trust.
In
InInthe
In theplanning
the
the planningand
planning
planning anddesign
and
and designof
design
design ofofsmart
of smarthome-delivered
smart
smart home-deliveredmeal
home-delivered
home-delivered mealservices,
meal
meal services,we
services,
services, weconsidered
we
we consideredthe
considered
considered theuse
the
the useof
use
use of
of
of
After all this was conducted,
In the design of the
privacy
privacyoptimization
privacy
privacy optimization
optimization
wesystem,
began
optimizationtechnology.
to collect
we
technology.
technology.
conducted
technology.Incorporating
thea relevant
Incorporating
Incorporating
privacy impact
Incorporatingthe
the
the
information.
theprotection
protection
protection
analysis (PIA), so that potential
protectionprinciples
principlesfor
principles
principles forthe
for
for theprivacy
the
the privacyof
privacy
privacy ofpersonal
of
of personal
personal
personal
privacy data
risks
data
data
can
datainto
intothe
into
into
be
the
the
controlled.
theoverall
overallsystem
overall
overall system
system
Indesign
systemdesign
addition,
designis
design isisthe
is the
the
we
thebasis
also
basisfor
basis
basis for
for
planned
forthe theconcept
the
the concept
concept
to of
conceptof
import
ofprivacy
of privacy
privacy
personal
privacydesign
designin
design
design in
data
in
management
inaddition
additionto
addition
addition totobeing
to being
being
being
systems and
3. Experimental Results
aaaakey
keyverification
keyfactor
key and
factor
factor
factor for
for
for operations,
Discussion
forthe
thesuccess
the
the successof
success
success ofofIoT
of such as ISO
IoTapplications.
IoT
IoT applications.
applications.
applications. 27001, BS-10012, ISO 29100, or ISO 29191.
In addition,
In
In Inthe
In thewe
the
the designalsoof
design
design
design ofconsidered
of
of the
thesystem,
the
the system,we
system,
system, the
we
we obligation
weconducted
conducted
conducted
conducted to
aaaaprivacyprotect
privacy
privacy
privacy impact
impact
impact
impact personal
analysisdata
analysis
analysis
analysis (PIA),
(PIA),
(PIA),
(PIA), and
so
so
so thepotential
sothat
that
that
that right of
potential
potential
potential
For theindividuals
experiment, to know.
privacy
privacy
privacy
privacy we
risks
risks
risks chose
Before
riskscancanbe
can
can be
be thestarted
we major
becontrolled.
controlled.
controlled.
controlled. In
InIn
In constituent
the service,
addition,
addition,
addition,
addition, we
we we
we
we also
also
also
also areas
informed
planned
planned
planned
planned asthe
the
to
to
to images
individual
toimport
import
import
import of data
about
personal
personal
personal
personal personages,
data
data
datathe management
management
management landscapes,
use of their
management
images systems
and systems
our
systems
systems and
and
privacy
and
and verification
verification
verification
verification operations,
obligations;operations,
sought
operations,
operations, such
such
such as
as
his/her
such as
asISOISO
ISO
ISO 27001,
27001,
consent
27001,
27001, BS-10012,
BS-10012,
and ISO
ISO 29100,
29100,
authorization;
BS-10012,
BS-10012, ISO
ISO 29100,
29100,oror
and
or
or ISOISO
ISO
ISO 29191.
29191.
obtained
29191.
29191. personal
and buildings. Following this, we discussed the experimental segmentation results and operation
verbal trust. InIn Inaddition,
In
After all thiswe
addition,
addition,
addition, wealso
we
we
was also
also
also considered
considered
considered
considered
conducted, wethe the
the
the obligation
began obligation
obligation
obligation
to collect to
totoprotect
to protect
protect
protect
the personal
personal
personal
personal
relevant data
dataand
data
data
information. andthe
and
and theright
the
the rightof
right
right of
of
of
speeds of binary individuals
processing,
individualsto
individuals
individuals totoknow.
to know.quad
know.
know. Before
Before
Before
Before processing,
we
westarted
we
we startedthe
started
started the
the hexad
theservice,
service,
service,
service, weweprocessing,
we
we informed
informedthe
informed
informed the
the and octad
theindividual
individual
individual
individual about
aboutthe
about
about theprocessing
theuse
the useof
use
use of
of their images.
oftheir
their
their
We chose two images from
images
images
images
images
3. Experimental and
and
and
and our
our
our
Results each
our andcategory
privacy
privacy
privacy
privacy obligations;
obligations;
obligations;
obligations;
Discussion for the experiment, with each image evaluated 10 times.
sought
sought
sought
sought his/her
his/her
his/her
his/her consent
consent
consent
consent and
and
and
and authorization;
authorization;
authorization;
authorization; and
and
and
and obtained
obtained
obtained
obtained personal
personal
personal
personal
verbal
verbaltrust.
verbal
verbal trust.After
trust.
trust. Afterall
After
After allthis
all
all thiswas
this
this wasconducted,
was
was conducted,we
conducted,
conducted, webegan
we
we beganto
began
began totocollect
to collectthe
collect
collect therelevant
the
the relevantinformation.
relevant
relevant information.
information.
information.
After this, we chose the two most representative
For the experiment, we chose the major constituent images (they
areas are respectively
as the in Tables 1–3) for
images of personages,
discussion and comparison.
3.
3. Experimental
3.
3. Experimental
Experimental
Experimental Furthermore,
Results
Results
Results
Results and
and
and
and we
Discussion
Discussion
Discussion
Discussion used the tables
landscapes, and buildings. Following this, we discussed the experimental segmentation results (as shown in Tables 4–6) ofandprocessing
operation
speeds for assessment.Forspeeds
For
For
For
For of
the our
the
the
the binary
experiment, processing,
experiments,
experiment,
experiment,
experiment, wewechose
we
we quad
chose
chose
chosewe thethe
the
the processing,
used
majormilliseconds
major
major
major constituenthexad
constituentareas
constituent
constituent processing,
areas
areas
areas (ms)
as
as
as the
the
the and
as images
asthe the
images
images
images octad
unit
of
of
of ofprocessing
assessment data
ofpersonages,
personages,
personages,
personages,
images. landscapes,
We chose two
landscapes,
landscapes, andimages
and
and buildings.
buildings.
buildings. from each category
Following
Following
Following this,
this,we
this, for the experiment,
wediscussed
discussed the
theexperimental
experimentalwith each image evaluated
segmentation
segmentation results
resultsand 10
and
and we used landscapes,
multiples and
to quantify buildings.
the Following
increase inwe
this, we discussed
discussed
time. the
the experimental
experimental segmentation
segmentation results
results and
and
times. After this, we
operation
operation
operation
operation speeds
speedschose
speeds
speeds of
of
of the
ofbinary
binarytwoprocessing,
binary
binary most representative
processing,
processing,
processing, quad
quad
quad images
quadprocessing,
processing,
processing,
processing, (they
hexad
hexad
hexad
hexad are respectively
processing,
processing,
processing,
processing, and
andoctad
and
and in processing
octad
octad
octad Tables 1–3)
processing
processing
processing
images.
images.We
images.
images.
for discussion Wechose
We
We
and chose
chose
chose two
twoimages
two
two
comparison. images
images
images from
fromeach
from
from eachcategory
each
each
Furthermore, category
category
category for
forthe
for
we usedfor the
the
the experiment,
the experiment,
experiment,
experiment,
tables (as with
with
with
with each
eachimage
each
showneach image
image
image
in Tablesevaluated
4–6)10
evaluated
evaluated
evaluated 10
10
10of
3.1. Segmentation Results
times.
times.
times.
times.
processing
of for
After
After
After
After
speeds
Personages
this,
this,we
this,
this, wechose
we
we chosethe
chose
chose
assessment. the
the
the two
two
two
two
For most
most
most
most
our representative
representative
representative
representative
experiments, images
used(they
images
images
weimages (they
(they
(they are
arerespectively
are
are (ms) in
respectively
respectively
millisecondsrespectively ininTables
in
as Tables
Tables
Tables
the 1–3)
1–3)
1–3)
1–3)
unit of
for
for
assessment discussion
fordata
for discussion
discussion
discussion
and we and
and
and
and comparison.
used multiplesFurthermore,
comparison.
comparison.
comparison. Furthermore,
Furthermore,
Furthermore,
to quantify thewe
we
we used
usedthe
weincrease
used
used the
theintables
the time.(as
tables
tables
tables (asshown
(as
(as shownin
shown
shown ininTables
in Tables4–6)
Tables
Tables 4–6)of
4–6)
4–6) of
of
of
Table 1 showsprocessing
the segmentation
processing
processing
processing speeds
speedsfor
speeds
speeds for
for results For
forassessment.
assessment.
assessment.
assessment. of
Fora
For
For our
our
ourpersonage.
our experiments,We
experiments,
experiments,
experiments, we
weused
we
we can
used
used clearly
usedmilliseconds
milliseconds
milliseconds
milliseconds see(ms)
(ms)that
(ms)
(ms) as
as
as binary
asthetheunit
the
the unitof
unit
unit ofprocessing
of
of
can separate assessment
personages
assessment
assessment
assessment data
dataand
from
data
data andthe
and
and we
weused
we
we usedmultiples
complex
used
used multiples
multiples
multiples to
totoquantify
to quantifythe
backgrounds,
quantify
quantify theincrease
the
the while
increase
increase
increase in
inintime.
in quad
time. processing can allow us to
time.
time.
3.1. Segmentation Results of Personages
approximately identify
3.1.
3.1.
3.1.
Table
the the
1Segmentation
3.1. personage
Segmentation
Segmentation
Segmentation
shows Results
Resultsof
Results
Results
segmentationof
of in the
ofPersonages
Personages
Personages
Personagesbackground (the personage dressed in blue). Furthermore,
results of a personage. We can clearly see that binary processing
hexad processing can allow
can separate personages
Table
Table
Table
us
Table1111shows
shows
shows
to
showsthe
clearly
from
the
the the identify
complex
thesegmentation
segmentationresults
segmentation
segmentation
the
results
results
results of
of
clothing
backgrounds,
of
ofaaaapersonage.
personage.
personage.
personage.
colors
while
We
Wecan
We
We quad
can
can
of
canclearly
the
clearly
clearly
clearly
elderly
processing
see
seethat
see
see can
thatbinary
that
that
lady
binary
binary
binary allowwith
processing us gradations,
processing
processing
processing to
while octadapproximately
processing
can
can
can can
canseparate
separate
separate
separate allow
identify theus
personages
personages
personages
personages to
personage
from
from
from
from clearly
the
the
the in see
thecomplex
complex
complex
complex the
thebackgrounds, contours
background
backgrounds,
backgrounds,
backgrounds, (the
while
while
while
while ofquadthe
personage
quad
quad
quad elderly
processing
processing
processing
processing lady
dressed
cancanallow
can
can and
in us
allow
allow
allow usthe
blue).
us
us to
toto clothing
to
approximately identify
identify the the personageus toin in thethe background the(the (the personage dressed inin blue).
colors withFurthermore,
obvious hexad processing
approximately
approximately
approximately
contrasts. identify
It can the
identify can
the
be allow
personage
personage
personage
seen from clearly
in
in the
thethe identify
background
background
background
segmentation clothing
(the
(the colors
personage
personage
personage
results of the
dressed
dressed
dressed
that theelderly
in
in lady
blue).
blue).
blue).
background and
Furthermore,
Furthermore,
Furthermore,
Furthermore,
with gradations, whilehexad
hexad
hexad
hexad
octadprocessing
processing
processing
processing
processing can
canallow
can
can allow
allow
allow
can ususto
us
us
allow totoclearly
to clearly
clearly
clearly
us identify
identify
identify
identify
to clearly the
see theclothing
the
the clothing
clothing
clothing
the colors
contours colors
colors
colors of
of
ofofthe
ofthetheelderly
the
the elderlylady
elderly
elderly
elderly lady
lady
lady
lady
personage can be clearly
with
with
with
and the clothing
identified,
gradations,
withgradations,
gradations,
gradations, while
colors with while
while
while with
octad
octad
octad
obvious
an obvious
processing
octadprocessing
processing
processing
contrasts. cancan
can
can contrast
allow
allow
It allow
allow
can us
be us
us
us to
toto
seen
between
clearly
toclearly
clearly
fromsee
clearly see
see
the the
seethe
thethe
the cloth
contours
contoursof
contours
contours
segmentation of colors.
the
ofthe
of elderly
theelderly
the elderly
elderly
results
In
that
addition,
lady
lady
lady
lady
the
the
segmentation and
and
and
and the
performances the
the
the clothing
clothing
clothingof
clothing colors
these
colors
colors
colors with
two
with
with
with obvious
obvious
obvious contrasts.
methods
obvious contrasts.
contrasts.
contrasts. are It
It
Itcan
Itfairly
can
can
can be
bebe
be seen
seen
seen from
consistent.
seen from
from
from the
the
the
the segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation results
results
results
results that
that
that
that the
the
the
the
background and personage can be clearly identified, with an obvious contrast between the cloth
background
backgroundand
background
background andpersonage
and
and personagecan
personage
personage canbe
can
can beclearly
be
be clearlyidentified,
clearly
clearly identified,with
identified,
identified, withan
with
with anobvious
an
an obviouscontrast
obvious
obvious contrastbetween
contrast
contrast betweenthe
between
between thecloth
the
the cloth
cloth
cloth
colors. In addition, the segmentation performances of these two methods are fairly consistent.
colors.
colors.In
colors.
colors. InInaddition,
In addition,the
addition,
addition, thesegmentation
the
the segmentationperformances
segmentation
segmentation performancesof
performances
performances ofthese
of
of thesetwo
these
these twomethods
two
two methodsare
methods
methods arefairly
are
are fairlyconsistent.
fairly
fairly consistent.
consistent.
consistent.
Table 1. Segmentation result of a personage.
TableTable
1. Segmentation
Table
Table
Table1.
1.
1.
result
1.Segmentation
Segmentation
Segmentation
Segmentation
of aof
result
result
result
result
personage.
of
of
ofaaaapersonage.
personage.
personage.
personage.
Original Image
Original Image
Original
OriginalImage
Original
Original Image
Image
Image Binary
Binary
Binary
Binary
Binary
Binary Quad
Quad
Quad
Quad
Quad
Quad Hexad
Hexad
Hexad
Hexad
Hexad
Hexad Octad
Octad
Octad
Octad
Octad
Octad

K-Means Clustering
K-Means Clustering
K-Means
K-Means
K-Means
K-Means Clustering
Clustering
Clustering
Clustering
(KMC) (KMC)
(KMC) (KMC)
(KMC)
(KMC)

Symmetry
Symmetry
Symmetry 2017,
Symmetry2017,
2017, 9,
2017, xxxFOR
9,9,9, xFOR
FOR
FOR PEER
PEER
PEER REVIEW
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW
REVIEW 777of
7of
of
of 1313
13
13

Histogram-based K-
Histogram-based
Histogram-based
Histogram-based
Histogram-based
Histogram-based K-K-
K-
K-
Means Clustering
Means
K-MeansMeans
Means Clustering
Clustering
Means Clustering
Clustering
Clustering
(HKMC) (HKMC)
(HKMC)
(HKMC)
(HKMC)
(HKMC)

3.2.
3.2.Segmentation
3.2.
3.2. SegmentationResults
Segmentation
Segmentation Resultsof
Results
Results ofofLandscapes
of Landscapes
Landscapes
Landscapes
Table
Table2222depicts
Table
Table depictsthe
depicts
depicts thesegmentation
the
the segmentationresults
segmentation
segmentation resultsof
results
results oflandscapes.
of
of landscapes.ItItItItcan
landscapes.
landscapes. canbe
can
can beseen
be
be seenthat
seen
seen thatthe
that
that thewhole
the
the wholepicture
whole
whole pictureis
picture
picture isisis
mainly
mainlycomposed
mainly
mainly composedof
composed
composed ofthe
of
of theblue
the
the bluewater
blue
blue waterand
water
water andsky,
and
and sky,followed
sky,
sky, followedby
followed
followed bygreen
by
by greentrees
green
green treesand
trees
trees andwhite
and
and whiteboats.
white
white boats.The
boats.
boats. The
The
The
segmentation
segmentationresult
segmentation
segmentation resultof
result
result ofofthe
of theblue
the
the bluepart
blue
blue partis
part
part isisvery
is veryunstable,
very
very unstable,which
unstable,
unstable, whichmay
which
which maypossibly
may
may possiblybe
possibly
possibly bedue
be
be dueto
due
due tothe
to
to thedifferent
the
the different
different
different
initial
initialvalues
initial
initial valuesof
values
values of
ofofthethealgorithm
the
the algorithmhaving
algorithm
algorithm havingthe
having
having theproblem
the
the problemof
problem
problem ofaaaalocal
of
of localminimum.
local
local minimum.Therefore,
minimum.
minimum. Therefore,while
Therefore,
Therefore, whilethe
while
while thevalues
the
the valuesof
values
values of
ofof
blue
bluecolors
blue
blue colorsare
colors
colors arequite
are
are quitesimilar,
quite
quite similar,each
similar,
similar, eachexperiment
each
each experimenthas
experiment
experiment hasdifferent
has
has differentinitial
different
different initialvalues
initial
initial valuesand
values
values andclustering
and
and clusteringresults
clustering
clustering resultsthat
results
results that
that
that
classify
classifythe
classify
classify thesimilar
the
the similarvalues
similar
similar valuesof
values
values ofblue
of
of bluecolors
blue
blue colorsas
colors
colors asdifferent
as
as differentcategories.
different
different categories.This
categories.
categories. Thisleads
This
This leadsto
leads
leads toinconsistent
to
to inconsistent
inconsistent
inconsistent
Symmetry 2017, 9, 125 7 of 12

3.2. Segmentation Results of Landscapes

Symmetry 2017, 9, 125 7 of 12
Table 2 depicts the segmentation results of landscapes. It can be seen that the whole picture is
Symmetry 2017,
3.2.Symmetry
Segmentation Results9, 125 of Landscapes 7 of 12
Symmetry
mainly Symmetry Symmetry
composed
Symmetry
Symmetry
Symmetry 2017,
2017,
2017,2017, 2017,
of
2017, 9,
9, 125
2017,
9, the
125
9,9,125
9,
9,
125125
125blue water and sky, followed by green trees and white boats. The segmentation
125 7 of
7 of777of
12
of 12
77ofof
of
12 12
12
12
Symmetry
Symmetry
Symmetry
Symmetry 2017,2017,
2017,2017, 9,
9,125 9,
9, 125
125 125 77ofof7712
of
of 12
12
12 12
Table
result of the 3.2.blue 2 depicts
Segmentationpart is very the segmentation
Results unstable,
of Landscapes results of landscapes. It can
which may possibly be due to the different initial values of be seen that the whole picture is
3.2.
3.2.
mainly 3.2.3.2.
3.2.
3.2. Segmentation
Segmentation
Segmentation
Segmentation
Segmentation
Segmentation
3.2. Segmentation
composed of Results
Results
Results Results
Results
Results
Results
the of
of
blue of Landscapes
ofofof Landscapes
Landscapes
Landscapes
Landscapes
Landscapes
of Landscapes
water and minimum. sky, followed by greenwhile treesthe and whiteofboats. The are
3.2.
the algorithm
3.2. Segmentation
3.2. Segmentation
having the
Segmentation Results
Results
Resultsproblem of
of Landscapes
of Landscapes
of a local
Landscapes Therefore, values blue colors
segmentation Table result 2 depicts
of the the segmentation
blue part is very results of which
unstable, landscapes. may It can be be
possibly seen due that to the
the whole
different picture is
Table
Table Table
Table 2222depicts
2222composed
depicts depicts the thethe segmentation
segmentation
segmentation results
results results of of of landscapes.
landscapes.
landscapes. It It
can can
ItIt can
be be be
seenseen
seen thatthat
thatthe thethe whole
whole whole picture
picturepicture is isis
is
quite similar, Table
Table
mainly
Table
each
Table
Table
Table 2 2depicts
experiment
depicts
depicts depicts
depicts
depicts
depicts the
the
the
the
the
the
of
the
has segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentationdifferent
segmentation
segmentation
the
segmentation blue water initial
results
results results
results
results
results
results and of
of
of
of
values of landscapes.
landscapes.
landscapes.
of
landscapes.
of
sky, and clustering
landscapes.
landscapes.
landscapes. followed It It
ItIt can
It
can
Itby
can
can
can
cancan
be
be be
be
green
be
be
seen
be
seen
seen
results
seen seen
seenseen
that
that
trees
that
that
that
thatthat
that the
the
and
the
the
thethe
classify
whole
whole
the whole
whole
whole
whole
white
whole the
picture picture
picture
similar
picture
picture
picture
boats.
picture is
is isis
is
isThe
initial
mainly
mainlyvalues
mainly
mainly
mainly
mainly of
composed
composed the algorithm
composed
composed
composed
composed of
of of
ofof
the
of
the the
thehaving
theblue
the
blue blue
blue
blue
blue the
water
waterwater problem
water
water
water and
and and and
and sky,
and
sky,of
sky,
sky,afollowed
sky, local
followed
followed
sky, minimum.
followed
followed
followed by
by by
bybygreen
by
green Therefore,
green
green
green
green trees
trees
trees trees
trees while
and
trees
and and and
andand the
white
white
white whitevalues
white
white boats.
boats. ofThe
boats.
boats.
boats.
boats. The TheThe
The The
values of mainly
blue
mainly
mainly
mainly colors
segmentation composed
composed
composed
composed as result ofof
different
of the
oftheofthe
the blue
the
blue blue
categories.
blue water
bluewaterwater
partand
water andisand
This and very
sky, sky,
leads
sky, sky, followed
to
followed inconsistent
followed
unstable,
followed byby
by
which by green green
green
may
green trees
segmentation
treestrees
possibly
trees and
and and
bewhite
and white
results.
white
due
white to boats.
boats. Running
boats.
the
boats. The
different
The The
The
bluesegmentation
colors
segmentation are
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation quite result
result similar,
result
result
result
result of
of of
of of
the
theof each
thethe
the blue
the
blueblueexperiment
blue
part
blue
blue part part
part
part is
part
is isisisis
very
very has
very
very
very different
unstable,
unstable,
unstable,
very unstable,
unstable,
unstable, initial
which
which which
which
whichwhich values
may
may maymay
may may and
possibly
possibly
possibly possibly
possibly
possibly clustering
be
be be
bebe
due
be
due duedue
due to
due
toresults
to to
the
to to
the thethe
the that
different
different
different
the different
different
different
segmentation
segmentation
more experiments
segmentation
initial
segmentation values result
allows result
resultresult
of theof
us
of of
ofthe
to
the the
the
algorithm blue
blueblue
produce
blue part
part part
part
having is
theis is
very
is the
very very
best
very problemunstable,
unstable,
segmentation
unstable,
unstable, of which
a
which which
which
local may
imagesmay
may
minimum.
may possibly
possibly
under
possibly
possibly be
Therefore,
be be
the
bedue
due due
due to
specifiedto
the
to
while
to the the
thethe different
different
numbers
different
values
different of
classifyinitial
initial the
initial
initial values
initial
initial values similar
values
values
values
values of
of of of
the
of
the of values
thethe
thethe algorithm
algorithm
algorithm of blue
algorithm
algorithm
algorithm having
havinghavingcolors
having
having
having the
the the
thethe
the as
problem
problem different
problem
problem
problem
problem of
of of
aof
of
a aa
local
of
local categories.
alocal
local
alocal minimum.
minimum.
local minimum.
minimum.
minimum.
minimum. ThisTherefore,leads to
Therefore,
Therefore,
Therefore,
Therefore,
Therefore, while
while inconsistent
while
while
while
while the
the thethe
the values
values
the values
values
values
values of
of of
of of
of
of clusters. initial
initial
initial
blue
initial values values
values
values
colors of of
the
of
are the
the
of theRunning quite algorithm
algorithm
algorithm
algorithm similar, having
having
having
havingeach the the
the
experiment
the problem problem
problemproblem of
has of
a
of a
local
a local
local
different
of auslocal minimum.
minimum.
minimum.
minimum. initial valuesTherefore,
Therefore,
Therefore,
Therefore, and whilewhile
while
clustering
while the the the
the values
valuesvalues
results
values of of of
of
that
segmentation
blue
blueblue
blue
blue
blue colors
colors
colors colorsresults.
colors
colors are
are areare
are quite
are
quitequite
quite
quite
quite similar,
similar,
similar,similar,more
similar,
similar, each
eacheachexperiments
each
each
each experiment
experiment
experimentexperiment
experiment
experiment allows
has
has hashas
has has differentto produce
different
differentdifferent
different
different initial
initial initial
initial
initial the
values
initial
values best
values
values
values
values and
and segmentation
andand
and clustering
clustering
clustering
and clustering
clustering
clustering images
results
resultsresults
results
results
results that
that thatthat
thatthat
blue blue colors
colors are are quite quite similar,
similar, each each experiment
ofexperiment has has different
different initial
initial values and clustering results that
With
underblueblue
classify
regard
the
classify
colors
colors
specifiedtheto the
are are
the quitequite
similar
numbers
similar
similar,
similar,
segmentation values
values
each
of clusters.
each
of
experiment
blue
experiment
results of colors
binary has hasas different
different
different
processing, initial wevalues
initial
categories. values
values
obtained and
and and
This clustering
clustering
leads to
clustering
segmentation results
results
results that
inconsistent
resultsthat that of
classify
classify
classifyclassify
classify
classify
classify
classify
the
the
the the
the
the
the
similar
the
similar similar
similar
similar
similar
similar
similar
values
values values
values
values
values
valuesvalues
of
of
of of
of
of
of ofblue
blue
blue
blue blue
blue
blueblue
blue
colors
colors
colors
colors colors
colors
colors
colors
colors
as
as
as
asas
as
as asdifferent
as different
different
different
different
different
different
different
different
categories.
categories.
categories.
categories.
categories.
categories.
categories.
categories.
categories.
This
This
This
This
This
This
This
This
This
leads
leads
leads
leads
leads
leads
leads
leads
leads
to
to
to
to
to
to
to toinconsistent
to inconsistent
inconsistent
inconsistent
inconsistent
inconsistent
inconsistent
inconsistent
inconsistent
two images Withsegmentation
classify out the
of
regard results.the similar
10
toresults.
theresults. values
original
segmentation Running of
images. more
blue
results We experiments
colors can as
only
of binaryallows see allows
different
processing,the us
white to
categories.
we produce
boat
obtained inThis the
one best
leads
of
segmentation segmentation
them, to inconsistent
which
results images
is very
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation results.
results.
results.
results.
results. Running
Running Running
Running
Running
Running
Running more
more
more more
more
moremore experiments
experiments
experiments
experiments
experiments
experiments
experiments allows
allows allows
allows
allows
allows us
us us
us
us us
to
to ustototo produce
produce
to
produce
to produce
produce
produce
produce the
the thethe
the
the best
the
bestbest
best
best
best
best segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation images
images
images images
images
images
images
segmentation
segmentation
under
segmentation the results.
results.
specified
results. Running
Running
numbers
Running more more
of
more experiments
clusters.experiments
experiments allowsallows
allows us
us to
us produce
to
towhite produce
produce the
the the best
bestbest segmentation
segmentation
segmentation imagesimages
images
different
of two from
images
under
under
under under
under
under
under the
thethe
thethe
the
the the blue
out of
specified
specified
specified specified and
specified
specified
specified
the 10green
numbers
numbers
numbers original
numbers
numbers
numbers colors.
of
of of
ofimages.
of
of In
clusters.
clusters.
clusters.clusters.
clusters.
clusters. contrast,
We can we
only see
see the
the white boat
boat in as onewell of as
them, the blue
which sky
is and
very
underunder
under
different
the
the the
Withspecified
from
specified
specified regard the tonumbers
numbers
numbers
numbers
blue the and
of
of of
of
segmentation clusters.
clusters.
clusters.results of binary processing, we obtained segmentation results
clusters.
green colors. In contrast, we see the white boat as well as the blue
green trees on
With
With the
With
With
With
With
With regard
regard surface
regard
regard
regard
regard
regard to
to to
toof
to
the
the
to the
tothe
thethe
thethe water
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation and the
results
results
results resultsisland
results
results
results of
of of
ofofof
binary
of in
binary
binary binary
binary
binary
binary the other
processing,
processing,
processing,
processing,processing,
processing,
processing, image.
we
we we
we
wewe Thus,
obtained
obtained
obtained
we
obtainedobtained
obtained
obtained the latter
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation image results has
results
results
results
results
results
results a
ofWith
skysegmentation
and WithWith
two
green
regard
images
regard regard
trees
to
to
on outthe
to
the
the
the
of segmentation
thesegmentation
10 original
segmentation
surface of the
results
results
images.
results
water
of
of
and
binary
ofWe
binarybinary
the can processing,
processing,
only
processing,
island seethe
in the we
we weobtained
white
other obtained boat segmentation
obtained
image.
segmentation
inThus, one ofthe
segmentation them, results
resultsis
which
results
latter
better of ofof
two two
of two images
images
two images
images out out
result. out
of
out of of
the the
of the
10
the 10 10 original
original
original
10 original images.
images.images.
images. We We Wecan
We cancan
only
can only
only
onlysee seesee
the
see thethe
white
the white
white
white boatboat
boatin
boat in in
one one
in oneof
one of of them,
them,
of them,
them,whichwhich
which
which is is is
of
ofof
of of
two
two
of two
two
two
very
two images
imagesimages
images
images
different
images out
out
out
out
out
out of
ofof
of
from
of
the
the
of
the
the
the
the10
1010
10 10 original
original
original
original
10
blue
original andimages.
original images.
images.
images.
images.
green
images. We
We
colors.
We
We
We
We can
can
can
can
can
can
In only
only only
only
only
contrast,
only see
seesee
see see
seethe
the
the we
the
the
thewhite
white
see
white
white
white
white theboat
boat
boat
boat
boat
boat
white in
inin
in in
one
one
in
one
one
one
one
boat of
of
ofas
of
them,
of
them,
of them,
them, which
wellwhich
them,
them, which
which
aswhich
theis
which is isis
is
is
isblue
image
very
In very
very has
very
very
very
terms a
different
very better
different
different
different
different
of
different quad segmentation
from
from fromfrom
from
from the
processing,
the the
the
theblue
the
blue blue
blue
blue result.
and
blue and
the
and and
and green
green
andboat,
green green
green
green colors.
colors.
water,
colors. colors.
colors.
colors. In
In In
sky,InIn
Incontrast,
contrast,
contrast,contrast,
contrast,
and
contrast, the we
we wewewe
see
we
trees
see seesee
see the
see
the the
of the
thewhite
the
the
whitewhite
white
white
white boat
island
boat boat
boat
boatboatas
are
as asas
well
as well
as
well wellas
well
well
separated
as as
asas
the
the the
as the
theblue
the
blue blueblue
blue
from blue
veryvery
very
sky different
different
different
and
different greenfrom
from from
from the
trees
the the
the onblue
blue
blue bluetheand
and and
and green
surface
greengreen
green colors.
of colors.
colors.
colors.the water InIn In
In contrast,
contrast,
contrast,
and the
contrast, wewe we
we see
island
see see
seethe
the the
the
in white
the
whitewhite
white boat
other
boat boat
boat as
image.
as as
well
as
wellwell
well asas
as
Thus, asthethe
the theblue
theblue blue
blue
latter
sky
skyIn
sky
skyterms
sky
and
sky
and and
and
andand of
green
greengreen quad
green
green
green trees
trees processing,
trees
trees on
trees
trees on on
on on
the
on
the thethe
the the the
surface
surface
surface boat,
surface
surface
surface of
of of
of water,
of
the
of
the thethe
the water
the
waterwatersky,
water
water
water and
and and
and
and
and the
and
the the
thethe
island
the
islandtrees
island
island
island
island ofin
in
in the
in
the
in in
the the
the island
the
other
the
otherother
other
other areimage.
image.
other
image. separated
image.
image.
image. Thus,
Thus,
Thus, Thus,
Thus,
Thus, from
the
the thethe
the latter
latter
the
latter latter
latter
latter
sky
sky sky
the background,
skyand
image
and and
and greenbut
has
green green
green a the
trees trees
trees
better
trees on
on on
gray-scaled
on the the
the
segmentation
the surface
surface shading
surface
surface of of
the
of
result.
of the the
values
the water
waterwater
water and
and
and and
and the the
contrast
the the island
islandisland
island are
in
in in
inthe the
different.
the theother other
other
other image.
image.image.
Intuitively,
image. Thus,Thus,
Thus,
Thus, the
the
the the
thelatterlatter
second
latterlatter
the image
background,
image
image image
image
image has
has has has
has
has a a abut
abetter
better
aaterms
bettera the
better
better
better gray-scaled
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation shading
result.
result.
result. result.
result.
result. values and contrast are different. Intuitively, the second
image canimageimage
behas
image
image has has
regarded
has
In a aa better
betterbetter
better ofas segmentation
segmentation
having
segmentation
quad
segmentation theresult.
processing, result.
better
result. segmentation
thesegmentation
boat, water, sky, result,
andwith the with trees the of segmentation
the island result result offrom
are separated the
image canIn
In be
InIn
In In
terms
terms regarded
terms
terms terms
terms of
of ofofof
quad
quad quad
of as
quad
quad
quad having
processing,
processing,
processing,
processing, theresult.
processing,
processing, better
the
the the
the the
the boat,
boat,
boat, boat,
boat,
boat, water,
water,
water,
water,
water,
water, sky,
sky,sky,
sky, result,
sky,
sky,and
and and
and and
and the
the the
the the
the
trees
treestreesthe
trees
trees
trees of
of segmentation
of
ofof
the
the the
of the
the the island
island
island island
island
island are
are are are
are
are separated of the
separated
separated
separated
separated
separated from
from from from
from
from
thirdthird
image In In
terms
In
being terms
terms of
the of
quad
of quad
quad
worst. processing,
processing,
processing,
This the the
thethe boat,boat,
boat, water,
water,
water, sky, sky,
sky, and and
and the the
thetrees trees
trees of of
the
of the
the island
island
island are are
are separated
separated
separated from from
from
the
the
the
image
the
thethe
the
In background,
terms
being
background,
background,
background,
background,
background,
background,
ofthe quad
but
but
but
worst.
but but
but
butthe
the the
the
processing,
This
the
the
the isisbecause
gray-scaled
gray-scaled
gray-scaled
gray-scaled
gray-scaled
gray-scaled
gray-scaled
because
shading
shading thethe
shading
boat,
shading
shading
shading
shading
water,
sky
values
values
skyvalues
and
values
values
values
values
and
sky,water
and
and and
and
and
and
and
and
water
are contrast
the
contrast
contrast
contrast
contrast
contrast
contrast
are
trees
classified
are
are are
are
classified
are
of
are
are
different.
the
as
different.
island
the
different.
different.
different.
different.
different. sameasare the same
Intuitively,
separated
category
Intuitively,
Intuitively,
Intuitively,
Intuitively,
Intuitively,
Intuitively, the
the the
the
category
the
and
the
the
second
from
second
second
second
second
second
second
the
the the
the
image background,
background,
background,
background, can be but but
butthe
regarded
but the the
the gray-scaled
gray-scaled
gray-scaled
as
gray-scaled having theshading
shading
shading
shading better valuesvalues
values
values and
segmentation
and and
and contrast
contrast
contrast
contrast are
result, are are
arewithdifferent.
different.
different.
different. the Intuitively,
Intuitively,
Intuitively,
segmentation
Intuitively, the
the the
the
result second
second
second
second of the
and have
have
image the
the
image
image
image
image same
same
can can can
can
can be begray-scaled
gray-scaled
bebeberegarded
regarded
regarded
regarded
regarded value.
as as as
as value.
ashaving
having having
having
having theIn
In comparison
the comparison
the
the
the better
better better
better
better with
segmentation with
the firstresult,
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation the
image, first
result,
result,
result,
result, with image,
there
withwith
with
with the is
the athe
the
the there
reflected
segmentation is
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation a reflected
image result of
result an
result
result
result of image
ofofof
the ofthe
thethe
the
image
imageimage
image
image third can
can
can can
can be
be
image be regarded
be
be regarded
regarded
regarded
being
regarded theas
as
as having
as
having
as
worst. having
having
having Thisthe
the
the the
thebetter
is better
betterbetter
because
better segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
the
segmentation sky and result,
result, result,
result,
water
result, with
with
are
with with
with the
the segmentation
the
the
classified
the segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentationas the same result
result
result
result
result of
of
categoryof the
of
the
ofthe the
the
and
of an unknown
unknown third
third third
third
third object
image
image image
image object
image beingin
being
being
being the
being in
the thethe
first
the
the
theworst. first
worst. image,
worst.
worst.
worst. This image,
This
This
This which
This
is isisis which
because
is is
because
because
because
because the theis
possibly the
the
thesky possibly
sky sky
sky
skyand a
and cloud,
and
and
and water water a are
water
water
water cloud,
smoke,
are
areare
are smoke,
or
classified aircraft.
classified
classified
classified
classified as as
asas
the or
the
as the
the aircraft.
However,
the
samesamesame
same
same category However,
the
category
category
category
category and and
and and
and
third
thirdthird
third
third haveimage
imageimage
image
image the being
being
same
beingbeing
being the
the
the the
theworst.
worst.
gray-scaled worst.
worst.
worst. This
This
ThisThis
This
value.is
is because
is
is because
is because
because
In
because comparisonthe
the
the the
thesky
sky
sky sky
skyand
and and
and
with
and water
water water
water
the
water are
are
first
are are
areclassified
classified
classified
classified
image,
classified there as
asas
as the
the
as isthe
the the same
same
ato same
same category
category
category
reflected
same category
category image and
and
and and
and
of an
the segmentation
segmentation
have
havehavehave
have
have
have the
the the
the
the the
the
same
same result
result
samesame
same
same
same
is isinconsistent
gray-scaledinconsistent
gray-scaled
gray-scaled
gray-scaled
gray-scaled
gray-scaled
gray-scaled value.
value.
value.value.
value.
and
value.
value. In
In and
InIn In
In more more
comparison
comparison
comparison
comparison
comparison
comparison
In comparison experiments
experimentswith
with withwith
with
with
with the
the the
the
the
need
the
the
first
first first
first
firstneed
first
first to
image,
image,
image, betothere
image,
image,
image,
image, be
performed
there
there performed
there
there
there
there is
is is
a
aisisreflected
is
obtain
aaaareflected
is areflected
reflected
reflected
reflected to
reflected obtain
image
image more
imageimage
image
image
image of
of ofmore
ofof
an
an
of ofan
anan
an an
have
havehave the
unknown
the thesame
same same gray-scaled
object gray-scaled
gray-scaled in the value.value.
first
value. In
image,
In comparison
In comparison
comparison which with
iswith with the
possibly
the the first
first first
a image,image,
cloud,
image, there there
smoke,
there is
is ais
or
a reflected
aaircraft.
reflected
reflected imageimage
However,
image of
of an
of
an an
the
accurate
accurate unknownsegmentation
segmentation
unknown
unknown
unknown
unknown
unknown object
objectobjectobject
object
object in
in results
results
in
inin
the
theinthe
the the
the for
first
firstfor
first
first the
the
first
first original
original
image,
image,
image,
image,
image,
image, which
which
whichwhich images.
images.
which
which is
is is
isis possibly
is possibly
possibly
possibly
possibly
possibly a a a a
cloud,
aa cloud,
cloud,cloud,
a cloud,
cloud,
cloud, smoke,
smoke,
smoke, smoke,
smoke,
smoke, or
or or
ororor aircraft.
aircraft.
aircraft.
aircraft.
aircraft.
aircraft. However,
However,
However,
However,
However,
However, the
the the the
the
the
unknown
unknown
unknown
segmentation
unknown object object
object
object in in
the
in
result
in the the
the first
is first
firstfirst image,
image,
image,
inconsistent
image, whichwhich
which
which and ismore
is is
is possibly
possibly
possibly
possiblyexperiments a aacloud,
cloud,
cloud, need smoke,
smoke,smoke,
smoke, tothebe or
or or
or aircraft.
aircraft.
aircraft.
performed
aircraft. However,
However,
However,
to
However, obtain the the
the
more
the
In terms
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
In segmentation
terms of of
hexad hexad result
result
result resultprocessing,
result
result is
processing,
is isis
is
is isinconsistent
inconsistent
inconsistent
inconsistent wewe can
inconsistent
inconsistent can and
and see
and
and
and
see and more
more
more more more
more
more
more information,
experiments
experiments
experiments
experiments
experiments
information,
experiments including
need
need need need
need
need to
including
to to
to
be
betobe
to be
be boat,
beperformed
performed
performed
performed
performed
the
performed sky,to
boat, water,
to to
to
sky, toobtain
to
obtain
obtain trees
obtain
obtain
obtain
water, more
more more more
more
more
trees
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
accurate
segmentation result result
result
segmentation
result is
is inconsistent
inconsistent
is inconsistent
results
inconsistent for and
the
and and
and more more
original
more more experiments
experiments
experiments
images.
experiments need
need need
need to
to to
be
tobe be
be performed
performed
performed
performed to
to to
obtain
to obtain
obtain
obtain more
more more
more
on island,
on the the island,
accurate
accurate
accurate
accurate
accurate
accurate and and
segmentation bridge.
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
bridge.
segmentation The The results
results problem
results
results
results
problem
results for
for for
for for
for
the
the the
of of
thethe
the inconsistency
original
original original
original
original
inconsistency
original images.
images. images.
images.
images.
images. in each
in each segmentation
segmentation result result still
stillexists,
exists, but buttrees the
accurate
accurate
accurate
accurate In segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
terms
segmentation of hexad results
results
results
results for
processing,
for for
the
forthe the
the weoriginal
original
original
original can the see images.
images.
images.
images. more information, including the boat, sky, water,
the sky and
In
In InIn
In water
In
terms
termsterms
terms terms
terms of
of of
of
of
hexad
hexadsome
of
of hexad
hexad
hexad
hexad images
processing,
processing,
processing,
processing, begin
processing,
processing, we
we weto
wewewe
can
can have
can
can can
can
see
see see
seesee
see
more
more gray-scaled
more more
more
more information,
information,
information,
information,
information,
information, values that
including
including
including
including
including
including are the
the different
thethe
the the
boat,
boat,boat, boat,
boat,
boat, sky,
sky,from
sky,sky,
sky,
sky,water,
water, those
water,
water,
water,
water, trees
treestrees trees
trees
trees
sky and water on In In
terms
In
Inthetermsterms
ofterms some
island, of
of ofof
hexad
hexadhexad
images
hexad
and bridge.processing,
processing,begin
processing,
processing, Theto we we
have
we
problem
we can
can can
can the
see
see see
see
of more
gray-scaled
more more
inconsistency
more information,
information,
information,
information, values
in each including
includingthat
including are
segmentation
including the the
thethe boat,boat,
different
boat, boat, sky,
result
sky,sky,
sky,from
water,water,
water,
still
water, those
trees
exists,
trees trees
trees of
but
of neighboring
on
on ononon
the
on
the the the
the island,
island,
the island,
island, regions.
island,
island, and
and and
andand
and bridge.
bridge. bridge.
bridge.
bridge.
bridge. The
The The
TheThe
The problem
problem problem
problem
problem
problem of
of of ofofinconsistency
inconsistency
inconsistency
inconsistency
of inconsistency
inconsistency in
in in inin
each
in
each each
eacheach
each segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation result
result
result result
result
result still
still
still still
still exists,
exists,
still exists,
exists,
exists,
exists, but
but but but
but
but
on
neighboring
on on
the
onthe thesky island,
island,
regions.
the island,
island, and and
and and
and
water bridge.
bridge.
bridge.
bridge. of someThe
The The
Theimagesproblem
problem
problem
problem of
beginof of
of toinconsistency
inconsistency
inconsistency
have
inconsistency the in in
gray-scaled
in each
in
each each
each segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
values
segmentation that result
are
resultresult
result still
differentstill
still
still exists,
exists,
exists,
from
exists, but
but but
but
those
theIn
the terms
the
the
sky
the sky sky
sky
skyand of
andand
and octad
and water
water water
water
water processing,
of of
ofof
somesome
of some
some
some images the
images
images
images
images boat,
beginbegin sky,
begin
begin
begin to to water,
to
have
to have
to have
have
have the trees
the the
the
the on the island,
gray-scaled
gray-scaled
gray-scaled
gray-scaled
gray-scaled values
values values
values and
values thatthatviaduct
that
that
that are are are
are
are are
different separated
different
different
different
different fromfrom from
from
from those
those those
those
those
In the
from
the
terms
thethe
of
sky
the
sky
the
of
sky sky
skyand
and and
and
neighboring
ofand octad
background,
neighboring
water
water
water water
water of
of some
of
some
of
regions.
processing,
of
with
regions.
somesome
some
an
images
imagesimages
images
imagesthe boat,
increase
begin
begin
beginbegin
begin
in the
to
to
sky, have
to
have
to have
have
water,
todifferences
have the
the
the the
thegray-scaled
trees gray-scaled
gray-scaled
gray-scaled
gray-scaled
between on the the
values
valuesvalues
values
island,
values that
that
that
gray-scaled
that
that
and are
areare
are aredifferent
viaduct different
different
different
different
values of
from
from
arefrom
the
from
from those
those
separated
sky thosethose
those
of
of
of of
of
of neighboring
neighboring
ofneighboring
neighboring
neighboring
neighboring
neighboring regions.regions.
regions.
regions.
regions.
regions.
regions.
of neighboring regions.
fromandtheof background,
water. In
In InItIn
neighboring
In
terms
In In
terms seems
terms
terms
terms
terms
termsof
of of
of
regions.
with
that
of
octad
of of
octad
octad
octad the
octad
octad
octad
an processing,
processing,increase
blue
processing,
processing,value
processing,
processing,
processing, the
the
in
is
the
the
the
the the
boat,
the
boat,
boat,
different,
boat,
boat,
boat, sky,
boat,
sky, sky,
sky,
differences
sky,
sky, sowater,
water,
sky,
water,
water,
the
water,
water,
water,
between
reflected
trees
treestrees
trees on
trees
trees
trees on
on on
onon
theimage
on
the the
the island,
the
the
theisland,
the
island,
gray-scaled
andand
island,
island,
island,
island, andthe
and
and
and
and other
viaduct
and
viaduct
viaduct values
viaductareas
viaduct
viaduct
viaduct are
are are
are
are
areseparated
are
separated
ofseparated
the sky
ofseparated
the
separated
separated
separated
In
fromIn In
terms
In terms
terms
the
terms of of
octad
of
background,
of octadoctad
octad processing,
processing,
processing,
with
processing, an the the
the
increase
the boat,boat,
boat,boat, sky,
in
sky, sky,
sky,
the water,water,
water,
differences
water, trees
treestrees
trees on
on onthe
on
between
the the
the island,
island,
island,
island, the and
and and
and
gray-scaled viaduct
viaduct
viaduct
viaduct are are
values
are are separated
separated
separated
of
separated thesky sky
and sky
water.
are
from
fromfrom
fromIt
more
from seems
the
from
the thethe
the clearly
background,
the that
background,
background,
background,
background,
background,
the
separated blue
with with
with
with value
from
an
with anan theis
increase
increase
an an different,
other
increase
increase
increase in inobjects.
in
the
in inthe
the
the so the
differences
differences
differences
the reflected
differences
differences between
between between image
between
between the the
the
the and
the the
gray-scaled
gray-scaled
gray-scaled
gray-scaled
gray-scaled other values areas
values
values
values
values of ofof
of
the
of of the
thethe
thesky
the sky sky
skysky
from
fromfrom
from
and the
the the
thebackground,
water. It seemswith
background,
background,
background, with
with with
with
that an
anthe
an increase
an
an increase
increase
increase
blue
increase valuein
in
in the
in
in isthe
the
the thedifferences
differences
differences
differences
different,
differences so between
between
the between
betweenbetween
reflected the
the
the the
thegray-scaled
gray-scaled
gray-scaled
gray-scaled
image
gray-scaled and the values
values
values
values
valuesother of
of
of the
of
the
of
areas
the the
thesky
sky ofsky
sky skythe
are more and
and clearly
and
and
and
and water.
water.
and water.
water.
water.
water. separated
water. It It
It seems
seems
It seems
ItItIt seems
seems
seems
seems that
that from
that
that
that
that the
that
the thethe
the
the
theblue
the
blue other
blue
blue
blue
blue value
blue
valuevalue
valueobjects.
value
value
value is is
is different,
isisis different,
different,
different,
is different,
different,
different, soso
so soso
the
the
so sothe the
the
the the reflected
reflected
reflectedreflected
reflected
reflected
reflected image
image
image image
image
image
image and
and and
and
and
and the
and
the the the
the
thethe other
other
other other
other
other
other areas
areas
areas areas ofof
areas
areas
areas of of of
the
the
of ofthe
the
the
thethe
and
andandwater.
sky are It
water.
water. It seems
moreIt seems
seems that
clearly
that the
that blue
the blue
separated
the blue value
value
from
value is
the
is different,
is other so
different, the
soofso
objects.
different, the reflected
the image
reflected
reflected and
image
image the
and
and other
thethe areas
other
other of
areas
areas the
of of
thethe
skysky
skyare
are aremore
moremore clearly
clearly
clearly Table
separated
separated
separated 2.
from Segmentation
from
from
thethe
the other
otherotherresult
objects.
objects.
objects. landscapes.
sky sky
sky
are
sky areare
more more
more clearly
clearly
clearly separated
separated
separated from from
fromthe thethe other
other
other objects.
objects.
objects.
sky
skyskyareare
are are more
more
more
more clearly
clearly
clearly
clearly separated
separated
separated
separated fromfrom
from
from the
thethe
the other
other
other
other objects.
objects.
objects.
objects.
Original Image Method No.Table 2. Segmentation
Binary result
Quadof landscapes. Hexad Octad
Table 2. Segmentation result of landscapes.
Table2. 2.
Table
Table
Table
TableTable Segmentation
2.2.2.Segmentation
Segmentation
Segmentation result
Segmentation of of
result
result
result
result landscapes.
of
of
of landscapes.
landscapes.
landscapes.
landscapes.
Table
Table
Table
2.
Table
2. 2.2.Segmentation
Segmentation
Segmentation
2.
2. Segmentation
Table result
result
Segmentation
Segmentation
result
of
result
of
result
result ofof landscapes.
landscapes.
of landscapes.
of landscapes.
landscapes.
landscapes.
Original Original
Image Image Method No. Binary Quad Hexad Octad
Original
Original
Original
OriginalImage Method
Image
OriginalImage
Image
Image
Original
Original
Original Method
Method No.
Method
Method
Image
Image No.
Image Method
No.
No.
No.
1 No.
Method
Method No.No.
Binary
Binary
Binary
Binary
Binary
Quad
QuadQuad
Quad
Quad
Hexad
Hexad
Hexad
Hexad
HexadBinary
Binary
Binary Quad
Quad
Quad Hexad
Hexad
Hexad
Octad
Octad
Octad
Octad
Octad
Octad
Octad
Octad
Original
Original
Original
Original Image Method
Image
Image
Image Method No.
Method
Method
Method No.
No.No.
No.
Binary
Binary
Binary
Binary
Binary
Quad
Quad
Quad
Quad
Quad
Hexad
Hexad
Hexad
Hexad
Hexad
Octad
Octad
Octad
Octad
Octad

1
1 1111111 1
1
1
1
2

KMC 2
2 22
2 222 2
2 22
2
KMCKMC3
KMCKMC
KMC
KMC
KMC
KMC KMC
KMC
KMC
KMC
KMC
3
3 33 33
33 33 3 3
3

4
4 44 44
44 44 4 4
4

HKMC 1

HKMC 1
HKMC
HKMC 1 111111
HKMC
HKMC
HKMC
HKMC
HKMC
HKMC 1
HKMC
HKMC
HKMC 11 1
 2 22 2

KMCKMC
KMC
KMC

Symmetry 2017, 9, 125 3 33 3 8 of 12

Table 2. Cont.
4 44 4
Original Image Method No. Binary Quad Hexad Octad

Symmetry 2017, 9, 125HKMCHKMC 1 11 11

HKMC
HKMC 8 of 12
Symmetry
Symmetry
Symmetry
Symmetry
Symmetry
Symmetry 2017,
2017,
2017,
2017,
2017,
2017, 9,9,9,125
9,9, 125
9,
125
125
125 125 88888ofof
812
of
of
of 1212
of
12
12
Symmetry 2017, 9, 125 812
of 12

2
22222 22 2
Symmetry
Symmetry
Symmetry 2017, 2017,
2017,
9, 1259,9,125
125 8 of 88of
12 of1212
Symmetry
Symmetry 2017,
Symmetry
Symmetry
2017,
Symmetry
9,2017,
125
2017,
9,
2017, 9,HKMC
125
9, 125
125
8 of
8 of812 12
8128of
of1212
Symmetry 2017, 9, 9,
125125 8 of
of 12

3
33333 3
2 3 232 3
2 2 22 2 2

4
344444 343 4
3 3 33 343

3.3.3.3.
3.3. Segmentation
Segmentation
Segmentation Result
Result
Result of4Buildings
ofBuildings
of Buildings
Buildings 4
3.3.
3.3.
3.3.3.3. Segmentation
Segmentation
Segmentation Result
Result ofof Buildings
4 4
3.3. Segmentation Result Result
Segmentation of 4Buildings
of Result of4Buildings
Buildings 4 44
TableTable 3shows
shows the segmentation results of buildings. Itcan
can be seen from the binary segmentation
Table
TableTable
TableTable 3333shows
3shows
shows
shows
3 shows thethe
the
the the
the
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
results
results
results
results
results
results of ofbuildings.
of
of buildings.
of buildings.
buildings.
buildings.
of buildings. ItItItcan
It can
It
can
can
It be bebebe
be
be
can
seen
seenseen
seen
seen
be seen
from
from from
from
fromfrom
the
the
the
the the binary
binary
binary
binary
binary
the binary
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
Table thatthat
3 shows
the the
main main
the building
segmentation
building is clearlyresultsseparated
of from
buildings. the It long-ranged
can seen view.
from The
the results
binary of both
segmentationmethods
that
thatthat
that the
that
3.3. the
the the
main
the
3.3.
3.3. main
main main
main
building
building
building
building
Segmentation
Segmentation
Segmentation building
Result isisBuildings
is
is
Result
Resultof
isclearly
clearlyclearly
clearly
clearly
is
ofofclearly
separated
separated
separated
separated
separated
Buildings
Buildings separated
from
from
from
from from
fromthethe
the
the the
the
long-ranged
long-ranged
long-ranged
long-ranged
long-ranged
long-ranged
view.
view.
view.
view.
view.view.
The
The
The
The The
The
results
results
results
results
results
results ofofboth
of
of ofboth
both
both
of
both
both
methods
methods
methods
methods
methods
methods
that theare
main
3.3.
are are
3.3. quite
Segmentation
building
3.3.
Segmentation
are quite
quite
3.3.
3.3. consistent.
Segmentation
consistent. is
Result
consistent.
Segmentation
Segmentation Result
clearly
of Furthermore,
Result of
Buildings
Furthermore,Buildings
of
Furthermore,
Result
Result separated
Buildings
ofBuildings
Buildings multiple
multiplefrom
multiple thesegmentation
long-ranged
segmentation
segmentation results
results
results view.will
will
will The
not not
not appear
results
appear
appear due due
dueof to
both
tothe
to thethe
the similarity
methods
similarity
similarity
are
are quite
3.3.
quite
are quite consistent.
Segmentation
quite consistent.
consistent. Result ofofBuildings
Furthermore,
Furthermore,
Furthermore, multiple
multiple
multiple segmentation
segmentation
segmentation results
results
results will
will
will not
not
not appear
appear
appear due
due
due to
to
to the
the similarity
similarity
similarity
are quiteof of colors.
Table
consistent.
ofof colors. Table
Table
colors. 3consistent.
Table 33shows
shows shows
the
3Furthermore,
shows the
Furthermore,
the
the segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentationmultiple
multiple
results
results
results ofof
segmentation
results of segmentation
of buildings.
buildings.
buildings.
buildings. It It
can Itcan
It
results
can becanresults
be bebeseen
seen seen
will
seen
will
from from
from
not
from thenot the
the appear
binary
appear
the binary
binary
binary due
due to
segmentation
segmentation
to
segmentation
the
segmentation
the
similarity
similarity
of
of colors.
colors.
colors.
Table
of colors. 3Table
Table
Table shows
Table 3 3 3 3
shows
shows shows
the
shows thethe the
segmentation
the segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation results results
of
results
results
results of of of of
buildings. buildings.
It
buildings.
buildings.
buildings. can
It It be
It
can It
cancancan
seen
be be bebe seen
from
seen
seen
seen thefrom
from
from
from the the
binary
the
the binary
segmentation
binary
binary
binary segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
that
that that
that
the For
the the
the
main main
main
quad
main building
building
building is
processing,
building isisisis
clearly clearly
clearly
clearlythe sky separated
separated
separated of
separated from
the from
from
lower
from thethe the
the
right long-ranged
long-ranged
long-ranged corner
long-ranged view. view.
view.
begins
view. The
ThetoThe
The results
results
results
have
results of of
bothof both
both
gray-scaled
ofofboth
both methods
methods
methods
methodsvalues that are
of colors.
that theFor
For
For
For
that
that
that For
that
themain
the quad
the
quad
quad
quad
the
mainquad
main mainprocessing,
buildingprocessing,
building
processing,
processing,
processing,
main is clearly
building
building
building is is thethe
is
the
the the sky
clearly
sky
sky
clearly
clearly
clearly sky
separated
sky ofof
of
of of the
the
the
separated
separated
separated the
separated
the from lower
lower lower
lower
lower
from thefrom
from
from right
right
right
right
right
the the
long-ranged
the
the corner
corner
long-ranged
corner
corner
corner
long-ranged
long-ranged
long-ranged begins
view. begins
begins
begins
begins to
view.
Theto
to
to
view.
view.
view. to
The
The have
have
The
results
have
have
have
The gray-scaled
gray-scaled
results
of both
gray-scaled
gray-scaled
gray-scaled
results
results
results of of of
both both
methods
both values
values
methods
values
values
values
methods
methods
methods that
that that
that
that are
are
are
are are
are are
are
quite
different
are For
quitequite
quite quad
from processing,
consistent.
consistent.
consistent.
consistent. those Furthermore,
Furthermore,
of
Furthermore, the
Furthermore,
neighboring sky of
multiple the
multiple
multiple
multiple lower
regions.
segmentation right
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation This corner
results
is results
results
closely
results begins
will will
will
willnot not
followed
not to
not have
appear
appear
appear
appear due
byduegray-scaled
due
due
to
octad
to to
the to
the the
the values
similarity
similarity
similarity
processing,
similarity that
with are
the
are quite
different
Fordifferent
quad
different
different
are are
different
areare
quite quite
consistent.
from
quite
quitefrom
processing,
from
from fromconsistent.
those
consistent. those
those Furthermore,
those
those
consistent.
consistent. of
the
of
of Furthermore,
ofFurthermore,
of neighboring
neighboring
sky
neighboring
neighboring
Furthermore, multiple
neighboring
Furthermore, of the multiple
segmentation
regions.
multiple
multiple regions.
regions.
lower
multiple regions.
regions. segmentation
right This
This
segmentation This
segmentation
segmentation
This
This isresults
isisclosely
corner
is isclosely
closely
closely
results results
will
closely
results
results
begins not
will will
followed
will
followed not
to
followed
followed
will not not
appear
followednot appear
appear
haveby
appear due
byby
appear
by
by to
octad
due
octad
octad
octad
due due
the
octad
due
toto
gray-scaled to
the the
similarity
processing,
to similarity
processing,
the similarity
similarity
processing,
processing,
processing,
the values
similarity with
with
with
with with the
the
that the
are
the
the
of ofof
different colors.
colors.
colors. from those of neighboring regions. This is closely followed by octad processing, with the
ofsky sky
sky
of
colors.
of gradually
colors.
of colors. beginning
ofcolors.
colors.
gradually
gradually beginning
beginning to toto
have have
have different
different
different segmentation
segmentation
segmentation colors.
colors.
colors.
sky
sky
sky of
different from colors.
gradually
gradually
gradually
those
For For
For
quad beginning
ofbeginning
beginning
quad
quad processing,
neighboring
processing,
processing, toto
to
the have
have
havethe
the
sky different
different
different
sky
regions.
sky
ofof of
of
the the
the
lowerThis segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
lower
lowerrightis right
closely
right
corner corner
corner colors.
colors.
colors.
begins
followed
begins begins toto to
to
have have
by
have gray-scaled
octad processing,
gray-scaled
gray-scaled values values
values
that that
with
that
are are
are the sky
sky gradually
For quadFor quad
Forprocessing,beginning
processing,
quad processing, the skythe to
the have
sky different
the
skylower
of the lower
of theright segmentation
right
lowercorner corner
right begins begins
corner begins colors.
to haveto have gray-scaled
have gray-scaled
gray-scaled values
values that values that are
arethat are
different For
fromFor
For quad
quad
quad processing,
processing,
processing,
those the
the the
ofneighboringsky
neighboring sky
sky ofthe
ofofthe
regions. the lower
lower
lower
This right
right
right
isclosely corner
corner
corner
closely begins
begins
begins
followed by tohave
totohave
octad have gray-scaled
gray-scaled
gray-scaled
processing, values
values
values
with the that
that
that are
are
are
gradually different
different
beginning
differentfrom from
from those
to those
have
those of
ofofdifferent
neighboring regions.
regions.
segmentation
neighboring regions.This This
Thisis is is
closely
colors.
closely followed
followed
followed by octad
bybyoctad processing,
octad processing,
processing,withwith
withthe the
the
different
different from
different
different
different from from
those
from
from ofthose
neighboring
those
those
those of Table
ofneighboring
neighboring
regions.
ofneighboring
ofneighboring 3. Segmentation
regions.
This
regions.
regions.
regions. This
This This
isThis
closely
isclosely
isisclosely result
isclosely
closely
followed ofby
buildings.
followed
followed
followed
followed by
octad
byby
by octad
octad
octad
octad processing,
processing, with
processing,
processing,
processing, with
the
with
with
with the
the
the
the
sky sky
sky gradually
gradually
gradually beginning
beginning
beginning toto to
havetohaveTable
Table
have
Table 3.
different
different
Table
Table 3. Segmentation
3.
different
3. Segmentation
segmentation
3.Segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
Segmentation
Segmentation result
result of
result buildings.
of
colors.
of buildings.
ofbuildings.
colors.
colors.
result
result of buildings.
buildings.
sky
skysky gradually
sky
gradually
sky beginning
gradually beginning
beginning
gradually to have
beginning have
tohavehave
have Table
different
todifferent 3.
different
different Segmentation
segmentation
segmentation
segmentation result
colors.
colors.
segmentation of
colors.
colors. buildings.
sky gradually
gradually beginning
Imagetotohave
beginning
Original different
different segmentation
segmentation
Binary colors.
colors.
Quad Hexad Octad
Original
Original
Original
Original Image
Image
Image
Image Binary
Binary
Binary
Binary Quad
Quad
Quad
Quad Hexad
Hexad
Hexad Octad
Octad
Octad
Original
Original Image
Image
Original Image Table
Table Segmentation
3.Table
Binary
Binary
Table Binary result
3.Segmentation
3. Segmentation
3. Segmentation
Quad
Quad of
ofQuad
result
result
result ofof buildings.Hexad
buildings.
buildings.
buildings.
Hexad
Hexad
Hexad Octad
Octad
Octad
Octad
Table
Table 3. Segmentation
3.Table
Segmentation result
3.Segmentation
Segmentation
result of buildings.
result
of ofbuildings.
buildings.
buildings.
Table
Table
Table 3.3. 3.
Segmentation
Segmentation result
result
result ofofof
buildings.
buildings.
Original
Original
Original Image
ImageImage Binary
Binary
Binary Quad
Quad
Quad Hexad
Hexad
Hexad Octad Octad
Octad
Original
Original
Original Image
ImageImage
Original Image Binary
Binary
Binary
Binary QuadQuad
Quad
Quad Hexad
Hexad Hexad
Hexad Octad
Octad Octad
Octad
Original
Original
Original Image
Image
Image Binary
Binary
Binary Quad
Quad
Quad Hexad
Hexad
Hexad Octad
Octad
Octad
KMC
KMC
KMC
KMC
KMC
KMC
KMC
KMC
KMC
KMC
KMC
KMCKMCKMC
KMCKMC
KMC
KMC

HKMC
HKMC
HKMC
HKMC
HKMC
HKMC
HKMC
HKMC
HKMC
HKMC
HKMC
HKMC
HKMC
HKMC HKMC
HKMC
HKMC
HKMC

3.4.
3.4.
3.4. Speed
Speed
Speed
3.4. Speed Assessment
Assessment
Assessment
Assessment
3.4.
3.4.
3.4. 3.4.
Speed
Speed
Speed
3.4.3.4.
Speed
3.4. Speed Assessment
Assessment
Assessment
Assessment
Assessment
Speed Assessment
3.4. Speed 3.4.
Speed
3.4.
Assessment
3.4. Speed
3.4.
3.4. Assessment
Speed Assessment
Assessment
Speed
Speed
Speed Assessment
Assessment
Assessment
The
The The
The The
The speed
speed
speed
speed speed
speed assessment
assessment
assessment
assessment
assessment
assessment can cancan
can
can
be
can be
bebebe
be divided
divided
divided
divided
divided into
divided into
two
intointo
into
into two
two
two two
parts.
parts.
two parts.
parts.
The
parts.
parts. The
The
first
The The
first
first
Theone first
one
one
is
first
firstasis
one one
is
oneasas isas
as
described
isdescribed
describedas
is described
in ininTables
Tables
described
described Tables
4–7,
ininin Tables
4–7,
4–7,
Tables
Tables 4–7,
4–7,
4–7,
The
The
The
The Thespeed
speed
speed
The speed
The
speed speed assessment
assessment
assessment
speed assessment
assessmentassessment
assessment cancan can
can
can
can
be be
be
canbe
divided
can bedivided
divided
divided
divided
divided
into
divided twointo
into
into
into into two
two
two
two two
parts.
into parts.
parts.
parts.
parts.
parts.
The
two The The
The
The
The
first
parts. first
one
The first
first
first
one
first
is as one
one
one
is
one
first as
is is
isis asas
as
described
as
described
one described
described
described
described
is in
as in
Tables Tablesin
in
in
inTables
described 4–7, Tables
Tables
Tables
4–7,
Tables
in 4–7,
Tables 4–7,
4–7,
4–7,
4–7,
Thewhichwhich
speed The
The
whichThe
speed
show speed
speed
assessment
show the assessment
assessment
assessment
the experiments
can be of
experiments can
canbebe
dividedbe
of
of divided
divided
dividedbinary
binaryinto into
into
into two
two
two
processing,
two quad
processing, parts.
parts.
parts.
parts. The
quadTheThe
quad
The first
first
first one
one
first
processing,one
is is
one is
as
processing, asas described
described
described
is
hexad hexad inin
asprocessing,
described inTables
Tables
processing,
processing, 4–7, 4–7,
4–7,
inoctad
and and
Tables
octad octad
4–7,
which
which
whichwhich
which show
show show
show
show the
the
the
thethe experiments
experiments
experiments
experiments
experiments of
of of
binary
of binary
binary
binary
binary processing,
processing,
processing,
processing,
processing, quad
quad processing,
quad
quad processing, hexad
processing,
processing,
processing, hexad
hexad processing,
hexad
hexad
processing, and
processing,and
octad
processing,
and octad and
and octad
octad
which
which
which show
show
show
which
show
which the
the
the
show
the
show experiments
experiments
experiments
the
experiments
the experiments
experiments of ofof
of
of
binary
ofbinary
binary
binary
of binary processing,
processing,
processing,
processing,
binary processing,
processing,quad quad
quad
quad
quad
processing,
quad processing,
processing,
processing,
processing,
hexad hexad
hexadhexad
hexad
processing, processing,
processing,
processing,
processing,
and and
octad and
and
and
octadoctad
octad
octad
which show
which
which
which show
show
show
processing.
processing.
processing.
processing.
the
processing.
the
These
experiments
the
the
These
These
These
experiments
experiments
experiments
These
also also
also
also
also include
of include
include
of
include
include
two
binarytwo
of
binary
two
two binary
binary
two clustering
clustering
processing,
clustering
processing,
processing,
processing,
clustering
clustering quad
quad
methods
methods
methods
methods quad
methods ofof ofofprocessing,
quad
processing,
these these
of
these processing,
processing,
three
processing,
these these
three
three
hexad
three
types
hexad
hexadtypes
three
types
types of
hexadof
processing,
hexad
processing,
processing,
ofimages,
types
of
images,images,
images, of
theand and
processing,
and
images,
thethe
processing,
octad
octad
octad
the average
average
average
average
and
the
and
octad
average
octad
processing.
processing.
processing.
processing.
processing.
processing.
processing.
processing.
processing. These
These
These These
These
These These
These also
also
These
alsoalso
also also
also
also include
include
include
also
includeinclude
include include
two
include
include twotwo
two
two
two two
two
two clustering
clustering
clustering
clustering clustering
methods
clustering
clustering
clustering
clustering methods
methods
methods
methods
of of
methods
methods
methods
methods theseofof
oftheseofof
three
of
of these
these
these these
these
these
these
these types
three three
three
three three
three
three
three of
types
types types
types
types types
images,
types
types ofof
of of
the
of
ofimages,
ofimages, images,
images,
images,
ofimages,
images, the
average
images,
images,
thethe the
the the
average
thethe
the
average
average average
average
average
average
average
processing.
processing.
operation
operation
operation
operation speed, These
These
speed,
speed,
speed, andalsoalso
and
the
and include
include
the
the
the two
multiples
multiples
multiples
multiples two
of clustering
clustering
ofof
of methods
increasing
increasing
increasing
increasing methods
speeds.
speeds.
speeds. speeds. of these
three three
types of types oftheimages,
average average
processing. operation
These
operation
operation
operationoperation
speed, speed,
also
speed,
speed,
speed,
and and
include
and
and
the andthe
thethe multiples
the
multiples two
multiples
multiples
multiples
of of
clusteringofincreasing
of
of
increasing increasing
increasing
speeds.speeds.
methods
increasing of these three types of images, the average
speeds.
speeds.
speeds.
operation
operation
operation
operation
operation speed,
operationspeed,
speed,
speed,
speed, and
speed,and
andand
and the
and the
thethe
the multiples
the multiples
multiples
multiples
multiples
multiples
operation speed, and the multiples of increasing speeds. of of
of
ofof
of increasing
increasing
increasing
increasing
increasing
increasing speeds.
speeds.
speeds.
speeds.
speeds.
speeds.
operation 3.4.1.
speed,
3.4.1.
3.4.1.
3.4.1.
and the
Binary
Binary
Binary
Binary
multiples
Processing
Processing
Processing
Processing
of increasing speeds.
Speed
Speed
Speed
Speed
3.4.1. 3.4.1.
3.4.1.
3.4.1.
3.4.1. 3.4.1.
Binary
3.4.1. Binary
Binary
Processing
Binary
Binary
Binary
Binary Processing
Processing
Processing
Processing
Processing
Processing Speed Speed
Speed
Speed
Speed
Speed
Speed
3.4.1.
3.4.1.3.4.1.
3.4.1.
3.4.1. Binary
Binary
Binary
BinaryBinary Processing
Processing
Processing
Processing
Processing Speed
Speed
Speed
Speed Speed
Table
TableTable
Table4 44
depicts depicts
depicts the the
the
speed speed
speed comparison comparison
comparison ofofbinary
ofofbinary binary processing.
processing.
processing. HKMC HKMC
HKMC isissignificantly
significantly
is issignificantly faster faster
faster
than than
than
3.4.1. BinaryTable Processing
Table
Table
Table
Table
the
4Table 44depicts
depicts
Table
Table depicts
4depicts
4 4
original depicts Speed
44depicts
4depicts
depicts
thethe
depicts
depicts
KMC
the
speed
the
the the
the
the
in
speed
the
speed
speed
speed
these
speed
speed
comparison
speed
speed
comparison
comparison
comparison
comparison
comparison
comparison
three comparison
comparison
images.
of of binary
of
The
binary
of
ofbinary
ofof
binary
binary
of
binary
binary
binary
fastest
processing.
binary
processing.
processing.
processing. processing.
processing.
processing. HKMC
processing.
speed processing.
is
HKMC
HKMC
HKMC
the
HKMC
HKMC
image is
HKMCHKMC
isof
HKMC
significantly
significantly
of a is isis
issignificantly
is significantly significantly
issignificantly
personage,
faster faster
significantly
faster
than
faster
faster
faster
significantly
significantly
which
than
than
than faster
than
than
faster
faster
is 12 than thanthan
than
the Table
the the
Table
Table 4
original
original
original4
4 KMC
depicts
depicts
KMCKMC in thein
these
the
the
ininthese speed
these
these three
speed
speed three comparison
threeimages. images.
comparison
comparison
images. The The of
The
fastest
of
of binary
fastestspeed
binary
binary
fastest speed processing.
speed is theis
processing.
processing.
isis the the
image
image HKMC
image of
HKMC
HKMC a
of a is
is
is significantly
personage,
personage, which
significantly
significantly which is faster
12is
faster
faster 12 than
than
thethe the the
original
the the Table
times
original
originalKMC
original
original
original
4KMC
KMC
faster.
depicts
inKMC
KMC
KMC these
in
The in ininthe
these
speed
these
three
these
these speed
three
of
three
images.
three
three
threethe images.
comparison
images.
The
images.
images.
images.
image The
of The
a
The
fastest
The The of
speed
fastest
fastest
fastest
building
binary
fastest
fastest
speedis
speed
is
speed
speed also
the
is
processing.
speed
isthe
11
isthe
image
the the
image
times is image
of
the
image
image a of
of
faster, aofaaof
HKMC
personage,
image personage,
personage,
while ofis awhich
apersonage,
personage,
apersonage,the
which
significantly
which
is
personage,
which
averagewhich
which 12
is
isis12
is
12
speed
12 faster
iswhich
1212
of
than
is 12
the the
the
times original
original
times
4original KMC
faster.
faster. KMCTheKMC The inin
speed
in these
speed
these these
of theof three
three
the
threeimage imageimages.
of
images. images.
a of a
building
TheTheThe
building fastest
is fastest
is
also also
11speed
speed
11
times isisthe
times is the
faster,the image
faster,image
while while of
the of apersonage,
the personage,
aaverage
average personage,
average speed speed which
of which
of isisthan
1212
is
Table the
the
times the original
original
times
times
depicts
times
faster.
times
times faster.
original
times TheKMC
KMC
faster.
faster.
faster.
faster.
the
faster.
The
The
KMC
speed
TheThe
The
inin
speed
Thespeedthese
these
in
speed
of
speed
speed
speed speed the
of of
three
three
ofcomparison
these the
of
image
of
thethe
of the
the image
three
image
the
image
images.
images.
image
of
image
imageaof of
images.
of
atimes
of
of
building of aThe
The
ofaabuilding isfastest
binary
building
The fastest
fastest
building
abuilding
building
a isfastest
also
building is
also
speed
speed
speed
processing.
isisalso
also
isalso
11 also11
times
is
11 11 1111
is
times
speed
times
also
times
is
times
faster,
times11
the
the
is image
HKMC
faster,
the image
image
faster,
while
faster,
faster,
times
faster,
while
image
while
while
of
of
of
while
the
while
faster,
is aof
theasignificantly
athe
average
thethe
personage,
personage,
thea average
personage,
average
average
while
average speed
the
speed
speed
speed
which
which
which
speed
of
speed
average
faster
of
which
ofof
is
is
ofofspeed
1212
12
is 12
of
the
times
times the
the
three three
three
faster.
faster. categories
categories
categories
TheThe of
speed
speed ofof
images images
images
ofthe
ofthe is
the 11 is
imageis 11
image 11
times times
fasters.
ofaof fasters.
fasters.
abuilding This
abuilding
building This
This
is theis
isalso
is is
also the
the
speed
also 11speed
speed
11 times
timesperformance
performance
performance faster,
faster, of an of
while of
while an
an
image image
image
thethe with with
with
average 321
average 321
321speed
speed ofof
times
the originaltimes
times
the the
three
times
the faster.
KMC
the three
faster.
faster.
the three
faster.
three
three The
categories
in
categoriesThe
The speed
these
The
categories
categories speed
speed
categories
of of
speed
of of
images
three
imagesof of
of the
the
images
is
of
images
images image
is
image
image
images.
11
the 11
times
image
is11 times
istimes
11
11times of
of
of
times
timesThe
fasters.
offasters.
aafasters.
building
building
afasters.
fastest
This This
building
fasters. isThisis
theis
is
This is the
also
also
speed
is
is isthe
speed the
also 11
speed
11
11 times
times
times
speed
is
speed11 the
performance
times faster,
performance
faster,
faster,
performance
image of an
faster,
performance while
of
while
while
of an
ofa
image
while
of an the
image
anthe
the average
image
personage,
with
the
image with
average
average
321 with
average
with 321 speed
speed
speed
321
321which
speed of
of
of is
of
the
× the481three
× ×three
481
481 categories
pixels. categories
pixels.
pixels.In In
In
fact, of
fact,images
fact,
whenof images
when
when the isis 11
the
the
image is 11
image
image hasfasters.
times has
has
2048 2048
2048
× This
This
fasters. ×
1365 × is
is1365
the
1365the
This
pixels, speed
speed
is the
pixels,
pixels, the performance
performance
speed
thethe
increase increase
increase in of
performance of
in
the an
in anthe
the
speedimage
image of
speed
speed with
with
an of
of
binary321321
image
binary
binary with 321
the
the three
three
×three
481 categories
categories
pixels. InInInfact,of of images
whenimages the is is11
image 11 times
times
has fasters.
fasters.
2048 ××1365×This
1365 This isispixels,
is
pixels,thethe speed
thespeed performance
increase performance
ininspeed
the of
speed ofan an
of image
image
binary with
with 321321
12 timesthe the
×the481three
×thethree
faster.481 ×three
×481481
××processing
categories
481
pixels. categories
categories
pixels.
Inspeed
pixels.
pixels.
The
pixels.
processing
481 pixels.
processing
processing can
fact,
In
can
In
categories
can
can
beIn
be
of
fact,
fact,
20be
of
of
when
of
be
20
images
fact,
fact,
when
fact,
20
times
images
images
when
of
20the when
the
when
images
times
when
times
times
thethe
image
faster.
is
imageis
is
the 11
the 11
11
image
image
faster.
the
faster.
faster.
is times
11 times
times
image
has
imageof 2048
ahas
times
has
image hasfasters.
fasters.
fasters.
has
20482048
building
has
2048
×fasters.
1365
2048 ×2048 This
This
×This
1365
is 1365
pixels,
1365
This is
is the
the
the
pixels,
pixels,
also
×pixels,
1365
the
is the
11 speed
speed
speed
thethe the
increase
the
speed
times
pixels,
performance
performance
performance
increase
increase
increase in
increase
the
the
in in
performance
faster, the
increase
in
thethe
whilethe ofof
of
speed
speed in
anan
an
speed
of
speedof
the
of image
of
an
the
image
image
binary
ofof
binary
image
average
binary
speed
with
binary
binary with
with with
of
321
321
321
speed 321
binary
×××481
× 481
×processing
481
481 481 pixels.
pixels.
processing
pixels.
pixels.
pixels.
processing
processing
processing
×processing
481 pixels. can be
In In
In
In
can
can be In
can
20
can
In
fact,
fact, fact,
fact,
fact,
be be
20 be
times
20 20 when
20
when
when
when when
times
faster.
times
times
times
fact, when thethe
the
the the
faster.
faster.
faster. image
image
image
image image hashas
has
has has 2048
2048
2048
2048 2048 ×
××× ×
13651365
1365
1365 1365 pixels,
pixels,
pixels,
pixels,
pixels,
faster.the image has 2048 × 1365 pixels, the increase in the speed of binary thethe
the
the the increase
increase
increase
increase
increase in
inininin
thethe
the
the the speed
speedspeed
speed
speed ofof
of
of of binary
binary
binary
binary
binary
processing
processing can can
can bebe be
2020 20timestimes
times faster.
faster.
faster.
processing
processing
processing
processing can
can
can canbe
be
be 20
20
20
be times
times
times
20 times faster.
faster.
faster.
faster.
Symmetry 2017, 9, 125 9 of 12

of the three categories of images is 11 times fasters. This is the speed performance of an image with
321 × 481 pixels. In fact, when the image has 2048 × 1365 pixels, the increase in the speed of binary
processing can be 20 times faster.

Table 4. Speed comparison of binary processing.

Binary
Personage Landscapes Buildings
Average Speed of KMC (ms) 135.4 138.15 133.5
Average Speed of HKMC (ms) 12.2 12.5 12.35
Ratio 11.098 11.052 10.809

3.4.2. Quad Processing Speed

Table 5 is the speed comparison of quad processing. HKMC is significantly faster than the original
KMC in these three images. The fastest speed is the image of a personage, which is 27 times faster.
The speed of the images of personages is higher than 19 times, while the average speed of the three
categories is 22 times the original one. We found that when the clustering numbers is increased to four,
the speed of the k-Means clustering method based on the statistical histogram can become faster and
faster with a speed multiple of two.

Table 5. Speed comparison of quad processing.

Quad
Personage Landscapes Buildings
Average Speed of KMC (ms) 298.6 304.95 468.2
Average Speed of HKMC (ms) 15.5 15.1 17.05
Ratio 19.264 20.195 27.46

3.4.3. Hexad Processing Speed

Table 6 shows the speed comparison of hexad processing. HKMC is significantly faster than the
original KMC in these three images. The fastest speed is the image of a personage, which is 41 times
faster. The images of buildings can be 35 times faster, while the average speed of the three categories is
37 times the original one. We found that when the clustering numbers are increased to six, HKMC
also is significantly faster and further enhances the leading multiple to more than 37 times. It is
important to note that its leading multiple has already reached a speed that is 33 times the speed of
binary processing.

Table 6. Speed comparison of hexad processing.

Hexad
Personage Landscapes Buildings
Average Speed of KMC (ms) 838.5 685.85 600.75
Average Speed of HKMC (ms) 20.15 18.95 16.75
Ratio 41.612 36.192 35.865

3.4.4. Octad Processing Speed

Table 7 depicts the speed comparison of octad processing. It is not influenced by an increase in
clustering numbers. The fastest speed is the image of a personage, which is 56 times faster. The image
of a landscape is 53 times faster, which is close to the one of a personage, while the average speed of the
three categories is 54 times. When the clustering numbers are increased to eight, the speed of HKMC is
faster than that of the original KMC, and the leading multiple is increased to more than 54 times.
Symmetry 2017, 9, 125 10 of 12

Table 7. Speed comparison of octad processing.

Octad
Personage Landscapes Buildings
Average Speed of KMC (ms) 1294.75 1227.1 1315.4
Average Speed of HKMC (ms) 22.75 22.9 24.3
Ratio 56.912 53.585 54.131

3.5. Discussions
As can be seen from Tables 1–3, the KMC method and KMC method based on the statistical
histogram almost have no significant differences in the effects of binary segmentation and multi-valued
segmentations. The result will be the same if the initial values of both are the same. Therefore, more
segmentations must be performed to obtain more accurate results, while the segmentation images of
better results need to be chosen using different initial values.
As can be seen from Tables 4–7, when using binary processing, the speed of the HKMC method is
11 times that of the original KMC method, and its quad processing speed increases 22 times. The hexad
processing speed increases 37 times and the octad processing speed increases 54 times. We found that
the speed can be increased when there is an increase in the number of clusters in HKMC.
Furthermore, with regards to the clustering numbers and computing time, the time range of the
original KMC method is increased by 842%. HKMC only increases the computing time by 88%, with
the increase in time range being 9.56 times that of HKMC. From the perspective of speed, this obvious
increase in time has proved that the HKMC is more applicable to multi-valued segmentation compared
to the original KMC. This is because more segmentation values can lead to more inconsistent results,
with more experiments needed to conduct better segmentation images.

4. Conclusions
This study proposes a method that can significantly improve the deficits of the original KMC
method. Furthermore, the image experiments prove that there is no significant difference between
the KMC method and the KMC method based on the statistical histogram when using binary, quad,
hexad, and octad processing. At the same time, the obvious enhancement of computing speed is
supported in the experiment. In the segmentation by binary processing, the speed of the k-means
clustering method based on the statistical histogram is 11 times faster. This speed is 22 times faster in
the segmentation by quad processing; 37 times faster in the segmentation by hexad processing; and
54 times faster in the segmentation by octad processing. However, HKMC only increases the time
by 88%, while the original KMC increases the computing time by 842%. Therefore, the speed of the
k-means clustering method based on the statistical histogram proposed in this article is indeed faster
than that of the original KMC method, with no subsequent influences on the segmentation results.
Therefore, the HKMC method can be applied more readily to multi-valued segmentations. Finally,
this study suggests that future plans can be combined with more IoT-based life applications, such
as Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) home delivery, parcel delivery, and other intelligent application
designs to promote image recognition technology.

Acknowledgments: This work was supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan [grant numbers:
MOST105-2410-H-194-059-MY3].
Author Contributions: Hsiao-Ting Tseng and Wei-Yen Hsu conceived and designed the experiments; performed
the experiments; I-Chiu Chang and Hsin-Ginn Hwang analyzed the data; Pei-Chin Chou, and Wei-Yen Hsu
contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools; Hsiao-Ting Tseng and I-Chiu Chang wrote the paper, Pei-Chin
Chou contributed to major revision.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Symmetry 2017, 9, 125 11 of 12

References
1. World Health Organization. World Report on Ageing and Health; World Health Organization: Geneva,
Switzerland, 2015.
2. Kruger, T.M.; Gilland, S.; Frank, J.B.; Murphy, B.C.; English, C.; Meade, J.; Morrow, K.; Rush, E. Cross-cultural
comparison of long-term care in the United States and Finland: Research done through a short-term
study-abroad experience. Gerontol. Geriatr. Educ. 2017, 38, 104–118. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
3. Hsieh, K.Y.-C.; Tung, A.-C. Taiwan’s National Pension Program: A remedy for rapid population aging?
J. Econ. Ageing 2016, 8, 52–66. [CrossRef]
4. Ikeuchi, T.; Lu, F.-H.; Holdsworth, J.K.; Arun, Ö.; Wang, S.-T.; Murakami, I.; Osada, H. Higher education in
gerontology: A comparison of master’s programs in Japan, Taiwan, and Turkey. Gerontol. Geriatr. Educ. 2017,
38, 61–75. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
5. Yen, C.-F.; Chiu, T.-Y.; Liou, T.-H.; Liao, H.-F.; Li, Y.-S.; Liang, C.-C.; Teng, S.-W. Does the planned long-term
care policy in Taiwan meet the needs of people with disabilities? Health Policy 2014, 116, 95–104. [CrossRef]
[PubMed]
6. Chen, M.; Ma, Y.; Li, Y.; Wu, D.; Zhang, Y.; Youn, C.-H. Wearable 2.0: Enabling human-cloud integration in
next generation healthcare systems. IEEE Commun. Mag. 2017, 55, 54–61. [CrossRef]
7. Sie, J.-J.; Yang, S.-C.; Hong, Z.-Y.; Liu, C.-K.; Chen, J.-J.; Li, S.C. Integrating Cloud Computing,
Internet-of-Things (IoT), and Community to Support Long-Term Care and Lost Elderly Searching. In
Proceedings of the 2016 International Computer Symposium (ICS), Chiayi, Taiwan, 15–17 December 2016.
8. Chou, Y.-C.; Kröger, T.; Pu, C.-Y. Models of long-term care use among older people with disabilities in
Taiwan: Institutional care, community care, live-in migrant care and family care. Eur. J. Ageing 2015, 12,
95–104. [CrossRef]
9. Chi, L.-J. Health Care in Taiwan, the Past and Present; Ningen Dock International: Tokyo, Japan, 2017; p. 7.
10. Pal, N.R.; Pal, S.K. A review on image segmentation techniques. Pattern Recognit. 1993, 26, 1277–1294.
[CrossRef]
11. Shi, J.; Malik, J. Normalized cuts and image segmentation. IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell. 2000, 22,
888–905.
12. Felzenszwalb, P.F.; Huttenlocher, D.P. Efficient graph-based image segmentation. Int. J. Comput. Vis. 2004,
59, 167–181. [CrossRef]
13. Hsu, W.-Y.; Chen, K.-W. Segmentation-based image compression using modified competitive network.
J. Med. Biol. Eng. 2014, 34, 542–546. [CrossRef]
14. Hsu, W.-Y. Segmentation-based compression: New frontiers of telemedicine in telecommunication.
Telemat. Inf. 2015, 32, 475–485. [CrossRef]
15. Bobrowski, L.; Bezdek, J.C. C-Means clustering with the l/sub l/and l/sub infinity/norms. IEEE Trans. Syst.
Man Cybern. 1991, 21, 545–554. [CrossRef]
16. MacQueen, J. Some methods for classification and analysis of multivariate observations. In Proceedings
of the Fifth Berkeley Symposium on Mathematical Statistics and Probability, Oakland, CA, USA, 21 June–
18 July 1965 and 27 December 1965–7 January 1966.
17. Otsu, N. A threshold selection method from gray-level histograms. IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern. 1979, 9,
62–66. [CrossRef]
18. Kanungo, T.; Mount, D.M.; Netanyahu, N.S.; Piatko, C.D.; Silverman, R.; Wu, A.Y. An efficient k-means
clustering algorithm: Analysis and implementation. IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell. 2002, 24, 881–892.
[CrossRef]
19. Zhang, Y.R. Realization of face image recognition system based on histogram. In Proceedings of the
2nd International Conference on Electronics, Network and Computer Engineering, Yinchuan, China,
13–14 August 2016; Zhou, F., Wu, X., Eds.; Atlantis Press: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2016.
20. Dai, K.; Zhao, J.; Cao, F. A novel algorithm of extended neural networks for image recognition. Eng. Appl.
Artif. Intell. 2015, 42, 57–66. [CrossRef]
21. Zhang, S.; He, B.; Nian, R.; Wang, J.; Han, B.; Lendasse, A.; Yuan, G. Fast image recognition based on
independent component analysis and extreme learning machine. Cognit. Comput. 2014, 6, 405–422. [CrossRef]
Symmetry 2017, 9, 125 12 of 12

22. Cao, J.; Chen, T.; Fan, J. Fast online learning algorithm for landmark recognition based on BoW framework.
In Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE 9th Conference on Industrial Electronics and Applications (ICIEA),
Hangzhou, China, 9–11 June 2014.
23. Alletto, S.; Cucchiara, R.; Del Fiore, G.; Mainetti, L.; Mighali, Y.; Patrono, L.; Serra, G. An Indoor
Location-Aware System for an IoT-Based Smart Museum. IEEE Int. Things J. 2016, 3, 244–253. [CrossRef]
24. Chang, K.-C.; Liu, P.-K.; Kuo, Z.-W.; Liao, S.-H. Design of persimmon growing stage monitoring system
using image recognition technique. In Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE International Conference on Consumer
Electronics-Taiwan (ICCE-TW), Nantou County, Taiwan, 27–29 May 2016.
25. Mano, L.Y.; Faiçal, B.S.; Nakamura, L.H.V.; Gomes, P.H.; Libralon, G.L.; Meneguete, R.I.; Filho, G.P.R.;
Giancristofaro, G.T.; Pessin, G.; Krishnamachari, B.; et al. Exploiting IoT technologies for enhancing Health
Smart Homes through patient identification and emotion recognition. Comput. Commun. 2016, 89, 178–190.
[CrossRef]
26. Motoyoshi, I.; Nishida, S.; Sharan, L.; Adelson, E.H. Image statistics and the perception of surface qualities.
Nature 2007, 447, 206–209. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
27. Sim, K.; Tso, C.; Tan, Y. Recursive sub-image histogram equalization applied to gray scale images. Pattern
Recognit. Lett. 2007, 28, 1209–1221. [CrossRef]
28. Mignotte, M. Segmentation by fusion of histogram-based $ k $-means clusters in different color spaces.
IEEE Trans. Image Proc. 2008, 17, 780–787. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
29. Juang, L.-H.; Wu, M.-N. MRI brain lesion image detection based on color-converted k-means clustering
segmentation. Measurement 2010, 43, 941–949. [CrossRef]
30. UC Berkeley EECS’s Specialized Segmentation Dataset. Available online: https://www2.eecs.berkeley.edu/
Research/Projects/CS/vision/bsds/BSDS300/html/dataset/images.html (accessed on 11 March 2017).
31. Kapur, J.N.; Sahoo, P.K.; Wong, A.K. A new method for gray-level picture thresholding using the entropy of
the histogram. Comput. Vis. Graph. Image Proc. 1985, 29, 273–285. [CrossRef]

© 2017 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).