Helping Intermediate Learners to

Develop their Reading Proficiency through Inferencing

2427 words
Contents

1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................................3

1.1 Why focus on inferencing?.........................................................................................................3

1.2 Scope..........................................................................................................................................3

2 Analysis.........................................................................................................................................3

3 Learning Problems and Teaching Issues.......................................................................................5

3.1 Problems with Vocabulary Inferencing......................................................................................5

3.2 Problems with Context Inferencing............................................................................................6

4 Suggestions for Teaching..............................................................................................................6

4.1 Solution for Inferring Vocabulary Items.....................................................................................6

4.2 Solution for Inferring meaning...................................................................................................7

5 Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................8

Bibliography:......................................................................................................................................10

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1 Introduction

1.1 Why focus on inferencing?

Reading is one of the four language skills and therefore part of any comprehensive approach to
learning and teaching foreign languages. I have found that many learners even if they have a very
good reading vocabulary sometimes misread a text or struggle with it. I have observed that this
mostly happens from intermediate level on when information needs to be inferred. To infer
successfully is a vital component of reading comprehension but in my experience, training this
reading sub-skill is one of the most overlooked aspects of teaching L2 reading. Through this
assignment I hope to investigate ideas of how to help learners to apply this strategy to improve L2
reading.

1.2 Scope
I will explore how drawing inferences can assist my educated intermediate L2 learners of French
mother tongue to become even better readers, which is important for many of them who need to be
able to read for academic or professional purposes. I will look at two aspects of inferencing:
drawing inferences to comprehend vocabulary, and drawing inferences to understand implied
meaning.

2 Analysis
Researchers agree that two factors determine reading proficiency: the general L2 proficiency level
and the use of reading strategies. There is, however, disagreement as to what extent those two
factors influence the reading comprehension of different types of learner.

There is consensus that the more the reading vocabulary approximates 100% the easier it is to
access a text (Alderson 2000, Day/Bamford 1998:17, Grabe 2009:265 et seq.), and that vocabulary,
therefore, is a focus proper of L2 teaching. With reference to strategies, however, some researchers
argue, and I tend to agree, that due to the similarities between L1 and L2 reading (Hudson 2007,
Grabe 2009, Alderson/Urquhart 1984) poor L1 readers will hardly become good L2 readers (an
illustrative example in Klein 1994:445), and competent L1 readers have good chances to eventually
be proficient L2 readers anyway.

Indeed, good and poor readers differ from each other with respect to the employment of reading
strategies (Grabe 2009:213). These are developed in the process of L1 acquisition and teachers
therefore often assume that learners can transfer them automatically onto the L2 reading process. I,
however, have observed that this is not necessarily the case because L1 strategies are unconsciously

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employed, difficult to conceptualize and thus often not successfully employed when reading L2
texts. This is because L1 reading starts after language proficiency has reached an already
respectable level that many L2 learners do not even reach (Day/Bamford 1998:18). On the contrary,
L2 reading begins immediately with L2 acquisition and due to the assumptions expressed above
strategy teaching is neglected. As a result, L2 learners can experience a cognitive overload (Hudson
2007:257). So even if learners come equipped with developed L1 skills to the L2 classroom, it
seems promising to analyse these skills and make their teaching part of L2 instruction.

The development of consummate skills follows the perfection of effective and coherent strategies.
Strategies are conscious, skills unconscious (reading) techniques (Farrell 2009:9, Hudson
2007:105ff).

"Skills refer to information-processing techniques that are automatic. […] Skills are applied to texts
unconsciously […] In contrast, strategies are actions selected deliberately to achieve particular goals." (Paris
et al. 1996 as quoted in Hudson 2007:106)

As a catchphrase we can say a skill is a strategy "gone underground". 1 We can infer that strategy
teaching will lead to the development of good skills.

The reading strategy I have found to be one of the most profitable but also problematic is
appropriate inferencing. Inferencing means using common sense, logic, background knowledge and
schemata to come to a conclusion (Nuttall 1996:115). It is understood as an attempt to make sense
of the world by trying to understand something with reference to what was understood before, i.e.
background knowledge (Grabe 2009:68).

There are two essential kinds of inferences: bridging inferences and elaborate inferences (Grabe
2009:69). Bridging inferences appear as "reference tracking" (Grabe 2009:214) and refer to
questions of cohesion and coherence and are rather used by low-level learners. Elaborate inferences
include the ability like to "[…] integrate new information with prior knowledge; [and] […]
synthesize information from multiple cues and sources; […]" (Grabe 2009:69) and are employed
when reading on higher levels because those readers have more cognitive capacity available
(Hudson 2007:257).

To acknowledge that inferencing depends very much on background/prior knowledge is in line with
a theoretical standpoint which rejects the long-held belief that reading is a mere passive activity.
1
Contrary to the quote above, Moreillon 2007:15 attributes that phrase to Janet Allan.
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Reading means making sense of written language to get the message (Nuttall 1996:3). It "is
meaning based [and] purpose and comprehension driven […]." (Hudson 2007:28)

Thus, reading is nowadays seen as a communicative activity (Silberstein 1994:9, Bausch,

1989:247). Readers actively engage with the content authors have graphically encoded (Bausch,
1989:246). This engagement of readers with texts is independent of the language used and therefore
understood to be universal (Hudson 2007, Grabe 2009). This accounts for the belief alluded to
above that it is justified to speak of the universality of the reading process. The originators of
various reading process models agree on the fundamental idea that the reconstruction of textual
messages necessarily has recourse to background knowledge. It works via two simultaneously
ongoing processes, which are data-driven (initiated by the text) or concept-driven (initiated by the
reader) (Steinhöfel, 1989:246). These processes are also called bottom-up, a term "used for
approaches to reading which emphasise text-based features at word and sentence level" (Wallace
2001:22) and top-down processing, which refers to "the kinds of background knowledge and values
which the reader brings to reading." (Wallace 2001:22) This background knowledge on the one
hand comprises readers' knowledge of text conventions like genre, text organisation, the function of
linguistic devices etc. and on the other hand their general knowledge about certain subject matters.
There is no doubt that background knowledge is a decisive factor in text comprehension and
information retention (Grabe 2009:79, Day/Bamford 1998:14 et seq.) and that it makes inferencing
possible at all, which, in turn, can lead to successful reading. Therefore, inferencing strategies
should be part of L2 instruction.

3 Learning Problems and Teaching Issues

3.1 Problems with Vocabulary Inferencing

When making inferencing an issue in L2 instruction teachers have to be aware of certain
restrictions. In the following example, for instance, the meaning of the homologous may not (unless
one knows Ancient Greek or is a skilled medical practitioner) be guessed from context.

The European Court […] dismissed all arguments […] for a difference in treatment vis à vis other
couples who are able to get pregnant merely by resorting to homologous techniques.
http://www.linguee.fr/anglais-francais/traduction/homologous.html.)

Neither is there much use giving a dictionary explanation because it tells us that homologous means
exhibiting a degree of correspondence or similarity. It should not be assumed that learners would
easily understand the vocabulary used for the definition and neither would they be able to
understand the statement by applying the definition to the unknown word.

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Another issue is that some learners do not want to infer but would rather be told the translation of
words directly.

A third issue is that the metaphorical use of language can cause problems if readers cannot deal with
semantic deviation when words and expressions are used figuratively.

3.2 Problems with Context Inferencing

Inferences from context not only depend on background knowledge but often also on logic.
Learners must understand that inferring does not mean wild guessing but all inferences must be
accounted for on the basis of textual information (Silberstein 1994:77). So, for instance, in the
sentence

Christine has been advised by her doctor to do more sports

our background knowledge helps us to infer that Christine could have weight problems or that the
doctor believes that doing sports is good for Christine's health. It would be absurd, though, to
suggest at that stage that the doctor's brother is the manager of a sports club looking for new
members.

Reading comprehension gets more difficult if authors deliberately want to initiate wrong inferring.
Nuttall (1996:115) gives the following sentence:

The treatment was later withdrawn. Next day the patient died.

Even if these sentences do not cause any vocabulary difficulties, readers could easily infer "that the
withdrawal of treatment caused the death." (Nuttall 1996:115) This example shows that successful
L2 reading is also connected to the general cognitive ability and can be seen as a further instance to
underline the belief in the universality of the reading process as expressed above.

Due to the role of cognition, problems here can be more severe than those mentioned with reference
to vocabulary work. Furthermore, text construction conventions can also play a very decisive role.
It is imaginable that other language conventions dictate a form like in Nuttall's example in order to
express exactly the logical connection not necessarily given in English. In my experience speakers

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of other languages or inexperienced readers may not be acquainted with sophism and thus fail to see
tricks of text design.

4 Suggestions for Teaching

4.1 Solution for Inferring Vocabulary Items

Inferring the meaning of vocabulary works basically via three approaches:
a) Readers make inferences by using context clues. In the sentence Alvin went to the museum every
Saturday because he was so fascinated by art the meaning of the adjective "fascinated" can be roughly
inferred from context.
b) Teachers select relevant words from the text and create what Silberstein calls "vocabulary from
context formats" (Silberstein 1994:107). This basically means that the relevant word is put into a
context in which its meaning becomes obvious. In the sentence His support for the company
withered away one could infer the metaphoric meaning through understanding the literal meaning
(The flower withered and eventually died). This would be an obvious example for use of the word
(Silberstein 1994:109).
c) Vocabulary is inferred on the basis of further textual information. So if the above sentence
continued Every day he worked with less enthusiasm, this extra information would function as an
inferential clue and the meaning of withered would become clearer or even obvious.

Inferencing can also be induced through exploiting semantics, like using antonyms (wither =/=
flourish, bloom), synonyms (decay, fade) etc. Other possibilities include cause and effect
relationships (The plants withered because they had no water.) and descriptions (When something
withers, it becomes weaker, often until it no longer exists. [Pons Cobuild]), or even making a
drawing on the whiteboard if applicable. The effectiveness of these practices depends on learners'
readiness/skill to infer, time at hand but also on the importance of the respective vocabulary and in
how far it lends itself to whatever strategy.

These strategies can naturally only be usefully applied if teachers carry out a careful language
analysis. This was one of the weaknesses I recognised in my Reflection and Action Plan to be
worthwhile working on. I will therefore try to make sure that a careful choice of texts will
contribute to successful teaching. Of good help here are the mentioned publications of Silberstein
and Nuttall, but also Grellet and Farrell (in particular chapter 7) and online resources like
http://www.ereadingworksheets.com

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4.2 Solution for Inferring meaning
The most straightforward way to practice drawing inferences is to select a text, make correct
statements implied by the unstated and ask readers what in the text supports the statement. Slightly
more difficult it is to prepare true/false statements and ask learners what information in the text
makes them infer that the statement is true/false. Even more difficult are open questions about what
can be inferred from a particular paragraph.

Still another idea, which I found on www.ereadingworkshets.com, asks learners to read a paragraph
and then answer a question on the basis of the information read. The difference to the idea above is
not only that they have to give reasons for their choice but that there is a variety of answers possible
so that learners have to operate with degrees of likelihood. This exercise addresses the problem
raised in the Learning Problems and Teaching Issues section that inferring is not wild guessing.

I sometimes play games like Black Stories. Players have to find solutions to a creepy mystery story
of which they only know seemingly unconnected details e.g. "A woman dies because she was on the
phone for too long." Learners then have to find out what has happened, make guesses and infer
further on the basis of the answers given to arrive at a possible solution.
This game deliberately exaggerates strategies readers need to employ when writers expect readers
to make conclusions from something that is not said. Nuttall illustrates this with the account of a
real detective story (Nuttall 1996:102). Readers are asked to follow a detective's thoughts about a
stolen car, recognize the coherence of the single parts of his reasoning and thus arrive at a possible
solution.

Our learners may also need exercises to avoid fallacious reasoning as in the example given by
Nuttall above. Teachers could include texts which suggest a certain interpretation and learners
would have to work out whether this interpretation is really supported by textual information.

It goes without saying that all of the suggested ideas need to be appropriate and take learners' L2
level as well as their general cognitive ability into account. As always, teachers need to estrange
themselves from texts when preparing them, looking at them with the eyes of learners. Every task
set has to be doable, and objectives attainable. I have found that in particular with challenging tasks
learners can all too easily feel frustrated and draw the wrong conclusions about their own cognitive
capacity.
Materials used for the lesson are the same as above plus a number of websites (for example
www.education com) which offer effective inferencing exercises.
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5 Conclusion
I have chosen this area because I believe that the capacity to read carefully is often wanting and
seminars in speed reading persuade us that speed is the decisive element in reading. Even though I
am not denying that speed is important, I believe that reading comprehension can (depending on the
reading purpose) severely suffer. I will continue to make learners aware that different texts require
different ways of reading and that superficial reading will all too often lead to missing out on
important things. I will further insist on careful reading and therefore try to choose texts prudently
to make readers want to engage with them. One of my specified objectives in my Reflection &
Action Plan was to focus more on language analysis. My long term goal is to develop a working
routine for text selection based on a good language analysis which can be the basis for teaching
reading strategies.

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GRELLET, Françoise (1981), Developing Reading Skills. A Practical Guide to Reading
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LAKOFF George & JOHNSON Mark (1980), Metaphors We Live By. University of Chicago Press.
MOREILLON, Judi (2007), Collaborative Strategies for Teaching Reading Comprehension. S.l.
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SILBERSTEIN, Sandra (2004), Techniques and Resources in Teaching Reading. Oxford.

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