1. What is Genetics?

The study of heredity, or how the characteristics of living things are transmitted from one
generation to the next. Every living thing contains the genetic material that makes up DNA
molecules. This material is passed on when organisms reproduce. The basic unit of heredity is
the gene.

2. Who is the Father of Genetics?

Gregor Mendel is considered as “Father of Genetics”. Gregor Mendel, through his work
on pea plants, discovered the fundamental laws of inheritance. He deduced that genes come in
pairs and are inherited as distinct units, one from each parent.

3. Who is Lamarck? Hugo de Vries and Darwin? Give their contributions to genetics.
Jean-Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, Chevalier de Lamarck (1744 – 1829) was a
French naturalist and an early proponent of the idea that evolution (descent with modification)
occurred and proceeded in accordance with natural laws. Lamarck, however, is remembered
today mainly in connection with his now superseded theory of heredity, the "inheritance of
acquired traits". Lamarck is one of those ground breaker of Genetics. Lamarck is an important
forerunner of the Darwinian theory of evolution, which, just as did Lamarckism, assigned a
critical role to the environment in evolutionary processes.

The botanist Hugo de Vries (1848-1935) worked in the fields of heredity and its relation
to the origin of species, developing a mutation theory. He also brought the earlier work of
Gregor Mendel to the attention of the scientific world.

Charles Robert Darwin (1809 - 1882) was a naturalist and biologist known for his theory
of evolution and the process of natural selection.

4. What is the law of Segregation?

The principles that govern heredity were discovered by Gregor Mendel in the 1860s. One
of these principles, now called Mendel's Law of Segregation, states that allele pairs separate or
 segregate during gamete formation, and randomly unite at fertilization.

There are four main concepts related to this principle. They are as follows:
 A gene can exist in more than one form or allele.
 Organisms inherit two alleles for each trait.
 When sex cells are produced (by meiosis), allele pairs separate leaving each cell with
a single allele for each trait.
 When the two alleles of a pair are different, one is dominant, and the other is
recessive.

5. What is the law of Independent assortment?

Mendel's law of independent assortment, states that allele pairs separate during the
formation of gametes. This means that traits are transmitted to offspring independently of one
another.

6. Differentiate a monohybrid cross from a dihybrid cross.

Monohybrid cross and dihybrid cross are two genetic crossing methods that are used to
study the inheritance of allele pairs. These are useful in understanding the inheritance of traits
from one generation to another. Monohybrid cross is a genetic cross that involves a single pair
of genes that is responsible for one trait. In a monohybrid cross, parents differ by a single trait.
Dihybrid cross is a genetic cross that involves two pairs of genes which are responsible for two
traits. In a dihybrid cross, parents have two different independent traits.

7. Differentiate a dominant trait from a recessive trait. How are they symbolized.
The terms dominant and recessive describe the inheritance patterns of certain traits. That
is, they describe how likely it is for a certain phenotype to pass from parent offspring. Sexually
reproducing species, including people and other animals, have two copies of each gene. The two
copies, called alleles, can be slightly different from each other.
Alleles are labeled with letters. A capital letter means the allele is dominant. A lowercase
letter means the allele is recessive. The genetic makeup of an individual is its genotype. The
genotype is represented by two letters for each trait, indicating two alleles. Gamete cells are
labeled with only one letter because they carry only one allele for the trait.
8. Differentiate a phenotype from a genotype.
The phenotype is the physical appearance of an organism, while the Genotype is the
genetic composition of an organism. Phenotype are observable and are the expression of the
genes of an individual. So even the organism with the same species may differ, with a minute
difference in their genotype. This is the main difference between the two.
We can notice one’s hair color, eye color, height, weight, skin color, etc. but cannot look
at genes responsible for these characters, so the observable physical look is the phenotype while
the unnoticed genes responsible for such characters present in the DNA of cell of the individual
is genotype.

9. Compare and contrast a homozygote and a heterozygote.

Individual organisms carrying two identical alleles (for example RR or rr) are called
as homozygous. While individual organisms bear different alleles (for example Rr) are called
heterozygous.
A homozygous trait is when the same kind of two alleles associate to form a trait. A
heterozygous is a trait when different kinds of two alleles associate to form a trait. In this
type, dominant and regressive alleles are present in the pair, and the dominant will represent
the kind of trait the offspring will show.

10. What is a Punnett Square?

The Punnett square is a square diagram that is used to predict the genotypes of a
particular cross or breeding experiment. It is named after Reginald C. Punnett, who devised
the approach. The diagram is used by biologists to determine the probability of an offspring
having a particular genotype.

11. What is the so-called magic number 9: 3: 3: 1?

This is the ratio of phenotypes in a dihybrid cross.
Explanation:
 If both parents are heterogeneous for both traits the ratio of phenotypes is the ratio of
9:3:3:1. One trait is dominant and the other trait is recessive. Of the 16 possible offsprings
only 1 will have both recessive genes. Only with double recessives will the phenotype show
both recessives. Nine will have at least one gene for both dominate genes. With one or more
genes for the dominate gene the phenotype will show both dominate phenotypes.
Three possible off springs will have a double recessive for one trait therefore that recessive
trait will be expressed while the other trait will be the dominate form. Three possible
offspring will have a double recessive for the other trait.

Hence the ratio of 9:3:3:1 of phenotypes.

12. Explain the law of dominance and co-dominance.

In both codominance and incomplete dominance, both alleles for a trait are dominant.
In codominance a heterozygous individual expresses both simultaneously without any
blending. An example of codominance is the roan cow which has both red hairs and white
hairs. In incomplete dominance a heterozygous individual blends the two traits. An example
of incomplete dominance is the pink snapdragon, which receives a red allele and white allele.

Using the law of dominance and co-dominance, cross the following traits:

 Red vs Yellow gumamela flowers (Dominant RR) (Recessive rr)

 Using the law of dominance: R r

R RR Rr
Red (RR) + Yellow (rr) = (Rr)
r Rr rr

Under the law of dominance, the dominant allele, in this case is Red, will be expressed.

 Using the law of co-dominance:

 Red (RR) + Yellow (YY) = (RY)

Under the law of co-dominance, neither the Red nor the Yellow Gumamela is dominant to the
other, so the RY genotype gives the co-dominance color of the Gumamela.

 Yellow corn vs white corn

 Using the law of dominance:

Yellow (YY) + White (yy) = (Yy)

Y y

Y YY Yy

y Yy yy

Under the law of dominance, the dominant allele, in this case is Yellow, will be expressed.
Resulting with a yellow corn.

 Using the law of co-dominance:

Yellow (YY) + White (WW) = (YW)

Under the law of co-dominance, neither the yellow nor the white corn is dominant to the other,
so the YW genotype gives the co-dominance color of the corn. Resulting with a bi-color corn.

 Green star apple vs violet star apple

  Using the law of dominance:

Green (GG) + Violet (gg) = (Gg)

G g

G GG Gg

g Gg gg

Under the law of dominance, the dominant allele, in this case is Green, will be expressed.
Resulting with a Green star apple.

 Using the law of co-dominance:

Green (GG) + Violet (VV) = (GV)

Under the law of co-dominance, neither the green nor the violet star apple is dominant to the
other, so the GV genotype gives the co-dominance color of the star apple. Resulting with a bi-
color star apple.