Anatomy and Physiology Reviewer Cardiac Output

Lecture Volume of blood pumped by

Blood either ventricle of the heart each minute.
Layers of the Heart
Blood makes 8% of the total body Epicardium – also called
weight as visceral pericardium
Percentage by volume of the - thin, serous
blood membrane forming smooth
Plasma (55%) outer surface of the heart.
Proteins (7%) - consists of
Albumins (58%) simple squamous
Globulins (38%) overlying a layer of loose
Fibrinogen (4%) connective and adipose
Water (91%) tissue
Other Solutes Myocardium – thick,
Ions middle layer of the heart
Nutrients - composed
Waste Products of cardiac muscle
Gases - responsible
Regulatory – for contraction of heart
Substances chambers
Buffy Coat Endocardium – smooth
Formed Elements (45%) inner surface of the heart
Platelets (250-400 chambers.
thousand per cubic mm) - consists of simple
White Blood Cells (5-10 squamous epithelium over
thousand per cubic mm) a layer of connective
Neutrophils (60- tissue
70%) - allows blood to
Lymphocytes (20- move easily through the
25%) heart
Monocytes (3-8%) Sinoatrial Node
Eosinophils (2-4%) Functions as a pacemaker of the
Basophils (0.5-1%) Thheart
Red Blood Cells (4.2-6.2 Where action potentials originate
million per cubic mm) Ventricular Systole
Heart Contractions of the two ventricles
Great Vessels
Foramen Ovale Large vessels that bring blood to
An opening in the interatrial and from the heart.
septum  Superior Vena Cava
Allows blood to enter the left  Inferior Vena Cava
atrium to the right atrium  Pulmonary Arteries
Frank Starling’s Law of the Heart  Pulmonary Veins
Relationship between preload  Aorta
and stroke volume
The left ventricular walls are thicker
during systemic circulation because it
needs higher forces to pump blood
throughout the body compared to right
ventricle that pumps only to the lungs
which is a much smaller volume of
blood.
Vagotomy
Ligation of the Vagal Nerve
Functions of the Heart
1. Generating Blood
Pressure
2. Routing Blood
3. Ensuring One-Way
Blood Flow
4. Regulating Blood Supply
Characteristics of the Heart
a. Size
 Size of a fist and weighs
less than 1 lb.
b. Location
 Between lungs in thoracic
cavity
c. Orientation
 Apex (bottom) towards left
side
Lubb Sound
Opening of valves
Dubb Sound
Closing of Valves
Heart Valves
Structures that ensures 1-way
blood flow
 Atrioventricular Valves
o Tricuspid
o Bicuspid (Mitral)
 Semilunar Valves
o Pulmonary
o Aortic
Chordae Tendinae
Attached to AV valve flaps
Support valves
What happens when Bicuspid Valve
is Open?
• Blood flows from LA into LV.
• Aortic semilunar valve is closed.
• Tension on chordae tendineae is
low.
What happens when Bicuspid Valve
is Closed?
• Blood flows from LV into aorta.
• Aortic semilunar valve is open.
• Tension on chordae tendineae is
high.
Blood Flow
• Blood flows from arteries into
arterioles
• Arterioles into capillaries
• Capillaries into venules
• Venules to small veins
• Veins return to heart
• Right and left brachiocephalic
veins:
drain blood from thorax into
superior vena cava
• Azygos veins:
drain blood from thorax into
superior vena cava
• Internal thoracic veins:
empty into brachiocephalic veins
• Posterior intercostal veins:
- drain blood from posterior
thoracic wall
- drains into azygos vein on right
side
• Hemiazygos vein:
receives blood from azygos vein
of left side
• Common iliac vein:
- formed from external and
internal iliacs
- empty into inferior vena cava
• External iliac vein:
- drains blood from lower limbs
- empty into common iliac vein
• Internal iliac vein:
- drains blood from pelvic region
- empties into common iliac vein
 • Renal vein:
drains blood from kidneys
Lymphatic System
Functions of the Lymphatic System
1. Fluid balance
2. Fat Absorption
3. Defense
Edema
Swelling
Results from disruption in the
normal inwardly and outwardly directed
pressures across the capillary walls
Infection
Caused by high Leukocyte
(Neutrophil) count
Components
• Lymph:
fluid that enters lymphatic
capillaries composed of water and some
solutes
• Lymphocytes
• Lymphatic vessels
• Lymph nodes
• Tonsils
• Spleen
• Thymus gland
Lymphatic Capillaries and Vessels
• Carries fluid in one direction from
tissues to circulatory system
• Fluid moves from blood
capillaries into tissue spaces
• Lymphatic capillaries:
- tiny, closed-ended vessels
- fluid moves easily into
- in most tissues
- join to form lymphatic vessels
• Lymphatic vessels:
- resemble small veins
- where lymphatic capillaries join
- one way valves
• Right lymphatic duct:
- where lymphatic vessels from
right upper
limb and right head, neck, chest
empty
- empties into right subclavian
vein
• Thoracic duct:
- rest of body empties from
lymphatic
vessels
- empties into left subclavian vein
Lymphatic Cells
• White blood cells:
produce in red bone marrow and
lymphatic
tissue that fight foreign substances
• Phagocytic cells:
- ingest and destroy foreign
substances
- Ex. neutrophils and
macrophages
• Basophils:
- made in red bone marrow
- leave blood and enter infected
tissues
- can release histamine
• Mast cells:
- made in red bone marrow
- found in skin, lungs,
gastrointestinal tract,
urogenital tract
- can release leukotrienes
• Eosinophils:
- produced in red bone marrow
- release chemicals to reduce
inflammation
• Natural Killer Cells:
- type of lymphocyte
- produce in red bone marrow
- recognize classes of cells such
as tumor
cells or virus infected cells
- release chemicals to lysis cells
Thymus gland
- bilobed gland
- located in mediastinum behind
the sternum
- stops growing at age 1
 - at age 60 decreases in size
- produces and matures
lymphocytes
• B cells:
- type of lymphocytes
- involved in antibody-mediated
immunity
- originate from stem cells
- mature in red bone marrow
- move to lymphatic tissue after
mature
- lead to production of antibodies
• T cells:
- type of lymphocyte
- involved in cell-mediated
immunity
primarily and antibody-mediated
immunity
- mature in thymus gland
- move to lymphatic tissue after
mature
- 4 types
Lymph nodes:
- rounded structures that vary in
size
- located near lymphatic vessels
- groin, armpit, neck
- lymph passes through lymph
nodes before
entering blood
- lymph moves through and
immune system is activated
(lymphocytes produced) if foreign
substances are detected
- removal of microbes by
macrophages
Spleen:
- size of clenched fist
- located in abdomen
- filters blood
- detect and respond to foreign
substances
- destroy old red blood cells
- blood reservoir
- white pulp: lymphatic tissue
surrounding
arteries
- red pulp: contains
macrophages and red
blood cells that connect to veins
Immunity
- ability to resist damage from
foreign
substances
- Ex. Microbes, toxins, cancer
cells
• Types of immunity:
- innate
- adaptive
Innate Immunity
present at birth
- defense against any pathogen
- accomplished by physical
barriers,
chemical mediators, cells,
inflammatory
response
Adaptive Immunity
-defense that involves specific
recognition
to a specific antigen
- acquired after birth
- reacts when innate defenses
don’t work
- slower than innate immunity
- has memory
- uses lymphocytes (B and T
cells)
- 2 types antibody-mediated and
cell – mediated
Types of Adaptive Immunity
Naturally Acquired Immunity
• Active:
- natural exposure to antigens
causes
production of antibodies
- can be lifelong immunity
- Ex. Mononucleosis
• Passive:
 - transfer of antibodies from
mother to child
- Ex. Breast milk or placenta
Artificially Acquired Immunity
• Active:
- injection of antigens using
vaccines which
cause the production of antibodies
- vaccine or immunization:
process of introducing killed,
live, or
inactivated pathogen
• Passive:
injection of antibodies from
another person or animal