CHAPTER 2

FLUID STATICS
In fluids at rest there are no shear stresses; hence only normal
forces due to pressure are present. Normal forces produced by static fluids
are often very important. For example, they tend to overturn concrete
dams, burst pressure vessels, and break lock gates on canals. Obviously,
to design such facilities, we need to be able to compute the magnitudes
and locations of normal pressure forces. Understanding them, we can also
develop instruments to measure pressures, and systems that transfer
pressures, such as for automobile brakes and hoists.
Note that normal pressure forces alone can occur in a moving fluid if
the fluid is moving in bulk without deformation, i.e., as if it were solid or
rigid. However, this is relatively rare.
The average pressure intensity p is the force exerted on a unit
area. If F represents the total normal pressure force on some finite area
A , while dF represents the force on an infinitesimal area dA , the
pressure is
dF
p= . (2.1)
dA
If the pressure is uniform over the total area, then p = F A . In the
British Gravitational (BG) system we generally express pressure in pounds
lb
per square inch ( psi ) or pounds per square foot ( ft 2 = psf ), while in SI

units we commonly use the pascal ( Pa = N 2 ) or kPa = kN 2 .

m m
Previously, bars and millibars were used in metric systems to express
pressure; 1 mb = 100 Pa .

2.1. Pascal’s Law for Pressure at a Point

In a solid, because of the possibility of tangential stresses between
adjacent particles, the stresses at a given point may be different in different
directions. But no tangential stresses can exist in a fluid at rest, and the
only forces between adjacent surfaces are pressure forces normal to the
surfaces. Therefore the pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is the same
in all directions.

18
 By considering a small
element of fluid in the form of a
tetrahedron (Fig. 2.1) which
contains a point P , we can
establish a relationship between
the four pressures p x in the x
direction, p y in the y direction,
pz in the z direction and pn in
the direction normal to the
sloping face BCD .

Fig. 2.1. Tetrahedron element of fluid

The fluid is a rest, so we know there are no shearing forces, and we

know that all pressure force are acting at right angles to the surfaces .i.e.
1 1 1
dPx = p x dy dz ; dPy = p y dx dz ; dPz = pz dx dy ; dPn = pn dAn ,
2 2 2
dA
where n is the area of the sloping face BCD .
And, as the fluid is at rest, in equilibrium, the sum of the forces in any
direction is zero. Summing forces in x and y directions
1
p x dy dz - pndAn cos( � n, x ) = 0 ,
2
1
p y dx dz - pndAn cos( � n, y ) = 0 .
2
1 1
Since dAn cos( �n, x ) = dAx = dy dz and dAn cos( � n, y ) = dAy = dx dz ,
2 2
it follows that
p x = pn ,
p y = pn .
Similarly, summing forces in the z direction gives
1 1
pz dy dx - pndAn cos( � n, z ) - r g dxdydz = 0 .
2 6
1
Since dAn cos( �n, z ) = dAz = dy dx , it follows that
2

19
 1
pz dy dx - pn dy dx - r g dxdydz = 0 .
3
The third term is of higher order than the other two terms and so may
be neglected. It follows from this that
pz = pn .
Thus
p x = p y = pz = pn . (2.1)
Considering the tetrahedron element again, pn is the pressure on a
plane at any angle, the x , y and z directions could be any orientation.
The tetrahedron element is so small that it can be considered a point so
the derived expression (2.1) indicates that pressure at any point is the
same in all directions.
This is known as Pascal’s Law and applies to fluids at rest.
2.2. Variation of Pressure in a Static Fluid

20
 Consider the differential element (or control volume) of static fluid
shown in Fig. 2.2. Since the element is very small, we can assume that the
density of the fluid within the element is constant. Assume that the
pressure at the center of the element is p and that the dimensions of the
element are dx , dy and dz . The forces acting on the fluid element in the
vertical direction are the body force, the action of gravity on the mass
within the element, and the surface forces, transmitted from the
surrounding fluid and acting at right angles against the top, bottom, and
sides of the element. Because the fluid is at rest, the element is in
equilibrium and the summation of forces acting on the element in any
direction must be zero. If forces
are summed in the horizontal
direction, that is, x or y , the
only forces acting are the
pressure forces on the vertical
faces of the element. To satisfy
�x
F = 0 and �y
F = 0 the
pressures on the opposite
vertical faces must be equal.
� p =� p =0
Thus �x �y for the
case of the fluid at rest.

Fig. 2.2. Element of fluid

Summing forces in the vertical direction and setting the sum equal to
zero,
� �
p dz � � �
p dz �
�Fz = �p-
� �
dx dy - �p +
z 2�
� � �
dx dy - r g dx dy dz = 0 .
z 2�
�
�
p
This results in = - r g , which, since p is independent of x and y ,
�
z
we can write as
dp dp
= - r g or = -g . (2.2)
dz dz
This is the general expression that relates variation of pressure in a
static fluid to vertical position. The minus sign indicates that as z gets
larger (increasing elevation), the pressure gets smaller.

21
 To evaluate the pressure anywhere in a fluid at rest, we must
integrate Eq. (2.2) between appropriately chosen limits. For
incompressible fluids ( r = const ), we can integrate Eq. (2.2) directly. For
compressible fluids, however, we must express r algebraically as a
function of z or p if we wish to determine pressure accurately as a
function of elevation.
For the case of incompressible fluid dp = - r g dz , integrating,
p2 z2

�
dp = - r g �
dz
p1 z1

so p2 - p1 = - r g ( z2 - z1 ) , (2.3)
where p1 is the pressure at an elevation z1 and p2 is the pressure at an
elevation z 2 .
This expression is generally applicable to liquids, since they are only
very slightly compressible. Only where there are large changes in
elevation, as in the ocean, do we need to consider the compressibility of
the liquid, to arrive at an accurate determination of pressure variation. For
small changes in elevation, Eq. (2.3) will give accurate results when
applied to gases.
For the case of a liquid at rest, it is convenient to measure distances
vertically downward from the free liquid surface. If h is the distance below
the free liquid surface and if the pressure of air and vapor on the surface is
arbitrarily taken as zero, we can also write Eq. (2.3) as
p = r gh . (2.4)
In fact, there must always be some pressure on the surface of any
liquid, so the total pressure at any depth h is given by Eq. (2.4) plus the
pressure on the surface. In many situations this surface pressure may be
disregarded.
From Eq. (2.4), we can see that all points in a connected body of
constant density fluid at rest are under the same pressure if they are at the
same depth below the liquid surface. This is known as Pascal's law, in
honor of Blaise Pascal (1623-1662), a French mathematician who clarified
and contributed to early principles of hydrostatics, and after whom we now
name the unit of pressure in the SI system. Pascal's law indicates that a
surface of equal pressure for a liquid at rest is a horizontal plane. Strictly
speaking, it is a surface everywhere normal to the direction of gravity and
is approximately a spherical surface concentric with the earth. For practical
purposes, a limited portion of this surface may be considered a plane area.
An important property follows from Eq. (2.3), which we can express
as:
22
 p1 p
z1 + = z2 + 2 = const . (2.5)
rg rg

Fig. 2.3.

This shows that for an incompressible fluid at rest, at any point in the
fluid the sum of the elevation z and the pressure head p r g is equal to
the sum of these two quantities at any other point. The significance of this
statement is that, in a fluid at rest, with an increase in elevation there is a
decrease in pressure head, and vice versa. This concept is depicted in
Fig. 2.3.
2.3 Absolute and Gage Pressures
If we measure pressure relative to absolute zero, we call it absolute
pressure; when we measure it relative to atmospheric pressure as a base,
we call it gage pressure. This is because practically all pressure gages
register zero when open to the atmosphere, and so they measure the
difference between the pressure of the fluid they are connected to and that
of the surrounding air.
If the pressure is below that of the atmosphere, we call it a vacuum,
and its gage value is the amount by which it is below that of the
atmosphere. What we call a "high vacuum" is really a low absolute
pressure; a perfect vacuum would correspond to absolute zero pressure.
All values of absolute pressure are positive, since a negative value
would indicate tension, which we normally consider impossible in any fluid.
Gage pressures are positive if they are above that of the atmosphere and
negative if they are vacuum (Fig. 2.4).

23
 Fig. 2.4.

We can see from the preceding discussion that the following relation
holds,
pabs = patm + pgage , (2.6)
where pgage may be positive or negative (vacuum).
We also call the atmospheric pressure the barometric pressure,
and it varies with elevation above sea level. Also, at a given place it varies
slightly from time to time because of changes in meteorological conditions.
In thermodynamics it is essential to use absolute pressure, because
most thermal properties are functions of the actual (absolute) pressure of
the fluid, regardless of the atmospheric pressure. For example, the
property relations for a perfect gas (Eq. 1.10) is an equation in which we
must use absolute pressure. In fact, we must use absolute pressures in
most problems involving gases and vapors.
Pressure does not usually much affect the properties of liquids, so
we commonly use gage pressures in problems dealing with liquids. Also,
we usually find that the atmospheric pressure appears on both sides of an
equation, and hence cancels. Thus the value of atmospheric pressure is
usually of no significance when dealing with liquids, and, for this reason as
well, we almost universally use gage pressures with liquids. About the only
situation where we need to consider the absolute pressure of a liquid is
where its pressure approaches or equals the saturated vapor pressure.
Throughout this text we shall take all numerical pressures to be gage
pressures unless they are specifically given as absolute pressures. But

24
whenever confusion is possible, we should specify gage pressures with
units like psi or kPa gage.

2.4. Pressure Measurement

The relationship between pressure and head is used to measure
pressure with a manometer (also know as a liquid gauge).
2.4.1. The Piezometer Tube Manometer
The simplest manometer is a
tube, open at the top, which is attached
to the top of a vessel containing liquid
at a pressure (higher than
atmospheric) to be measured. An
example can be seen in the Fig. 2.5.
This simple device is known as a
Piezometer tube. As the tube is open
to the atmosphere the pressure
measured is relative to atmospheric so
is gauge pressure.

Fig. 2.5. A simple piezometer tube

manometer

Pressure at A is pressure due to column of liquid above A

p A = r gh1 .
Pressure at B is pressure due to column of liquid above B
pB = r gh2 . (2.7)
This method can only be used for liquids (i.e. not for gases) and only
when the liquid height is convenient to measure. It must not be too small or
too large and pressure changes must be detectable.
2.4.2. The “U”-Tube Manometer
Using a “U”-Tube enables the pressure of both liquids and gases to
be measured with the same instrument. The “U” is connected as in the
Fig. 2.6. and filled with a fluid called the manometric fluid. The fluid whose
pressure is being measured should have a mass density less than that of
the manometric fluid and the two fluids should not be able to mix readily -
that is, they must be immiscible.
25
 Fig. 2.6. A “U”-Tube manometer

Pressure in a continuous static fluid is the same at any horizontal

level so,
pB = pC .
For the left hand arm pressure at B is exactly equal pressure at A
plus pressure due to height h1 of fluid being measured
pB = p A + r gh1 .
For the right hand arm pressure at C is exactly equal pressure at D
plus pressure due to height h2 of manometric fluid
pC = patm + r man gh2 .
As we are measuring gauge pressure we can subtract patm giving
p A = r man gh2 - r gh1 . (2.8)
If the fluid being measured is a gas, the density will probably be very
low in comparison to the density of the manometric fluid i.e. r man ? r . In
this case the term r gh1 can be neglected, and the gauge pressure give by
p A = r man gh2 . (2.9)

2.4.3. Measurement of Pressure Difference Using a

“U”-Tube Manometer
If the “U”-tube manometer is connected to a pressurised vessel at
two points the pressure difference between these two points can be
measured (Fig. 2.7).

26
 Fig. 2.7. Pressure difference measurement by the “U”-Tube manometer

If the manometer is arranged as in the figure above, then pressure at

C is exactly equal pressure at D :
pC = pD ;
pC = p A + r ghA ;
pD = pB + r g( hB - h ) + r man gh ;
p A + r ghA = pB + r g( hB - h ) + r man gh .
Giving the pressure difference
p A - pB = r g( hB - hA ) + ( r man - r )gh . (2.10)
Again, if the fluid whose pressure difference is being measured is a
gas and r man ? r , then the terms involving r can be neglected, so
p A - pB = r man gh . (2.11)

2.4.4. Advances to the “U”-Tube manometer.

The “U”-Tube manometer has the disadvantage that the change in
height of the liquid in both sides must be read. This can be avoided by
making the diameter of one side very large compared to the other. In this

27
case the side with the large area moves very little when the small area side
move considerably more (Fig. 2.8).

Fig. 2.8. “U”-Tube manometer

Assume the manometer is arranged as above to measure the

pressure difference of a gas of (negligible density) and that pressure
difference is p1 - p2 . If the datum line indicates the level of the manometric
fluid when the pressure difference is zero and the height differences when
pressure is applied is as shown, the volume of liquid transferred from the
2
left side to the right equals Vright = h2 ( p d 4 ) .
And the fall in level of the left side is
2
Vright h2 ( p d 2 4 ) �d �
h1 = = = h2 � �.
Aleft p D2 4 �D �
We know from the theory of the “U”-Tube manometer that the height
different in the two columns gives the pressure difference so
� �d ��
2 � �d � 2�
p1 - p2 = r man g �h2 + h2 � ��= r man gh2 � 1 + � �� .
� � D � � � �D � �
� � � �
Clearly if D is very much larger than d then ( d D ) is very small so
2

p1 - p2 = r man gh2 . (2.12)

So only one reading need be taken to measure the pressure
difference.
If the pressure to be measured is very small then tilting the arm
provides a convenient way of obtaining a larger (more easily read)
movement of the manometer. The above arrangement with a tilted arm is
shown in the Fig. 2.9.

28
 Fig. 2.9. Tilted manometer

The pressure difference is still given by the height change of the

manometric fluid but by placing the scale along the line of the tilted arm
and taking this reading large movements will be observed. The pressure
difference is then given by
p1 - p2 = r man gh2 = r man g l sin q . (2.13)
The sensitivity to pressure change can be increased further by a
greater inclination of the manometer arm, alternatively the density of the
manometric fluid may be changed.
2.4.5. Choice of Manometer
Care must be taken when attaching the manometer to vessel, no
burrs must be present around this joint. Burrs would alter the flow causing
local pressure variations to affect the measurement.
Some disadvantages of manometers:
Slow response - only really useful for very slowly varying pressures
- no use at all for fluctuating pressures;
For the “U”-Tube manometer two measurements must be taken
simultaneously to get the h value. This may be avoided by using a tube
with a much larger cross-sectional area on one side of the manometer
than the other;
It is often difficult to measure small variations in pressure - a
different manometric fluid may be required – alternatively a sloping
manometer may be employed; It cannot be used for very large pressures
unless several manometers are connected in series;
For very accurate work the temperature and relationship between
temperature and r must be known;
Some advantages of manometers:
29
 They are very simple.
No calibration is required - the pressure can be calculated from first
principles.
2.5. Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surfaces
A common problem in the design of structures which interact with
fluids is the computation of the hydrostatic force on a plane surface. If we
neglect density changes in the fluid, Eq. (2.3) applies and the pressure on
any submerged surface varies linearly with depth. For a plane surface, the
linear stress distribution is exactly analogous to combined bending and
compression of a beam in strength-of-materials theory. The hydrostatic
problem thus reduces to simple formulas involving the centroid and
moments of inertia of the plate cross-sectional area.
Figure 2.10 shows a plane panel of arbitrary shape completely
submerged in a liquid. The panel plane makes an arbitrary angle q with
the horizontal free surface, so that the depth varies over the panel surface.
If h is the depth to any element area dA of the plate, from Eq. (2.3) the
pressure there is p = pa + r gh .
To derive formulas involving the plate shape, establish an xy
coordinate system in the plane of the plate with the origin at its centroid,
plus a dummy coordinate x (xi) down from the surface in the plane of the
plate. Then the total hydrostatic force on one side of the plate is given by
F= �
p dA = �
( pa + r gh )dA = pa A + r g �
hdA . (2.14)
The remaining integral is evaluated by noticing from Fig. 2.10 that
h = x sin q and, by definition, the centroidal slant distance from the surface
to the plate is
1
xCG =
A� x dA . (2.15)
Therefore, since q is constant along the plate, Eq. (2.14) becomes

�
F = pa A + r g sin q x dA = pa A + r g xCG sin q A . (2.16)
Finally, unravel this by noticing that xCG sin q = hCG , the depth
straight down from the surface to the plate centroid. Thus
F = pa A + r g hCG A = ( pa + r g hCG )A = pCG A . (2.17)
The force on one side of any plane submerged surface in a uniform
fluid equals the pressure at the plate centroid times the plate area,
independent of the shape of the plate or the angle q at which it is slanted.

30
 Fig. 2.10. Hydrostatic force and center of pressure on an arbitrary plane surface

Equation (2.17) can be visualized physically in Fig. 2.11 as the

resultant of a linear stress distribution over the plate area. This simulates
combined compression and bending of a beam of the same cross section.
It follows that the “bending’’ portion of the stress causes no force if its
“neutral axis’’ passes through the plate centroid of area. Thus the
remaining “compression’’ part must equal the centroid stress times the
plate area. This is the result of Eq. (2.17).
However, to balance the bending-moment portion of the stress, the
resultant force F does not act through the centroid but below it toward the
high-pressure side. Its line of action passes through the center of pressure
CP of the plate, as sketched in Fig. 2.11.
To find the coordinates ( xCP , yCP ), we sum moments of the
elemental force p dA about the centroid and equate to the moment of the
resultant F . To compute yCP , we equate
FyCP = � yp dA = � y( pa + r g x sin q )dA = r g sin q �
yx dA . (2.18)

The term � ypa dA vanishes by definition of centroidal axes.

Introducing x = x CG - y , we obtain

( �
FyCP = r g sin q xCG y dA ) = - r g sin q I
y dA - � 2
xx , (2.19)

31
where again �
y dA = 0 and I xx is the area moment of inertia of the plate
area about its centroidal x axis, computed in the plane of the plate.
Substituting for F gives the result
I
yCP = - r g sin q xx . (2.20)
pCG A
The negative sign in Eq. (2.20) shows that yCP is below the centroid
at a deeper level and, unlike F , depends upon angle q . If we move the
plate deeper, yCP approaches the centroid because every term in
Eq (2.41) remains constant except pCG , which increases.

Fig. 2.11. Three-dimensional linear pressure distribution

The determination of xCP is exactly similar:

FxCP = � xp dA = � x( pa + r g ( xCG - y ) sin q )dA =
(2.21)
= - r g sin q �
xy dA = - r g sin q I xy ,
where I xy is the product of inertia of the plate, again computed in the
plane of the plate.
Substituting for F gives
I xy
xCP = - r g sin q . (2.22)
pCG A
For positive I xy , xCP is negative because the dominant pressure
force acts in the third, or lower left, quadrant of the panel. If I xy = 0 ,

32
usually implying symmetry, xCP = 0 and the center of pressure lies directly
below the centroid on the y axis.
In most cases the ambient pressure pa is neglected because it acts
on both sides of the plate; e.g., the other side of the plate is inside a ship
or on the dry side of a gate or dam. In this case pCG = r ghCG , and the
center of pressure becomes independent of specific weight:
I sin q I xy sin q
F = r ghCG A , yCP = - xx , xCP = - . (2.23)
hCG A hCG A
Figure 2.12 gives the area and moments of inertia of several
common cross sections for use with these formulas.

Fig. 2.12. Centroidal moments of inertia for various cross sections:

(a) rectangle, (b) circle, (c) triangle and (d) semicircle.

2.6. Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces

The resultant pressure force on a curved surface is most easily
computed by separating it into horizontal and vertical components.
Consider the arbitrary curved surface sketched in Fig. 2.13,a. The
incremental pressure forces, being normal to the local area element, vary
in direction along the surface and thus cannot be added numerically. We
33
could sum the separate three components of these elemental pressure
forces, but it turns out that we need not perform a laborious three-way
integration.

Fig. 2.13. Computation of hydrostatic force on a curved surface: (a) submerged

curved surface; (b) free-body diagram of fluid above the curved surface

Figure 2.13,b shows a free-body diagram of the column of fluid

contained in the vertical projection above the curved surface. The desired
forces FH and FV are exerted by the surface on the fluid column. Other
forces are shown due to fluid weight and horizontal pressure on the vertical
sides of this column. The column of fluid must be in static equilibrium. On
the upper part of the column bcde , the horizontal components F1 exactly
balance and are not relevant to the discussion. On the lower, irregular
portion of fluid abc adjoining the surface, summation of horizontal forces
shows that the desired force FH due to the curved surface is exactly equal
to the force FH on the vertical left side of the fluid column. This left-side
force can be computed by the plane–surface formula, Eq. (2.17), based on
a vertical projection of the area of the curved surface. This is a general rule
and simplifies the analysis:
The horizontal component of force on a curved surface equals the
force on the plane area formed by the projection of the curved surface onto
a vertical plane normal to the component.
If there are two horizontal components, both can be computed by this
scheme.
Summation of vertical forces on the fluid free body then shows that
FV = Wair + W1 + W2 . (2.24)
We can state this in words as our second general rule:
34
 The vertical component of pressure force on a curved surface equals
in magnitude and direction the weight of the entire column of fluid, both
liquid and atmosphere, above the curved surface.
Thus the calculation of FV involves little more than finding centers of
mass of a column of fluid – perhaps a little integration if the lower portion
abc has a particularly vexing shape.
The total resultant force acting on the surface is
F = FH2 + FV2 . (2.25)
As seen in Fig. 2.14, this force acts down and to the right at an angle
�F �
a = tan-1 � V � . (2.26)
�FH �
The force F passes through the point ( xCG , zCP ). If we move down
along the angle a line until we strike the surface, we find an equivalent
center of pressure on the surface.

Fig. 2.14. Computation of equivalent center of pressure

2.7 Hydrostatic Forces in Layered Fluids

The formulas for plane and curved surfaces in Secs. 2.5 and 2.6 are
valid only for a fluid of uniform density. If the fluid is layered with different
densities, as in Fig. 2.15, a single formula cannot solve the problem
because the slope of the linear pressure distribution changes between
layers. However, the formulas apply separately to each layer, and thus the
appropriate remedy is to compute and sum the separate layer forces and
moments.

35
 Fig. 2.15. Hydrostatic forces on a surface immersed
in a layered fluid must be summed in separate pieces

Consider the slanted plane surface immersed in a two-layer fluid in

Fig. 2.15. The slope of the pressure distribution becomes steeper as we
move down into the denser second layer. The total force on the plate does
not equal the pressure at the centroid times the plate area, but the plate
portion in each layer does satisfy the formula, so that we can sum forces to
find the total:
F=� � Fi = pCGi Ai . (2.27)
Similarly, the centroid of the plate portion in each layer can be used
to locate the center of pressure on that portion
r i g sin q i I xxi r i g sin q i I xyi
yCPi = - , xCPi = - . (2.28)
pCGi Ai pCGi Ai
These formulas locate the center of pressure of that particular Fi
with respect to the centroid of that particular portion of plate in the layer,
not with respect to the centroid of the entire plate. The center of pressure
of the total force F =� Fi can then be found by summing moments about
some convenient point such as the surface
F zCP = � Fi zCPi . (2.29)

36
 2.8 Buoyancy and Stability
The same principles used to compute hydrostatic forces on surfaces
can be applied to the net pressure force on a completely submerged or
floating body. The results are the two laws of buoyancy discovered by
Archimedes in the third century B.C.:
1. A body immersed in a fluid experiences a vertical buoyant force
equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces.
2. A floating body displaces its own weight in the fluid in which it
floats.
These two laws are easily derived by referring to Fig. 2.16.

Fig. 2.16. Two different approaches to the buoyant force

on an arbitrary immersed body:
(a) forces on upper and lower curved surfaces;
(b) summation of elemental vertical pressure forces

In Fig. 2.16,a, the body lies between an upper curved surface 1 and
a lower curved surface 2. From Eq. (2.24) for vertical force, the body
experiences a net upward force
FB = FV ( 2 ) - FV ( 1 ) = r gVbody . (2.30)
Alternatively, from Fig. 2.16,b, we can sum the vertical forces on
elemental vertical slices through the immersed body:
FB = �
body
( p2 - p1 )dAH = - r g �
( z 2 - z1 )dAH = r gVbody . (2.31)
These are identical results and equivalent to law 1 above.
Equation (2.31) assumes that the fluid has uniform specific weight.
The line of action of the buoyant force passes through the center of volume
of the displaced body; i.e., its center of mass is computed as if it had
uniform density. This point through which FB acts is called the center of
37
buoyancy, commonly labeled B or CB on a drawing. Of course, the point
B may or may not correspond to the actual center of mass of the body’s
own material, which may have variable density.
Equation (2.31) can be generalized to a layered fluid by summing the
weights of each layer of density r i displaced by the immersed body:
( FB ) LF = �ri g( displaced volume ) . (2.32)
Each displaced layer would have its own center of volume, and one
would have to sum moments of the incremental buoyant forces to find the
center of buoyancy of the immersed body.
Since liquids are relatively heavy, we are conscious of their buoyant
forces, but gases also exert buoyancy on any body immersed in them.
Floating bodies are a special case; only a portion of the body is
submerged, with the remainder poking up out of the free surface. This is
illustrated in Fig. 2.17, where the shaded portion is the displaced volume.
Equation (2.31) is modified to apply to this smaller volume
FB = r g( displaced volume ) . (2.32)

Fig. 2.17. Static equilibrium of a floating body

Not only does the buoyant force equal the body weight, but also they
are collinear since there can be no net moments for static equilibrium.
Equation (2.32) is the mathematical equivalent of Archimedes’ law 2,
previously stated.
A floating body as in Fig. 2.17 may not approve of the position in
which it is floating. If so, it will overturn at the first opportunity and is said to
be statically unstable, like a pencil balanced upon its point. The least
disturbance will cause it to seek another equilibrium position which is
stable. Engineers must design to avoid floating instability. The only way to
tell for sure whether a floating position is stable is to “disturb’’ the body a
slight amount mathematically and see whether it develops a restoring
moment which will return it to its original position. If so, it is stable; if not,
unstable. Figure 2.18 illustrates the computation for the usual case of a
symmetric floating body. The steps are as follows:

38
 Fig. 2.18. Calculation of the metacenter

1. The basic floating position is calculated from Eq. (2.32). The

body’s center of mass G and center of buoyancy B are computed.
2. The body is tilted a small angle Dq , and a new waterline is
established for the body to float at this angle. The new position B�of the
center of buoyancy is calculated. A vertical line drawn upward from B�
intersects the line of symmetry at a point M , called the metacenter, which
is independent of Dq for small angles.
3. If point M is above G , that is, if the metacentric height MG is
positive, a restoring moment is present and the original position is stable. If
M is below G (negative MG , the body is unstable and will overturn if
disturbed. Stability increases with increasing MG .
Thus the metacentric height is a property of the cross section for the
given weight, and its value gives an indication of the stability of the body.
For a body of varying cross section and draft, such as a ship, the
computation of the metacenter can be very involved.
2.9. Pressure Distribution in Rigid-Body Motion
In rigid-body motion, all particles are in combined translation and
rotation, and there is no relative motion between particles. With no relative
motion, there are no strains or strain rates, leaving a balance between
pressure, gravity, and particle acceleration
�p = r ( g - a ) . (2.33)
The pressure gradient acts in the direction ( g - a ) , and lines of
constant pressure (including the free surface, if any) are perpendicular to
this direction.

39
 Let’s consider the general case of combined translation and rotation
of a rigid body. If the center of rotation is at point O and the translational
velocity is V0 at this point, the velocity of an arbitrary point P on the body
is given by
V = V0 + W �r0 ,
where W is the angular–velocity vector and r0 is the position of point P .
Differentiating, we obtain the most general form of the acceleration of
a rigid body:
dV dV0 dW
a= = + W �( W �r0 ) + �r0 . (2.34)
dt dt dt
Looking at the right-hand side, we see that the first term is the
translational acceleration; the second term is the centripetal acceleration,
whose direction is from point P perpendicular toward the axis of rotation;
and the third term is the linear acceleration due to changes in the angular
velocity. It is rare for all three of these terms to apply to any one fluid flow.
In fact, fluids can rarely move in rigid-body motion unless restrained by
confining walls for a long time.
2.9.1. Uniform Linear Acceleration
In this general case of uniform rigid-body acceleration, Eq. (2.33)
applies, a having the same magnitude and direction for all particles. With
reference to Fig. 2.21, the parallelogram sum of g and - a gives the
direction of the pressure gradient or greatest rate of increase of p . The
surfaces of constant pressure must be perpendicular to this and are thus
tilted at a downward angle q such that
ax
q = tan-1 . (2.35)
g + az

40
 Fig. 2.19. Tilting of constant pressure surfaces in a tank of liquid
in rigid-body acceleration.

One of these tilted lines is the free surface, which is found by the
requirement that the fluid retain its volume unless it spills out. The rate of
increase of pressure in the direction ( g - a ) is greater than in ordinary
hydrostatics and is given by
dp
= r a x2 + ( g + a z )2 . (2.36)
ds
These results are independent of the size or shape of the container
as long as the fluid is continuously connected throughout the container.
2.9.2. Rigid-Body Rotation
As a second special case, consider rotation of the fluid about the z
axis without any translation, as sketched in Fig. 2.20. We assume that the
container has been rotating long enough at constant W for the fluid to
have attained rigid-body rotation. The fluid acceleration will then be the
centripetal term in Eq. (2.34).In the coordinates of Fig. 2.20, the angular-
velocity and position vectors are given by
W = kW , r0 = i r r . (2.37)
Then the acceleration is given by
W �( W �r0 ) = - r W 2 i r (2.38)
as marked in the figure, and Eq. (2.33) for the force balance becomes
�
p �p
�p = i r +k = r ( g - a ) = r ( - gk + r W 2 i r ) . (2.39)
�
r �z

41
 Fig. 2.20. Development of paraboloid constant–pressure surfaces
in a fluid in rigid-body rotation.

Equating like components, we find the pressure field by solving two

first-order partial differential equations
�p � p
= r rW 2 , = -r g . (2.40)
�r �z
The right-hand sides of Eqs. (2.40) are known functions of r and z .
One can proceed as follows: Integrate the first equation “partially’’, i.e.,
holding z constant, with respect to r . The result is
r 2W 2
p=r + f ( z ), (2.41)
2
where the “constant’’ of integration is actually a function f ( z ) . Now
differentiate this with respect to z and compare with the second relation of
Eqs. (2.40):
� p
=0+ f� ( z ) = -r g
� z
or
f ( z ) = -r g + C ,
where C is a constant. Thus Eq. (2.41) now becomes
r 2W 2
p = C - rg + r . (2.42)
2
This is the pressure distribution in the fluid. The value of C is found
by specifying the pressure at one point. If p = p0 at ( r , z ) = ( 0 ,0 ) , then
C = p0 .
The final desired distribution is
r 2W 2
p = p0 - r g + r . (2.43)
2
The pressure is linear in z and parabolic in r . If we wish to plot a
constant–pressure surface, say, p = p1 , Eq. (2.43) becomes
p0 - p1 r 2 W 2
z= + = a + br 2 . (2.44)
rg 2g
Thus the surfaces are paraboloids of revolution, concave upward,
with their minimum point on the axis of rotation. Some examples are
sketched in Fig. 2.20.

42
 As in the previous example of linear acceleration, the position of the
free surface is found by conserving the volume of fluid. For a noncircular
container with the axis of rotation off-center, as in Fig. 2.20, a lot of
laborious mensuration is required, and a single problem will take you all
weekend. However, the calculation is easy for a cylinder rotating about its
central axis, as in Fig. 2.21. Since
the volume of a paraboloid is
one-half the base area times its
height, the still-water level is
exactly halfway between the high
and low points of the free surface.
The center of the fluid drops an
amount

Fig. 2.21. Determining the free surface

position for rotation of a cylinder of fluid
about its central axis

h W2 R2
= ,
2 4g
and the edges rise an equal amount.

43