Sunteți pe pagina 1din 17

Types of sentence

1) Cleft sentences (It was in June we got married.)


from English Grammar Today

We use cleft sentences, especially in speaking, to connect what is already


understood to what is new to the listener. In a cleft sentence, a single message is
divided (cleft) into two clauses. This allows us to focus on the new information.

It-cleft sentences

It-clauses are the most common type of cleft clause. The information that comes
after itis emphasised for the listener. The clause which follows the it-clause is
connected using that and it contains information that is already understood. We
often omit that in informal situations when it is the object of the verb:

A:
Sharon’s car got broken into yesterday, did it?

B:
No. It was Nina’s car that got broken into!

Focus (new information): it was Nina’s car

Understood already (old information): a car got broken into

A:
You’ve met my mother, haven’t you?

B:
No, it was your sister (that) I met!

Focus (new information): it was your sister

Understood already (old information): I met someone in your family

Is it August that you are going on holiday?

Focus (new information): the month August?

Understood already (old information): you are going on holiday


When a personal subject is the focus, we can use who instead of that. We often
omit who in informal situations when it is the object of the verb:

It was my husband who (or that) you spoke to on the phone. (or It was my
husband you spoke to on the phone.)

When a plural subject is the focus, we use a plural verb but It + be remains
singular:

It’s the parents who were protesting most.

We can use negative structures in the it-clause:

It wasn’t the Greek student who phoned.

Wh-cleft sentences (What I need is a holiday)

Wh-cleft sentences are most often introduced by what, but we can also use why,
where, how, etc. The information in the wh-clause is typically old or understood
information, while the information in the following clause is new and in focus:

A:
I don’t know what to cook for them? I don’t know what they like.

B:
What they like is smoked salmon.

Understood already (old information): we are talking about what they like to eat

Focus (new information): they like smoked salmon

A:
This remote control isn’t working.

B:
What we need to do is get new batteries for it.

Understood already (old information): there is something that we need to do to fix


the remote control.

Focus (new information): we need to buy new batteries


Prepositional phrases

Recognize a prepositional phrase when you see one.

At the minimum, a prepositional phrase will begin with a preposition and

end with a noun, pronoun, gerund, or clause, the "object" of the


preposition.

The object of the preposition will often have one or more modifiers to
describe it. These are the patterns for a prepositional phrase:

PREPOSITION + NOUN, PRONOUN, GERUND, OR CLAUSE

PREPOSITION + MODIFIER(S) + NOUN, PRONOUN, GERUND, OR

CLAUSE

Here are some examples of the most basic prepositional phrase:

At home

At = preposition; home = noun.

In time

In = preposition; time = noun.

From Richie

From = preposition; Richie = noun.

With me
With = preposition; me = pronoun.

By singing

By = preposition; singing = gerund.

About what we need

About = preposition; what we need = noun clause.

Most prepositional phrases are longer, like these:

From my grandmother

From = preposition; my = modifier; grandmother = noun.

Under the warm blanket

Under = preposition; the, warm = modifiers; blanket = noun.

In the weedy, overgrown garden

In = preposition; the, weedy, overgrown = modifiers; garden = noun.

Along the busy, six-lane highway

Along = preposition; the, busy, six-lane = modifiers; highway =


noun.

Without excessively worrying

Without = preposition; excessively = modifier; worrying = gerund.

Understand what prepositional phrases do in a sentence.


A prepositional phrase will function as an adjective or adverb. As an

adjective, the prepositional phrase will answer the question Which one?

Read these examples:

The book on the bathroom floor is swollen from shower


steam.

Which book? The one on the bathroom floor!

The sweet potatoes in the vegetable bin are green with


mold.

Which sweet potatoes? The ones forgotten in the vegetable bin!

The note from Beverly confessed that she had eaten the
leftover pizza.

Which note? The one from Beverly!

As an adverb, a prepositional phrase will answer questions such as How?


When?or Where?

Freddy is stiff from yesterday's long football practice .

How did Freddy get stiff? From yesterday's long football practice!

Before class, Josh begged his friends for a pencil.

When did Josh do his begging? Before class!

Feeling brave, we tried the Dragon Breath B urritos at


Tito's Taco Palace.
Where did we eat the spicy food? At Tito's Taco Palace!

Remember that a prepositional phrase will never contain


the subject of a sentence.

Sometimes a noun within the prepositional phrase seems the

logical subject of averb. Don't fall for that trick! You will never find a
subject in a prepositional phrase. Look at this example:

Neither of these cookbooks contains the recipe for


Manhattan-style squid eyeball stew.

Cookbooks do indeed contain recipes. In this sentence,

however, cookbooks is part of the prepositional phrase of these

cookbooks. Neither—whatever a neither is—is the subject for the


verb contains.

Neither is singular, so you need the singular form of the verb, contains.

If you incorrectly identified cookbooks as the subject, you might

write contain, the plural form, and thus commit a subject-verb


agreement error.

Some prepositions—such as along with and in addition to—indicate

"more to come." They will make you think that you have a plural subject
when in fact you don't. Don't fall for that trick either! Read this example:

Tommy, along with the other students, breathed a sigh

of relief when Mrs. Markham announced that she was


postponing the due date for the research essay.

Logically, more than one student is happy with the news. But Tommy is
the only subject of the verb breathed. His classmates count in the real
world, but in the sentence, they don't matter, locked as they are in the
prepositional phrase.

Commonly Used Prepositional Phrases


 According to the weather forecast
 Across many deserts
 After many tries
 Amid the confusion
 Around the world
 Before we start the meeting
 Between a rock and a hard place
 By the light of the moon
 Like a beautiful swan
 Near the ocean
 Of my boss
 Off the top
 Out the door
 Through the looking glass
 Throughout the thick forest
 To the amusement park
Prepositional Phrases that Function as an Adjective
 The book with the tattered cover has been read many times.
 All the passengers aboard the runaway train were frightened.
 The present inside the big box is mine.
 Our boss put out a memo regarding the new rule.
 The clues within the first few chapters will lead to the murderer.
 His is only one voice among many, but it will be heard.
 The extra blanket is in the box under the bed.
 Saul, unlike many others, will remain there.
 The car beside the red one is the one I want to buy.
 The area outside the boundary is dangerous to cross.
 All rooms below deck are for sleeping.
 Tell me the story about the dragon slayer.
Prepositional Phrases that Function as Adverbs
 Racing toward the finish line, Sarah realized she just might win.
 My shopping list needs to be put into my purse.
 Without a GPS, we will lose our way.
 Until today, I had never heard that.
 The balloon drifted up the stairs.
 Put the fresh flowers upon a high shelf.
 Despite warnings, she tried to ski down Devil’s Run.
 Against all odds, our team won the tournament.
 The tiger crept slowly over the grass.
 We will order pizza during halftime.
 I will climb up the highest mountain tomorrow.
 I love to take my jeep off the road.
Prepositional Phrases in Quotes
 “Once we accept our limits, we go beyond them.” - Albert Einstein
 “We keep moving forward, opening new doors, and doing new things,
because we're curious and curiosity keeps leading us down new paths.” -
Walt Disney
 “There has to be evil so that good can prove its purity above it.” -
Buddha
 “I've had tendonitis since college.” - Michael Jordan
 “Never put off till tomorrow what you can do the day after tomorrow.” -
Mark Twain
 “I prefer winter and fall, when you feel the bone structure of the
landscape. Something waits beneath it; the whole story doesn't show.” -
Andrew Wyeth
 “Don't walk behind me; I may not lead. Don't walk in front of me; I may
not follow. Just walk beside me and be my friend.” - Albert Camus
 “When you dance, your purpose is not to get to a certain place on the
floor. It's to enjoy each step along the way.” - Wayne Dyer

Read more at http://examples.yourdictionary.com/prepositional-phrases-


examples.html#DYz2C5oXDJtuXgGa.99
General explaining
Let’s start by looking at language for general explanations of complex points.

1. In order to
Usage: “In order to” can be used to introduce an explanation for the purpose of an argument.
Example: “In order to understand X, we need first to understand Y.”

2. In other words
Usage: Use “in other words” when you want to express something in a different way (more
simply), to make it easier to understand, or to emphasise or expand on a point.
Example: “Frogs are amphibians. In other words, they live on the land and in the water.”

3. To put it another way


Usage: This phrase is another way of saying “in other words”, and can be used in particularly
complex points, when you feel that an alternative way of wording a problem may help the reader
achieve a better understanding of its significance.
Example: “Plants rely on photosynthesis. To put it another way, they will die without the sun.”

4. That is to say
Usage: “That is” and “that is to say” can be used to add further detail to your explanation, or to
be more precise.
Example: “Whales are mammals. That is to say, they must breathe air.”

5. To that end
Usage: Use “to that end” or “to this end” in a similar way to “in order to” or “so”.
Example: “Zoologists have long sought to understand how animals communicate with each
other. To that end, a new study has been launched that looks at elephant sounds and their
possible meanings.”
Adding additional information to support a point
Students often make the mistake of using synonyms of “and” each time they want to add further
information in support of a point they’re making, or to build an argument. Here are some cleverer
ways of doing this.

6. Moreover
Usage: Employ “moreover” at the start of a sentence to add extra information in support of a
point you’re making.
Example: “Moreover, the results of a recent piece of research provide compelling evidence in
support of…”

7. Furthermore
Usage:This is also generally used at the start of a sentence, to add extra information.
Example: “Furthermore, there is evidence to suggest that…”
8. What’s more
Usage: This is used in the same way as “moreover” and “furthermore”.
Example: “What’s more, this isn’t the only evidence that supports this hypothesis.”

9. Likewise
Usage: Use “likewise” when you want to talk about something that agrees with what you’ve just
mentioned.
Example: “Scholar A believes X. Likewise, Scholar B argues compellingly in favour of this point
of view.”

10. Similarly
Usage: Use “similarly” in the same way as “likewise”.
Example: “Audiences at the time reacted with shock to Beethoven’s new work, because it was
very different to what they were used to. Similarly, we have a tendency to react with surprise to
the unfamiliar.”

11. Another key thing to remember


Usage: Use the phrase “another key point to remember” or “another key fact to remember” to
introduce additional facts without using the word “also”.
Example: “As a Romantic, Blake was a proponent of a closer relationship between humans and
nature. Another key point to remember is that Blake was writing during the Industrial Revolution,
which had a major impact on the world around him.”

12. As well as
Usage: Use “as well as” instead of “also” or “and”.
Example: “Scholar A argued that this was due to X, as well as Y.”

13. Not only… but also


Usage: This wording is used to add an extra piece of information, often something that’s in some
way more surprising or unexpected than the first piece of information.
Example: “Not only did Edmund Hillary have the honour of being the first to reach the summit of
Everest, but he was also appointed Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire.”

14. Coupled with


Usage: Used when considering two or more arguments at a time.
Example: “Coupled with the literary evidence, the statistics paint a compelling view of…”

15. Firstly, secondly, thirdly…


Usage: This can be used to structure an argument, presenting facts clearly one after the other.
Example: “There are many points in support of this view. Firstly, X. Secondly, Y. And thirdly, Z.
16. Not to mention/to say nothing of
Usage: “Not to mention” and “to say nothing of” can be used to add extra information with a bit of
emphasis.
Example: “The war caused unprecedented suffering to millions of people, not to mention its
impact on the country’s economy.”
Words and phrases for demonstrating contrast
When you’re developing an argument, you will often need to present contrasting or opposing
opinions or evidence – “it could show this, but it could also show this”, or “X says this, but Y
disagrees”. This section covers words you can use instead of the “but” in these examples, to
make your writing sound more intelligent and interesting.

17. However
Usage: Use “however” to introduce a point that disagrees with what you’ve just said.
Example: “Scholar A thinks this. However, Scholar B reached a different conclusion.”

18. On the other hand


Usage: Usage of this phrase includes introducing a contrasting interpretation of the same piece
of evidence, a different piece of evidence that suggests something else, or an opposing opinion.
Example: “The historical evidence appears to suggest a clear-cut situation. On the other hand,
the archaeological evidence presents a somewhat less straightforward picture of what happened
that day.”

19. Having said that


Usage: Used in a similar manner to “on the other hand” or “but”.
Example: “The historians are unanimous in telling us X, an agreement that suggests that this
version of events must be an accurate account. Having said that, the archaeology tells a different
story.”

20. By contrast/in comparison


Usage: Use “by contrast” or “in comparison” when you’re comparing and contrasting pieces of
evidence.
Example: “Scholar A’s opinion, then, is based on insufficient evidence. By contrast, Scholar B’s
opinion seems more plausible.”

21. Then again


Usage: Use this to cast doubt on an assertion.
Example: “Writer A asserts that this was the reason for what happened. Then again, it’s possible
that he was being paid to say this.”

22. That said


Usage: This is used in the same way as “then again”.
Example: “The evidence ostensibly appears to point to this conclusion. That said, much of the
evidence is unreliable at best.”
23. Yet
Usage: Use this when you want to introduce a contrasting idea.
Example: “Much of scholarship has focused on this evidence. Yet not everyone agrees that this
is the most important aspect of the situation.”
Adding a proviso or acknowledging reservations
Sometimes, you may need to acknowledge a shortfalling in a piece of evidence, or add a proviso.
Here are some ways of doing so.

24. Despite this


Usage: Use “despite this” or “in spite of this” when you want to outline a point that stands
regardless of a shortfalling in the evidence.
Example: “The sample size was small, but the results were important despite this.”

25. With this in mind


Usage: Use this when you want your reader to consider a point in the knowledge of something
else.
Example: “We’ve seen that the methods used in the 19th century study did not always live up to
the rigorous standards expected in scientific research today, which makes it difficult to draw
definite conclusions. With this in mind, let’s look at a more recent study to see how the results
compare.”

26. Provided that


Usage: This means “on condition that”. You can also say “providing that” or just “providing” to
mean the same thing.
Example: “We may use this as evidence to support our argument, provided that we bear in mind
the limitations of the methods used to obtain it.”

27. In view of/in light of


Usage: These phrases are used when something has shed light on something else.
Example: “In light of the evidence from the 2013 study, we have a better understanding of…”

28. Nonetheless
Usage: This is similar to “despite this”.
Example: “The study had its limitations, but it was nonetheless groundbreaking for its day.”

29. Nevertheless
Usage: This is the same as “nonetheless”.
Example: “The study was flawed, but it was important nevertheless.”

30. Notwithstanding
Usage: This is another way of saying “nonetheless”.
Example: “Notwithstanding the limitations of the methodology used, it was an important study in
the development of how we view the workings of the human mind.”
Giving examples
Good essays always back up points with examples, but it’s going to get boring if you use the
expression “for example” every time. Here are a couple of other ways of saying the same thing.

31. For instance


Example: “Some birds migrate to avoid harsher winter climates. Swallows, for instance, leave
the UK in early winter and fly south…”

32. To give an illustration


Example: “To give an illustration of what I mean, let’s look at the case of…”
Signifying importance
When you want to demonstrate that a point is particularly important, there are several ways of
highlighting it as such.

33. Significantly
Usage: Used to introduce a point that is loaded with meaning that might not be immediately
apparent.
Example: “Significantly, Tacitus omits to tell us the kind of gossip prevalent in Suetonius’
accounts of the same period.”

34. Notably
Usage: This can be used to mean “significantly” (as above), and it can also be used
interchangeably with “in particular” (the example below demonstrates the first of these ways of
using it).
Example: “Actual figures are notably absent from Scholar A’s analysis.”

35. Importantly
Usage: Use “importantly” interchangeably with “significantly”.
Example: “Importantly, Scholar A was being employed by X when he wrote this work, and was
presumably therefore under pressure to portray the situation more favourably than he perhaps
might otherwise have done.”
Summarising
You’ve almost made it to the end of the essay, but your work isn’t over yet. You need to end by
wrapping up everything you’ve talked about, showing that you’ve considered the arguments on
both sides and reached the most likely conclusion. Here are some words and phrases to help
you.

36. In conclusion
Usage: Typically used to introduce the concluding paragraph or sentence of an essay,
summarising what you’ve discussed in a broad overview.
Example: “In conclusion, the evidence points almost exclusively to Argument A.”
37. Above all
Usage: Used to signify what you believe to be the most significant point, and the main takeaway
from the essay.
Example: “Above all, it seems pertinent to remember that…”

38. Persuasive
Usage: This is a useful word to use when summarising which argument you find most
convincing.
Example: “Scholar A’s point – that Constanze Mozart was motivated by financial gain – seems to
me to be the most persuasive argument for her actions following Mozart’s death.”

39. Compelling
Usage: Use in the same way as “persuasive” above.
Example: “The most compelling argument is presented by Scholar A.”

40. All things considered


Usage: This means “taking everything into account”.
Example: “All things considered, it seems reasonable to assume that…”

So here are 70 sentences extracted and adapted for from the original
compilation, which ran for almost 10 pages. This list is organized around
keywords.

Before you start:


1. Pay close attention to the words in bold, which are often used in
conjunction with the main word.
2. [ ] means “insert a suitable word here”, while ( ) means “this word is
optional.”
3. Keep in mind that, within each group, some examples are slightly more
formal / less frequent than others.
Argue
a. Along similar lines, [X] argues that ___.
b. There seems to be no compelling reason to argue that ___.
c. As a rebuttal to this point, it could be argued that ___.
d. There are [three] main arguments that can be advanced to support ___.
e. The underlying argument in favor of / against [X] is that ___.
f. [X]’s argument in favor of / against [Y] runs as follows: ___.
Claim
a. In this [paper], I put forward the claim that ___.
b. [X] develops the claim that ___.
c. There is ample / growing support for the claim that ___.
d. [X]’s findings lend support to the claim that ___.
e. Taking a middle-ground position, [X] claims that ___.
Data
a. The data gathered in the [pilot study] suggest that ___.
b. The data appears to suggest that ___.
c. The data yielded by this [study] provide strong / convincing evidence that
___.
d. A closer look at the data indicates that ___.
e. The data generated by [X] are reported in [table 1].
f. The aim of this [section] is to generalize beyond the data and ___.
Debate
a. [X] has encouraged debate on ___.
b. There has been an inconclusive debate about whether ___.
c. The question of whether ___ has caused much debate in [our profession]
[over the years].
d. (Much of) the current debate revolves around ___.
Discussion
a. In this section / chapter, the discussion will point to ___.
b. The foregoing discussion implies that ___.
c. For the sake of discussion, I would like to argue that ___.
d. In this study, the question under discussion is ___.
e. In this paper, the discussion centers on ___.
f. [X] lies at the heart of the discussion on ___.
Evidence
a. The available evidence seems to suggest that ___ / point to ___.
b. On the basis of the evidence currently available, it seems fair to suggest
that ___.
c. There is overwhelming evidence for the notion that ___.
d. Further evidence supporting / against [X] may lie in the findings of [Y],
who ___.
e. These results provide confirmatory evidence that ___.
Ground
a. I will now summarize the ground covered in this [chapter] by ___.
b. On logical grounds, there is no compelling reason to argue that ___.
c. [X] takes a middle-ground position on [Y] and argues that ___.
d. On these grounds, we can argue that ___.
e. [X]’s views are grounded on the assumption that ___.

Issue
a. This study is an attempt to address the issue of ___.
b. In the present study, the issue under scrutiny is ___.
c. The issue of whether ___ is clouded by the fact that ___.
d. To portray the issue in [X]’s terms, ___.
e. Given the centrality of this issue to [my claim], I will now ___.
f. This [chapter] is concerned with the issue of [how/whether/what] ___.

Literature
a. [X] is prominent in the literature on [Y].
b. There is a rapidly growing literature on [X], which indicates that ___.
c. The literature shows no consensus on [X], which means that ___.
d. The (current) literature on [X] abounds with examples of ___.
Premise
a. The main theoretical premise behind [X] is that ___.
b. [X] and [Y] share an important premise: ___.
c. [X] is premised on the assumption that ___.
d. The basic premises of [X]’s theory / argument are ___.
e. The arguments against [X]’s premise rest on [four] assumptions: ___.
Research
a.This study draws on research conducted by ___.
b. Although there has been relatively little research on / into [X], ___.
c. In the last [X] years, [educational] research has provided ample support
for the assertion that ___.
d. Current research appears / seems to validate the view that ___.
e. Research on / into ___ does not support the view that ___.
f. Further research in this area may include ___ and ___.
g. Evidence for [X] is borne out by research that shows ___.
h. There is insufficient research on / into ___ to draw any firm conclusions
about / on ___.

View
a. The consensus view seems to be that ___.
b. [X] propounds the view that ___.
c. Current research (does not) appear(s) to validate such a view.
d. There have been dissenters to the view that ___.
e. The answer to [X] / The difference between [X] and [Y] is not as clear-cut
as popular views might suggest.
f. The view that _____ is in line with [common sense].
g. I am not alone in my view that ___.
h. [X] puts forward the view that ___.
i. [X]’s views rest on the assumption that ___.

S-ar putea să vă placă și