State-Of-The-Art of Interlocking Concrete Block Pavement Technology in Japan As A Post-Modern Pavement

Construction and Building Materials 200 (2019) 713–755
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat
Review
State-of-the-art of interlocking concrete block pavement technology in

Japan as a post-modern pavement
Ali Jamshidi a, Kiyofumi Kurumisawa b, Gregory White a, Tatsuo Nishizawa c, Toshifumi Igarashi b,
Toyoharu Nawa b, Jize Mao d
a
University of Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Queensland, Australia
b
Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Kita 13, Nishi 8, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-8628, Japan
c
Ishikawa National College of Technology, Tsubata, Ishikawa 929-0392, Japan
d
College of Aerospace and Civil Engineering, Harbin Engineering University, Harbin 150001, China
h i g h l i g h t s
Post-modern pavement as a new concept for next pavement generation is introduced.

High structural performance, sustainability and social requirements are main criteria.
Performance of interlocking concrete block pavements as post-modern pavement was evaluated.
Block pavements showed high structural performance, eco-friendly characteristics, and social acceptance in Japan.
Block pavement can be considered as postmodern pavement and resilient infrastructure in the world.
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Researchers dealing with pavements and experts on materials have been increasingly focused on the
Received 1 June 2018 structural strength of the pavement materials without paying sufficient attention to the environment
Received in revised form 7 November 2018 and cultural norms. In the 21st century, the concept of pavement design and rehabilitation needs to be
Accepted 30 November 2018
modified owing to new requirements such as the additional structural loads derived from the climate
change, environmental challenges, social requirements, and aging population. Therefore, the concept of
post-modern pavement (PMP) was proposed to address the structural, sustainability, and socio-
Keywords:
psychological requirements. In this review of the state-of-the-art, the potential of the interlocking con-
Block pavement
Post-modern pavement
crete block pavement (ICBP) was evaluated based on its laboratory and field structural performance, sus-
Sustainability tainability, and social acceptance as a PMP in Japan. Therefore, the relevant literature in English and
Japanese, including journals, conference proceedings, technical reports, books, and theses, over a span
of 47 years (1971–2018), were studied. It was found that the structural and functional performances of
the ICBP in different facilities were satisfying. Furthermore, owing to its waste material use, less noise
emission, air purifying characteristics, and heat island reduction, the environmental performance of
ICBP was in harmony with sustainable practices. In addition, pavements users, both able and differently
abled, rated the ICBP as a more appropriate pavement system owing to its physical appearance, service-
ability, aesthetic features, lower heat island effect, rapid maintenance, and positive psychologic effects
after earthquake and tsunami events. As a result, the ICBP can be recommended as a PMP for the design
and development of resilient transportation infrastructure assets in Japan.
Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714
2. Materials and methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715
3. Current situation of transportation technology in Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716
E-mail addresses: ajamshidi@usc.edu.au (A. Jamshidi), kurumi@eng.hokudai.ac.jp (K. Kurumisawa), gwhite2@usc.edu.au (G. White), nishi@ishikawa-nct.ac.jp
(T. Nishizawa), toshifumi@eng.hokudai.ac.jp (T. Igarashi), nawa@eng.hokudai.ac.jp (T. Nawa), maojize@hrbeu.edu.cn (J. Mao)
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.11.286
0950-0618/Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
714 A. Jamshidi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 200 (2019) 713–755
4. Challenges for concrete pavements and opportunities for the ICBP in Japan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
5. Structural components of the ICBP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
6. Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719
7. History of ICBP in Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719
8. Education and administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721
9. Performance of ICBP. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722
9.1. Structural performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722
9.1.1. Structural design of ICBP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722
9.1.2. Computer package for structural analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724
9.1.3. Evaluation of structural performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725
9.2. Functional performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
9.2.1. Noise reduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730
9.2.2. Abrasion strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732
9.2.3. Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732
10. PICBP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733
10.1. Appropriate thermal property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
10.2. Sand migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
11. Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
11.1. Use of by-products and waste materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
11.2. HIE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737
11.3. Air purification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738
12. Environmental disasters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738
13. Maintenance and rehabilitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739
14. Life cycle cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742
15. Social acceptance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743
16. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
17. Suggestions for further research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
Conflict of interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748
Appendix A. Different eras of pavement technology and science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750
1. Introduction et al. [242], which showed that a 5% climate change significantly

affects longitudinal cracking and rutting. It is also predicted that
Material production for infrastructure assets is one of the most an increase in flooding owing to the global warming, which
energy- and resource-intensive industries in the world. Reportedly, degrades the soil subgrade quickly. Therefore, more efficient runoff
60 billion tons of raw materials were used annually in the 20th drainage systems and models predicting the change in the struc-
century, which were mostly used in the infrastructure and con- tural and functional characteristics of pavements are necessary
struction industry [164]. One such infrastructure asset is the pave- [172]. As a result, climate change increases the costs of pavement
ment used for highways, airports, ports, and stacking container assets significantly [32]. Furthermore, the pavement often has an
yards. To support the huge construction, maintenance, and rehabil- impervious surface that absorbs radiation energy, resulting in the
itation requirements of pavements worldwide, approximately heat island effect (HIE), which increases energy consumption to
100 million tons of different types of asphalt binder is produced cool indoor spaces. Therefore, it is expected that pavements will
annually [186]. Concrete is another commonly used material, pro- become multi-role infrastructure assets, not only providing consis-
duced at a rate of 10 km3 per year or 1 ton of concrete per global tent structural performance against the traffic loads and stresses
capita [49,178]. Therefore, pavement material production and con- caused by their service conditions, but also meeting the environ-
struction are significantly dependent on non-renewable natural mental requirements prescribed by policy makers. They also need
and energy resources. For example, asphalt and cement manufac- to perform as drainage systems to manage the runoff and improve
turing are the second and seventh most energy-intensive indus- environmental conditions, including air quality. In addition, tech-
tries in the United States, respectively [313]. Furthermore, nologies are being developed that make it possible for a pavement
aggregate production is responsible for 50% of total greenhouse to harvest solar energy in order to produce electricity for any appli-
gas emissions for both asphalt and concrete pavements [92]. More- cation, e.g., lighting the city using photovoltaic panels embedded in
over, pavement networks are affected not only by traffic loading road surfaces [35,37,117]. Moreover, the vibration energy of mov-
but also by environmental factors, such as ambient temperature ing vehicles can be used through piezoelectric energy harvesting
and moisture. Therefore, pavement design methods should con- technology, which directly converts mechanical energy into elec-
sider structural and other stresses stemming from the service con- trical energy [52,117,301]. Such pavement types should be attrac-
dition. In addition to the service condition, the anthropogenic tive enough for all users, both drivers and pedestrians. This type of
climate change imposes additional stresses that significantly influ- pavement is an ideal paving system, which is called post-modern
ence the structural performance of the pavement during its life pavement (PMP) (Fig. 1). The reason for naming it as PMP lies in
span. In this regard, the optimum life span and the mode and the history of the pavement technology, summarized in Table in
intensity of failures can change, which results in variations in the Appendix. The title of each era was chosen based on the dominant
pavement management strategies, models of investment, and cap- progress achieved.
ital resource losses. For example, Mills et al. [182] reported that Therefore, the PMP has three different pillars, which are
thermal cracking in the asphalt pavement will decrease over the schematically illustrated in Fig. 1. It would be ideal that all pillars
next 50 years in Canada, while rutting will occur earlier than exist in a pavement design, although including all of them could
expected. This result is consistent with a study carried out by Qiao require a huge investment. However, it should be noted that the
A. Jamshidi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 200 (2019) 713–755 715
Fig. 1. PMP definition as an interface between structural, environmental, and social requirements.
technology required for a PMP will be more accessible and cheaper search. All the selected literature was analyzed to ensure that the
in the future. Infrastructure assets will need to respond to the chal- contents were in harmony with the main purposes of this study.
lenges of the future, as technological developments and broader Before the discussion, a brief background of the transportation
cultural changes may generate new social demands from them technology in Japan presented. In addition, the challenges and
[25]. Moreover, PMPs can be made from either asphalt or concrete, opportunities of ICBP as part of an integrated municipal infrastruc-
and these pavements can be constructed based on local materials, ture were discussed. Moreover, the ICBP terminology in English
construction technologies, available financial sources, and social and Japanese literature, written by Japanese authors, is compared
norms. Examples of social acceptance criteria are the aesthetic fea- with that of their Western counterparts to avoid any misunder-
tures, psychological effects, comfort of use by disabled people standing. In addition, the historical background of segmental pave-
including senior citizens, handicapped, kids, and pregnant women, ments in Japan as the cornerstone of modern ICBPs was studied,
personal feelings arisen during walking or driving, and ease of use and the trends of the ICBP market were evaluated through statis-
during critical conditions, e.g., flood, noise, and light emissions. The tics released from 1993 to 2016 in different prefectures, which is
social acceptance can encourage the public sector to invest in the unit of the administrative division in Japan and is equal to
transportation infrastructure assets based on a sustainable policy the state or province in other countries. To analyze the perfor-
and environmental management of the 21st century. In this study, mance of ICBPs in terms of structural response, sustainability,
the potential of the interlocking concrete block pavement (ICBP) as and durability, more than 500 articles on the issues were chosen.
a PMP, based on the research and experiences gained in Japan, was Then, 330 studies, over a span of 47 years (1971–2018), were
introduced in detail. The main purposes of this state-of-the-art finally extracted for detailed reading and evaluation (Fig. 2). To
review are the following: characterize the trends, all data were reanalyzed and discussed
through examples and supportive evidence from other studies.
To develop the theoretical concept of PMP as a multi-role infras- Detailed illustrations were drawn to clarify the theories and con-
tructure asset cepts behind the discussions. Furthermore, the authors inter-
To analyze various performances and innovations of the ICBP viewed professional people working in industrial sectors and
technology in Japan consultant companies, and professors who are experts in ICBP in
To evaluate the ICBP as a PMP based on the infrastructural chal- Japan. All the challenges in design, construction, usefulness, and
lenges in the country recyclability of ICBP were discussed in meticulous detail. More-
over, the social reaction of people with respect to the criteria for
This study also provides a detailed understanding of the philos- selection of pavements was evaluated. The authors travelled
ophy behind the ICBP as a resilient infrastructure in Japan, which throughout Japan for four years to evaluate the current condition
can be useful for pavement engineers, infrastructure material of ICBPs. Hence, a large visual and field evaluation database of
researchers, urban planners, and environmental policy makers. In ICBPs performance in various applications was created to scruti-
addition, recent innovations and technologies were analyzed and nize. Fig. 3 shows the flowchart of discussion in this paper.
discussed. Furthermore, the results of this analysis of long-term
ICBP performance in various applications can pave the way toward
a more efficient design of resilient infrastructure in other countries.
2.34%
0.66%
Journal
2. Materials and methods Report
29.90%
A systematic state-of-the-art study was conducted to address Book
the basic and advanced requirements of ICBP for different applica- Conference/Proceeding
tions in Japan. In this regard, Wilding et al. [298], recommended a 54.15%
keyword-based search of electronic databases and library services Thsesis
7.97%
as an efficient way of identifying relevant literature. Therefore, a standard
table of contents of high-quality journals, books, research reports, 4.98%
technical reports, manuals, standards, and theses in English and
Japanese were manually scanned to carry out the bibliographic Fig. 2. Distribution of the types of literature used in the state-of-the-art study.
Fig. 3. Schematic illustration of the study structure.
3. Current situation of transportation technology in Japan 3P) based on the reduce, reuse, recycle, and recover (known as
4R) strategy. Consequently, the stock effects of the infrastructure
Japan suffers a wide variety of infrastructural challenges such as assets are divided into three components [198]: (1) safety and
climate change, aging infrastructure, and a dwindling population security, (2) life quality improvement, and (3) improved
[265]. Therefore, there is an increasing demand for the develop- productivity.
ment of resilient infrastructure and improvement of its current It should be noted that social norms and sustainability are the
efficiency. In this regard, the infrastructure assets are generally foundation for design and construction of the infrastructure assets
managed and constructed by both the public and private sectors and transportation fleet in a country. Furthermore, there is a silent
under various private partnership programs (known as PPP or competition between the railroad and air transportation modes in
Japan. For example, the latest model of the Japanese rapid bullet 1. Higher initial costs compared to the asphalt pavement
train (Shinkansen), named N700, consumes just one 12th of the 2. Lower construction speeds
energy per seat required by a Boeing 777 aircraft [141], indicating 3. Delays in opening to the traffic owing to concrete curing
the energy efficiency superiority of the railway transportation 4. Difficulties in maintenance and rehabilitations
mode. This energy superiority results in strong impetus for devel- 5. Lack of information on their high efficiency in the public sector
opment of the Shinkansen in different countries, such as Singapore, involved in urban planning
Thailand, India, and Malaysia [191]. Furthermore, a domestic 6. Low interest in producing new types of block pavers among
narrow-body civil aircraft is being developed in Japan by Mit- manufacturers owing to the higher investment requirements.
subishi Heavy Industry. This Mitsubishi regional jet (MRJ) is a
new industrial product in the offer list. Such an aircraft requires However, the ICBP has advantages that motivates urban plan-
relatively low-cost and efficient infrastructure assets, including ners, environmental policy makers, and engineers, as listed below
the pavement. Furthermore, the energy policy has been changed [280]:
since the Fukushima nuclear power plant disaster [281,26], result-
ing in a transition plan toward various alternative energy sources 1. Lower total costs of the ICBP compared to the traditional
in a relatively short time, with collaboration between state and pri- asphalt and concrete pavements
vate sectors. Currently, the number of electric car charging stations 2. Mechanical installation increases the rate of block laying
in Tokyo is higher than that of the petrol stations. As a result, the 3. The ICBP requires no curing time unlike concrete
development of a sustainable transportation fleet with resilient 4. Relatively rapid and easy maintenance and rehabilitation
transportation infrastructure assets is a cornerstone of the current
and future socio-economic planning in Japan. Furthermore, the excess of various waste materials and indus-
According to the Japan Statistical Bureau [190], there are trial by-products along with improved recycling technologies pro-
196,407 km of paved roads in Japan, most of them with asphalt vide an opportunity for the production of low energy concrete
surface. However, there is recently an increasing interest in the blocks for ICBP, which decreases the environmental load and total
use of concrete pavements. Therefore, ICBP can be considered as cost of both concrete and concrete block pavements in Japan.
one of the pavements of the future, in light of the extensive Therefore, it seems that there is a bright future for the ICBP in var-
research papers, theses, technical reports, and manuals published ious types of paving projects.
in previous years, which provide a detailed knowledge for its struc-
tural design, construction, maintenance, and rehabilitation. More-
over, there are many successfully constructed ICBP projects 5. Structural components of the ICBP
throughout the country. Further, regular studies and advanced data
record systems have provided an integrated system to evaluate the The structural components of the ICBP are shown in Fig. 4. The
long-term performance of the ICBP. In addition, the following two block pavers, as one of elements for load-bearing capacity, may
unique characteristics highlight the pivotal role of pavements in have various shapes and laying patterns (Figs. 5 and 6). The block
various transportation modes and the national economy in Japan: paver thickness varies from 80 mm to 200 mm for heavy-duty
applications [161,303,105,224]. The Japan Interlocking Pavement
(1) Japan is an island in which all international travel, exports, Engineering Association (JIPEA) [123] provides details of the stan-
and imports are carried out through airports and ports. dard geometrical specifications and material characteristics of tra-
Therefore, the country is one of the main hubs and targets ditional block pavers and blocks with spacer nibs (Fig. 7(a)).
for exports and imports, especially for the countries in both However, there are block shapes developed by Japanese research-
sides of the Pacific Ocean. In other words, efficient and safe ers (Fig. 7(b)–(d)) that show high structural performance based
performance of heavy-duty port and airport pavements on the results of laboratory and field tests. The blocks are usually
affect the external and inter-continental transportation in interlocked by friction with the adjacent units through gaps (2–
Japan. This is the reason why the investment on infrastruc- 3 mm) filled with sand, namely, the joint sand.
ture assets related to exports and imports will increase from Cement mortar is used as joint filling and bedding material for
10 trillion Japanese Yen (JP¥) or 90 billion USD in 2010 to ¥ the blocks shown in Fig. 7(c). The mortar filled ICBP has higher
JP30 trillion (270 billion USD) in 2020 [59]. JP¥111 is structural performance owing to its higher stiffness compared with
approximately 1 USD (when this paper was written). that filled with sand [68]. However, the cracks formed across the
(2) Japan is often impacted by natural disasters, including vol- joints, because of its extra surface rigidity and the thermal gradi-
cano eruptions, earthquakes, and tsunamis, during which ent, are the main concern.
the road and airport pavements must maintain their service- It should be noted that the surface of the composite block
ability for takeoff of aircraft, people evacuation, and the other pavers is usually made up of mortars containing sandstones, which
emergency operations. The Kobe earthquake and the tsunami provide a natural appearance for the pavement surface (Fig. 7(d)).
in Tohoku are examples of recent natural disasters in the The design of synthetic elements in harmony with the nature and
country. As a result, it is understandable that the public sec- landscape is a premise of urban design in Japan.
tor and socio-economic policy makers are very sensitive to The block pavers are usually laid on a 20–40 mm thick layer,
the construction and performance of pavement networks in called the bedding sand. It should be noted that this thick layer
all the transportation modes. In this regard, the lessons and of bedding sand seldom reduces the stress on the base layer
experiences gained with the ICBP technology in disaster [106]. The reason is that the layer of bedding sand cannot be read-
areas can be of great interest for several countries. ily compacted during the construction phase. Therefore, the bed-
ding layer is compacted in the post-construction phase by the
4. Challenges for concrete pavements and opportunities for the traffic load, which results in some surface deformation on the block
ICBP in Japan surface. Furthermore, the joint sand provides horizontal distribu-
tion and vertical transmission of the load through shear stresses.
At first glance, the challenges for the development of concrete An empty joint results in block pavers that are not interconnected,
pavements in Japan are similar to those in other countries, as fol- which leads to lack of stress-reducing performance [236,237].
lows [4,87]: However, the maximum shear stress transmitted horizontally
Joint opening (2 to 3 Block paver
mm) filled by sand
Bedding sand
(25 to 40 mm)
a1
a2
an-1
an
Fig. 4. Structural components of the ICBP system.
Fig. 5. Different block shapes.
depends on the block paver strength [47]. The surface course of the to the traffic loads. Then, up to 40%–50% of the compressive and
ICBP, consisting of block paver, joint sand, and bedding sand, is shear stresses are distributed into the layers beneath (base and
called the block layer. The block layer is the first layer exposed subbase) [60,154], depending on the block thickness, laying
as that in the western system. Moreover, cushion sand layer or

cushion layer in the Japanese literature means the bedding sand
layer. The rest of terms are almost the same as in the conventional
terminology used in other English written papers.
7. History of ICBP in Japan
Segmental pavements, as the first generation of ICBPs, can be

found in historical sites in different areas, such as temples and
emperor gardens (Fig. 8). The initial segmental pavements were
(a)Herringbone (90 ) (e)Herringbone (90 )
made up of cobble stones, like the roads made in ancient Rome,
Iran and Greece [153,120]. The gaps between the cobble stones
were filled with sand, which performed as joint sand. However,
modern use of the current form of ICBP began in 1974.
The trend of ICBP growth in Japan is similar to that in the United
States, South Africa, India and Australia, wherein the initial appli-
cation of ICBPs was in pedestrian paths [199,263]. However, there
were three main reasons for ICBP development, two of them owing
to foreign and one to domestic factors. One external factor was the
rapid increase in asphalt price caused by the oil crisis in the 1970s,
which significantly threatened the development of transportation
infrastructure assets worldwide. Therefore, a relatively low-cost
(b)Herringbone (45 ) (f)Herringbone (45 ) pavement with less dependence on asphaltic materials was
required, and the ICBP was one of the alternatives. Another exter-
nal factor was the satisfactory performance of the ICBP in heavy-
duty pavements in Western Europe, specifically in Germany. The
internal factor was the economic flourishment of Japan in the
1960s and 1980s, which increased the personal car ownership rate,
promoting the car manufacturing industry and a rapid urban
development in Japan. To maintain or increase this high car own-
ership rate and its rapid development, the use of ICBP could reduce
the costs of pavement construction during any future oil crisis.
Consequently, the research on ICBP started and the first Japanese
papers, written by Inuzuka and Sato [103], Kanzaki et al. [126],
(c)Strecher (g)Strecher Miura et al. [194], and Nishizawa et al. [223], published at the sec-
ond periodical ICBP conference, the most important conference for
ICBP technology, which was held in Delft, Netherlands. More Japa-
nese researchers and companies focused on ICBP in the 1980s and
1990s. Not only did Japanese researchers work to develop the ICBP
in Japan, but also tried to obtain international recognition. In this
regard, the 6th periodical international conference on ICBP was
held in Tokyo in 2000. Fig. 9 shows the percent distribution of Japa-
nese research works on the subject throughout 47 yearly ICBP con-
ferences, based on the data provided by the small element
pavement technology (SEPT) website.
In parallel with research, paving projects were carried out in
(d) Basket weave (h) Basket weave every corner of the country. Fig. 10 shows pictures taken from dif-
ferent areas paved with ICBP.
Fig. 6. Different laying patterns using rerectangular and indented blocks.
According to the JIPEA website, around 2.8 million m2 of ICBP
have been constructed in Japan. Fig. 11 shows the trend and statis-
pattern, and joint width. The base and subbase are the other struc- tics of various types of facilities paved using ICBP. It can be seen
tural components of ICBP system, which are quite similar to the that the major application of the ICBP has been in sidewalks and
same layers used in asphalt pavements. In other words, the block bicycle tracks followed by recreational areas, wherein around
and base/subbase layers are the main components of the ICBP. 900,000 m2 of ICBP have been used (Fig. 11(d)). Furthermore, it
can be seen that less than 1% of ICBP has been used in roads.
Fig. 11(a)–(c) show the trends of ICBP construction in various
6. Terminology kinds of facilities from 1993 to 2016. It is clear that ICBP construc-
tion fluctuates over the years. However, there is a decreasing trend
The technical terminology commonly used for the ICBP technol- for all the applications. The decreasing trend can be caused by var-
ogy in Japan is somewhat different to that used in other countries, ious factors. For example, Shimada [318] mentioned that lack of
which can sometimes be misleading. Therefore, the exact terminol- information on the advantages of ICBP has resulted in reduction
ogy must be well understood when reading Japanese literature of ICBP construction.
about ICBP written in English. In Japan, ILB, which is an acronym Fig. 12 also shows that there is a decreasing trend in different
for inter-locking block, is equal to ICBP. Furthermore, ILB covers prefectures. It can be seen that the statistics of use reach a plateau
all types of segmental pavements, which is the same definition at around 3 million m2, which is much less than the 100, 18, 12, 12,
(a) Traditional blocks with spacer nibs standardized by JIPEA (2017)[123]
(b) Block paver with lateral anchored sniper developed by Takeyama (2000) [280]
(c) Block paver with vertical dents developed by Tamaki et al. (2000) [277]
(d) A type of double layer or composite block paver developed by Kurotaki et al. (1992)
[163] and Sano et al. (1988)[245].
Fig. 7. Standard and innovative block pavers used in Japan. (See above-mentioned references for further information.)
and 8 million m2 in Germany, Netherlands, the U.K., the U.S., and 1. Age of poor coloration: lack of high quality and various colors
South Africa, respectively [30]. In other words, it seems that there for different patterns
is a national lack of interest in ICBP in Japan. Therefore, it is needed 2. Age of coloration development and improvement: improve-
to encourage the use of ICBP among city halls, public work author- ment of various colors that increased the aesthetic features of
ities, and consultant companies by informing engineers about the ICBP.
successful experiences gained in various projects and different 3. Age of quality development: design and construction methods
countries. As shown in Fig. 12, the maximum level of ICBP con- and standards were developed based on technical require-
struction is in Kanto prefecture, because Tokyo is the largest city ments, local materials, and technology.
in Japan. Consequently, it is necessary to find the main reasons 4. Age of development of new patterns: new architectural pat-
behind the decreasing trend across Japan. One possible reason is terns and features were produced based on high quality colors
that there are approximately 1500 asphalt mixing plants producing and standardized construction methods.
42 million tons per annum in the country [39], which makes 5. Age of sustainable practices: environmental concerns resulted
asphalt-mix production a cost-effective production. Moreover, it in increased attention to the use of industrial by-products in
should be noted that there is already a sufficient area of pavements ICBP, development of permeable ICBPs (PICBP), and analysis of
in the country, and thus, no further construction is needed. As a the pavement albedo to decrease the urban heat island.
result, the main concern is maintenance and rehabilitation rather
than construction of new pavements. Furthermore, the trends of market demand for ICBPs have been
In addition to quantity, innovation and development of quality different. Although the indented block was introduced for the first
in ICBPs have followed a dynamic pattern to meet different indus- time in the Japanese market, the trend of block sales in terms of
trial requirements over time. In this regard, Akayama [3] divided block shape has changed over time. Fig. 13, based on the data pro-
the history of ICBP into five ages based on the progress of design vided by Tohyama [286], shows that the sales of indented blocks
and the targeted criteria in Japan, as follows: have decreased from 1990 to 1999, while there is an increasing
Fig. 8. Use of segmental pavement in historical fields in Japan (Katsuya Rikya garden built in the 17 century, Kyoto).
Structural design/Evaluation 1.90% 3.70% [273], completely automated production and fully computerized
7.60% monitoring systems for the quality control of block production
Functional performance
and packaging have increased productivity in recent years. The
Sustainability 6.60% aesthetic features of ICBPs and experiences gained, especially in
39%
Economy North America, have resulted in the use of ICBP in urban design.
Permeable ICBP 3.70% At the time of writing this paper, Japan is preparing to host the
Construction 7.50% Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games. One of the choices for high quality
Maintenance and Rehabilation
pavements is ICBP, owing to its construction quality and relatively
0.93% satisfactory performance results.
Pavement material
Natural Disaster 10%
Landscape 19% 8. Education and administration
Fig. 9. Various issues addressed by Japanese researchers at the SEPT conferences. In parallel with the research on ICBP, the required administra-
tive infrastructure was developed. In 1983, the Interlocking Block
trend for the rectangular block, which is similar trend observed in Technical Research Institute was established as the first institute
Netherland in 1950s [292]. engaged in research and development (R&D) of ICBP in Japan
One possible reason for the popularity of the rectangular block [218]. In 1985, the institute was renamed to Interlocking Block
is that ICBP is commonly used for walkways. Therefore, it is easier Association. Since 1995, the association name has been changed
to install such blocks rather than the indented blocks. Another rea- to JIPEA [318]. JIPEA is a public institute focused on technological
son relates to culture, i.e., the Japanese traditionally cover their innovation, standards, technical reports, and management of the
house floors with Tatami or Fusuma, which is a traditional draw- ICBP technology in the country. JIPEA can be considered as the
ing, as the decorative element in the room, and Shoji for the doors. counterpart of the Interlocking Concrete Pavement Institute (ICPI)
Because rectangular blocks provide the same appearance of tradi- in the United States, INTERPAVE in the United Kingdom, Swedish
tional floor covers, they are aesthetically appealing to the users Concrete Block Paving Association (SCBPA) in Sweden, Blocobrasil
[286]. Therefore, for development of a pavement system, tradi- in Brazil, and Asociación Argentina del Bloque de Hormigón
tional and social norms are important as one of the pillars of (AABH) in Argentina. In a similar way to its western counterparts,
PMP, as shown in Fig. 1. It should be noted that the technology JIPEA publishes technical reports, guidelines, and manuals, which
of block paver manufacturing and the concrete materials have been are used by engineers, project contractors, and pavement research-
greatly improved, further improving the aesthetic appeal. Although ers in private and public companies. The first handbook of ICBP,
the manufacturing efficiency and quality of blocks decreased titled ‘‘Interlocking Block Pavement Design and Construction Manual,”
owing to changes in the production phase in previous years was published in Japan in 2000. Based on the practical experiences
(a) Port container terminal (Kawasaki) (b) Narita Airport bus station (Tokyo)
(c) Red Brick Building avenue (Sapporo) (d) Car parking (Kuzuu Higashi)
(e) Parking of interstate recreation place (f) Street paved with ICBP
(Yamanshi) (Utsunomya)
Fig. 10. Different applications of ICBP in Japan.
obtained in different projects, the first and last revised version mote the use of handbooks as the main source of technical guide-
were published in 2007 and 2017, respectively. However, there lines and general knowledge on ICBP technology, some of these
are many technical notes and reports about ICBP design and con- handbooks have been combined with education and training
struction in different languages. Table 1 shows the publication of courses [266].
JIPEA with a brief description. Interestingly, there is a report eval- Comparing these publications with the manuals and guidelines
uating the ICBP in earthquake events, as a common natural disas- published by ICPI and SCBPA, there is lack of manuals for the archi-
ter, which indicates the significant role of pavement under such tectural design of concrete pavers and flags in Japan. Furthermore,
emergency conditions. Because pavement research is highly a detailed technical report on the hydraulic and structural perfor-
intensive in capital, Japanese universities seldom conduct mance of PICBP based on local materials and the hydrologic char-
research in this field. In turn, major research is carried out by acteristics of each prefecture is required.
technical colleges, R&D centers, construction companies, and con-
sultancies. Therefore, the highly qualified engineers and research- 9. Performance of ICBP
ers are often trained by such institutes. However, it seems that
the lack of courses in the field of pavement engineering at the 9.1. Structural performance
universities affects the basic knowledge of young engineers for
fully understanding the complex problems of modeling and char- 9.1.1. Structural design of ICBP
acterizing pavement materials and the principles of structural The principles of concrete pavement design in Japan are based
design and evaluation. For example, in Sweden, in order to pro- on the equations and theories developed by Professor Shigeru
4500 4500
Plaza Road
4000 4000 Parking lot

Walkway and bicycle track
Residental area
3500 3500
Other
Area (1000m2)
3000
Area (1000m2)
3000
2500 2500
2000 2000
1500 1500
1000 1000
500 500
0 0
1992 1996 2000 2004 2008 2012 2016 1992 1996 2000 2004 2008 2012 2016
Year Year
(a) Pedestrain road (b) Roads and streets
10000
9000
8000
Area (1000m2)
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
1992 1996 2000 2004 2008 2012 2016
Year
(c)Total trend of ICBP construction
(d): Trends of ICBP construction in different years

Fig. 11. Trend and type of surfaces paved with ICBP in Japan (data obtained by personal communication with JIPEA).
Iwama, which are based on the deflection, bending, and thermal ficient (ratio of the block layer to hot mix asphalt) of 1.01–1.17
stresses of the pavements. This method is the foundation of current were proposed, which is consistent with the 1.10–1.15 ratio pro-
concrete pavement design by the Japan Road Association (JRA) and posed by Shackel [262,264].
Japan Society of Civil Engineering (JSCE) [219]. However, this Takeshita [278] proposed Eq. (1) to estimate the proximity fac-
method could not be used for structural design and analysis of ICBP tor. However, JIPEA [123] recommends a standardized proximity
because of the flexible performance of ICBP. In this regard, it has factor for structural design of the various layers in ICBP. It can be
been tried to develop the methodologies for ICBP design. One of seen that JIPEA covers a wide variety of material types, including
the initial approaches to develop the analysis of ICBP was based both virgin and reclaimed materials (Table 2).
on a multi-layer system using the elastic theory [207,46]. Conse-
quently, Fukuda et al. [44], developed a user-friendly nomogram E0:46
to analyze the ICBP system using the elastic theories. Finally, Miura a ¼ 0:00525 ð1Þ
0:44
et al. [194] proposed a structural design procedure based on the
California bearing ratio (CBR) and asphalt pavement design meth- where a: the proximity factor and E: elastic modulus of various
ods. In this regard, proximity factors or the relative strength coef- materials (kgf/m2).
3000 3000
Kanto Tohoku
Tyubu 2500 Tyuugoku
2500
Kinki Kyushu
2000
Area (1000m2)
Area (1000m2) 2000
1500 1500
1000 1000
500 500
0 0
1992 1996 2000 2004 2008 2012 2016 1992 1996 2000 2004 2008 2012 2016
Year Year
(a) (b)
3000
Hokkaido
2500 Hokuriku
Shikoku
2000
Area (1000m2)
1500
1000
500
0
1992 1996 2000 2004 2008 2012 2016
Year
(c)
Fig. 12. Trends of ICBP construction in different prefectures in Japan.
Currently, the TA-CBR methodology is used as a standard

95 method in Japan, as expressed by Eqs. (2) and (3) [123]. This
85 methodology is based on flexible pavement design method which
can be considered a reliable design approach [111].
75 0:16
TA ¼ 3:84N For wheel load of 49 kN
Sale ratio (%)
CBR0:3
65 ð2Þ
1:95N0:16
TA ¼ CBR0:3
For wheel load of 17 kN
Dental block
55 Rectangular block
TA ¼ a1 T1 þ a2 T2 þ . . . þ an Tn ð3Þ
45
where TA is the design thickness (cm) or the required thickness of
35
full-depth hot-mixture asphalt with equal strength, N is number
25 of the wheel load repetitions in one direction during a 10-year per-
iod, CBR of subgrade; a1 to an are the relative strength coefficients or
15 proximity factors for various material types and T1–Tn are the thick-
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 nesses of various layers (Fig. 4).
Year Furthermore, the revised version of the Japanese manual pub-
lished by JIPEA proposes a flowchart for the structural design of
Fig. 13. Trends of the block paver market in Japan.
ICBP (Fig. 14).
In a comparative study, it was found that the thicknesses deter- 9.1.2. Computer package for structural analysis
mined for the ICBP system using the TA-CBR methodology and One of the initial computer packages developed in Japan for the
proximity factors in Japan is higher than those established in other analysis of the stresses and strains in the ICBP was the elastic layer
countries, including Australia, South Africa, the U.K., and the U.S., system analysis (ELSA) [73], which was run by the MS DOS com-
which can be explained by the higher safety coefficient [287]. puter operating system. The ELSA counterpart in the West was
Therefore, the proximity factors were revised, and more factors DEGAS, developed for ICBP in France [34]. One of the restrictions
were proposed for various types of materials, as listed in Table 2. in all the software has been the analysis of the block layer. The sur-
Table 1 and define different structural loading combinations. Moreover,

Manual, reports and guidelines published by JIPEA. the post-processor shows the displacements, stress, and stress con-
Cover Title Description tours in a 3D high-resolution graphical presentation.
Interlocking Block Pavement This publication focuses on Furthermore, Nishizawa [220] proposed an algorithm of a neu-
Design and Construction various aspects of structural ral network validated using falling weight deflectometer (FWD)
Manual analysis/design and results, which provide reliable results to model the joint and bed-
construction of ICBP. The ding sand characteristics. The trends of the outputs were relatively
material characteristics are
also discussed.
reasonable for both the stretcher and herringbone laying patterns.
Interlocking Block Pavement It is primarily focused on Although the BLP3D is a software with high potential for the anal-
Maintenance/Repair Manual various structural and ysis of ICBP, it has not been commercialized yet. One reason is that
functional failures of ICBP the structural models and relevant concepts behind the philosophy
and the corresponding
of this design software are fundamentally different, which may
remedies.
Interlocking Block Paving It addresses the use of waste result in different outputs, even in contrasting results. Therefore,
Manufacturing: Guidelines materials in the ICBP and it is necessary that the software specifically developed for the anal-
Using Waste Materials block pavers. ysis of ICBP designs, such as DesignPave [243], ELMOD 6 [36],
LOCKPAVE [257], DELPAVE [86], and REFEM [9], be compared.
Moreover, the ICBP system was modelled by software that is gen-
Subjects on Interlocking It contains common general erally used for structural analysis and evaluation, e.g., the slab
Concrete Block (volume 1) and technical questions and
answers on ICBP technology,
analysis finite element (SAFE) [60], structural analysis program
presented in two separate (SAP) [176], ANSYS [213,214,51], ABAQUS [48,314], and LUSAS
volumes. [151,152]. To avoid any misunderstanding, the design philosophy
and assumptions of each software product could be discussed by
Subjects on Interlocking
Concrete Block (volume 2) all the developers in workshops. For example, a workshop on the
design of ICBP was held in August 2000 in Stockholm, Sweden
[267]. In the workshop, the port of Helsingborg in the south of
Sweden was proposed as a pilot project. Then, nine internationally
Performance of the Technical report on the
recognized ICBP specialists discussed their design methodologies
Interlocking Block Pavement performance of ICBP and its
in the Great East Japan failures in the Tohoko and analytical methods for both the structural and hydraulic
Earthquake and the Great earthquake, March 11, 2011, designs of pavements based on the given traffic loads and local
Hanshin Awaji Earthquake and the Kobe earthquake, materials. A consensus was achieved in various aspects of the ICBP
January 17, 1995. design during the workshop. Under such circumstance, it was pos-
sible to compare and discuss the performance of various software
face course of the ICBP is non-homogenous, consisting of the block products developed for the analysis and design of ICBP under sim-
pavers, joints, and bedding sands. Therefore, the surface layer ilar conditions.
should be assumed as an equivalent layer, which is unrealistic.
To simulate a realistic condition, Nishizawa et al. [223] developed 9.1.3. Evaluation of structural performance
a computer model using the finite element method. Therefore, the There are different variables that should be evaluated in the
blocks were modelled, individually and in an interconnected state, structural performance of ICBP. For instance, the block shape and
using a set of shear and bending springs. The outstanding advan- laying patterns should be considered as design criteria
tage of this methodology was the modeling of various block- [306,15,16], while such variables do not exist in the traditional
laying patterns. Furthermore, the block layer performed as an inte- asphalt and concrete pavements. However, it should be noted that
grated non-homogenous layer. The layers beneath the block layer not only the stress distribution or deflection of the block layer but
were also modelled based on the Winkler theory [224]. However, also the trend of structural performance can be different for vari-
the analysis with this methodology was relatively cumbersome ous block laying patterns and base/subbase materials
owing to the different input requirements. The same methodology [287,135,306,302]. Another mechanism plays a pivotal role in the
was a cornerstone of the computer package BLPAV3D [221]. In structural performance of ICBP, namely the interlocking. In this
light of the computing and data storage technology under the Win- regard, a loading test conducted by Miura et al. [194], clearly
dows operating system, the package was user-friendly with mod- showed that the stress generated beneath the block layer decreases
ules of mesh generator, solver, and post-processor. Fig. 15 shows as the loading increases. The reason is the lock up phenomenon as
a screen of the input data. Furthermore, the user was able to a result of the progressive increase in interlocking. The same trend
choose among various block laying patterns using solid elements was observed by evaluating ICBP in an airport using FWD [192,53].
Table 2
Conversion factors standardized by JIPEA [123].
Structural layer Material type Material description Proximity factor

Surface course Block paver Block thickness: 80 mm 1
Flexural strength > 5 MPa
Base Asphalt-treated Strength 3.43 kN 0.8
Cement-asphalt-treated base 7-day uniaxial strength from 1.5 to 2.9 MPa; 7-day uniaxial 0.65
strength from 5 to 30 MPa (1/100 cm); 7-day reduced strength 0.65
Cement-treated 7-day uniaxial strength from 1.5 to 2.9 MPa 0.55
Crushed aggregate Modified CBR > 80% 0.35
Subbase Steel slag and reclaimed materials
Crush aggregate and reclaimed materials Modified CBR > 30% 0.25
Steel slag and reclaimed materials 20% < Modified CBR < 30% 0.2
Fig. 14. Flowchart of ICBP design in Japan.
Fig. 15. Screen of the properties of block and join filling materials in BLP3D.
Fig. 16 shows an increase in the elastic modulus of the block layer D2

LTE ¼ 100 ð4Þ
using elastic analysis, which is consistent with the results reporte D1
Nishizawa et al. [219] Todoroki et al. [284] and Silfwerbrand [268]
in terms of resilient modulus. Moreover, Kasahara et al. [137] D1 is deflection at the edge of the under a loaded condition of the
reported that the equivalent elastic modulus of the block layer, block paver, D2 is the deflection at the edge under an unloaded con-
ranging from 200 MPa to 570 MPa, increases from 330 MPa to dition, and D0 is the deflection at the loading point.
1010 MPa after traffic loading, which is comparable to the elastic Fig. 18 shows the LTE as function ratio of the side area (S) to the
modulus of asphalt pavement at 50 °C. upper surface area (U). It can be seen that the LTE increases linearly
To characterize the interlocking phenomenon quantitatively, as the ratio increases, which means that the block pavers can
JIPEA [123] proposed the load transfer efficiency (LTE) as a new cri- develop interlocking owing to their higher LTE compared to
terion, and it is referred to Fig. 17 and Eq. (4) [226]. concrete flags. This is the reason why ICBP can be used for
asphalt treated base. For example, Miura et al. [195] reported that
the deflection in a block surface paved on a cement-treated base
layer was 0.3 mm, which is less than the 0.5 mm prescribed as per-
missible deflection for asphalt pavements under heavy traffic.
Therefore, the strength of the ICBP depends on the lock up and
E = 70.37T + 235.09 strength of the base course [124]. It is consistent with the Winkler
R² = 0.63 theory because the higher strength base materials mean that the
ICBP 1 stiffness of the springs modeled as base of the block layer is higher.
ICBP 2
As a result, the block layer performs with higher rigidity. Then, the
stress is distributed at a higher surface beneath the block layer.
E = 20.52T + 125.75 Consequently, the deformation generated on the base surface
R² = 0.73
decreases. However, it should be noted that the high stiffness of
the base and bedding sand layers results in a solid behavior in
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 the block layer, which results in breakage of the blocks. For this
reason, Karasawa et al. [133] recommends a range of 2.20–
14 MPa as the optimum hardness for the bedding layer. Note that
Fig. 16. Elastic modulus of the ICBP system, plotted using data reported by
Kasahara and Matsuno [140]. the range can be different for different ICBP applications, mode of
loading (static or dynamic), and traffic frequency. To meet the
hardness and other requirements, there are standard gradations
of the bedding sand for different applications.
Furthermore, there are various methods to evaluate the ICBP
structural performance, such as the Benkelman beam, plate bear-
ing test, and CBR. However, such methods are relatively time con-
suming and cumbersome. One of the solutions is the use of the
handy FWD (HFWD) to analyze the structural performance in
terms of rutting. One of the greater advantages of HFWD is that
the test equipment is portable, and it maintains good correlations
between the observed results of the other methods (Eq. (5))
[20,138].
(
0:23DBenkelman þ 0:025 R2 ¼ 0:93
DHFWD ¼ ð5Þ
0:086D2FWD þ 0:011DFWD þ 0:02 R2 ¼ 0:95
Fig. 17. LTE of the block paver.
where DHFWD is the deflection measured by HFWD, DBenkelman is the
deflection measured using the Benkelman beam, and DFWD is mea-
heavy-duty pavements, while flags are used for walkways and sured by an ordinary FWD test.
under light traffic. The correlation between the results of HFWD and the Benkel-
In other words, Fig. 18 shows that the shape and dimensions of man beam is found for an ICBP constructed using 10 cm thick
the paver play a pivotal role in the interlocking phenomenon. How- blocks and 2 cm of bedding sand. It is clear that the correlation
ever, it should be noted that the direction of traffic loading also can be changed while various thicknesses or materials are used.
plays a crucial role in the development of interlocking in heavy- However, there is a relatively good correlation, which can be used
duty pavements designed for airports and ports [255]. for further structural analyses and evaluations.
Furthermore, the increase in elastic modulus not only depends In addition, Fig. 19 shows the maximum stress and deflection
on the lock up phenomenon as result of the interlocking mecha- calculated against various subbase reaction modulus (k) for two
nism, but it also relates to the gain in strength of the cement or patterns. It can be seen that the maximum stress and minimum
90
80
70
60
LTE(%)
50
40
30
LTE = 54.30S/U - 24.96
20 R² = 0.99
10
0
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2
S/U
Fig. 18. LTE as function of S/U, adopted from Noda et al. [226].
3.5 1.1
Herringbone Herringbone
3.3 1
Strecher Strecher
3.1 0.9
2.9 0.8
σmax(MPa)
Δmax(mm)
2.7 0.7
2.5 0.6
2.3 0.5
2.1 0.4
1.9 0.3
1.7 0.2
1.5 0.1
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
k(MPa/m) k(MPa/m)
Fig. 19. Maximum stress and deflection calculated by FEM method, plotted based on data reported by Nishizawa [223].
deflection generated beneath the herringbone block layer are less pavements in the Japanese ports and airports, roads, and bus termi-
than stretcher pattern for all the k values. In other words, the her- nals [63,288,54,55,194,192]. However, it should be noted the ICBP
ringbone laying pattern is more effective at reducing the stress and the asphalt pavement behavior is fundamentally different. This
generated by loading in comparison with the stretcher pattern, is because the asphalt materials have visco-elastic characteristics,
which is consistent with results outlined by Mempearachchi and which significantly depend on the temperature at the time of load-
Senadeera [175] and Jamshidi and Hassani [60]. ing, while the ICBP behavior is temperature independent. For exam-
The set of Eqs. (6) and (7) shows that the equation of the max- ple, Kasahara and Matsuno [140] show that the structural
imum stress and deflection for the patterns. Although the values of parameter, in terms of elastic modulus, of an asphalt layer and its
the stresses and deflections are different, the trends are similar. In base decrease exponentially and linearly, respectively, as the tem-
other words, the block-laying pattern has no significant effect on perature increases (Fig. 21). However, the structural performance
the trend of stress and deflection reduction as a function of the k of the ICBP and the asphalt pavement are different at elevated tem-
value of the subgrade. In this regard, it is recommended that the perature ranges. Therefore, the block paver of ICBP has no structural
most effective laying pattern is the herringbone, with an angle of performance loss at elevated temperatures. Nonetheless, the
100° or 110° for the indented block [175,176] (Fig. 20). In addition, asphalt-treated base has structural properties in terms that could
the herringbone-laying pattern of indented blocks reduces the hor- change in different seasons owing to the temperature variations,
izontal creep owing to better interlocking [261]. As a result, it can which affect the whole ICBP system [202]. In addition, the analysis
be interpreted that the block-laying pattern and interlocking are of stress distribution using photo elastic pictures clearly shows that
significant variables in the distribution of the loading stresses the stresses under the block layer are not symmetrical owing to the
and deflection [223]. segmental nature of the paver [60,5], while the stress distribution is
( approximately circular under the course layer in an asphalt pave-
0:58Ln K þ 5:25 R2 ¼ 95% Herringbone ment [205]. In addition, the concentration of load distribution of
rmax ¼ ð6Þ
0:38Ln K þ 4:08 R2 ¼ 97% Stretcher an ICBP near the loading surface is higher when compared with
an asphalt pavement, while the stress under the block layer is less
( than that in an asphalt pavement [204]. As a result, a fully equal
26:13K0:83 R2 ¼ 99% Herringbone
Dmax ¼ 0:68
ð7Þ
9:67K R2 ¼ 99% Stretcher
where K is the reaction modulus and rmax and Dmax are the maxi-
mum stress and deflection, respectively. asphalt conceret
The ICBP was assumed as a flexible pavement based on the
FWD results and radius of deflection beneath the wheel asphalt-treated base
[132,53,194–196], and it was designed in accordance with the prin-
ciples and theory related to the structural performance of asphalt
E = 16.228e-0.062T
R² = 0.98
E = -0.22T + 8.62
R² = 0.97
0 10 20 30 40
90°
100° to 110°
Fig. 20. Optimum block shape recommended by Gunatilake and Mampearachchi Fig. 21. Elastic modulus of the asphalt course and treated based versus temper-
[51]. ature (plotted based on data reported by Kasahara et al. [139]).
performance of the ICBP and other asphalt pavements would be Furthermore, the geotextile with 130 g/m2 slightly decreases
unrealistic elsewhere. rutting in an ICBP constructed on an asphalt-treated base, while
Furthermore, as integrity of the ICBP has a pivotal role in struc- rutting drastically increases in an ICBP with a granular base. It
tural performance, the use of geosynthetic materials, including can be seen that the geotextile with 60 g/m2 can be more effective
geotextiles and non-woven fabrics, can enhance its load-bearing for additional base materials. This is the reason for the popular use
capacity. With the major subgrade soils in Japan made up of vol- of geotextiles of 60 g/m2. As a result, the selection of geosynthetic
canic cohesive materials, containing excessive water in a saturated materials depends on different variables, such as costs, geotextile
condition, the subgrade strength is very low and the CBR is 1%–2% type, construction site condition, base material type, soil subgrade
[193]. The use of geosynthetic materials is a relatively cost- quality, drainage system, and engineer judgement.
effective remedy to enhance the soil and pavement strength. In this In addition, the synergistic effects of pavement applications on
regard, the most significant advantage of the geotextile in the the structural response of ICBP, reinforced by the geotextile, funda-
interface of the block layer and base or subbase is the reduction mentally depend on the structural loading mode. For example, the
of rutting and block breakage [7,193]. However, it should be noted loads imposed by vehicles in highways are dynamically repetitive
that the use of thin geotextiles can be damaging, and the use of and are associated with a relatively low momentum owing to the
thick ones results in bedding sand particles moving under the traf- accelerating, braking, and deaccelerating phases. In contrast, the
fic loading. In Japan, nonwoven geotextiles, which have a mass of speed of loading in a taxiway is higher when associated with the
60 g/m2, are usually used, which is cost-effective. However, the high momentum in the airport, but it is less than the loading mode
use of new geotextiles is also popular [171]. in the runway surface, which results in rutting and other modes of
Moreover, Omoto et al. [233] studied the interaction between structural failures owing to severe shear stresses [296,297]. How-
different geotextile weight and base types. Fig. 22 shows that the ever, ICBP is not used in the runway pavement system. In a hangar
geotextile performance depends on the base material, which is and apron, there is severe static loading during a relatively long
consistent with the results reported by Cicek [28]. For example, time, which is the same in the stacked container yards in ports.
it was found that the geotextile with 60 g/m2 decreases rutting In the access tracks in the ports, there is a harsh dynamic loading
in an asphalt-treated base. However, it has no significant effects owing to the transportation of loaded and unloaded lift trucks,
on the rutting of a granular base (Fig. 22). transtainers, straddle carriers, and trucks. Any vehicle maneuver
may result in severe stresses within the pavement structure. To
simulate the stress profile in the pavement structure, it is required
60 to test the pavement section under a condition as realistic as pos-
Granular base sible using well-designed simulators. Fig. 23 shows a Boeing 747
Porous asphalt-treated base landing gear simulator developed by the MLIT for evaluation of
50 the structural response of the pavement structure in a runway
and taxiway.
40 Survey vehicles equipped with laser rangefinders have showed
Rutting (mm)
its effectiveness to record data of the rutting and longitudinal

roughness of ICBPs, while they are not useful to record paver cracks
30
and joint openings [88]. Therefore, in the future, survey vehicles
exclusively developed to analyze the various structural perfor-
20 mances of ICBP will be necessary. Such equipment can provide
more reliable data on the structural response of ICBPs.
10
9.2. Functional performance
0
In the analysis of pavement performance, two different lateral
No geotextile 60gr/m2 130gr/m2
effects, including noise production and lack of safety owing to
ICBP sections the surface friction loss, should be considered. Such lateral effects
can affect the serviceability of ICBPs in the long-term. Furthermore,
Fig. 22. Interaction between geotextile and base type.
the pavement users judge them based on functional performance
(a) Lateral view (b) Inner view

Fig. 23. Boeing 747 landing gear simulator developed by MLIT (Yokohama, Japan).
rather than on the structural performance in terms of distribution 90

of stress or strain. Therefore, the functional performance is a key
factor for social acceptation of any type of pavement. Various key 85
Noise production(dB)
functional performances are discussed in this section.
80
9.2.1. Noise reduction 75
Environmental regulations are very strict regarding noise emis-
sions in Japan. Therefore, porous pavements, sonic protection 70 13.60%
walls, and plantations are examples of measures for noise reduc-
tion. Because there are many residential areas in the vicinity of 65
highways and arterial roads in densely populated areas, the con-
struction of low-noise pavement plays a pivotal role in urban 60
design and management and in public health. For example, the
World Health Organization (WHO) [299] recommends that the 55
sound level should not exceed 30 dB and 45 dB for continuous 30 35 40 45 50
background noise and individual noise, respectively, for sleeping Speed (km/hr)
at night. Furthermore, the Environment Protection Agency (EPA)
[38] prescribes some regulations for noise management based on Asphalt(dry) ICBP(dry)
PICBP(dry) Asphalt(wet)
various activities, such as construction, maintenance, and rehabil- ICBP(wet) PICBP(wet)
itation of roads, domestic refuse collection, and aircraft and heli-
copter operations, depending on the time on weekdays and (a) Plotted based on data reported by
weekends. Hata et al. (1998)
To reduce the pavement noise, some remedies are proposed,
such as double-layered porous asphalt [168], thin surface-course
90
asphalt [181], and modified stone-matrix asphalt [290,291].
Furthermore, 74 models were developed to characterize the tire– Noise production(dB) 85
pavement interaction regarding noise, including 37 deterministic,
18 statistical, and 19 hybrid models [165]. Such models cover a 80
wide variety of pavement conditions, vehicle types, and service
75
conditions. Meanwhile, pavement noise becomes significant at
speeds above 40 km/h for passenger vehicles and 70 km/h for 70
trucks. As a result, the vehicle type and speed should be considered
in the analysis of noise reduction. However, there are primarily 65
two different methodologies for noise reduction [271], as follows:
60
Optimized surface structure (OSS) 55
Optimized porous pavement (OPP) 20 30 40 50 60
Such methodologies can be adopted for ICBPs. As the first step, Speed (km/hr)
the potential of noise production of the ICBP should be evaluated. Asphalt(dry) Concrete(dry)
Analyses of noise production by various pavement types, con- ICBP(dry) Asphalt(wet)
ducted by Hata et al. [65] and Kanzaki et al. [126] showed that
Concrete(wet) ICBP(wet)
ICBPs produce equal or less noise than asphalt pavements
(Fig. 24), depending on the speed, block laying pattern, and base
course material. This observed trend is consistent with the results (b) Plotted based on data reported by
reported by Inuzuka et al. [94], Vollpracht [317], and Samuels and Miura et al. (1984)
Sharp [316]. However, it should be noted that the noise produced
by an ICBP is 5 dB–8 dB higher than the asphalt pavement at Fig. 24. Noise produced by various pavement types.
60 km/h or higher speed [29,126]. Consequently, the ICBP noise
level is 5 dB–8 dB higher than the asphalt pavements [260,261]. row joint openings result in less joint sand or soft materials, which
The reason behind these contrasting results can be explained based increase the block layer rigidity. It can lead to higher noise emis-
on simple laws of classic physics about the mechanism of sound sion. Wider joint openings contain more joint sand materials,
reflection. While the sound is produced, a fraction of its energy is which decrease the noise emission. Joint openings in PICBP
absorbed by the air and obstacles in vicinity of the noise source, (Fig. 25(c)) are usually wider than in ICBP, which results in less
while the rest is reflected. A smooth surface can reflect more than noise emission (Fig. 25(b)). Therefore, as a flexible pavement, the
a rough surface, like in the reflection of light. In addition, stiff sur- noise emission in ICBP should be less or equal to that in asphalt
faces reflect more than the soft ones. This is the reason of the pavement. If the noise emission is higher than the one in asphalt
higher noise emission caused by moving vehicles on old asphalt pavement, the joint opening of the block layer is small. Moreover,
pavements, because long-term aging increases the pavement stiff- moving at higher speed increases the noise emission. Therefore, it
ness. The surface courses of asphalt and concrete consist of rela- is recommended to use ICBP primarily in low-speed areas, such as
tively homogenous layers with high stiffness (Fig. 25(a)), while collectors and arterial roads.
the surface course of an ICBP is made up of the block paver with It can be seen that the noise produced by PICBP is the lowest
high stiffness (the elastic modulus varies from 35,000 to under both dry and wet conditions, which is the same OPP technol-
45,000 MPa) and the joint/bedding material with low stiffness ogy. Thus, Fig. 24(a) and (b) clearly show that the noise produced
(elastic modulus of 350 MPa) (Fig. 25(b)). The networks of joint by a wet asphalt is the highest. The reason is that the runoff on
sand decrease the total stiffness of the block layer. Therefore, nar- the non-pervious asphalt surface remains and requires time to
(a) Traditional asphalt and concrete pavements
(b) ICBP
(c) PICBP with wider joint openings

Fig. 25. Schematic difference between ICBP and the traditional asphalt and concrete pavements in terms of noise emission.
drain from the surface via culverts. Consequently, the runoff is Furthermore, it should be noted that clogging in PICBP increases
splashed or sprayed by vehicle tires, increasing the noise. In con- the noise emission by about 1 dB–2 dB [109]. The reason is that the
trast, in PICBP, the runoff is drained immediately through the joint clogging increases the block layer stiffness. Therefore, the noise
materials or pervious block pavers, which reduces the noise signif- emission of PICBP increases over time because clogging is a gradual
icantly. As an example, the noise generated by an asphalt pave- phenomenon [132]. Thus, it is necessary to estimate the approxi-
ment is 75 dB for wet conditions at 50 km/h, while the mate time of clogging via hydraulic analysis of the pavement struc-
corresponding value for a PICBP is 64.8 dB, which is 13.6% less than ture. The difference in noise production is more significant at lower
that in the asphalt surface (Fig. 24(a)). The rend of results are con- speeds. Fig. 26 shows that the difference is of 5.1 dB at 20 km/h,
sistent with noise emission measured in a pilot test in Korea [56]. while it decreases as the speed increases. Consequently, the PICBP
Fig. 24(b) also shows that the noise levels produced by an ICBP are is an appropriate pavement alternative for low-speed or low-traffic
2.5%–4.6% and 2.85%–10% lower than those in dry and wet con- roads, in terms of noise reduction. As a result, ICBPs with appropri-
crete pavements, respectively. ate joint openings and speed limits result in less noise emission
90 EN 1338, 2003: This test methodology was developed in Europe

to evaluate the abrasion of concrete paving blocks through the
85 Bohme test and wide wheel method [239].
AS/NZS 4456.9: This procedure is used in Australia and New
Noise production(dB)
80 Zealand to evaluate the abrasion resistance of masonry units

and segmental pavers [11].
75
Horiguchi et al. [80] tested the abrasion strength of ICBPs by the
70
5.1 dB different methods. The results indicated that the wear strength of
ICBP depends on the methodology used for characterization. Fur-
65
thermore, the wear strength obtained by the various methods
60 increases as the compressive strength of the block pavers rise to
65 MPa. The reason is that higher strength means additional cohe-
55 sion and adhesion owing to the interlocking among the concrete
20 25 30 35 40 ingredients. Furthermore, more binder agent, e.g., cement,
increases the compressive strength up to a specific level, and
Speed (km/hr)
500 kg/m3 is recommended by Murakami et al. [208]. As a result,
Asphalt(dry) binding result in higher abrasion resistance or less surface wear.
ICBP(dry) In this regard, Eq. (8) is proposed as a correlation between rut
depth and average wear depth [80].
Fig. 26. Noise produced by various pavement types, plotted based on data reported
pffiffiffiffi
by Takeyama et al. [280]. N
IW ¼ ð8Þ
hw
where IW is the wear resistance, hW is wear depth (mm), and n is the
compared with the traditional pavements, which is in harmony
number of load repetitions.
with environmental regulations and social demands as significant
Fukuda et al. [45] reported that the abrasion depth in block
criteria for PMP.
pavers covered by a protective polymer is between 20% and 50%
of the abrasion depth in asphalt pavement and blocks after
9.2.2. Abrasion strength
100,000 passes, which indicates the superior performance of
Transportation vehicle maneuvers, including turning, accelera-
polymer-protected blocks. Moreover, composite block pavers have
tion, de-acceleration, and braking, imposing potentially sever abra-
higher abrasion strength compared to that in the traditional block
sive stresses and strains. Therefore, pavement surfaces should be
[163,189,245]. However, the wear strength of ICBP depends on the
strong enough to resist these various modes of loading. In this
traffic frequency, wheel load, additive type, and construction qual-
regard, the abrasion strength of a pavement surface should be ana-
ity of the bedding sand as the base layer of block pavers, while it
lyzed. The following five different procedures are traditionally used
does not depend on the laying pattern [293,78,192,246].
for analysis and characterization of the abrasion of concrete block
pavers [80]:
9.2.3. Safety
The ICBP can be considered as an approach to enhance the
ASTM C799 (procedure B): This procedure simulates the abra-
safety of the traffic flow, e.g., the slight vibration of the car owing
sion produced by heavy tire and steel wheels [12].
to the change in the pavement surface from asphalt or concrete to
ASTM C 944M12: This procedure is used for analysis of the
ICBP can attract the attention of drivers. Further, the color of the
abrasion performance of concrete pavements and bridges [13].
ICBP used on the surface of intersections and squares can attract
Surface fatigue (SF): This methodology is used for analysis of the
the acute vision of drivers, which is estimated to cover an angle
abrasion caused by studded tires in winter [81,82].
of 20° by HCM [66]. Fig. 27 compares the skid resistance distance
30 30
Asphalt(dry) Asphalt(wet)
ICBP(dry) ICBP(wet)
25 25
20 20
SKD (m)
SKD (m)
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Speed (Km/hr) Speed (Km/hr)
(a) Dry condition (b) Wet condition
Fig. 27. Skid resistance of ICBP and asphalt pavement.
(SKD) owing to braking for an intersection constructed during a results in less accidents and the corresponding capital loss, which
field study in Ichihara city, Chiba prefecture [126]. increases the reliability of the pavement surface for the users. It
From Fig. 27, the ICBP has the same trend of skid resistance ver- also leads to higher social acceptance as one of the main pillars
sus speed as that of the asphalt pavement. As a result, not only is of the PMP (Fig. 1).
the structural response of the ICBP similar to that of the asphalt
pavement, but also the response of the ICBP surface against the
10. PICBP
speed variation is comparable. However, the SKD of ICBP is shorter
than that of the asphalt pavements under a dry condition, which
Owing to the economic flourishment of the 1960s, urbanized
means that the vehicle is stopped at a shorter distance after brak-
areas were rapidly developed in Japan. Such areas were paved
ing. Therefore, the safety level of the ICBP is higher than that of
using hard and impervious materials, such as asphalt and concrete.
asphalt owing to the greater surface friction that occurs because
Therefore, the natural permeability of the surfaces was reduced
the joints make the surface texture rough [187]. It is consistent
significantly. As the average rainfall in Japan is two times higher
with the Ihara and Sano [88] study, which reports that the dynamic
than the mean global average [133], it is necessary to construct
friction of ICBP is equal or higher than that of open-graded asphalt
appropriate facilities for runoff management, especially in densely
pavements. However, although the structural and functional per-
populated areas. Porous asphalt was one of the most important
formances of the composite blocks can be satisfactory, the skid
permeable pavements, with 20% of air voids and permeability of
resistance may decrease significantly under a wet condition
0.01 cm/s. However, the early structural failures of the porous
[245], which depends on the materials used on the surface course
asphalt owing to the lack of fine materials along with clogging
layer.
and its lack of aesthetic features remained as the main challenges
Furthermore, the difference between the SKD values of asphalt
for its use in urban design. Consequently, the PICBP was used in
and ICBP increases under a wet condition. For example, the SKD of
Japan for the two following primary reasons [274]:
ICBP is 5.25 m compared to 5.85 m for the asphalt pavement,
which denotes a value 12% lower than the corresponding value
(1) Recovery of natural water
for asphalt pavements. In addition, the difference in SKD of the
(2) Improvement of aesthetic features.
pavements increases as speed increases, as shown in Fig. 27(b).
Therefore, it can be inferred that driving on roads paved by ICBP Therefore, some areas in Tokyo, such as walkways and parks,
is safer at any speed and under both dry and wet conditions. were paved using the PICBP. Although the target values of air void
The surface texture of the block paver should be evaluated reg- and permeability for the block pavers were the same as those for
ularly. Although a rough surface increases friction in the interface the porous asphalt mixes, the permeable blocks reached up to
between the tire and pavement surface, which increases safety, it 30% in air voids and permeability of 0.8 cm/s [162], which are
may result in increased fuel consumption to overcome friction, much higher than those in a porous asphalt. Therefore, the PICBP
which results in higher on-road emissions. In the United States, can perform with much higher efficiency than the porous asphalt
it is estimated that 15% of the annual greenhouse gas is due to regarding watershed management. In other words, the PICBP is a
on-road vehicle emissions [292]. Furthermore, the surface texture multi-role infrastructure asset that performs as pavement and
of block pavers should have enough reflectance during the night drainage system. As a result, PICBPs increase the efficiency in
and rainy or foggy weather. To improve the brightness, Sano urban design because of the cost reduction obtained in comparison
et al. [245], used a layer of powder on the surface block containing with the design of a separate drainage system. The PICBP is becom-
fine glass with grain size of 105–840 mm and fine silica with grain ing more popular owing to its harmony with the landscape, envi-
size of 100–400 mm. The upper surface of this composite block can ronment, and urban streets, along with its high potential in noise
have a wide variety of colors, such as red, yellow, blue, green, blue, reduction [108,147]. However, the PICBP is usually used in walka-
and white orange. Fig. 28 shows the reflectance of different combi- way pavements [89].
nations of glass and polymer powder. It can be seen that the reflec- The design of a PICBP relies on two principles: the structural
tance depends on the percentages of the fine glass and polymer capacity and hydraulic efficiency. The structural design and perfor-
powder. However, both combinations satisfied the range recom- mance of a PICBP is almost equal to that of an ICBP. However,
mended by JIS K 5600-4-1 [118]. Therefore, the abrasion resistance slightly greater subbase or base thicknesses are chosen for better
and surface texture of the block surface play a key role in the func- runoff management, which is consistent with the outputs of the
tional performance of ICBPs. Consequently, the higher safety level storm water management model developed by the U.S. EPA
[253,255,256]. Although the PICBP can be considered as a relatively
independent technology in the pavement industry, there is no
100 specific test developed for the analysis of its hydraulic perfor-
diffuse reflectance (%)
mance. In this regard, there is a permeability test for characteriza-

95 tion of the permeability of a block paver. According to the JASS 7
M101 [119] procedure, test facilities or simulators were developed
90 in laboratories to evaluate the total performance of a pavement
system under synthetic hydraulic loads. Such simulations have
85 resulted in better understanding of the hydraulic performance of
ICBP under laboratory and field conditions. Computer packages
80 were also developed for the hydraulic design of ICBPs. For example,
and 0
More than 75% is PC-SWMM [110], PERMPAVE [251], and PDP [93]. Such packages
75 usually analyze the hydraulic characteristics of the materials in
recommended by JIS
each layer with their thickness, runoff intensity, joint opening,
45
70
and the surface gradient of the pavement. Fig. 29 schematically
1 2
presents the runoff movements in a typical PICBP system.
Combination
It should be noted that the materials used in each layer absorb a
Fig. 28. Diffuse reflectance of composite block with various combinations of glass fraction of the runoff penetrating the PICBP system (Fig. 29 and Eq.
and polymer powder (plotted based on data reported by Sano et al. [245]). (9)), which depends on the saturation degree, porosity, and perme-
Table 3
Clogging ranking based on infiltration rate loss.
Ranking Reduction of infiltration rate (%)

Low Less than 50%
Medium From 50% to 85%
High More than 85%
Block layer
ments of the pavement contaminants are primarily classified into

Base three main groups, as follows [40]:
Siltation: it includes the movement of tiny particles, with diam-

eter of 70–500 mm, and comprises 55%–71% of all movements.
Creep: it refers to the rolling or slow movement of sand and tiny
Subbase
particles under the influence of silting grains, and it accounts for
7%–25% of the total movements.
Subgrade Suspension: it includes the movements resulting from floating
and moving by air or wind, with particle diameter of less than
Fig. 29. Mechanism of run-off infiltration in the PICBP structure.
70 mm, and it involves from 3% to 7% of the total movements.
The clogging phenomenon depends on the coarse surface type,

ability coefficient of those materials. Because the viscosity of the run-off quality, rain regime, permeability of materials, base/sub-
fluid has a key role in a porous environment, the content and type base materials, joint sand width, type of debris (e.g., size, degrad-
of debris, dust, and other contaminants that exist in the runoff also able or non-degradable), air emissions, hydrological
affect the hydraulic performance of the PICBP. characteristics of the catchment, plans for routine maintenance
and rehabilitation of the concrete block surface, and country zone.
X
n
In addition, the frequency of vehicle loading has a significant role
Q¼ Qn ¼ Q1 þ Q2 þ Q3 þ Q4 þ Q5 þ Qn ð9Þ
in clogging, i.e., higher frequency accelerates the clogging phe-
1
nomenon [167]. Therefore, clogging takes place faster in pave-
where Q is the total rain; Q1 is the surface runoff; Q2 is the fraction ments under high traffic. In this regard, the time of clogging
of runoff that penetrates in the block layer and is absorbed by the should be estimated by the pavement managers. For example,
material in this layer; Q3, Q4, and Q5 are the fractions of runoff that Young et al. [311] estimated that the permeability of a porous
penetrate and are absorbed in the base, subbase, and subgrade, pavement decreases to as low as 0.03–0.3 mm/h after 15–20 years.
respectively. In the case of porous asphalt, the results of a field investigation in
The designed pollutant of PICBP removal efficiencies are in the Spain showed that no clogging occurred after nine years in porous
order of 85% of total suspended solids (TSS), 35% of total phospho- asphalt pavements subjected to medium traffic loading, but clog-
rus, and 30% of total nitrogen [215]. For example, Imai et al. [89] ging was observed after two years for the same pavements sub-
showed that there is a linear relationship between the permeabil- jected to heavy traffic [14]. In Japan, clogging in urban road
ity coefficient measured in the laboratory and the field permeation pavements was observed three to four years after construction
rate. However, the required permeability depends on the pave- [217], whereas it occurred two to three years after construction
ment application (Fig. 30). in the U.S. because of de-icing agents and debris [174]. In Australia,
However, it should be noted that clogging is still one of main it is interesting that the PICBP shows satisfactory infiltration after
challenges in ICBP systems. Hein and Schaus [67] rank clogging 10 years, even without routine surface cleaning [21], indicating a
based on lack of infiltration, as presented in Table 3. high filtration rate relative to age Boogaard et al., [24]. It should
To characterize the clogging mechanism, different variables be noted that X-ray analyses have showed that clogging is limited
should be taken into account because various types of contami- to the pavement surface [142]. Although washing the ICBP to open
nants, stemming from different sources, exist. However, the move- the clogged pores is a remedy, it is cumbersome. To cope with clog-
ging, Karasawa and Suda [319] proposed an ICBP system that has
an impermeable mortar on the top surface of the block paver,
1200 which makes that the runoff be drained through the open-graded
join and bedding materials. The laboratory results showed that
1000 the total permeability of the new pavement system is satisfactory.
Permeability (ml/15s)
However, more field tests are required.

800 In addition to the run-off produced by the rain, another type of
runoff is produced by slush and snow. Note that snowy and cold
600 areas cover around 60% of Japan, where almost 25% of the total
population lives [45,203]. Therefore, the PICBP system can be used
400 as an approach to manage slush and snow. It should be noted that
the concrete block pavers are frozen at 8 °C [129]. Therefore, the
200 cold or snowy weather significantly affect the safety for pedestrian
and surface transportation, and the slush and snow should be
0 removed from the surface. For example, a PICBP system was
Heavy-duty Highway and walkaway designed with a set of pipes containing warm water to melt the
surface snow in Sapporo, where the average annual snow is higher
than 5 m. Thermal energy, schematically highlighted by the red
Fig. 30. Required permeability based on the pavement application. arrows in Fig. 31, melts the surface snow. Then, the melted snow,
Fig. 31. Schematic illustration of PICBP with pipes containing warm water and deep drainage system.
highlighted by blue arrows, is infiltrated into the PICBP system melted snow. Therefore, such materials should be trapped at the
through the joint sand (Fig. 31) and drained by a set of perforated interface layer. For this purpose, the layer interfaces are covered
pipes located in the base or subbase layers. This system was much by geosynthetics or nonwoven fabrics. Karasawa et al. [128] also
more cost-effective than the use of other methods in Sapporo recommended using the fabric between the base layer and sub-
[247]. In another similar project, the PICBP proved its performance grade. It should be noted that such materials have no negative
in terms of urban runoff and slush mitigation during the winters in effect on permeability. In this regard, geosynthetics or fabrics have
Niigata, another city with high annual snow fall [108]. been produced that have equal or superior permeability compared
For deicing the ICBP surface, Inuzuka and Nagata [99] proposed to the natural sand [183]. Furthermore, geotextiles can be installed
a block paver containing deicing agents. The mechanism of the pro- between the bedding sand and base layer, thus preventing sand
posed system considers that the ice sheet formed on the block sur- migration into the base layer. For example, if the cement- or
face is broken by the vehicle tires into small particles. Then, deicing asphalt-treated base is cracked, the bedding sand grains can
agents can melt the broken ice faster due to its tiny size. However, migrate into the cracked area, which results in rutting and surface
it is recommended that the highly complex structure and mechan- deformation. Under such circumstance, the geotextile maintains
ical characteristics of the packed ice and snow, including the phe- integrity of the bedding sand and prevent the sand grain move-
nomena known as sintering, be considered in the design [295]. The ment. Furthermore, water drainage is another function of geotex-
main advantage of a PICBP system is that the operational cost of tiles [7].
snow and ice removal decreases. Furthermore, the chemical ice- Moreover, various developed and commercialized concrete
melting agents, which are harmful to the ecosystem, are not a sus- admixtures are used to produce block pavers, e.g., Asano Pore
tainable remedy. It should be noted that the deicing agent type, Mix, with impowered structural and hydraulic performance [58].
road degree, water table height, soil type, and air condition are However, the mix design for a block paver has an easy recipe: to
determining factors on the efficiency of deicing and its negative mix various materials in order to strike a balance between the per-
impacts [31]. The melted snow should be drained quickly to avoid meability and flexural strength of the concrete blocks [64]. In this
hydroplaning, and PICBP is able to drain the runoff formed owing regard, JIPEA [123] recommends 0.01 cm/s and minimum 3 MPa
to deicing. In addition to drainage, the optimum life cycle of the and 20 MPa as target points for permeability, flexural, and com-
block containing deicing agents is another concern. It is clear that pressive strengths of mortar sample, respectively, for the concrete
a deicing agent should remain effective as long as the pavement flags and blocks used for walkways. In addition, minimum 20 MPa
system performs. To avoid any negative impacts, the effects of is recommended for compressive strength of concrete block paver.
deicing agents on the chemical durability of the block pavers The minimum compressive strength Therefore, any mix recipe that
should be tested [98]. As a result, in the design of PICBPs, two meets the target values can be acceptable. It is obvious that any
important material characteristics should be taken into full consid- target values can be satisfied through various mix design ratios
eration, as follows: [238]. Also, the cement and water content can be decreased via
selection of particle packing optimization [70], which results in
more sustainable mix. However, there are various theoretical mod-
10.1. Appropriate thermal property
els used to optimize ratios [71]. Therefore, it is necessary to choose
an appropriate model to get satisfying results. There are also sur-
The materials around the pipeline containing warm water
faces paved by porous block pavers containing chemical agents
should have relatively high thermal conductivity to transfer the
to trap nitrogen and phosphorus pollutants [283]. Unfortunately,
thermal energy to the surface. As an example, the bedding sand
there is lack of information on the long-term structural and
thickness and thermal conductivity of materials significantly affect
hydraulic performance of such paving systems.
the melting performance of the pavement system [203]. For exam-
ple, 322 X is recommended as the optimum electrical conductivity
for deicing of concrete pavements [300]. Furthermore, the materi-
11. Sustainability
als in each layer should have enough permeability for infiltration.
11.1. Use of by-products and waste materials
10.2. Sand migration
Industrial by-products are a significant threat to the environ-
Joint and bedding sand, and even the other fine materials, can ment. Furthermore, such waste materials occupy large areas of
migrate into the inner layers of the pavement structure with the land, thus affecting land use. Therefore, it is necessary to manage
both solid and liquid by-products, especially in Japan because a As Japan is one of the largest car manufacturers and its personal
zero-landfill policy is pursued by the authorities. Different indus- car ownership rate is relatively high, the excess of discarded tires is
trial fields and products produce a wide variety of waste materi- another environmental challenge. To cope with this challenge, the
als. In addition, the waste materials are recycled through different discarded tires can be considered as a construction material. The
technologies. For example, the recycling rates in Japan for glass, initial evaluation clearly showed that the use of rubber as a joint
concrete, paper, and steel are 96%, 96%, 81%, and 92%, respectively filling material, or a thin layer on the block concrete and the appro-
[114,270,69,241]. Moreover, the reclaimed asphalt pavement priate bedding layer, decreases noise and ice thickness [95,97,289].
(RAP) used in asphalt mix production has a share of up to 50%, The reason behind the noise reduction phenomenon is that the
which is a relatively high content [74]. It should be noted that flexibility and resilient characteristics of the rubber reduces the
the separation of the waste material should begin from the noise generated by the moving wheel. In addition, the flexural
source, which significantly reduces the costs incurred by the recy- strength of the ICBP system can increase significantly [188]. More-
cling process. over, the relatively dark color of the rubber increases the temper-
As a technical support for the use of waste construction materi- ature of the surfaces, which results in ice melting. However, it
als, JIS issued two standards on the use of recycled aggregate and should be noted that rubber is a hydrophobic material, and the
recycled concrete aggregate for high-grade concrete applications, runoff caused by the slush or melted snow should be drained effi-
entitled ‘‘Recycled aggregate for concrete class H” (JIS A 5021) ciently. Although the use of rubber has advantages in ICBPs, the
[121], enacted in 2005, and ‘‘Recycled concrete using recycled degradation, separation of the block surface, and reduction of fric-
aggregate class L” (JIS A 5023) [120], enacted in 2006. Furthermore, tion are problematic. To solve these problems, Inuzuka et al. [96]
financial support of the high technology required for the separation suggested to decrease the block size, which increases the joints
and processing, associated with the support packages by the local and results in an increase of friction owing to the change in mate-
governments, have resulted in high motivation in the industrial rial type. The reason behind this suggestion lies on a simple for-
sectors to use recycled materials [282]. Therefore, there is a ten- mula in thermodynamic physics (Eq. (10)) [79].
dency to use the by-products as alternative materials in the ICBP
technology. For example, Kunishima and Arai [159] and Iwai and DV ¼ cV 0 Dh ð10Þ
Nakano [109] used cullet glass as bedding sand beneath the block
layer. The results of field and laboratory tests showed less block DV: change in volume owing to the thermal gradient; c: the heat
1
breakage, reduced joint sand widening, and improved surface expansion coefficient C ; Dh: the thermal gradient (°C).
deflection with the glass bedded beneath the block layer, indicat- The smaller size of the block results in smaller volume change
ing an equal and even superior structural performance. The cullet and less thermal strain and stress in the block and rubber. There-
glass can also be used in the base and subbase layers. In this regard, fore, less accumulated thermal stresses are generated throughout
Suzuki et al. [275], reported that incorporation of cullet glass into the block service life. The pivotal role of the thermal stress and
the base material increases the CBR value because of the increase strain is highlighted, as the magnitude of the thermal stress for
in internal friction of the soil grains owing to the glass particles. the block–rubber is much higher than the structural loading
Moreover, Karasawa et al. [131] found that 25% of the fine aggre- caused by traffic loads.
gate can be replaced with the cullet glass aggregate in the block Furthermore, the heat expansion coefficient means a change in
paver and satisfy all the requirements prescribed by the JIPEA volume owing to a 1 °C in temperature change. Therefore, the
manual. However, the water requirement increases. higher the expansion coefficient is, the higher the volume expan-
There is another by-product in Japan, stemming from the incin- sion owing to a change in temperature. The heat expansion coeffi-
eration of municipal waste materials, called molten slag. The JIS cient of rubber is almost 80, while it is 9.8 for concrete, which
committee established some regulations under the JIS 5031 [122] means that the sensitivity of the material volume to the tempera-
procedure to produce concrete products, including block pavers. ture change in rubber is nearly 8 times higher than that in con-
Therefore, Keiji and Nakamura [143] proposed a mix design concrete. This gap in the heat expansion coefficient can result in
taining 50% of molten slag and eco-cement, a cement produced separation and exfoliation. Therefore, the bonding between the
using ash from municipal waste incinerators. In another study, block paver and rubber plays a critical role. For the bonding, a
Hosokawa et al. [85] reported that mortar samples containing zero-slump concrete, hot asphalt, or different resins can be used
100% of molten slag show almost equal bending strength com- [82,96].
pared to the control mortar sample (without molten slag). More- Because Japan is a volcanic island, volcanic fly ash (VFA) can be
over, 50% of the sewage-sludge molten slag can be used to found in many places. In this regard, Hosokawa et al. [84] studied
produce permeable blocks with appropriate structural capacity the effect of VFA, supplied from two sources in Kyushu island in
and permeability [76]. The use of 50% of alternative materials sig- the south of the country, on the performance of ICBP. They
nificantly reduces the environmental burdens in pavement con- reported that 20%–30% is an optimum VFA content percentage to
struction, which is in harmony with the principles of sustainable be used as fine aggregate, depending on the source. As a result, this
design. study shows the effect of the VFA source in the block paver produc-
The synergistic effects of the use of waste materials and other tion. The difference in the optimum VFA percentage can be attrib-
improvements in concrete products have resulted in great achieve- uted to the degree of hydration of the block, which is related to the
ments in the Japanese concrete industry. For example, to the use of weathering percentage and mineral materials in the VFA granules.
waste materials associated with the natural gas fuel in the cement It is consistent with the Shackel [254,255] recommendation about
and concrete manufacturing industry is associated with a reduc- raw materials in the ICBP technology. Therefore, the source of the
tion of between 0.06 million and 0.72 million tons of CO2 [227]. waste and by-product materials should be considered as an inde-
Fly ash (FA) is another by-product with pozzolanic reaction that pendent variable in the mix design of concrete block pavers.
can be used as an alternative to cement in concrete blocks. It has The sustainability of the block paver is not limited to the use of
been showed that up to 40% of the cement replaced with FA has waste materials. The emissions during the laying of blocks depend
no negative effects on the flexural strength and skid resistance on the technology used. Manual installment emits neither fumes
[309,131]. The main reason for the higher strength is the higher and carcinogenic gases nor odors. In contrast, asphalt mixture lay-
reactivity of FA. However, the abrasion strength decreases as the ing emits fumes and gases containing polyaromatic hydrocarbons
FA content increases. (PAHs), which are carcinogenic [50], especially in closed paving
sites such as tunnels. Also, the PAH of asphalt pavements can be In addition, some filler materials developed using steel slag, highly
easily dissolved by runoff and contaminate the water tables retentive of water, can be used in the pavement [212]. One of the
[19,169]. Although the use of recent technologies such as warm- pavement alternatives that reduces the HIE is the cool pavement
mix asphalt reduces air emissions significantly [165,115], the [276]. In this regard, in Japan, area of cool pavements constructed
installment of block pavers has almost no toxic effects on the pav- up until 2009 was more than 800,000 m2, with going annual instal-
ing crew health. Thus, ICBP construction is more sustainable com- lations are estimated at around 270,000 m2 [250]. To meet this
pared with that of asphalt pavement. increasing demand, JIPEA established the cool pavement certifica-
tion and standard [123]. ICBPs as a cool pavement system is
11.2. HIE broadly categorized into two systems: water-retentive and heat-
shielding [127].
HIE significantly affects urban temperatures in Japan. For exam- The analysis of the HIE thermal characteristics in Osaka city
ple, the rise in the mean air temperature of Tokyo, as a mega city indicates that the albedo of ICBP is around 5 times higher than that
and the most densely populated area, owing to the global warming of asphalt and preamble pavements [145], indicating the higher
is around 3 °C in 100 years, while that of Japan as a whole is about reflection of the block surfaces that results in less thermal energy
1 °C [158]. Furthermore, the increase in the average temperature in absorbed. The general trend observed in terms of the HIE effects
Tokyo has been much higher than the rise in the temperature of is consistent with the results reported by other researchers [256].
the Earth’s surface over the last century, which has increased by For example, Fig. 32 clearly shows that the surface temperature
0.7 °C [130]. The result is that the energy requirements for space of ICBP is approximately 14 °C lower than that the adjacent asphalt
cooling in commercial buildings have increased up to 8500 TJ/y pavement.
in the city [75]. Therefore, any reduction in the heat island effect Furthermore, it should be noted that one of the strategies to
results in significant energy saving. Furthermore, HIE has a signif- reduce the HIE is using the water retention potential of PICBP.
icant negative consequence for public health because of the large The water absorbed by the pavement structure can be evaporated
population of senior citizens [225]. Therefore, during the summer, gradually, which decreases the pavement surface temperature by
the Japanese meteorological services and public sectors warn of a 10 °C–20 °C compared with the asphalt surfaces [6]. In this regard,
heat disorder risk and provide daily heat advisories to Japanese Marui et al. [177] designed a block based on the capillary height in
residents [229]. As a result, any measure to reduce the HIE not only the pavement internal structure, rainfall, surface temperature, and
increases the energy efficiency on the national scale, but also average annual precipitation in Tokyo. The results showed that the
results in a significant improvement in public health. The pave- PICBP using the new block could reduce the surface temperature
ments, which cover 10%–20% of the urban areas, have a crucial role averaged over 14 days, which is consistent with the results
in the HIE in Japan [43]. Therefore, it is necessary to improve the reported by Asaeda and Ca [8] and Akira et al. [2].
thermal performance of such facilities [185,240]. In this regard, Moreover, Ishizuka et al. [107] designed an ICBP system with
various technologies and facilities have been developed to reduce water-retentive blocks and a water sheet installed on the bedding
the pavement surface temperature, hence decreasing the HIE. As sand layer. The mechanism of this innovation is that the water
an example, Kinouchi et al. [146], Minegishi et al. [183,184], and sheet provides enough water for the bedding layer. Then, the water
Ashikari et al. [10] proposed that reclaimed water be sprinkled flows up via the capillary phenomenon and is absorbed by the
on the surface to reduce the pavement temperature via evapora- block. Then, the water is evaporated gradually and replaced contin-
tion. However, laboratory tests showed that the reduction in sur- uously. The water flow that feeds the water sheet is adjusted based
face temperature significantly depends on the water retention on rainfall and surface temperature by special sensors. The main
characteristics of the paving material and evaporation efficiency advantage of this ICBP system is the permanent moisture that
[150]. Furthermore, the volume of sprinkled water should be con- reduces the HIE as a function of the environmental conditions. It
trolled to avoid runoff production. Therefore, some facilities should be noted that the capillary action depends on the bedding
require controlling the water flow continuously, which increases sand gradation and hydraulic characteristics. This is another reason
the cost of the system. Moreover, the hydroplaning phenomenon for the need of hydraulic analyses of the ICBP. Although the HIE can
owing to surface runoff can increase the risk of car accidents. As be reduced by the cool pavements, it is recommended to pay more
a result, extra energy consumption for monitoring the water flow attention to the plant for the purpose of temperature reduction.
and the reduction in safety can be the main disadvantages of the However, note that the color of the surface of concrete pavements
proposed system. The use of a particular size of some industrial or ICBPs changes from bright to dark because of aging throughout
products, such as fly ash, reduces the pavement surface tempera- their life span. In contrast, the surface of an asphalt pavement
ture [305,279]. As a result, the use of industrial by-products not brightens upon aging. Therefore, the aging of concrete pavements
only decreases the energy flow in the life cycle of this construction increases the HIE, while the aging of asphalt pavements decreases
technology, but also improves the HIE of pavements [112,113,114]. it [112,113].
Fig. 32. Comparison of ICBP and asphalt pavement using thermal camera [123].
Furthermore, one of efficient approaches to characterize the for various industrial applications [179,228]. For example, the
effect of HIE is human thermal comfort (HTC). HTC is based on heterogeneous photocatalysis phenomenon with TiO2 results in
state model where the production of heat is equal to the heat full mineralization of a broad gamma of organic materials, includ-
losses to the environment, aiming to keep a constant core body ing alkanes, alkenes, alcohols, and pesticides. In addition, this phe-
temperature of 37 °C [216]. To characterize HTC in ICBP, Aoki nomenon can diminish NOx and various types of bacteria and
et al. [17], proposed a new parameter based on human physiolog- viruses.
ical response, called human thermal loads (HTL) (Eq. (11)). Field The rate of reaction is function of the light intensity (as the
and laboratory investigation showed that HTC of water retentive source of energy) and ambient environmental conditions (temper-
ICBPs are 9% to 25% are less than that of asphalt surfaces [17]. It ature, humidity, geographical situation, wind speed and direction),
means that the pavement users expose less environmental stresses TiO2 concentration, pollutant type and concentration, rate of pho-
stemming from high temperature. In other words, ICBP can be tochemical degradation, and adhesion of the pollutant to the sur-
accepted as a human-friendly pavement system. face [211,27]. A field study in Belgium shows that air purification
of 20% can be achieved after 1 year [22]. Moreover, the results of
HTL ¼ M þ R W C E ð11Þ
another field study in a tunnel in Italy showed NOX reduction by
12% [285]. Consequently, the use of TiO2 in concrete products
results in an effective approach to decrease the detrimental after-
HTL: the human thermal load (W/m2) maths of urban metabolism. However, there are still some barriers
M: metabolic rate (W/m2) for a cost-effective production in order to develop this technology
R: amount of solar and infrared radiation that body absorbs [307].
(W/m2) In Japan, Murata et al. [201], and Kamitani et al. [125], under-
W: work load or amount of exercise that body does (W/m2) took preliminary studies of the performance of block pavers con-
C: heat loss due to temperature gap between skin and environ- taining TiO2 in air purification through laboratory facilities and
ment and heat exchange owing to respiration (W/m2) field investigations. Although the details of the tests were unavail-
E: heat loss due to sweating, expiration and insensible perspira- able, it was found that the TiO2 could purify the air. There are also
tion (W/m2) two sidewalks in Kawasaki and Narashino cities that were paved
using ICBP, which can remove NOx [200]. It should be noted that
In addition, to enhance the albedo of the pavement surface, the capacity of NOx removal can increase if cullet glass is used in
plantation is recommended in the vicinity of the pavement net- the block paver, because the glass grains are transparent and dis-
works, because the vegetation linearly decreases the albedo of tribute the light around their spaces. ICBP containing TiO2 has been
pavement surfaces [197], as shown by Eq. (12). In other words, used since 1997 in Japan, and 25,000 m2 were constructed until
the heat energy is absorbed by the vegetation, and it avoids the 2006 [228,57]. In addition, the production of emissions and costs
increase in the temperature of the environment. Therefore, a PICBP of blocks containing TiO2 should be included in the life cycle of
shaded by trees significantly reduces the pavement surface tem- the ICBP. Therefore, cost-effective block pavers with TiO2 can be
perature [166]. considered as a structural element that also improves the air
quality.
q ¼ 0:00125NVI þ 0:2 ð12Þ
Therefore, ICBP can be assumed as a multi-role infrastructure
where q is the albedo and NVI is a normalized vegetation index. asset that improves the environment through waste management
In addition to the pavement surface, the roof of a building is via the use of by-products, reduction of HIE, and air purification.
another impervious surface that results in HIE. To mitigate it, the As a result, the ICBP can perform as an eco-friendly infrastructure,
technologies developed for the pavement can be used for the roof. which is in harmony with the second pillar of the PMP shown in
In this regard, there are high water-retentive tiles, which are Fig. 1.
installed on the roof and sprinkled with water. It results in 10 °C
temperature reduction [77,230], which can be considered a practi-
cal strategy to reduce the electricity requirement for cooling indoor 12. Environmental disasters
spaces. In addition, temperature of ICBP surfaces can be reduced
effectively via increasing the gaps, leaving air in the gaps, using One of the key features of ICBP that has not been investigated in
blocks with vertical holes and using smaller blocks [72]. detail is its performance in environmental disasters. Because Japan
is a volcanic island, many earthquakes take place every year. Some
11.3. Air purification are devastating, which results in many demolitions. In this section,
the performance of ICBP after three main earthquakes that hap-
The ICBP can perform as a structural element that is able to pened by the end of the 20th century and in the early 21st century
reduce environmental emissions via the heterogeneous photo- are discussed. On January 17, 1995, an earthquake with a magni-
catalysis phenomenon. To this end, titanium oxide (TiO2) is added tude of 7.2 on the Richter scale hit the southern Hyogo prefecture,
to the cement mortar as an air purifying agent. The use of TiO2 was mainly Kobe city and the Hanshin district. The earthquake resulted
introduced by Fujishima and Honda [42] when they found hydrol- in extensive damage because the designed seismic intensity of
ysis of water in the key elements in the presence of light through Kobe and Sumoto was only 6 on the Richter scale. For example,
the TiO2-anode in a photochemical cell. There are primarily two buildings and residential areas constructed using innovative tech-
types of photochemical reactions on the TiO2 surface, as follows nology, such as the Shinkansen and highway bridges, collapsed.
[61]: Moreover, fire broke out, hindering the activities of rescue crews.
Unlike various types of pavements, including asphalt and natural
(1) Photo-induced redox reactions of adsorbed substances stones applied with cement mortar, the ICBP suffered no serious
(2) Photo-induced hydrophilic conversion of the TiO2 itself damages owing to its non-continuous structure [156]. The same
trend was observed for the ICBP in the Tohoku earthquake that
TiO2 is a meta whose oxygen has three different molecules, i.e., took place in 2011 [62].
rutile, anatase, and brookite [41]. TiO2 with a crystal structure of However, there is one main difference in terms of the aftermath
the anatase type is one of the most effective photochemical agents of the earthquakes in the Tohoku region and Hyogo prefecture. The
urban infrastructure was mainly damaged by the tsunami in which are often constructed on lands reclaimed from the sea [55].
Tohoku, while fire was the main problem after the earthquake in Moreover, ICBP can be used as patching and overlay for the main-
Hyogo prefecture in 1995 [248]. In addition, soil liquefaction took tenance of asphalt pavements (Fig. 34(a)). This indicates the high
place in both areas, which resulted in sand jetting from the ICBP compatibility between these two different pavement systems
joints. Fig. 33 compares the heavily damaged percentages for var- [100]. However, such pavement treatment is not recommended.
ious pavement types. It can be seen that only 12% of the ICBP was The main reason is its higher resistance against rutting, shrink-
damaged severely, which was 36%–43% less than the damage of the age, and cracking. In other words, less sensitivity to temperature
asphalt pavements, tiles, and flag stones. variations and high strength are the two most attractive character-
In addition, there was no evidence that the observed damages istics of block pavers as overlay on asphalt surfaces [101]. It lies on
depended on block size or laying pattern. Furthermore, many the natural and intrinsic engineering characteristics of concrete.
asphalt and concrete pavements were faulted in big pieces, which For example, the asphalt mix behaves as solid in temperatures
resulted in traumatic views in the city. However, the damaged below 0 °C, while its behavior transforms into a viscous phase at
ICBPs had small sizes, and many people thought that such pave- temperatures higher than 100 °C (SP-2, 2003) [269]. However, con-
ments were not dangerous [155], which indicates the psychologi- crete always performs as a solid material at any temperature.
cal effects of pavement damage on the survivors. Moreover, 59% The use of the block paver as an overlay may need a type of
of people rated ICBP as a good material in the post-earthquake con- mortar to adhere the blocks to the layer beneath. The mortar
dition, while that figure is 24% for the asphalt pavement. Another should be resistant to the stresses caused by the vehicle load.
reason for the high figure for ICBP is that the major application Moreover, the tensile strength should be 30% of the compressive
of this system in Japan is for walkways (Fig. 11(d)). Thus, the ICBP stress imposed by vehicle loading [102]. However, failures in ICBP
walkways could be used by citizens during the post-earthquake are inevitable due to loading. The ICBP failures are primarily cate-
condition because there was no damage, which provided a high gorized in the two following main groups [187,259]:
reliability to the people and hope of a better future, based on the
responses of the survivors. In contrast, major asphalt and flag pave- Surface or functional failures, including block cracking, spalling,
ments were demolished. chipping, staining, abrasion wear, lipping, joint sand loss, and
This analysis clearly indicates that the pavement engineers and staining
contractors should consider the psychological effects of the dam- Structural failures, including rutting, horizontal creep, and
aged pavement on the survivors after natural disasters. Therefore, raveling
the pavements should not be damaged in shapes and sizes that
have negative effects on the people. For example, a trial survey conducted by Hata et al. [63] in a
As a result, the people and survivors of severe natural disasters heavy-duty ICBP in a bus terminal showed that major failures were
rated ICBP as the most appropriate pavement based on their obser- caused by one of the following factors, or combinations of them:
vations stemming from its structural performance and psycholog- joint sand loss, corner breakage, local settlement, faulting, and
ical impacts. It underlines the high social acceptance of the ICBP joint widening. The reasons behind the failures were the severe
compared to the traditional asphalt and concrete pavements. It loading conditions owing to acceleration, deceleration, braking,
should be noted that the positive mental aftermaths of the ICBP stopping, and turning, and poor drainage, which resulted in joint
significantly improved the collective aspiration of the people, espe- and bedding sand loss.
cially in the areas affected by the natural disasters. Furthermore, joint sand loss can be considered the most signif-
icant surface failure, because it decreases the load-bearing capacity
of the block layer. It also results in block chipping owing to the
13. Maintenance and rehabilitation direct contact between the blocks [134]. It takes place because
the blocks have no connection to the adjacent blocks (Fig. 34(b)).
One of the main advantages of the ICBP is its relatively rapid In addition, FEM and photo-elastic images analyses show that the
maintenance and rehabilitation because there are no binding horizontal distribution of load increases the shear stresses at the
materials, such as asphalt or cement. The easy maintenance and upper corner of the block pavers [222], which is consistent with
rehabilitation is a motivation to use ICBP in the Japanese airports, the increase in shear stress in the edge of the block pavers showed
12% 3% 1%
14% 6%
7%
21% 19%
24%
13% 59%
21%
ICBP Asphalt Brick ICBP Asphalt Brick

Flag stone Tile Natural stone Flag stone Tile Natural stone
(b) Good material for restoration in the post-

(a) Severely damaged pavement types
earthquake condition
Fig. 33. Different criteria for pavements types in Kobe earthquake (based on data provided by Kobayashi [155]).
(a) ICBP as patching (b) Joint sand loss and faulting
(d) Surface dirt and joint sand loss on the

(c) Grass germination
block layer
Fig. 34. Various surface problem of ICBP.
by Murai et al. [206]. Therefore, each paver unit suffers severe ver- tion of block pavers is not popular for walkways and roads due
tical and horizontal stresses, which results in spalling and to cost [4].
degradation. Furthermore, the runoff penetrates the pavement structure
However, the ICBP failure modes and progress depend on the through the empty joints, which results in grass germination
pavement application, traffic volume, and construction quality. (Fig. 34(c)). The grass produces a type of acid that degrades the
Therefore, ICBP failures may have one or different causes, which concrete block.
are summarized in Table 4. Moreover, the grass roots expanded in the pavement structure
Maximum care is needed to construct a block layer. In this result in unevenness of the pavement surface, damaging the inter-
regard, joint width tolerances should be respected during block locking. Removing the germinated grass between the blocks is
laying, which is a very labor-intensive task. To respect the toler- cumbersome and labor-intensive. To cope with this challenge, Aoki
ances precisely, mechanical block laying installation, specifically and Baba [6] developed a product that increases the hydrophilic
for heavy-duty pavements, is recommended, rather than manual properties of the joint filling sand materials. The mechanism is that
installment. As an example, in Kawasaki port, the block-laying the sand surface material absorbs water by chemical reactions
facility laid 36 blocks (0.9 m2) per cycle, which is equivalent to 4 until evaporation. Therefore, no water remains for the plant. The
to 5 men laying 200 m2 per day [288]. Furthermore, the block field investigation results after 5 years showed that the plant
pavers used for heavy-duty pavements are relatively bulky and growth was observed only for 2% of total ICBP surface, indicating
heavy (with thickness of 80 mm–120 mm), which decreases pro- the effectiveness of this technology. Moreover, Maya [180] devel-
ductivity during paving [90]. Therefore, mechanical installation oped a product using slag and quick lime and some types of poly-
increases the paving rate per day. However, mechanical installa- mers as a joint filling material, which was hydrated with water and
gained strength. Furthermore, the water that penetrates was
absorbed for the hydration, and hence, there was no water for
Table 4 the plants. In addition, there are many polymers and resins that
Main reasons of ICBP failures [232]. can waterproof the joint sand surface to avoid water infiltration.
Failure type Reason However, it is recommended to use these products during con-
Surface rutting Settlement of subgrade and base course, poor quality of
struction of the block layer or during maintenance and rehabilita-
bedding sand, thin block, and joint sand loss tion of the block layers.
Surface roughness Block paver faulting and local settlement The appearance of the ICBP is another factor that should be con-
Block sliding Low quality of joint sand, inappropriate block shape and sidered in the maintenance and rehabilitation phase because the
laying pattern, loading mode, low quality of bedding
beauty of the pavement decreases owing to dirt, dust, oil spillage,
sand
debris, and hardened gum (Fig. 34(d)). In addition, such dirt
reduces the ICBP surface skid and permeability. Therefore, cleaning 12

the ICBP surface is necessary, especially in walkways and parks. In Strong
Very Significant
this regard, various washing materials and brushing machines are 10 Noticeable
produced to clean concrete surfaces. In addition, various drainage-
Slight
function recovery vehicles for opening clogged porous pavements 8
using high pressure, for both asphalt and PICBP, have been devel-
oped under authorization of the Ministry of Construction in Japan
ΔE
6
[136]. However, they may result in joint sand loss and scratches on
the block surface. Furthermore, the efficiency of such materials and
4
technologies is dubious. Oshima et al. [234], proposed the use of
ultra-high-water jets (with water pressure of 250 MPa and rate
of 27 Lpm). 2
Although the field investigation indicated some joint sand loss
owing to the high pressure applied, the analysis of lightness index 0
Range
and color difference (DE) after and before washing shows full color
recovery (Fig. 35). Various ranges of DE are shown in Fig. 36. It can Fig. 36. Ranking based on the recommended DE (based on data from the Color
be seen that the difference before and after washing is ranked in Science Association of Japan).
the ranges defined as appreciable and significant, which means
that the proposed procedure for surface cleaning is very effective. ments. For example, in airports, joint sand loss can damage the
As a result, the serviceability of the ICBP in terms of both struc- rotor of engines because high-speed joint granules perform like
tural and functional failures should be monitored routinely under a shrapnel, thus increasing the service costs of airlines. ICBP can be
pavement management system (PMS). The type, intensity, and used for maintenance and rehabilitation of other types of pave-
location of any pavement failures, especially joint sand loss, should ments. However, it should be noted that the structural capacity
be recorded by the PMS authorities for planning maintenance. Joint could be different, which should be rectified with a correction fac-
sand loss can significantly affect the safety of heavy-duty pave- tor in the design of the overlay [53].
There are three main criteria to rate the serviceability of pave-
ments, as follows [272]:
(1) Durability: load resistance, rutting, chipping, wearing, and

freeze-thaw
(2) Riding quality: skidding, drainage, roughness, difference
Lightness Index
level, and visual recognition

(3) Environmental appropriateness: low noise level, landscape,
permeability, improvement of environment, road surface,
Before and recyclability
after
All the methodologies that rate the serviceability of the ICBPs
consider these criteria directly or indirectly. Eq. (13) was used to
determine the general serviceability. Consequently, JIPEA [123]
modified the equation and recommended Eqs. (14) and (15) to
characterize the pavement serviceability in terms of maintenance
condition index (MCI) (Table 5). It is obvious that the strategies
and criteria chosen for the PMS significantly depend on the budget,
ICBP application, available materials, technology for data acquisi-
(a) Road tion, and serviceability criteria. For example, Zoccali et al. [315],
evaluate pavement serviceability of segmental pavements using
pavement condition index (PCI) and international roughness index
(IRI). The results indicated there is a good correlation between PCI
and IRI in the segmental pavements [194].
Lightness Index
b2
H ¼ 10 a1 Db1 a2 d a3 cb3 ð13Þ
where H is the serviceability rating for 10 years, D is depth of rut-

Before ting (mm), d is the slope variance (mm), ai is coefficient of relative
strength (Eqs. (1) and (2) and Fig. 4) and c is the difference of level
after
between blocks (mm) and percentage of damaged blocks shown in
Table 6.
Table 5
Serviceability ranking based on failure [123].
Ranking Condition description MCI value

A No failure 10
B Few failures with good appearance 8
(b) Walkway C Many failures but maintenance is unnecessary 6
D Small maintenance is required 4
Fig. 35. Differences in lightness index for various ICBP systems (plotted based on E Fully damaged and overhaul is necessary 2
data reported by Oshima et al. [234]).
Table 6
Results of field performance of ICBP in Japan.
Site Place Application Laying pattern service year (MCI)

Iwamizawa Hokkaido Walkway and street 90° herringbone 9 7.3
Meguroku Tokyo Roadway and intersection 90° herringbone and stretcher 10 6.5
Kameari Tokyo Roadway and intersection 90° herringbone 14 6.5
Senjumidori Tokyo Roadway and intersection 45° herringbone 5 7.1
Kawaguch Lake Yamanashi Roadway 90° herringbone 3 7.2
MCI ¼ 10 1:48C0:3 0:29D0:7 0:47r0:2 ð14Þ this mortar. Moreover, the harmony between the mortar color
and block pavers improves the quality of maintenance. However,
MCI ¼ 10 1:51C0:3 0:30D0:7 ð15Þ it should be noted that mortars could crack, which results in water
infiltration (Fig. 37(b)). In addition, the frozen water during the
where C is percentage of block breakage, D is rut depth (mm), continuous cycles of freezing–thaw can degrade the mortar
andris surface damage (mm). rapidly. As a result, it is necessary that such joints be monitored
Irrespective of the coefficients, the major difference between routinely.
the old and the modified equations is the characterization of the
surface damage. It can be seen that the broken blocks are a param-
eter to determine the serviceability in the equation, while all the 14. Life cycle cost
surface damages, including block damage, joint sand loss, elephant
footprint, and other failures, are ranked as functional failures [123]. Different pavement alternatives can be chosen by comparing
As a result, the modified Eqs. (14) and (15) cover several types of the results of the life cost analysis. Therefore, the engineering,
surface failure in the serviceability evaluation, compared with Eq. environmental, and economic advantages and disadvantages of
(13). However, new techniques and martials have been developed the pavement alternatives are discussed based on the life cycle
to diminish joint and bedding sand loss in Japan. For example, analysis (LCA) outputs. However, there is rarely a solution to solve
there is an additive, based on the reaction with hydration polymer- all the pavement design problems [62]. Therefore, LCA can be con-
ization, that is added to water [90,91]. The recommended ratio is sidered as a tool for better decision making based on several vari-
7% to 15% and the solution is stirred and sprayed on the ICBP sur- ables. It should be noted that the costs depend on the availability of
face. The solution has low viscosity, penetrates the joint sand, and local materials and highly skilled people, previous experiences,
stabilizes the sand after 10–30 min. The stabilized sand can main- construction technology and machinery, design method, and PMS
tain its flexibility during loading and performs like rubber. In other strategies, which can be different in each paving project. For exam-
words, the sand grains are insulated using this technology. ple, Ishai [104] reported that ICBP is an attractive alternative for
Because the joints between the block pavers and manholes can heavy-duty applications in terms of maintenance costs, rather than
be vulnerable to water infiltration and deformation, it is necessary for applications with light traffic. Therefore, the pavement design-
to pay enough attention to this issue. Furthermore, there is an ers should cover the local technical and economic norms simulta-
extensive network of deep drainage systems in Japan, especially neously. One of the noteworthy features of the revised version of
in the mega cities such as Tokyo, Osaka, and Nagoya. Pavement the JIPEA manual is that it includes the life cycle analysis of the
failures can initiate from the joints between the blocks and man- ICBP. Fig. 38 shows that the major cost of an ICBP occurs during
holes and progress toward other parts of the pavement. The con- construction, while the cost of maintenance is much lower than
ventional maintenance is to cut the blocks into smaller sizes, those for asphalt pavements. As an example, the cost of ICBP main-
which is noisy and costly and results in low quality (Fig. 37(a)). tenance is JP¥ 147 (US$1.32) per m2 in comparison with the main-
To solve this problem, Abe et al. [1], developed a rapid-setting tenance costs of asphalts pavements, which are JP¥ 2621 (US
and workable mortar that fills the joints between the blocks and $23.61) and JP¥ 3621 (US$32.62), respectively. The result shown
manholes. Laboratory and field tests confirmed the efficiency of in Fig. 39 can be compared with the outputs reported by Kittel-
(a) Poor maintenance around the (b) Carking mortar around the manholes
manhole
Fig. 37. Samples of poor maintenance around manholes.
to access the underground facilities and services without a jack-

hammer, which reduces sound emissions during the maintenance
and rehabilitation process. As a result, a well-designed, con-
structed, and managed ICBP can show satisfactory performance
for at least 40 years. As in the King William Road in Adelaide, field
LCC (\/m2)
investigations on the long-term performance of ICBPs, with differ-

Construction ent applications and in various places, were conducted in Japan [7].
Maintenance and
The information is summarized in Table 5.
rehabilation It can be seen that the MCI values vary from 6.5 to 7.5, which
indicates a reasonably good condition and satisfactory perfor-
mance under the service condition (Table 5). In another field sur-
vey, two bus stations and two roads were evaluated after 18 and
27 years of service, respectively. The analyses showed that the
ICBP Asphalt pavement
MCI ratings were 5 for both facilities. This means that no mainte-
Pavement type nance is required after 18 and 27 years of use, which reduces the
life cycle cost significantly [231]. Because the recorded primary
Fig. 38. Costs of construction, maintenance, and rehabilitation based on LCC results
in Japan.
structural failures, including rutting, joint widening, and block
breakage, are at a much lower level than the failure criteria recom-
mended by JIPEA [123], it is estimated that the ICBP of these bus
berger and Goymann [148], which indicated that the ICBP for walk- stations and roadways will require no maintenance for the next
ways has the lowest energy input during the life cycle. In addition, 20 years. Thus, highly successful experiences in the use of ICBP
Ishai [104] showed that the ICBP construction cost is lower than can be found. Such experiences show a promising future for the
that for concrete pavement. One reason is that the concrete block concrete block pavement technology.
pavers are reusable, which significantly reduces the time and cost Consequently, although the construction costs of ICBP are
of maintenance and rehabilitation. For example, 100% and 80% of approximately 98% of the total cost (Fig. 39), its high strength,
the block pavers were reused for the maintenance of the areas sig- low costs of rehabilitation (around 2%), aesthetic benefits, rela-
nificantly damaged by the earthquake and tsunami in 2011 and the tively easy maintenance, and long life, are parameters that are
Kobe earthquake in 1995, respectively [62,155]. The reduced time interesting for pavement engineers, urban, airport, and port plan-
of maintenance and rehabilitation significantly increased the hope ners, paving-project managers, policy makers, and for the stock
among survivors. markets and public sectors investing in infrastructure assets. It
Therefore, the economic and energy analyses of the ICBP life should be noted that the initial costs of the ICBP can be reduced
cycle show that this is the most attractive pavement alternative, in the future through the development of new construction tech-
even though its construction cost is much higher than that of the nologies and materials. As an example, Bennmann [23] developed
asphalt pavement. The field investigation of ICBPs in the country a new concrete-block mold that decreases the changeover time to
shows their satisfactory performance. 2 min, compared with the 30 min needed with the traditional tech-
For example, an analysis of the structural and functional perfor- nology. Therefore, this technology can increase the efficiency rate
mance of the ICBP constructed in the King William road in Ade- and decrease the costs derived from stock inventory and delays.
laide, as the oldest and longest road with ICBP in Australia,
shows only 16% of rutting in excess of the threshold value of
15 mm, 8.3% of joint sand loss, and 7% of raveling after 20 years 15. Social acceptance
[252]. Therefore, it is predicted that the ICBP will perform 20 more
years. In the Netherlands, the life of the ICBP was also estimated at Social acceptance is the key factor in an infrastructure asset, and
around 40 years, with large-scale repairs required, on average, it depends on serviceability, cultural norms, social capacity, perfor-
every 20 years [144]. In addition, 90–95% of the block pavers can mance during natural and manmade disasters, and aesthetic fea-
be reused without any processing [258], indicating the significant tures. It should be noted that the aesthetic features of the ICBP
recycling rate and lower recycling costs of ICBP compared to the and segmental pavements are significant and appreciated in differ-
other pavement types. Moreover, the blocks can be removed easily ent countries. ICBP is a highly designable pavement that can be
Construction Construction
Maintenance and rehabilation Maintenance and rehabilation
(a) ICBP (b) Asphalt pavement

Fig. 39. Percentages of construction, maintenance, and rehabilitation in the total costs of ICBP in Japan (plotted based on data provided by JIPEA [123]).
used not only as a structure that sustains traffic loads. The beauti- planners and environmental-policy makers for new development
ful and colorful landscapes created by the ICBP can be used as a programs. Furthermore, the high rate of satisfaction shows that
pattern for the design of modern urban settings. It should be noted ICBP provides comfort to walkway users. Because walkways are
that the Japanese are very interested in assimilating and combining utilized everyday by the citizen, any problem can be recognized
natural landscapes with artificial structures [3]. The ICBP is flexible by the public eyes, hence their impact on social acceptance. In this
for such an application because of its wide variety of colors, block respect, walkway serviceability depends on surface texture, block
shapes, and laying patterns. This characteristic of ICBP is very installment quality, water ponding, slippery, dirt, and surface fault-
important because roads could be colored in a style matching that ing or deformation [170]. Another social acceptance evaluation
of cities and their surrounding environment, putting infrastructure was conducted by Miura et al. [195] after renovation of a street
in harmony with nature [160]. Therefore, block paver manufactur- and walkway using ICBP in Tokyo. The statistical population com-
ers and image designers should have a basic knowledge of col- prised 188 people, including 78 female users, as walkway users,
oration, based on its three main elements including hue, and 120 taxi drivers or road users. Fig. 40(a) shows the results of
brilliance, and chroma, given the significant psychological effects. the evaluation. It can be seen that 81% of the walkway users
For example, the ICBP of some walkways shows patterns of ani- declared no puddle information during rainfall, which is significant
mals, plants, and locally oriented motifs, in different colors and in Japan. Thus, ICBP showed a satisfactory performance during
with various messages. This is why the drawings and designs of rainfall. According to Fig. 40(b), 85% users answered that there is
Tatami and Fusuma can be produced on the ICBP, which results no difference between the ICBP and previous asphalt pavements
in its rapid popularity in Japan. As a result, irrespective of their per- in terms of noise emission. Therefore, although sound levels
sonal characteristics, professional trajectories, and education, increased in field and laboratory evaluations conducted by
pavement users can recognize such beauties, and thus, the social researchers and engineers, it seems that the users perceive no
acceptance of ICBP is relatively high. For example as a case study, change. However, it is consistent with the results of a research
a qualitative research in the center of Koga city, Ibaraki prefecture indicating that the noise levels of the ICBP and asphalt are the
was carried out to evaluate the social acceptance of the ICBP [18]. same. Moreover regarding ride quality, 46% of the drivers
The results indicated that approximately 54% and 61% of respon- answered with good, while 41% observed no difference between
dents living in residential areas paved by ICBP and asphalt pave- the ICBP and the asphalt. It means that more than 80% of road users
ments, respectively, chose ICBP as the appropriate pavement. answered that ICBP has superior or equal rideability compared to
This high rate of social acceptance should be considered by urban asphalt. Only 12% of the respondents rejected the ICBP in terms
6%
16%
9%
3%
81%
85%
No puddle Puddle No change Increase Decrease Nochange
(a) Rainfall performance (b) Noise
12%
26%
42%
60%
14%
46%
Bad Good No change Better Suitable No comment
(c) Rideability (d) Suitability rating as a pavement

Fig. 40. Responses of ICBP users.
of rideability. Eventually, 60% of the respondents recognized the parts of the designs based on their requirements, which results
ICBP as a superior pavement system for the road and 14% rated it in time saving. Furthermore, the visual aspects of highly profes-
as a suitable pavement, which means that 74% of the respondents sional computer packages facilitate the architectural design of
are satisfied. It should be observed that such high levels of satisfac- ICBPs, which increases its social acceptance among material sup-
tion are rare in the conservative society of Japan. Therefore, it is pliers, block producers, pavement contractors, customers, and
suggested that additional data should be collected to update the eventually pavement users. Fig. 41 schematically illustrates the
current serviceability of the ICBP based on new requirements, flowchart of the database developed by Tohyama et al. [286].
terms, and conditions. The statistical analysis of that research Another successful design of an ICBP in a landscape is Itakura
opens new horizons for urban planners and pavement engineers new town, Gunma prefecture. The main purpose of the landscape
because the traditional methods of ICBP design do not consider required a physical and spiritual harmony with water and forests
the criteria of serviceability in the structural design of ICBPs. In a surrounding the city [304]. Furthermore, this city hosted one of
similar survey in Kanazawa, an ancient city with high levels of the campuses of Toyo University. To create a relaxing, full of
tourist attraction, it was found that 75% of the respondents liked amusement, and spiritually rich urban area for both local people
the ICBP for residential areas and shopping streets [189]. Moreover, and foreigners, ICBP is the best practical pavement alternative.
70% of taxi drivers liked the ICBP, and one of the reasons men- Based on the personal experiences, when foreigners, especially stu-
tioned was its easily identifiable pavement surface during driving. dents, find similar urban elements, then there are significant psy-
Furthermore, ICBP can be designed with an architecture in har- chological effects, which make the life easier and more
mony with the surrounding landscapes. For example, Ohsanbashi productive. The ICBP could provide an integrated urban furniture
Pier in the Yokohama port was designed based on the surrounding and environmental information through the rhythmical sense gen-
environmental element [149]. In this respect, to show various erated by its different designs.
designs and paving projects, Tohyama [286] developed a comput- Another aspect of ICBP that is very important for social accep-
erized database containing various architectural designs of ICBPs. tance is its convenience of use by senior citizens and disabled peo-
The most significant advantage is to offer a wide variety of options ple. It is estimated that senior citizens over 65 years of age will
to the customers. Then, they can choose the design and change account for one-third of the Japan population in 2025. To cope with
Start
Input data: Input data:
Message type Image
Color Color
Block shape Block shape
Block producer Block producer
Area Area
Contractor Contractor
Address Address
So on So on
End
Fig. 41. Database developed to facilitate the architectural design of ICBP based on the clients’ requirements and previous projects in Japan.
the problem, the barrier-free transportation law was enacted in social activities of disabled people, because the information
2000 for facilitating the movement of senior citizens, people phys- received through the vision is between 100 and 10,000 times
ically impaired, children, and pregnant women. The walkway pave- higher than that obtained via the auditory and touch senses,
ments designed to comply with this law should be based on three respectively [310]. Therefore, it is important to keep the guide
premises [210]: (1) easy construction; (2) cost-effectiveness; (3) blocks clean. Thus, the maintenance and rehabilitation programs
good appearance in harmony with the environment. In this matter, should include maintenance and cleaning of the guide blocks.
the ICBP should have appropriate skid resistance for the use wheel Fig. 42(a) and (b) show clean blocks along the walkway and near
chairs and walkers. Furthermore, the pavement should have a junction, respectively, while Fig. 42(c) shows dirty blocks. It
enough visual luminance for the visually disabled people (Eq. should be noted that the dust settled on the block guide surface
(16)) [209]. reduces its visual illuminance, which is problematic for the visually
cd disabled. Fig. 42(d) shows that the luminance of the guide block
Guide block brightness and the surrounding block pavers became the same because the
cd
2
L¼ m
ð16Þ
Surronding brightness yellow color layer of the guide was abraded. In the Figure, it is clear
m2
that the visual luminance of the clean guide blocks (Fig. 42(a) and
L: luminance ratio, which has no dimension, (b)) is much higher than that of the dirty or abraded guide blocks.
The guide block installed throughout the country is usually in Pavers should have enough elasticity to reduce the pressure on
yellow color (Fig. 42). Although Sakaguchi [249] recommends a the knees and thighs. For better understanding, compare jogging
luminance ratio of more than 1.5, some institutions recommend on a concrete or asphalt surface with that on a rubber running
it to be over 2 [209]. JIPEA [123] provides details for the design track in jogging courts. There is less pressure and impact on the
and construction of the guide blocks. The improved visual lumi- knees and tibiae owing to the high elasticity of rubber. Fig. 43 also
nance of pavements increasingly improves the performance and shows that the repulsion height in an ICBP is much less than that in
(a) Sample of guide blocks in yellow, the (b) Clean guide blocks
standard color
(c) Dirty guide blocks (d) Low luminance guide blocks

Fig. 42. Guide blocks for the visually disabled.
25 country in various facilities, highlighting the pivotal role of the

culture in the development of an infrastructure type. In addition
to the cultural norms, a well-established administration for pro-
20
repulsion height (cm)
vision of the resources required for structural design, analysis,

and construction have made of the ICBP a pavement alternative
15 for various infrastructure assets in Japan.
Analyses in laboratory and field tests of the ICBP structural per-
10 formances clearly showed that this pavement system has ade-
quate structural capacity owing to its relatively high quality
of materials and fully computerized technology for block paver
5 production and base and subbase construction. In addition, geo-
fabrics can improve the subgrade characteristics and load-
0 bearing capacity of ICBP systems. Therefore, the high structural
ICBP Asphalt Concrete performance, as the most important requirement of a pavement
Pavement type and the first criterion of PMP, was met by the ICBP. Because the
block layer consists of sand and the block layer, which are not
Fig. 43. Repulsion height for various pavement types (plotted based on data sensitive to the thermal gradient, ICBP is less sensitive to the
provided by Kurotaki et al. [163]). extra structural stresses imposed by the climate change. As a
result, the structural performance of the ICBP, as a main func-
tion of a pavement and the first pillar of the PMP, was satisfied.
concrete or asphalt owing to the elasticity of the bedding and joint Furthermore, the sustainability of the block paver was
sand. Wheelchair and walker users and visually handicapped citi- improved using different waste materials, such as fly ash, vol-
zens have expressed concerns about moving during rainy days canic fly ash, and rubber, which reduce the demand for raw
[157]. To address this concern, both block pavers and tracking tiles materials. In addition, ICBP can reduce the HIE because of its
should provide a reliable surface. On this point, JIPEA [123] recom- surface color, which results in lower ambient temperature and
mends detailed specifications of block and tracking tiles for manu- better urban metabolism, especially in mega cities. Moreover,
facturers and contractors. facilities designed to use rain water for cooling the urban envi-
ronment via spreading water on the ICBP surface in Tokyo and
16. Conclusion Osaka reduce the costs of indoor energy consumption, which
can result in a direct advantage and the convenience of a sus-
In the past, pavement researchers and materials experts focused tainable infrastructure in public areas. The use of air-purifying
exclusively on the structural strength of pavement materials, with- ICBP in Japan is another step taken toward PMP. In addition,
out paying sufficient attention to the environment and cultural the PICBP could manage the surface runoff created by rain or
norms. Currently, new requirements owing to the environmental molten snow and ice, without any limitation. Therefore, the
challenges, social requirements, aging population, and additional requirement of investments for the construction of bigger drai-
structural loads due to the climate change have resulted in the def- nage systems has decreased. Field and laboratory evaluation of
inition of a new concept in pavement design called PMP. The con- noise emissions showed that the ICBP has equal and even supe-
clusions that can be drawn from this state-of-the-art review on the rior performance under dry and wet conditions, even though
structural response, environmental characteristics, and social the joint opening width should be considered as a crucial factor.
acceptance of the ICBP as a potential PMP in Japan are the The ICBP can capture solar and vibration energy to produce
following: electricity for different applications, which can result in infras-
tructure assets that are self-sufficient for their energy require-
The extra structural loads resulting from the climate change, ments in the future. As a result, the ICBP can improve the
sustainable construction, natural disasters, and social require- environment, which is the second pillar in the PMP concept.
ments owing to an aging world, are issues that should be Moreover, the results of the survey conducted among able and
addressed in the design and maintenance and rehabilitation disabled citizens showed that pavement users take into consid-
(M&R) strategies for pavements in Japan. To respond to these eration the color, cleanness, convenience, luminance, and noise
challenges, it is necessary to develop an integrated municipal produced by the pavement. They rated the ICBP as the best or
infrastructure. In this regard, the concept of PMP was proposed very good, indicating a high level of social acceptance. Further,
for the design and construction of pavements in transportation the positive psychological effects of the ICBP on the people in
infrastructure assets in order to cover all the requirements. The areas severely damaged by earthquake and tsunami events
expectations for the pavements have been changing along the increased its reliability among pavement users. As a result,
21st century. Thus, it is expected that the pavements will the ICBP can meet the social acceptance as the third criterion
become multi-role infrastructure assets. They should not only of the PMP.
be consistent against structural loading, they should also have In conclusion, the analyses of the results of research and field
the capability to reduce the loads imposed by the climate investigations conducted in Japan clearly show that ICBP, as a
change and natural disasters, such as flooding, earthquakes, tsu- multi-role infrastructure, can satisfy the structural, environ-
namis, and the heat island effect. In addition, they should have mental, and social requirements in Japan. Therefore, it can be
enough noise-emission reduction capabilities, aesthetic fea- considered as a candidate for the concept of PMP.
tures, and user-friendly characteristics in harmony with social
and cultural norms. Therefore, the PMP has three main pillars, 17. Suggestions for further research
including structural performance, environmentally friendly
characteristics, and social acceptance. In Japan, in light of the It is recommended to compare the concrete block, concrete, and
similarity of the ICBP to some traditional products, such as asphalt PMPs in terms of the various criteria prescribed by
Tatami, Fusuma, and Shoji, this pavement system was accepted pavement researchers, environment policy makers, urban plan-
by the society and was rapidly developed in every corner of the ners, and psychology experts.
The effect of ICBP on on-road emissions compared to those of Appendix A (continued)

the traditional asphalt and concrete pavements is still unclear.
Date Progress
It is recommended to evaluate the on-road emissions of various
pavement alternatives in different applications, e.g., highways, century, bigger carts rolled
ports, and airports. out, which required a better
Because M&R decreases on-road emissions, which depend on road surface. In addition,
the pavement type, stiffness and rolling resistance (macrostruc- empirical methods for
ture and friction), vehicle type, and fuel [235], it is questioned construction of wharf and port
whether the use of the ICBP as patching reduces environmental pavements in the U.K., Spain,
burdens or not. Portugal, the Netherlands, and
Different methods for concrete block paver production and France were developed owing
installation, which may have effects on the environmental man- to the maritime requirements.
agement and carbon footprint of the ICBP systems throughout The structures and surfaces in
their lifecyclemay have or not a significant influence. the wharfs were often made
It is also recommended to develop progressive models regard- up of wood and timber. The
ing ICBP failures as a function of block shape, laying pattern, paved roads were often made
joint width, traffic loading, and pavement application. up of cobblestone. Owing to
Researching the application of industrial by-products and recy- the obtained basic knowledge
cled waste materials in the production of block pavers is and initial understanding of
recommended. the pavement as the cover of a
surface, this age can be named
Conflict of interest as the enlightenment era of
the pavement
There is no conflict of interest.
19th century The trend of pavement
engineering accelerated in
Acknowledgments
light of the improvement in
construction materials and
The authors acknowledge all the researchers involving in ICBP
increase in car ownership as a
throughout the world. Furthermore, we would never forget the late
consequence of the growth of
Professor Brian Shackel and the late Professor Miura for their
the manufacturing industries.
world-class research and development of the ICBP technology.
Therefore, the engineers tried
The authors also appreciate Hokkaido University, Japan Society
to identify the relevant design
for the Promoation of Science(JSPS), Yoshizawa Lime Industry. Co.
parameters for the paving
LTD, Harbin Engineering University and National Science Founda-
materials and select the
tion of China (NSFC) for their supports.
relevant design criteria.
Furthermore, they tried to find
Appendix A. Different eras of pavement technology and science the interrelations between the
design criteria and parameters
using field and laboratory
tests. The use of theories
Date Progress developed by Winkler,
From the dawn of civilization There were avenues paved by Terzhagi, Westergard, and
to the 18th century stones in the Roman empire Boussinesq had a key role to
[153], which can be consid- develop the initial procedures
ered as a cornerstone of public for pavement design
works for the civilized society. [308,312,173,33]. It is sug-
Relics of such historical pave- gested that this age be called
ments can be seen in the cen- the renaissance of pavement
ter of Rome [315]. Moreover, engineering owing to the rel-
there are remains of some atively rapid development of
roads, which were parts of the knowledge on pavement
silk road, paved with stone in materials and the characteri-
Iran [120]. There is some evi- zation of a construction tech-
dence that indicates the bind- nology
ing characteristics of asphalt 20th century (phase I) (From After the second world war,
in the Bible [244]. This era can the late 1940s to the mid- highway transportation,
be assumed as the birth and 1970s) especially in the United States,
growth of pavements. was developed quickly.
18th century Empirical procedures were Furthermore, the weight of
developed based on the axles and truck sizes
personal experiences gained increased. Moreover, air
by artists, architects, masons, transportation in the jet age,
and craftsmen. From this both for cargo and passengers,
Appendix A (continued) Appendix A (continued)

Date Progress Date Progress
attracted great attention, addition to the crude oil price,
which increased the demand environmental concerns were
for high-performance raised in the public discourse
pavement design methods for owing to the consequences of
the various types of landing global warming. Therefore,
gears. Therefore, advanced stricter environmental
methods of pavement design, regulations were prescribed to
such as the ASHTOO method, the construction industry by
Transport Research Laboratory environmental policy makers
(TRL) (U.K.), and Deutsches and authorities. Moreover, the
Institut (DIN) (Germany), were pressure drop in the oil fields
developed. In South Africa, indicated that the crude oil
various innovations with was a non-renewable energy
asphalt binder modification resource. For example, the
appeared, and the initial analysis of oil production
computer packages for statistics of 24 countries
structural analysis and design shows a decrease in oil
and digital data storage production [294]. As a result,
emerged. This era can be there was an increasing pres-
called as the golden age of sure on the pavement industry
pavement technology owing to use energy-efficient tech-
to the abundance of relatively nologies and recycled materi-
cheap crude and raw materials als. In this regard, various
(from renewable natural waste materials were used for
resources). To meet the various types of pavements.
increasing demands of public For example, the warm-mix
works, the quality controls asphalt technology and the
and standards were updated. concept of perpetual pave-
This age can also be called the ment was found in this age. In
age of modern pavements other words, the structural
because not only the properties and environmental
pavement design procedures, criteria, in terms of environ-
but also the construction and mental emissions, were con-
compaction machinery and sidered for the design and
methods for data collection of construction of pavements in
traffic loads were developed this phase, namely, a two-
for highways, ports, and dimensional design. The role
airport pavements. The major of the Kyoto protocol to in-
issues, primarily addressed by clude environmental criteria
engineers in this modern age, in the pavement technology
were the structural should not be neglected in this
performance during the life phase. This age is also in the
span, and the durability and modern age.i
serviceability under various
21st century In the 21st century, the
weather conditions. This age
concept of pavement has been
can be considered as the
changed owing to severe
modern age of pavement
environmental degradation
engineering.
and the consequences of
20th century (phase II) (From The oil shock owing to the oil global warming. Furthermore,
the mid-1970s to 2000) Arab embargo increased the the climate change has
asphalt material price affected the pavement design
significantly. Therefore, the and its structural
initial activities to produce performance. If the modern
less energy- or material- pavement technology was the
intensive pavements began. interface between structural
Regarding asphalt technology, and environmental
the reclaimed asphalt performances, PMP is a multi-
pavement (RAP) was the main role infrastructure that not
product of this age. In other only provides structural
words, the RAP technology is a consistency (as the main
result of the energy crisis. In
(continued on next page)
Appendix A (continued) [14] A.E. Alvarez, A.E. Martin, C.K. Estakhri, J.W. Button, C.J. Glover, S.H. Jung, in:
Synthesis of Current Practice on the Design, Construction, and Maintenance
Date Progress of Porous Friction Courses, Transportation Institute, The Texas A&M
University System, College Station, Texas, Texas, United States, 2006, p. 86.
function of a pavement), but [15] Hiroshi Anzaki, Tsutomu Yanagida, Junji Nishi, Influences to serviceability of
also reduces the interlocking concrete block pavement for roads affected by shapes of blocks
and roadway patterns, in: 19th Japan Road Congress Tokyo, Japan, 1991a, pp.
environmental effects of the 53–61 (In Japanese).
climate change through an [16] Hiroshi Anzaki, Tsutomu Yanagida, Hiroshi Yaginuma, Durability evaluation
efficient management of run- of interlocking blocks, in: 19th Japan Road Congress, Tokyo, Japan, 1991b, pp.
64–71 (In Japanese).
off, air quality improvement, [17] M. Aoki, T. Nakamura, Y. Shimazaki, Experimental investigation of the effect
and reduction of the HIE. In of water retentive block pavement on improving human thermal
addition, it can capture solar environment, in: 12th International Conference on Concrete Block Paving,
Seoul, Korea, 2018, pp. 150–160.
and mechanical energy for
[18] K. Arai, S. Miauchi, M. Komura, Cost performance of interlocking block
electricity production. pavement, in: 6th International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Tokyo,
Furthermore, the pavements Japan, 2000, pp. 290–297.
should be designed based on [19] E. Azah, H. Kim, T. Townsend, Assessment of direct exposure and leaching risk
from PAHs in roadway and stormwater system residuals, Sci. Total Environ.
the social requirements of an 609 (2017) 58–67.
aging world in terms of [20] T. Baba, H. Yaginuma, Evaluation of bearing capacity of interlocking block
sufficient luminance, which pavement using HFWD, in: 6th International Conference on Concrete Block
Paving, Tokyo, Japan, 2000, pp. 61–70.
has positive impacts on the [21] S. Beecham, D. Pezzaniti, B. Myers, B. Shackel, A. Pearson, Experience in the
citizens during natural application of permeable interlocking concrete paving in Australia, in: 9th
disasters as the effect of the International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Buenos Aires, Argentina,
2009, pp. 1–8.
climate change. As a result, it [22] A. Beeldens, An environmental friendly solution for air purification and self-
is suggested that this age is cleaning effect: the application of TiO2 as photocatalyst in concrete, in:
called as post-modern, Proceedings of Transport Research Arena Europe–TRA, Göteborg, Sweden,
2006, pp. 1–9.
because the pavement is a [23] A. Bennmann, Control of operational costs in respect of the production of
structural-environmental- architectural landscape products, in: 11th International Conference on
social asset, under the policy Concrete Block Paving, Dresden, Germany, 2015, pp. 1–15.
[24] F. Boogaard, T. Lucke, S. Beecham, Effect of age of permeable pavements on
of integration of the municipal
their infiltration function, Clean Soil, Air, Water 42 (2) (2013) 146–152.
infrastructure assets. [25] V.C. Broto, S. Glendinning, E. Dewberry, C. Walsh, M. Powell, What can we
learn about transitions for sustainability from infrastructure shocks?, Technol
Forecast. Soc. Change 84 (2014) 186–196.
[26] A.J. Chapman, K. Itaoka, Energy transition to a future low-carbon energy
society in Japan’s liberalizing electricity market: precedents, policies and
References factors of successful transition, Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev. 81 (2)
(2018) 2019–2027.
[1] F. Abe, M. Nishiyama, N. Maeda, Evaluation of sustainability of newly [27] J. Chen, C.S. Poon, Photocatalytic construction and building materials: from
developed mortar for interlocking concrete block pavements, in: 6th fundamentals to applications, Build. Environ. 44 (9) (2009) 1899–1906.
International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Tokyo, Japan, 2000, pp. [28] E. Cicek, The effects of different types of fibers and geotextiles for pavement
271–280. design, Road Mater. Pavement Des. (2017) 1–22.
[2] H. Akira, M. Motofumi, M. Akiriho, A. Takashi, A study of pavement body [29] J.M. Clifford, Segmental Block Paving in Southern Africa: A Review and
configurations of the evaporative cooling pavement system with a focus on Structural Design Guide, National Institute for Transport and Road Research,
rainwater retention and capillary absorption through a summer outdoor Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Publication, Pretoria, South
experiment, J. Heat Island Inst. Int. 6 (2011) 30–38. Africa, 1986.
[3] H. Akiyama, The progress of design of interlocking block in Japan, in: 6th [30] Concrete Manufacturing Association (CMA), Concrete Block Paving: Book 1:
International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Tokyo, Japan, 2000, pp. Introduction, Midrand, South Africa, 2003.
271–280. [31] H.L. Dai, K.L. Zhang, X.L. Xu, H.Y. Yu, Evaluation on the effects of deicing
[4] S. Amano, S. Kajio, T. Maki, Development of new type of interlocking block for chemicals on soil and water environment, Procedia Environ. Sci. 13 (2012)
roadways, in: 10th International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Sun 2122–2130.
City, South Africa, 2012, pp. 1–8. [32] J.S. Daniel, J.M. Jacobs, E. Douglas, R.B. Mallick, Impact of climate change on
[5] H.M. Algin, Interlock mechanism of concrete block pavements, J. Transp. Eng. pavement performance: preliminary lessons learned through the
133 (5) (2007) 318–326. infrastructure and climate network (ICNet), in: International Symposium of
[6] H. Aoki, T. Baba, Development of critical use of joint sand to inhibit plat Climatic Effects on Pavement and Geotechnical Infrastructure, Fairbanks,
germination and growth on block pavements, in: 7th International Alaska, USA, 2013, pp. 1–10.
Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Sun City, South Africa, 2003, pp. 1–10. [33] A. Das, Analysis of Pavement Structures, CRC Press, New York, USA, 2014.
[7] Y. Ando, E. Noda, H. Yaginuma, Report on Excavation surveys on interlocking [34] DEGAS (Francis Dutruelct Gerard), Software for Designing Roads Paved with
block pavements with geotextile, in: 7th International Conference on Concrete Blocks and Flags in France, What. Why. How?, Study and Research
Concrete Block Paving, Sun City, South Africa, 2003, pp. 1–11. Centre of French Precast Concrete Industry, Epernon Cedex, France, 1993
[8] T. Asaeda, V.T. Ca, Characteristics of permeable pavement during hot summer [35] A.S. Dezfooli, F.M. Nejad, H. Zakeri, S. Kazemifard, Solar pavement: A new
weather and impact on the thermal environment, J. Build. Environ. 35 (4) emerging technology, Sol. Energy 149 (2017) 272–284.
(2000) 363–375. [36] K.P. Drenth, ELMOD 6: The design and structural evaluation package for road,
[9] D. Ascher, T. Lerch, M. Oeser, F. Wellner, 3D-FEM simulation of concrete block airport and industrial pavements, in: 8th International Conference on
pavements, in: 8th International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, San Concrete Block Paving, San Francisco, California, USA, 2006, pp. 721–730.
Francisco, 2006, pp. 457–465. [37] C. Efthymiou, M. Santamouris, D. Kolokotsa, A. Koras, Development and
[10] Y. Ashikari, T. Hamada, M. Ikeda, S. Kitada, T. Yanagisawa, H. Fujiwara, testing of photovoltaic pavement for heat island mitigation, Sol. Energy 130
Practical study on the effect of the environment-conscious pavement, in: (2016) 148–160.
34th Annual Meeting of Environmental Systems Research, Japan Society of [38] Environment Protection Authority (EPA) Victoria, Environment Protection
Civil Engineering (JSCE), 2006, pp. 421–425. Authority Victoria, 2008. Noise control guidelines. Publication 1254, 2008.
[11] Standard Australia (SA), AS/NZS 4456.9: Masonry units and segmental <http://www.epa.vic.gov.au/~/media/publications/1254.pdf> (accessed
pavers: methods of test Determining abrasion resistance, Sydney, Australia, 24.02.2018).
1997. [39] European Asphalt Pavement Assosiation (EAPA), Asphalt in Figures, Brussels,
[12] American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), ASTM C 799: Standard Belgium, 2015.
test method for abrasion resistance of concrete or mortar surfaces by the [40] B.K. Ferguson, Porous Pavements, CRC Press, New York, USA, 2005.
rotating-cutter method, Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, USA, 2014. [41] A. Fujishima, K. Hashimoto, T. Watanabe, TiO2, photocatalysis, fundamentals
[13] American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), ASTM C944/M-12: and applications, 1999, pp. 1–176.
Standard test method for abrasion resistance of concrete or mortar surfaces [42] A. Fujishima, K. Honda, Electrochemical photolysis of water at a
by the rotating-cutter method, Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, USA, 2012. semiconductor electrode, Nature 238 (5358) (1972) 37–38.
[43] M. Fukuda, Experimental study on heat environment mitigation thermal comfort levels in urban spaces, Int. J. Sustain. Build. Technol. Urban
performances of water-cooled pavement, Tokyo, Japan, 1999, pp. 237–245 Dev. 7 (2) (2016) 104–115.
(in Japanese). [73] K. Himeno, T. Maruyama, T. Sugawara, Development of computer package for
[44] T. Fukuda, S. Murai, S. Goto, Nomograph for stresses of layered structures and Elastic Layer System Analysis (ELSA), in: 18th Proceedings of the Japan Road
pavement, Jpn. Soc. Civ. Eng. (JSCE) 21 (11) (1986) 17–19 (In Japanese). Congress, Tokyo, Japan, 1989, pp. 338–349.
[45] T. Fukuda, I. Sato, M. Komura, T. Tsuda, Improvement of concrete surface by [74] A. Hirama, The Actual Situation of Recycled Asphalt Mixture in Japan, in:
polymer impregnated concrete and its application to urban block paving, in: Presentation at Seminar on Pavement Technology Exchange Between U.S.A.
2nd International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Delft, Netherland, and Japan, Tokyo, Japan, 2014.
1984, pp. 270–275. [75] Y. Hirano, T. Fujita, Evaluation of the impact of the urban heat island on
[46] T. Fukuda, Mechanics of stress distribution in the concrete pavements, J. residential and commercial energy consumption in Tokyo, Energy 37 (1)
Pavement Eng., Jpn. Soc. Civ. Eng. (JSCE) (242) (1975) 63–72 (In Japanese). (2012) 371–383.
[47] J. Füssl, W. Kluger-Eigl, R. Blab, Experimental identification and mechanical [76] M. Hiraoka, N. Takeda, S. Sakaei, Development of permeable interlocking
interpretation of the interaction behavior between concrete paving blocks, blocks using sludge molten slag, in: 2nd International Conference on
Int. J. Pavement Eng. 17 (6) (2016) 478–488. Concrete Block Paving, Auckland, New Zealand, 1992, pp. 249–258.
[48] J. Füssl, H. Hengl, L. Eberhardsteiner, W. Kluger-Eigl, Numerical simulation [77] A. Hiroyuki, K. Hidetaka, Experimental study on pavement system with
tool for paving block structures assessed by means of full-scale accelerated continuous wet surface, J. Arch. Plann. Environ. Eng. (Trans. AIJ) 530 (2000)
pavement tests, Int. J. Pavement Eng. (2016) 1–13. 79–85.
[49] E.M. Gartner, D.E. Macphee, A physico-chemical basis for novel cementitious [78] K. Hitotsuya, Y. Omori, Wear-resistant concrete block paving at Gotsu tunnel
binders, Cem. Concr. Res. 41 (7) (2011) 736–749. in Niigata prefecture, in: 3rd International Conference on Concrete Block
[50] M. Gope, R.E. Masto, J. George, S. Balachandran, Exposure and cancer risk Paving, Pavitalia, Rome, 1988, pp. 393–397.
assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the street dust of [79] J.M. Honig, Thermodynamics: Principles Characterizing Physical and
Asansol city, India, Sustain. Cities Soc. 38 (2018) 616–626. Chemical Processes, Academic Press, West Laffayette, Indiana, the United
[51] D. Gunatilake, W.K. Mampearachchi, Finite element modelling approach to States, 2013.
determine optimum dimensions for interlocking concrete blocks used for [80] T. Horiguchi, A. Kasahara, A. Niida, H. Arai, Application of rubber bonded
road paving, Road Mater. Pavement Des. (2017) 1–17. concrete block to anti-slip pavement under snow condition, in; 4th
[52] L. Guo, Q. Lu, Potentials of piezoelectric and thermoelectric technologies for International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Delft, Netherland, 1996,
harvesting energy from pavements, Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev. 72 pp. 555–563.
(2017) 761–773. [81] T. Horiguchi, Wear of concrete-the state of the art, Concr. J. 31 (10) (1993)
[53] T. Hachiya, O. Takahashi, FWD-based structural evaluation of heavy-duty ILB 17–27 (In Japanese).
pavements, in: 6th International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Tokyo, [82] T. Horiguchi, A. Kasahara, S. Ikeda, Wear tests on concrete block paving
Japan, 2000, pp. 361–368. materials, in: 4th International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Delft,
[54] Y. Hachiya, J. Yin, K. Sato, Application of block pavements for ports, in: 2nd Netherland, 1992, pp. 89–96.
International Workshop on Concrete Block Paving, Cartagena de Indias, [83] T. Horiguchi, Surface fatigue wear mechanism of concrete, in: 4th
Colombia, 1998, pp. 221–223. International Conference on Conference on Durability of Building Materials
[55] T. Hachiya, H. Yokota, N. Kanzaki, Application of interlocking block and Components, Brussel, Belgium, 1987, pp. 56–62.
pavements to airport, in: 2nd International Conference on Concrete Block [84] Y. Hosokawa, T. Segna, A. Abe, Properties of interlocking concrete block mixed
Paving, Auckland, New Zealand, 1992, pp. 189–198. with volcanic ashes in southern Kyusyu island, Cem. Sci. Concr. Technol.
[56] E.-S. Han, D.-G. Park, J., W.-K., J. Baek, A study on the application of permeable (2015) 304–310 (In Japanese).
interlocking block pavements in roadway, in: 12th International Conference [85] Y. Hosokawa, M. Komur, Y. Ohta, Utilization of molten slag into interlocking
on Concrete Block Paving, Seoul, Korea, 2018, pp. 260–265. concrete block(ILCB) in Japan and recycling of 100% molten slag ICLB, in: 9th
[57] B. Han, L. Zhang, J. Ou, in: Smart and Multifunctional Concrete Toward International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Buenos Aires, Argentina,
Sustainable Infrastructures, Springer, Berlin, Germany, Heidelberg, 2017, p. 400. 2009, pp. 1–10.
[58] K. Harashima, J. Nishi, M. Ueno, T. Takada, Development of high strength [86] M. Huurman, L.J.M. Houben, C.W.A. Geense, J.J.M. Van der Vring, The
water permeable interlocking block, in: 2nd International Workshop on upgraded Dutch Design Method for Concrete Block Road Pavements, in:
Concrete Block Paving, Cartagena de Indias, Colombia, 1998, pp. 281–283. Proc. 7th Intl. Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Sun City, South Africa,
[59] Y. Hasegawa, in: Japanese Perspectives on Quality Infrastructure Investment- 2003, pp. 1–21.
MLIT Initiative, Ministry of Land Infrastructure Transport Japan, Yokohama, [87] T. Ikeda, Prospects of concrete pavement technology, Concr. J. 37 (8) (1999)
Japan, 2016, pp. 1–6. 14–18 (In Japanese).
[60] A. Hassani, A. Jamshidi, Modeling and structural design of a concrete block [88] T. Ihara, Y. Sano, Serviceability survey of interlocking block pavement using
pavement system, in: 8th Int. Conference on Concrete Block Paving, San an automatic surface characteristics survey vehicle, in: 6th International
Francisco, California, USA, 2006, pp. 389–398. Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Tokyo, Japan, 2000, pp. 435–472.
[61] K. Hashimoto, H. Irie, A. Fujishima, TiO2 photocatalysis: a historical overview [89] H. Imai, T. Tsukada, K. Takahashi, Evaluation of permeable interlocking block
and future prospects, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 44 (12R) (2005) 8269–8285. pavements, in: 7th International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Sun
[62] M. Hashimoto, Y. Takeuchi, H. Doki, A survey report on pavement damage in City, South Africa, 2003, pp. 1–10.
the disaster areas of Tohoku, in: 10th International Conference on Concrete [90] H. Imazu, Multicolored designing device (laying device) for mechanical
Block Paving, Shanghai, China, 2012, pp. 1–10. laying, in: 5th International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Delft,
[63] M. Hata, T. Ijima, H. Yagunuma, Report on the survey and repair of Netherland, 1996, pp. 199–210.
interlocking blocks used for ten years at the heavy-traffic bus terminal, in: [91] H. Imazu, The sand fixation and stabilization method when sand is used as
7th International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Sun City, South Africa, joint and cushion material in pavement construction, in: 5th International
2003a, pp. 1–12. Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Delft, Netherland, 1996, pp. 161–167.
[64] M. Hata, K. Toriiminami, N. Ezumi, Properties of permeable concrete blocks [92] P. Inyima, J. Pereyra, M. Bienvenu, A. Mostafavi, Environmental assessment of
with reversible and aesthetic surfaces, in: 7th International Conference on pavement infrastructure: a systematic review, J. Environ. Manage. 176 (2016)
Concrete Block Paving, Sun City, South Africa, 2003b, pp. 1–6. 128–138.
[65] M. Hata, S. Suda, N. Ezumi, The properties of low-noise drainage-concrete [93] Interlocking Concrete Pavement Institute (ICPI), Permeable Design Pro(PDP),
block pavement, in: 2nd International Workshop on Concrete Block Paving, Virginia, USA, 2018.
Cartagena de Indias, Colombia, 1998, pp. 291–293. [94] M. Inuzuka, T. Nakajima, T. Yamada, On Functional Blocks, 9th Int. Conference
[66] HCM (Highway Capacity Manual), Transportation Research Board, on Concrete Block Paving, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 2009, pp. 1–8.
Washington, DC, USA, 2000. [95] M. Inuzuka, On functional blocks covered with rubber pieces of discarded
[67] D.K. Hein, Schaus, Maintenance guidelines for permeable interlocking tires, in: 8th International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Buenos
concrete pavement systems, in: 11th International Conference on Concrete Aires, Argentina, 2006, pp. 649–658.
Block Paving, Dresden, Germany, 2015, pp. 1–19. [96] M. Inuzuka, K. Sasaki, I. Sato, Concrete block with used tires, in: 7th
[68] H.L. Hengl, W. Kluger-Eigl, R. Blab, J. Füssl, The performance of paving block International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Sun City, South Africa,
structures with mortar filled joints under temperature loading, accessed by 2003, pp. 11–20.
means of numerical simulations, Road Mater. Pavement Des. (2017) 1–20. [97] M. Inuzuka, S. Nagata, Ice removal effect of functional blocks, in: 6th
[69] M. Henry, Y. Katob, Sustainable concrete in Asia: approaches and barriers International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Tokyo, Japan, 2000, pp.
considering regional context, J. Constr. Build. Mater. 67 (2014) 399–404. 589–596.
[70] H.A.C.K. Hettiarachchi, W.K. Mampearachchi, Validity of aggregate packing [98] M. Inuzuka, T. Kaku, S. Katsuo, On deterioration of cement concrete exposed
models in mixture design of interlocking concrete block pavers (ICBP), Road to deicing agent, in: 2nd International Workshop on Concrete Block Paving,
Mater. Pavement Des. (2017) 1–13. Cartagena de Indias, Colombia, 1998, pp. 271–272.
[71] C.K. Hettiarachchi, W.K. Mampearachchi, Optimization of Aggregates for [99] M. Inuzuka, S. Nagata, Functional blocks for deicing, in: 5th
Sustainable Low Cement Concrete for Interlocking Concrete Block Pavers, in: International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Delft, Netherland, 1996,
World Sustainable Built Environment Conference, Hong Kong, 2017b, pp. pp. 709–716.
2894–2900. [100] M. Inuzuka, T. Yosida, Thin concrete block with adhesive layer, in: 2nd
[72] H.A.C.K. Hettiarachchi, W.K. Mampearachchi, New block design and laying International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Auckland, New Zealand,
parameters for interlocking concrete block pavements to improve human 1992, pp. 299–305.
[101] M. Inuzuka, On thin concrete block and adhesive layer, in: 2nd International used in residential parking spaces, in: 10th International Conference on
Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Auckland, New Zealand, 1992, pp. 301– Concrete Block Paving, Shanghai, China, 2012, pp. 1–8.
308. [129] A. Karasawa, H. Fujita, E. Sakai, T. Takamori, T. Shiroishie, Evaluation of
[102] M. Inuzuka, I. Sato, Adhesive layer for overlay with thin concrete block, in: freeze-thaw resistance of concrete paving blocks, in: 8th International
3rd International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Rome, Italy, 1988, pp. Conference on Concrete Block Paving, San Francisco, USA, 2006a, pp. 469–
353–360. 477.
[103] M. Inuzuka, I. Sato, Concrete block pavements on asphalt highways, in: 2nd [130] A. Karasawa, K. Toriiminami, N. Ezumi, K. Kamaya, Evaluation of performance
International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Delft, Netherland, 1984, of water-retentive concrete block pavements, in: 8th International
pp. 50–58. Conference on Concrete Block Paving, San Francisco, USA, 2006b, pp. 233–
[104] I. Ishai, Comparative economic-engineering evaluation of concrete block 242.
pavements, Road Mater. Pavement Des. 4 (3) (2003) 251–268. [131] A. Karasawa, S. Suda, H. Naito, H. Fujiwara, Application of fly ash to concrete
[105] K. Ishioroshi, S. Sekine, M. Kagata, M. Utsumi, Examination on load block, in: 7th International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Sun City,
distribution of interlocking concrete block pavement, in: Japan Road South Africa, 2003, pp. 1–10.
Congress, Tokyo, Japan, 1996a, pp. 31–36 (In Japanese). [132] A. Karasawa, M. Kagata, N. Ezumi, Performance evaluation of the low noise
[106] K. Ishioroshi, S. Sekine, M. Hata, S. Suda, M. Kagata, G. Utumi, Review of drainage interlocking block pavement system applied to the driveway, in:
function of jointing sand, bedding course sand and base structure in concrete 6th International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Tokyo, Japan, 2000a,
block pavement, in: 5th International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, pp. 552–561.
Delft, Netherland, 1996b, pp. 141–149. [133] A. Karasawa, H. Yamaguchi, S. Suda, Study on hardness of course affecting the
[107] R. Ishizuka, E. Fujiwara, H. Akagawa, Study on applicability of water-feed- surface performance of interlocking block pavement, in: 6th International
type wet block pavement roadways, in: 8th International Conference on Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Tokyo, Japan, 2000b, pp. 131–140.
Concrete Block Paving, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 2009, pp. 263–275. [134] A. Karasawa, T. Ikeda, Y. Sano, Study on deflection and joint width of
[108] N. Ito, S. Yazawa, Follow-up survey of permeable interlocking blocks applied interlocking block pavement affecting chipping, in: 6th International
to the roadway in cold, snowy areas, in: 6th International Conference on Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Tokyo, Japan, 2000c, pp. 71–80.
Concrete Block Paving, Tokyo, Japan, 2000, pp. 530–539. [135] A. Karasawa, S. Sekine, M. Kagata, An examination of the application of
[109] S. Iwai, A. Nakano, Effects of road traffic noise reduction by porous ILB concrete block pavements to heavy – road fields, in: 2nd International
pavement for roadway, in: 6th International Conference on Concrete Block Workshop on Concrete Block Paving, Cartagena de Indias, Colombia, 1998,
Paving, Tokyo, Japan, 2000, pp. 562–569. pp. 241–244.
[110] W. James, W.R.C. James, H. Von Langsdorff, Computer-aided design of [136] A. Karasawa, M. Kagata, M. Kisi, Study of functional recovery of low noise and
permeable concrete block pavement for reducing stressors and drainage interlocking block pavement system, in: 25th Engineering Work
contaminants in an urban environment, in: 7th International Conference on Society, Kanto Branch Technical Research, Kanto, Japan, 1997, pp. 870–871
Concrete Block Paving, Sun City, South Africa, 2003, pp. 1–12. (In Japanese).
[111] A. Jamshidi, G. White, Summary of strategies of the analysis and structural [137] A. Kasahara, M. Komura, S. Ikeda, Performance of concrete block pavement on
design of concrete block pavements, 12th International Conference on low-volume road, in: 2nd International Conference on Concrete Block Paving,
Concrete Block Paving, Seoul, Korea, pp. 52–57. Auckland, New Zealand, 1992, pp. 21–29.
[112] A. Jamshidi, K. Kurumisawa, T. Nawa, B. Samali, T. Igarashi, Evaluation of [138] A. Kasahara, M. Furukawa, Y. Ito, Development of handy falling weight
energy requirement and greenhouse gas emission of concrete heavy-duty deflectometer, in: 19th Japan Road Congress, Tokyo, Japan, 1991, pp. 80–85
pavements incorporating high volume of industrial by-products, J. Cleaner (In Japanese).
Prod. 166 (2017) 1507–1520. [139] A. Kasahara, H. Kubo, T. Sugawara, Estimation of in situ elastic moduli of
[113] A. Jamshidi, K. Kurumisawa, T. Nawa, M. Jize, G. White, Performance of pavement structural layer with falling-weight-deflect meter deflection basin,
pavements incorporating industrial byproducts: a state-of-the-art study, J. 6th International Conference on Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements, the
Cleaner Prod. 164 (2017) 367–388. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, U.S.A., 1987.
[114] A. Jamshidi, K. Kurumisawa, T. Nawa, T. Igarashi, Performance of pavements [140] A. Kasahara, S. Matsuno, Estimation of apparent elastic modulus of concrete
incorporating waste glass: the current state of the art, Renewable Sustainable block layer, in: nd International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Delft,
Energy Rev. 64 (2016) 211–236. Netherland, 1984, pp. 142–148.
[115] A. Jamshidi, M.O. Hamzah, Z. You, Performance of warm mix asphalt [141] Y. Kasai, Bullet Train and Maglev System to Cross the Pacific, International
containing Sasobit: state of the art, J. Constr. Build. Mater. 38 (2013) 530– Economy and Trade, Tokyo, Japan, 2010.
553. [142] M. Kayhanian, D. Anderson, J.T. Harvey, D. Jones, B. Muhunthan, Permeability
[116] A. Jamshidi, Numerical analysis of behavior of concrete block pavements measurement and scan imaging to assess clogging of pervious concrete
Master Thesis (in Persian), Science and Research Azad University of Tehran, pavements in parking lots, J. Environ. Manage. 95 (1) (2012) 114–123.
Tehran, Iran, 2006. [143] T. Keiji, M. Nakamura, Recycling municipal solid waste into concrete block,
[117] W. Jiang, D. Yuan, S. Xu, H. Hu, J. Xiao, A. Sha, Y. Huang, Energy harvesting in: 9th Int. Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Buenos Aires, Argentina,
from asphalt pavement using thermoelectric technology, Appl. Energy 205 2009, pp. 1–10.
(2017) 941–950. [144] G.H. Kellersmann, Urban block paving in the Netherlands, in: 1st
[118] Japanese Industrial Standard Committee, Japanese Industrial Standards. International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Newcastle, UK, 1980,
Visual characteristics of coating film: JIS 5600-4-1. Tokyo, Japan, 2015 (In pp. 93–100.
Japanese). [145] T. Kimjima, Y. Ando, T. Honda, M. Moriyama, H. Tkenayashi, M. Nishioka, M.
[119] Japanese Industrial Standard Committee, Japanese Industrial Standards. Nabeshima, Study on heat island mitigation on interlocking block pavement,
Permeability performance test method for interlocking blocks (JASS 7 in: 9th International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Buenos Aires,
M101), 2007, pp. 1–12 (In Japanese). Argentina, 2009, pp. 1–9.
[120] Japanese Industrial Standard Committee, Japanese Industrial Standards. [146] T. Kinouchi, M. Kanda, M. Kuriki, H. Kobayashi, An observation of the climatic
Recycled concrete using recycled aggregate class L: JIS A 5023, Tokyo, effect of watering on paved roads, Proc. Hydraul. Eng., Jpn. Soc. Civ. Eng.
Japan, 2006 (In Japanese). (JSCE) (38) (1994) 381–386 (in Japanese).
[121] Japanese Industrial Standard Committee, Recycled concrete using recycled [147] M. Kitayama, Y. Ohnishi, S. Nishiyama, T. Yano, T. Yamamoto, Experimental
aggregate class H: JIS A 5021, Tokyo, Japan, 2005 (In Japanese). study on the effects of permeable pavements on the improvement of heat
[122] Japanese Industrial Standard Committee, Precast concrete products–General environment in urban are, J. Heat Island Inst. Int. 1 (2006) 381–386 (in
rules for classification, designation and marking (JIS A 5361:2004), 2004, pp. Japanese).
1–6 (In Japanese). [148] S. Kittelberger, Goymann, Current LCA (life cycle assessment) data for traffic
[123] Japan Interlocking Block Pavement Design and Construction Manual (JIEPA), paved areas, in: 11th International Conference on Concrete Block Paving,
Japan Interlocking Pavement Engineering Association, Tokyo, Japan, 2017 (In Dresden, Germany, 2015, pp. 1–4.
Japanese). [149] H. Kikuchi, M. Sukekiyo, Concrete block paving on the pier considering
[124] M. Kagata, T. Nishizawa, M. Hata, Effects of block dimension on structural landscape design, in: 2nd International Conference on Concrete Block Paving,
performance of block pavement for roadways, in: 6th International Auckland, New Zealand, 1992, pp. 246–264.
Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Tokyo, Japan, 2000, pp. 98–107. [150] S.I. Kinoshita, A. Yoshida, N. Okuno, Evaporation performance analysis for
[125] K. Kamitani, Y. Murata, H. Tawara, K. Takeuchi, Air purifying pavement: water retentive material based on outdoor heat budget and transport
development of photocatalytic concrete blocks, in: 4th, Beijing International properties, J. Heat Island Inst. Int. 7 (2) (2012) 222–230.
Symposium on Cement and Concrete, Beijing, China, 1998, pp. 751–755. [151] J. Knapton, D.R. Smith, Port and Industrial Pavement Design with Concrete
[126] N. Kanzaki, Y. Ohmori, S. Ishimura, The Use of Interlocking Block Pavements Pavers, Interlocking Concrete Pavement Institute (ICPI), Virginia, USA,
for the Reduction of Traffic Accidents, in: 2nd International Conference on Washington, DC, the United States, 2003.
Concrete Block Paving, Delft, The Netherlands, 1984, pp. 200–205. [152] J. Knapton, The Structural Design of Heavy Duty Pavements for Ports and
[127] A. Karasawa, Y. Takeuchi, T. Nakamura, Establishment of certification system Other Industries, INTERPAVE Publication, London, UK, 2008.
for road surface temperature reduction interlocking concrete blocks in Japa, [153] J. Knapton, The Romans and their roads-the original small element pavement
in: 12th International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Seoul, Korea, technologies, in: 4th International Conference on Concrete Block Paving,
2018, pp. 170–181. Delft, Netherland, 1996, pp. 17–52.
[128] A. Karasawa, M. Nakamura, Y. Yanagisawa, Proposed structure and [154] J. Knapton, The Design of Concrete Block Roads, Cement and Concrete
construction method for improved interlocking concrete block pavement Association, Wexham Spring, Buckinghamshire, England, 1976.
[155] T. Kobayashi, Evaluation on interlocking block in the great Hanshin International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Dresden, Germany, 2015,
earthquake, in: 6th International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, pp. 1–11.
Tokyo, Japan, 2000, pp. 605–610. [184] J. Minegishi, K. Kobayashi, T. Takeda, Durability and road properties of road
[156] A. Kodama, The examination report on the 1995 Hyougo-ken Nanbu temperature decrease function of water absorptive pavement, in: Annual
earthquake, in: 4th International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Report I.C.E. of TMG 2004, 2004, pp. 75–86.
Delft, Netherland, 1996, pp. 387–396. [185] I. Misaka, K.I. Narita, H. Yokoyama, Evaluation of evaporation ability of the
[157] H. Kubata, Improvement and measures concerning interlocking block system for mitigating urban heat island, in: 7th International Conference on
pavement in Japan for people having difficulty in seeing and walking, in: Urban Climate, Yokohama, Japan, 2009, pp. 1–4.
4th International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Delft, Netherland, [186] M.G. Mothé, L.F. Leite, C.G. Mothé, Kinetic parameters of different asphalt
1996, pp. 593–601. binders by thermal analysis, J. Thermal Anal. Calorim. 106 (3) (2011) 679–
[158] K. Kubo, H. Kido, M. Ito, Study on pavement technologies to mitigate the heat 684.
island effect and their effectiveness, in: 10th International Conference on [187] T. Mori, A. Kasahara, T. Hara, M. Tanaka, In-service condition of IL block
Asphalt Pavements, Quebec City, Canada, 2006, pp. 223–232. pavement constructed as countermeasure to plastic flow, in: 6th
[159] T. Kunishima, K. Arai, H. Yaginuma, Utilization of glass cullet for sand cushion International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Tokyo, Japan, 2000, pp.
layer of ILB pavements, in: 6th International Conference on Concrete Block 141–150.
Paving, Tokyo, Japan, 2000, pp. 159–166. [188] R.B. Murugan, C. Natarajan, S.E. Chen, Material development for a sustainable
[160] T. Kunimura, Choices of concrete block pavements by external appearance, precast concrete block pavement, J. Traffic Transp. Eng. (Engl. Ed.) 3 (5)
in: 2nd International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Auckland, New (2016) 483–491.
Zealand, 1992, pp. 167-178, 179-188. [189] M. Komura, The application of the interlocking block paving to a scramble
[161] A. Kurasawa, S. Sekine, M. Kagata, S. Higashi, An examination of application of intersection, in: 3rd International Conference on Concrete Block Paving,
concrete block pavement to heavy-duty fields, J. Pavement Eng., Jpn. Soc. Civ. Rome, Italy, 1988, pp. 398–404.
Eng. (JSCE) (1) (1996) 265–272 (In Japanese). [190] MLIT (Ministry of Land Infrastructure Transport Japan), Environment White
[162] Y. Kuroiwa, E. Aiko, Y. Matuzawa, Development of the interlocking block for Paper, Japan Government Statistics, Yokohama, Tokyo, 2006.
drainable pavements, in: 6th International Conference on Concrete Block [191] MLIT, in: White Paper on Land, Infrastructure, Transportation, and Tourism,
Paving, Tokyo, Japan, 2000, pp. 522–529. 2016, Ministry of Land Infrastructure Transport Japan, Yokohama, Tokyo,
[163] A. Kurotaki, S. Suda, M. Hata, O. Kodama, M. Urashi, Development of natural 2018, pp. 1–356.
stone composite concrete paving block, in: 2nd International Conference on [192] Y. Miura, K. Makiuchi, M. Kureha, An evaluation of the performance of
Concrete Block Paving, Auckland, New Zealand, 1992, pp. 179–188. concrete block road pavements under traffic loads, in: 2nd International
[164] F. Pacheco-Torgal, J.A. Labrincha, The future of construction materials Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Auckland, New Zealand, 1992, pp. 1–
research and the seventh UN Millennium Development Goal: a few 10.
insights, J. Constr. Build. Mater. 40 (2013) 729–737. [193] Y. Miura, K. Makiuchi, Effects of geotextile on development of
[165] T. Li, R. Burdisso, C. Sandu, Literature review of models on tire-pavement rutting of concrete block pavement under repeated loadings, in: 3rd
interaction noise, J. Constr. Build. Mater. (2018) 1–89. International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Rome, Italy, 1988,
[166] H. Li, Pavement Materials for Heat Island Mitigation: Design and pp. 612–618.
Management Strategies, Butterworth-Heinemann, Elsevier, Oxford, UK, 2015. [194] Y. Miura, M. Takaura, T. Tsuda, Structural design of concrete block pavements
[167] W. Lin, D.G. Park, S.W. Ryu, B.T. Lee, Y.H. Cho, Development of permeability by CBR method and its evaluation, in: 2nd International Conference on
test method for porous concrete block pavement materials considering Concrete Block Paving, Delft, Netherland, 1984a, pp. 152–157.
clogging, J. Constr. Build. Mater. 118 (2016) 20–26. [195] Y. Miura, K. Yoshida, M. Komura, Y. Saeki, On the serviceability of concrete
[168] M. Liu, X. Huang, G. Xue, Effects of double layer porous asphalt pavement of block paving, in: 2nd International Conference on Concrete Block Paving,
urban streets on noise reduction, Int. J. Sustain. Built Environ. 5 (1) (2016) Delft, Netherland, 1984b, pp. 212–218.
183–196. [196] Y. Miura, M. Tobe, Evaluation of existing pavement based on deflection and
[169] B.J. Mahler, P.C. Van Metre, W.T. Foreman, Concentrations of polycyclic radius of curvature of overlay design, in: 4th International Conference on
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and azaarenes in runoff from coal-tar-and Structural Design of Asphalt Pavement, the University of Michigan, Ann
asphalt-sealcoated pavement, Environ. Pollut. 188 (2014) 81–87. Arbor, Michigan, U.S.A., 1977, pp. 862–875.
[170] T. Maki, M. Koyagawa, Y. Takeuchi, Study on evaluation of amenity for ILB- [197] M. Moriyama, H. Takebayashi, Climate Analysis for Urban Planning,
Pave sidewalk, in: 6th International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Departmental Bullet in Paper, Kobe University Repository, Kernel, Kobe,
Tokyo, Japan, 2000, pp. 443–452. Japan, 2018.
[171] K. Makiuchi, K. Minegishi, Y. Sugita, Durability evaluation of geotextiles [198] T. Muchishima, in: National Level Strategy for Infrastructure Development in
under the cushion sand layer of segmental block pavements, in: 8th Japan, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transportation, and Tourism,
International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, San Francisco, USA, Yokohama, Japan, 2017, pp. 1–15.
2006, pp. 489–497. [199] T. Muraleedharan, V.K. Sood, Past and present efforts for popularisation of
[172] R.B. Mallick, M. Tao, M.K. Nivedya, Impact of flooding on roadways, in: interlocking concrete block pavement technology in India, in: 7th
Geotechnics for Natural and Engineered Sustainable Technologies, Springer, International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Sun City, South Africa,
Singapore, 2018, pp. 385–397. 2003, pp. 1–8.
[173] R.B. Mallick, T. El-Korchi, Pavement Engineering: Principles and Practice, CRC [200] Y. Murata, K. Kamitani, K. Takeuchi, Air purifying blocks based on
Press, New York, USA, 2017. photocatalysis, in: 6th International Conference on Concrete Block Paving,
[174] R.B. Mallick, P. Kandhal, L.A. Cooley, D. Watson, Design, construction, and Tokyo, Japan, 2000, pp. 570–578.
performance of new-generation open-graded friction courses, J. Asphalt [201] Y. Murata, H. Tawara, H. Obata, K. Takeuchi, Air purifying pavement:
Paving Technol. 69 (2000) 391–423. development of photocatalytic concrete blocks, J. Adv. Oxid. Technol. 4
[175] W.K. Mampearachchi, A. Senadeera, Determination of the most effective (1999) 227–230.
cement concrete block laying pattern and shape for road pavement based on [202] S. Murai, T. Sato, M. Hata, Seasonal change characteristics of interlocking
field performance, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 26 (2) (2014) 226–232. block pavement used for the roadways, in: 6th International Conference on
[176] W.K. Mampearachchi, W.P.H. Gunarathna, Finite-element model approach to Concrete Block Paving, Tokyo, Japan, 2000, pp. 23–31.
determine support conditions and effective layout for concrete block paving, [203] S. Murai, Y. Matuzawa, A study on the road heating system of concrete block
J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 22 (11) (2010) 1139–1147. pavement, in: 6th International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Delft,
[177] M. Marui, A. Hoyano, A. Matsumoto, T. ASawa, Experimental study of Netherland, 2000, pp. 253–260.
pavement body configurations of evaporative cooling pavement system with [204] S. Murai, H. Takahashi, T. Yamase, Measurement of the stress distribution
a focus on rainwater retention and capillary absorption, in: 10th under concrete blocks and comparison with analytical value, in: 2nd
International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Shanghai, China, 2012, International Workshop on Concrete Block Paving, Cartagena de Indias,
pp. 1–14. Colombia, 1998, pp. 301–303.
[178] I. Marie, H. Quiasrawi, Closed-loop recycling of recycled concrete aggregates, [205] S. Murai, H. Takahashi, M. Okawa, Stress distribution under concrete blocks,
J. Cleaner Prod. 37 (2012) 243–248. in: 5th International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Tokyo, Japan,
[179] S. Matsuda, H. Hatano, A. Tsutsumi, Ultrafine particle fluidization and its 1996, pp. 597–604.
application to photocatalytic NOx treatment, Chem. Eng. J. 82 (1–3) (2001) [206] S. Murai, H. Takahashi, K. Nakajyo, Study on the behavior of concrete blocks
183–188. under vehicular loads, in: 2nd International Conference on Concrete Block
[180] A. Maya, Improved joint sand, in: 5th International Conference on Concrete Paving, Auckland, New Zealand, 1992, pp. 281–286.
Block Paving, Delft, Netherland, 1996, pp. 161–167. [207] S. Murai, T. Fukuda, Stress computation of multi-layered pavement
[181] O. Merska, Mieczkowski, P. Dawid, D. Zymelka, Low-noise thin surface structures, Technical report, Tohoku University, 49(2), 1984, pp. 215–227
course evaluation of the effectiveness of noise reduction, Transp. Res. (In Japanese).
Procedia 14 (2016) 2698–2703. [208] K. Murakami, S. Suda, N. Ezumi, Study of wear resistant pavement on high
[182] B.N. Mills, S.L. Tighe, J. Andrey, J.T. Smith, K. Huen, Climate change strength concrete paving blocks, in: 2nd International Workshop on Concrete
implications for flexible pavement design and performance in southern Block Paving, Cartagena de Indias, Colombia, 1998, pp. 261–263.
Canada, J. Transp. Eng. 135 (10) (2009) 773–782. [209] D. Nakahara, K. Takahasi, T. Honds, M. Hata, Survey concerning luminosity of
[183] K. Minegishi, K. Yamanaka, H. Yaginuma, T. Okamura, S. Omoto, A. Kasahara, Guide Blocks and IL blocks pavement for the visually impaired, in: 7th
Durability evaluation of reinforcement geosynthetics using water International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Sun City, South Africa,
permeability concrete block pavement in field and laboratory, in: 11th 2003, pp. 1–8.
[210] M. Nakamura, K. Niwa, T. Maki, Study on evaluation of pavement smoothness [239] G.J.L. Petit, Abrasion test methods for paving units compared, in: 7th
on sidewalk for pedestrians, in: 9th International Conference on Concrete International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Sun City, South Africa,
Block Paving, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 2009, pp. 1–9. 2003, pp. 1–12.
[211] K. Nakata, A. Fujishima, TiO2 photocatalysis: design and applications, J. [240] M. Pomerantz, B. Pon, H. Akbari, The Effect of Pavements’ Temperatures on
Photochem. Photobiol., C 13 (3) (2012) 169–189. Air Temperatures in Large Cities, Environmental Energy, Technologies
[212] T. Nakayama, T. Fujita, Cooling effect of water-holding pavements made of Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 2000.
new materials on water and heat budgets in urban areas, Landscape Urban [241] PRPC, Paper Recycling Promotion Center, Paper recycling in Japan, 2017,
Plann. 96 (2) (2010) 57–67. Available from: http://www.prpc.or.jp/linkfile/english-paperrecycling.pdf.
[213] F.M. Nejad, M.R. Shadravan, A study on behavior of block pavement using 3d [242] Y. Qiao, G. Flintsch, A. Dawson, T. Parry, Examining effects of climatic factors
finite element method, in: 8th International Conference on Concrete Block on flexible pavement performance and service life, Transp. Res. Rec. (2349)
Paving, San Francisco, California, USA, 2006, pp. 349–358. (2013) 100–107.
[214] F.M. Nejad, Finite element analysis of concrete block paving, in: 7th [243] M.M. Rahman, S. Beecham, E. Mclntyre, 12th International Conference on
International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Sun City, South Africa, Concrete Block Paving, Seoul, Korea, 2018, pp. 37–41.
2003, pp. 1–9. [244] F.L. Roberts, L.N. Mohammad, L.B. Wang, History of hot mix asphalt mixture
[215] Storm water best practice manual by permeable pavement (DENR), North design in the United States, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 14 (4) (2002) 279–293.
Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources Publication, [245] Y. Sano, N. Fukushima, T. Niki, Considerations of powder polymer flame
Raleigh, North Carolina, USA, 2017, pp. 1–279. sprayed concrete blocks, in: 3rd International Conference on Concrete Block
[216] M. Nikolopoulou, N. Baker, K. Steemers, Thermal comfort in outdoor urban Paving, Pavitalia, Rome, 1988, pp. 318–323.
spaces: understanding the human parameter, Solar Energy 70 (3) (2001) [246] I. Sato, K. Shibuya, S. Yasui, Common use of interlocking blocks in cold
227–235. districts, in: 3rd International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Pavitalia,
[217] C.B. Nielsen, H. Bendtsen, B. Andersen, H.J. Larsen, Noise-reducing pavements Rome, 1988a, pp. 28–30.
in Japan: study tour report, 2005. [247] I. Sato, K. Shibuya, H. Ueda, Permeable concrete block paving in construction
[218] J. Nishi, Standard specifications for concrete block in Japan, in: 3rd of road heating system, in: 3rd International Conference on Concrete Block
International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Pavitalia, Rome, 1988, Paving, Pavitalia, Rome, 1988b, pp. 224–227.
pp. 12–17. [248] S. Saeki, T. Maki, M. Koyanagawa, The situation regarding damage to
[219] T. Nishizawa, M. Furukawa, H. Hyodo, N. Ueda, A model for predicting interlocking pavement caused by major earthquake: comparison of Tohoku
permanent deformation of interlocking concrete block pavements on heavy region Pacific coast earthquake and Hyogoken-Nanbuearthquake, in: 10th
duty roads, in: 12th International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Shanghai, China, 2012,
Seoul, Korea, 2018, pp. 1–6. pp. 1–10.
[220] T. Nishizawa, Numerical modeling for structural analysis of block pavements [249] R. Sakaguchi, S. Takasu, T. Akiyama, Study concerning the colors of the tactile
with 3DFEM, in: 11th International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, blocks for the visually handicapped-visibility for the visually handicapped
Dresden, Germany, 2015, pp. 1–14. and scenic congruence for those with ordinary sight and vision, in: 6th
[221] T. Nishizawa, A tool for structural analysis of block pavements based on International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Tokyo, Japan, 2000, pp.
3DFEM, in: 7th International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Sun City, 453–462.
South Africa, 2003, pp. 1–10. [250] M. Santamouris, Using cool pavements as a mitigation strategy to fight urban
[222] T. Nishizawa, S. Murai, S. Miyagi, Analysis of spalling of concrete blocks by heat island—a review of the actual developments, J. Renewable Sustainable
photo-elastic experiment and FEM, in: 6th International Conference on Energy Rev. 26 (2013) 224–240.
Concrete Block Paving, Tokyo, Japan, 2000, pp. 570–578. [251] B. Shackel, D. Pezzaniti, Development of design software for permeable
[223] T. Nishizawa, S. Matsuno, M. Komura, Analysis of interlocking block interlocking concrete pavements, in: 9th Int. Conference on Concrete Block
pavements by finite element method, in: 2nd International Conference on Paving, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 2009, pp. 1–10.
Concrete Block Paving, Delft, Netherland, 1984, pp. 80–85. [252] B. Shackel, A. Pearson, R. Ellis, The life cycle of King William road, Adelaide,
[224] T. Nishizawa, E. Noda, T. Fukuda, A Fundamental examination of the Australia‘s longest and oldest CBP streetscape, in: 8th International
mechanistic characteristics of precast concrete pavements, J. Pavement Conference on Concrete Block Paving, San Francisco, USA, 2006, pp. 517–526.
Eng., Jpn. Soc. Civ. Eng. (JSCE) 496 (24) (1994) 81–88 (In Japanese). [253] B. Shackel, Design of permeable paving subject to traffic, in: 8th International
[225] S. Nishiyama, Y. Ohnishi, Y. Yano, Study on the effect of permeable pavement Conference on Concrete Block Paving, San Francisco, USA, 2006, pp. 51–60.
on improvement of heat environment in urban area, J. Heat Island Inst. Int. 2 [254] B. Shackel, The objective selection of concrete block paving for engineering
(2007) 22–28. projects, in: 8th International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, San
[226] E. Noda, A. Kasahara, H. Yaginuma, Revised manual for interlocking block Francisco, USA, 2006, pp. 51–60.
pavement design and construction (2007 version), in: 9th International [255] B. Shackel, A survey of australian container port pavements. surfaced with
Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 2009, pp. 1– concrete segmental paving, in: 7th International Conference on Concrete
11. Block Paving, Sun City, South Africa, 2003a, pp. 1–11.
[227] D.Y. Oh, T. Noguchi, R. Kitagaki, W.J. Park, CO2 emission reduction by reuse of [256] B. Shackel, The challenges of concrete block paving as a mature technology,
building material waste in the Japanese cement industry, Renewable in: 7th International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Sun City, South
Sustainable Energy Rev. 38 (2014) 796–810. Africa, 2003b, pp. 1–11.
[228] Y. Ohama, D. Van Gemert, Application of Titanium Dioxide Photocatalysis to [257] B. Shackel, The development and application of mechanistic design
Construction Materials: State-of-the-art Report of the RILEM Technical procedures for concrete block paving, in: 6th International Conference on
Committee 194-TDP Vol. 5 (2011) 1–4. Concrete Block Paving, Tokyo, Japan, 2000, pp. 13–22.
[229] Y. Ohashi, T. Ihara, Y. Kikegawa, N. Sugiyama, Numerical simulations of [258] B. Shackel, Design and Construction of Interlocking Concrete Block
influence of heat island countermeasures on outdoor human heat stress in Pavements, Elsevier Applied Science, London, UK, 1991.
the 23 wards of Tokyo, Japan, Energy Build. 114 (2016) 104–111. [259] B. Shackel, A. Pearson, A. Vella, Progress towards a maintenance management
[230] T. Ozaki, Y. Suzuki, Study on the contribution of water-retentive ceramic tile system for concrete block pavements in Australia, in: 2nd International
to the reduction of environment heat accumulation, Proc. Hydraul. Eng. 42 Workshop on Concrete Block Paving, Cartagena de Indias, Colombia, 1998,
(1998) 61–66 (In Japanese). pp. 37–114.
[231] S. Omoto, H. Yaginuma, Y. Ando, K. Toriminami, Case study for the good long- [260] B. Shackel, C.C. Candy, Factors influencing the choice of concrete blocks as a
term serviceability of interlocking block pavement, in: 9th International pavement surface, in: 3rd International Conference on Concrete Block Paving,
Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 2009, pp. 1– Rome, Italy, 1988, pp. 78–85.
11. [261] B. Shackel, The analysis and design of concrete block paving subject to road
[232] S. Omoto, K. Yaginuma, Y. Ando, K. Toriminami, Investigations and evaluation traffic and heavy industrial loading, in: 2nd International Conference on
of the serviceability and causes of breakage of interlocking block pavement in Concrete Block Paving, Delft, Netherland, 1984, pp. 139–146.
Japan, 2006, pp. 401–411. [262] B. Shackel, An experimental investigation of factors influencing the design of
[233] S. Omoto, T. Yoshida, M. Hata, Full-scale durability evaluation testing of interlocking concrete block pavements for roads, Austr. Road Res. 11 (V11,
interlocking block pavement with geotextile, in: 7th International Conference Pt2) (1982).
on Concrete Block Paving, Sun City, South Africa, 2003, pp. 1–10. [263] B. Shackel, The design of interlocking concrete block pavements for road
[234] T. Oshima, S. Nagasaki, H. Yanaginuma, Functional degradation and recovery traffic, in: 1st International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Newcastle,
methods of interlocking block pavements, in: 6th I International Conference UK, 1980, pp. 23–32.
on Concrete Block Paving, Tokyo, Japan, 2000, pp. 328–337. [264] B. Shackel, The design of interlocking concrete block pavements, in: K.G.
[235] F. Pacheco-Torgal, L.F. Cabeza, J. Labrincha, A.G. De Magalhaes, Eco-efficient Sharp, J.B. Metcalf (Eds.), Proc. Workshop Interlocking Concrete Block
Construction and BUILDING Materials: Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), Eco- Pavements, ARRB, October, Australian Road Research Board. Research
labelling and Case Studies, Woodhead Publishing, New York, USA, 2014. Report, ARR No. 90, South Victoria, Australia, 1978.
[236] B.C. Panda, A.K. Ghosh, Structural behavior of concrete block paving. I: sand [265] Z. Shi, S. Watanabe, K. Ogawa, H. Kubo, Structural resilience in sewer
in bed and joints, J. Transp. Eng. 128 (2) (2002) 123–129. reconstruction: from theory to practice, in: Chapter 4: Japan’s Efforts to
[237] B.C. Panda, A.K. Ghosh, Structural behavior of concrete block paving. II: Enhance Social Infrastructure Resilience, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2018, pp.
concrete blocks, J. Transp. Eng. 128 (2) (2002) 130–135. 113–141.
[238] A.K. Pani, B.C. Panda, A.K. Pattnaik, A.K. Padhi, Development of a mix design [266] J.L. Silfwerbrand, E. Simonson, Swedish education and training on concrete
methodology for concrete paving blocks. Part II: experimental investigation, block pavements, in: 9th Int. Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Buenos
IOSR J. Eng. 4 (8) (2018) 81–84. Aires, Argentina, 2009, pp. 1–11.
[267] J.L. Silfwerbrand, Design of industrial concrete block pavement: summary of [292] A.A. Van der Vilst, The development of concrete block paving in the
an international workshop, in: 7th International Conference on Concrete Netherlands, in: 2nd International Conference on Concrete Block Paving,
Block Paving, Sun City, South Africa, 2003, pp. 1–12. Delft, Netherland, 1984, pp. 14–22.
[268] J. Silfwerbrand, M. Wappling, Parameter study on the design of concrete [293] S. Velasquez, G. Alonso, The Performance of colored concrete block paver in
block pavements, in: 6th International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, relation to abrasion, in: 10th International Conference on Concrete Block
Tokyo, Japan, 2000, pp. 41–50. Paving, Shanghai, China, 2012, pp. 1–9.
[269] Superpave Series No. 2 (SP-2), Asphalt Institute, Lexington, Kentucky, the [294] D. Warrilow, A bumpy road to the top: statistically defining a peak in oil
United States, 2003. production, Energy Policy 82 (2015) 81–84.
[270] Statistica, Recycling rate of steel cans in Japan 2005 to 2014, 2014. Available [295] G. White, A. McCallum, Review of ice and snow runway pavements, Int. J.
from: https://www.statista.com/statistics/695461/japan-steel-cans- Pavement Res. Technol. (2017) 1–10 (In Press).
recycling-rate/. [296] G. White, State of the art: asphalt for airport pavement surfacing, Int. J.
[271] S. Steffen, Sound-reduced concrete block pavement, in: 11th International Pavement Res. Technol. 11 (1) (2017) 1–22.
Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Dresden, Germany, 2015, pp. 1–6. [297] G. White, Shear stresses in an asphalt surface under various aircraft braking
[272] S. Suda, A. Karasawa, T. Hamamatsu, Study of quality standards on concrete conditions, Int. J. Pavement Res. Technol. 9 (2) (2016) 89–101.
paving blocks for roadways, in: 6th International Conference on Concrete [298] R. Wilding, B. Wagner, B. Seuring, S. Gold, Conducting content-analysis based
Block Paving, Tokyo, Japan, 2000, pp. 213–551. literature reviews in supply chain management, Supply Chain Manage. 17 (5)
[273] S. Suda, Yajima, O. Kodama, M. Arai, Factory automation of concrete block (2012) 544–555.
paving manufacturing factory, in: 2nd International Conference on Concrete [299] World Health Organization (WHO), World Health Organization Europe,
Block Paving, Auckland, New Zealand, 1992, pp. 53–62. 2009, Night Noise Guidelines for Europe, Brussel, Belgium, 2009.
[274] S. Suda, S. Yamanaka, O. Kodama, M. Hata, T. Kunimura, Development and [300] J. Wu, J. Liu, F. Yang, Three-phase composite conductive concrete for
application of permeable paving concrete block, in: 3rd International pavement deicing, J. Constr. Build. Mater. 75 (2015) 129–135.
Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Rome, Italy, 1988, pp. 130–138. [301] X. Xu, D. Cao, H. Yang, M. He, Application of piezoelectric transducer in
[275] H. Suzuki, Y. Itasaka, K. Makino, Heat and mechanical properties of waste energy harvesting in pavement, Int. J. Pavement Res. Technol. (2017).
glass aggregate as a base course material for taking measures of heat island, [302] H. Yaginuma, A study on load distribution property and bearing capacity
5th ICEG – Environmental Geotechnics: Opportunities, Challenges and evaluation of interlocking block pavement PhD Thesis (in Japanese),
Responsibilities for Environmental Geotechnics Wales, Institute of Civil Hokkaido Institute of Technology, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan, 2004.
Engineers (ICE), London, UK, 2006. [303] H. Yginuma, M. Hata, Ishioroshi, Functional distress of interlocking block
[276] T. Takahashi, Challenges for Cool City Tokyo, GSEP workshop, Osaka, Japan, pavement, in: 20th Japan Road Congress, Tokyo, Japan, 1993, pp. 90–97 (In
2011. Japanese).
[277] T. Tamaki, Y. Echikawa, T. Yamamoto, A new roadway block pavement [304] K. Yamada, T. Yokoyama, M. Kusano, The roles of interlocking blocks on the
constructed by cement-asphalt emulsion grout, in: 6th International formation of landscape ‘‘Itakura New Town” as a typical model, in: 6th
Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Tokyo, Japan, 2000, pp. 167–175. International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Tokyo, Japan, 2000, pp.
[278] H. Takeshita, Consideration on the structural number, 2nd International 259–268.
Conference on Structural Design of Asphalt Pavement, the University of [305] H. Yamagata, M. Nasu, M. Yoshizawa, A. Miyamoto, M. Minamiyama, Heat
Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, U.S.A., 1966. island mitigation using water retentive pavement sprinkled with reclaimed
[279] H. Takebayashi, M. Moriyama, Study on surface heat budget of various wastewater, Water Sci. Technol. 57 (5) (2008) 763–771.
pavements for urban heat island mitigation, Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2012 [306] T. Yanagida, K. Uchida, N. Watanabe, K. Yaginuma, A Fact-finding Survey of
(2012). Interlocking Concrete Block Pavement for Roads, Road Construction No. 512,
[280] Y. Takeyama, H. Tanahashi, Y. Ando, Development of new porous concrete 1990, pp. 1–6.
block pavement for motorways-whisper block pavement, in: 6th [307] L. Yang, A. Hakki, F. Wang, D.E. Macphee, Photocatalyst efficiencies in
International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Tokyo, Japan, 2000, pp. concrete technology: the effect of photocatalyst placement, Appl. Catal., B
543–551. 222 (2018) 200–208.
[281] N. Tanaka, Big Bang in Japan’s energy policy, Energy Strat. Rev. 1 (4) (2013) [308] E.J. Yoder, M.W. Witczak, Principles of Pavement Design, John Wiley & Sons,
243–246. New York, USA, 1975.
[282] V.W. Tam, Comparing the implementation of concrete recycling in the [309] I. Yoshitake, S. Ueno, Y. Ushio, H. Arano, S. Fukumoto, Abrasion and skid
Australian and Japanese construction industries, J. Cleaner Prod. 17 (7) (2009) resistance of recyclable fly ash concrete pavement made with limestone
688–702. aggregate, J. Constr. Build. Mater. 112 (2016) 440–446.
[283] M. Tarani, H. Mizuguchi, S. Hatanaka, T. Nakazawa, K. Yanagibashi, M. [310] C. Yoshimoto, 21st International Seminar on IBM Welfare, Washington, USA,
Kunieda, Design, construction and recent applications of porous concrete in 1985.
Japan, in: 28th Conference on Our World in Concrete and Structures, [311] C.F. Yong, D.T. McCarthy, A. Deletic, Predicting physical clogging of porous
Singapore, 2003, pp. 121–130. and permeable pavements, J. Hydrol. 481 (2013) 48–55.
[284] Y. Todoroki, M. Itagaki, T. Watanabe, Structural Evaluation of ILB Pavement [312] Y.H. Huang, Pavement Analysis and Design, second ed., Pearson, New York,
for Roadways, in: 6th International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, USA, 2004.
Tokyo, Japan, 2000, pp. 32–40. [313] P. Zapata, J.A. Gambatese, Energy consumption of asphalt and reinforced
[285] M.M. Todorova, R. Donceva, J.B. Talevska, in: Photocatalysis–A Promising concrete pavement materials and construction, J. Infrastruct. Syst. 11 (1)
Technology for Sustainable Roads, Horizons Publication, 2016, pp. 177–185. (2005) 9–20.
[286] T. Tohyama, Designing of interlocking block pavement with the use of [314] P. Zoccali, L. Moretti, P. Di Mascio, G. Loprencipe, A. D’Andrea, G. Bonin, S.
database system, in: 6th International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Caro, Analysis of natural stone block pavements in urban shared areas, Case
Tokyo, Japan, 2000, pp. 281–289. Stud. Constr. Mater. (2018) 1–9.
[287] K. Uchida, H. Ohmori, J. Nishi, Structural design of interlocking concrete block [315] P. Zoccali, G. Loprencipe, A. Galoni, Sampietrini stone pavements: distress
pavement in Japan, in: 2nd International Conference on Concrete Block analysis using pavement condition index method, Appl. Sci. 7 (7) (2017) 1–
Paving, Auckland, New Zealand, 1992, pp. 71–78. 22.
[288] H. Umeda, T. Ogihara, T. Sano, H. Yaginuma, Interlocking block pavements for [316] Samuels, S.E., and Sharp, K.G. (1984). Concrete block pavements on asphalt
the container terminal at the port of Kawasaki, in: 4th International highways, 2nd International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Delft,
Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Delft, Netherland, 1996, pp. 451–462. Netherland, pp. 31–37.
[289] Y. Urata, Rubbery blocks (rubber-surfaced concrete paving blocks), in: 2nd [317] Vollpracht, A. (1992). Noise reducing concrete block pavements,2nd
International Workshop on Concrete Block Paving, Cartagena de Indias, International Conference on Concrete Block Paving, Auckland, New Zealand,
Colombia, 1998, pp. 12–14. (pp: 216–223)
[290] A. Vaitkus, T. Andriejauskas, V. Vorobjovas, A. Jagniatinskis, B. Fiks, E. Zofka, [318] Shimada, T. (2018). Japan Interlocking Block Pavement Engineering
Asphalt wearing course optimization for road traffic noise reduction, J. Association, Tokyo, Japan, (Personal Communication).
Constr. Build. Mater. 152 (2017) 345–356. [319] A. Karasawa and S. Suda. Characteristics of new type permeable concrete
[291] A. Vaitkus, D. Cygas, V. Vorobjovas, T. Andriejauskas, Traffic/road noise block paving system, 2nd International Conference on Concrete Block Paving,
mitigation under modified asphalt pavements, Transp. Res. Procedia (14) Auckland, New Zealand, 1992, pp: 613–622.
(2016) 2698–2703.

State-Of-The-Art of Interlocking Concrete Block Pavement Technology in Japan As A Post-Modern Pavement

Încărcat de

Informații document

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

State-Of-The-Art of Interlocking Concrete Block Pavement Technology in Japan As A Post-Modern Pavement

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Construction and Building Materials 200 (2019) 713–755

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

State-of-the-art of interlocking concrete block pavement technology in

Post-modern pavement as a new concept for next pavement generation is introduced.

1. Introduction et al. [242], which showed that a 5% climate change significantly

Fig. 3. Schematic illustration of the study structure.

Joint opening (2 to 3 Block paver

mm) filled by sand

Fig. 4. Structural components of the ICBP system.

Fig. 5. Different block shapes.

as that in the western system. Moreover, cushion sand layer or

7. History of ICBP in Japan

Segmental pavements, as the first generation of ICBPs, can be

(a) Traditional blocks with spacer nibs standardized by JIPEA (2017)[123]

Landscape 19% 8. Education and administration

4000 4000 Parking lot

(d): Trends of ICBP construction in different years

Currently, the TA-CBR methodology is used as a standard

Table 1 and define different structural loading combinations. Moreover,

Structural layer Material type Material description Proximity factor

Fig. 14. Flowchart of ICBP design in Japan.

Fig. 16 shows an increase in the elastic modulus of the block layer D2

its effectiveness to record data of the rutting and longitudinal

(a) Lateral view (b) Inner view

rather than on the structural performance in terms of distribution 90

(a) Traditional asphalt and concrete pavements

(c) PICBP with wider joint openings

90 EN 1338, 2003: This test methodology was developed in Europe

80 Zealand to evaluate the abrasion resistance of masonry units

mance. In this regard, there is a permeability test for characteriza-

Ranking Reduction of infiltration rate (%)

ments of the pavement contaminants are primarily classified into

Siltation: it includes the movement of tiny particles, with diam-

The clogging phenomenon depends on the coarse surface type,

However, more field tests are required.

ICBP Asphalt Brick ICBP Asphalt Brick

(b) Good material for restoration in the post-

(a) ICBP as patching (b) Joint sand loss and faulting

(d) Surface dirt and joint sand loss on the

reduces the ICBP surface skid and permeability. Therefore, cleaning 12

(1) Durability: load resistance, rutting, chipping, wearing, and

level, and visual recognition

where H is the serviceability rating for 10 years, D is depth of rut-

Ranking Condition description MCI value

Site Place Application Laying pattern service year (MCI)

to access the underground facilities and services without a jack-

investigations on the long-term performance of ICBPs, with differ-

(a) ICBP (b) Asphalt pavement

No puddle Puddle No change Increase Decrease Nochange

(a) Rainfall performance (b) Noise

Bad Good No change Better Suitable No comment

(c) Rideability (d) Suitability rating as a pavement

Input data: Input data:

Message type Image

Block shape Block shape

Block producer Block producer

(c) Dirty guide blocks (d) Low luminance guide blocks

25 country in various facilities, highlighting the pivotal role of the

vision of the resources required for structural design, analysis,

The effect of ICBP on on-road emissions compared to those of Appendix A (continued)

Appendix A (continued) Appendix A (continued)

S-ar putea să vă placă și