Proceedings of the 2011 International Conference on Power Engineering, Energy and Electrical Drives Torremolinos (Málaga), Spain.

a), Spain. May 2011

Review of Flywheel based Energy Storage Systems

R. Peña-Alzola, Student Member, IEEE, R. Sebastián, Member, IEEE, J.Quesada, Member, IEEE and A.Colmenar
Department of Electrical, Electronic and Control Engineering (DIEEC), Spanish University for Distance Education (UNED)
28040 Madrid, Spain
E-mail: rsebastian@ieec.uned.es

Abstract- In flywheel based energy storage systems, a flywheel

stores mechanical energy that interchanges in form of electrical
energy by means of an electrical machine with a bidirectional
power converter. Flywheel based energy storage systems are
suitable whenever numerous charge and discharge cycles
(hundred of thousands) are needed with medium to high power
(kW to MW) during short periods (seconds). The materials for
the flywheel, the type of electrical machine, the type of bearings
and the confinement atmosphere determine the energy efficiency
(>85%) of the flywheel based energy storage systems.
Monitoring of state of charge is simple and reliable as only
Fig 1. a) Components that form an FBESS b) and detail of a modern FBESS
spinning speed is needed. Flywheel based energy storage systems
[2].
are commercially available with more than a dozen of
manufacturers. Amongst the applications of flywheel based
energy storage systems are: uninterruptible power supplies, FBESSs are adequate for interchanging medium and high
hybrid power systems, power grids feeding trains, hybrid powers (kW to MW) during short periods (seconds) with high
vehicles and space satellites. energy efficiency (>85%) [3][4]. In these situations, FBESSs
have favorable characteristics when comparing with
electrochemical batteries. FBESSs allow a very high number
I. INTRODUCTION of charge/discharge cycles (hundreds of thousands). This
number of cycles is independent of the temperature and the
Flywheel based energy storage systems (FBESSs) store
depth of the discharge (DOD). Therefore, the FBESS useful
mechanical energy that convert into electrical energy in a
lifetime is very long (> 20 years) and FBESS disposal does
manner analogous to that of the electrochemical batteries with
not have environmental concerns. In addition, monitoring of
the chemical energy. Fig. 1. a) schematically shows the
the state of charge (SOC) for FBESS is simple and reliable as
components that form a modern FBESS. The flywheel, with
only flywheel spinning speed is needed to know [4]. Main
moment of inertia I, spins at a speed ω storing kinetic energy
applications of FBESSs are related to power quality, traction
Ec as:
and aerospace industry. FBESS are a commercial reality with
more than a dozen of manufacturers [3].
1 2
Ec  I (1)
2 TABLE I
CHARACTERISTICS OF LOW SPEED FBESSS AND HIGH SPEEDS
FBESSS.
Moment of inertia depends on the flywheel mass and
Low speed FBESSs High speed FBESSs
geometry [1] as follows: Composite materials:
Flywheel material
Steel glass and carbon
[5][6]
fibers.
I =  r 2 dm (2) Asynchronous,
Permanent magnet
permanent magnet
Electrical Machine synchronous and
synchronous and
Where r is the distance of each differential mass element reluctance machines.
reluctance machines.
dm to the spinning axis. Integration of
No integration or partial Full or partial
electrical machine
integration integration
and flywheel [7]
The electrical machine, driving the flywheel, transforms Confinement Partial vacuum or light
Absolute vacuum
the previous kinetic energy into electrical energy and vice atmosphere [8] gas
versa. The bi-directional power converter transforms Enclosure weight
2 × Flywheel weight ½ × Flywheel weight
[9]
electrical energy at the machine frequency into DC electrical Mechanical or mixed
energy. Another bi-directional converter is necessary to Bearings [8][5] (Mechanical and Magnetic
transform DC electrical machine to AC electrical energy at magnetic)
grid frequency 50/60 Hz and vice versa. Traction and
Main applications Power quality [5]
aerospace industry
Rated power determines electrical machine and power
Price 1 5
converter sizing. Energy interchange duration is determined
by (1) and rated power, neglecting losses.

978-1-4244-9843-7/11/$26.00 ©2011 IEEE

 II. COMPONENTS OF THE FLYWHEEL BASED ENERGY
STORAGE SYSTEMS
In order to maximize Ec, according to (1), moment of
inertia I in (2) can be increased by increasing the flywheel
volume (radius r and height) and the material mass m.
Spinning speed ω can be also increased, which results in a
greater efficiency as spinning speed is squared in (1).
allowing high spinning speeds, such as modern composite
materials. Metals are heavy and do not allow reaching high
spinning speeds. Metals only allow obtaining modest energy
density, but prices are 20÷30 times lower than those of the
composite materials [6].
B. Flywheel shape

Broadly speaking, the flywheel spinning speed ω allows (3) and (4) are valid assuming axial symmetry and planar
classifying FBESSs in two types [8]: low speed FBESSs (< stress [12]. K can be described as measurement of the
6000 rpm) and high speed FBESSs (104-105 rpm). In order to flywheel material utilization. Fig. 2 shows main shapes and
maximize the energy efficiency low speed FBESSs make use values of K for homogenous isotropic materials typically used
of conventional technologies, whereas high speed FBESSs for metallic and composite materials [12].
make use of advanced technologies, see Fig 1. b). For this
reason, the price of low speed FBESSs can be up to five times
lower than the cost of high speeds FBESSs [8] although their
performance are always inferior. Characteristics of both
FBESS types are described next and summarized in Table I.

A. Flywheel material

The maximum spinning speed ω is determined by the

capacity of the material to withstand the centrifugal forces
affecting the flywheel, that is, the material tensile strength
[8]. Centrifugal forces are proportional to mass, ratio and
squared spinning speed. Maximum energy per volume unit,
Fig. 2. Different flywheel shapes
energy density, and per mass unit, specific energy, are
respectively [10]:
C. Electrical machine
ev = Kσ  , u (3)
The electrical machine, acting as generator, slows down the
flywheel transforming its mechanical energy into electrical
σ ,u (4) energy. The electrical machine, acting as motor, speeds up the
em = K
ρ flywheel increasing its mechanical energy and consuming
electrical energy. Table III summarizes main characteristics
of the electrical machines suitable to be used for FBESS.
Where K is a constant depending on the shape, ρ is the
mass density and σθ,u the maximum tensile strength. Table II Asynchronous machines are used for high power
compares all these mentioned characteristics for metallic and applications because of its rough construction, high torque
composite material usually employed in flywheels. and low cost [13]. Copper rotor losses exclude asynchronous
machine for vessels with absolute vacuum as cooling results
TABLE II
CHARACTERISTICS FOR DIFFERENT FLYWHEEL MATERIALS difficult. This is because of absolute vacuum allows only heat
[11]. transfer by radiation. Doubly fed asynchronous machines
ρ σθ,u ev em have also been used as they allow reducing power electronics
Material
[kg/m3] [MPa] [MJ/m3] [kJ/kg]
sizing [14][15].
Aluminum 2700 500 251 93

Steel 7800 800 399 51 Permanent magnet synchronous machine (PMSM) has
Glass become the most usual choice for FBESSs due to its high
2000 1000 500 250
E/Epoxy efficiency. PMSM has no rotor losses resulting suitable for
Graphite confinement in vacuum. The so-called Hallbach array for the
1580 750 374 237
HM/Epoxy
Graphite
permanent magnets allows eliminating all the iron losses at
1600 1500 752 470 expense of lower magnetic flux and thus lower power [6][16].
HS/Epoxy
Permanent magnets have concern of accidental
In order to obtain high specific energy, flywheel materials demagnetization, which increases with temperature. In
must be light, with low ρ, and have high tensile strength,
addition, permanent magnets have high price and low tensile (MOSFET, IGBT, etc.) will depend on the blocking voltages
strength. and current capabilities as well as on the switching frequency.
Additional LC-based filters can be needed to connect inverter
In order to solve these disadvantages, variable reluctance and electrical machine. This would be to supply sinusoidal
machines (VRMs) for FBESSs have been proposed. VRMs currents without ripple into the machine and thus reducing
have no demagnetization concern as torque is exclusively due losses, windings deterioration and EMI [22][23]. The inverter
to reluctance variation. Materials for constructing reluctance is controlled to make the electrical machine behave as a
machines have high tensile strength and low cost. VRM rotor generator or as motor according to the instantaneous
losses due to slots are low enough to allow confinement with necessity. Higher switching frequency reduces the electrical
absolute vacuum [17][18] machine current and torque ripple [6] and increases control
bandwidth, but at expense of increasing switching losses.
In high speed FBESSs, the electrical machine and the
flywheel are fully integrated forming a single compact Electrical machine control comprises two nested closed
element. In low speed FBESSs they are separated apart or just loops. The inner and faster loop corresponds to stator currents
partially integrated in a common enclosure. and the outer and slower corresponds to torque, and thus to
the interchanged power [22]. Feedforward current control can
TABLE III also be used provided a sufficiently accurate model is
MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ELECTRICAL MACHINES
SUITABLE TO BE USED FOR FBESS [19][20]. available, avoiding closed loop stability issues, as electrical
Permanent machine dynamics are inherently stable [23]. Control
Variable
Machine Asynchronous
reluctance
Magnet commands proper references for current control producing
Synchronous the required torque such as steady state operating points
Medium and
Power High
low
Medium and low correspond to maximum energy efficiency [23][21].
Specific Medium (≈ 0.7 Medium (≈ 0.7 High (≈ 12
Power kW/kg) kW/kg) kW/kg) In order to connect the FBESS to an AC grid, another
Rotor
Losses
Copper and Iron Iron due to slots None bidirectional power converter (DC/AC), working as a
Spinning Removable by Removable by Non-removable, rectifier, is necessary. Most of the times another three-phase
losses annulling flux annulling flux Static flux bridge of semiconductor switches [21][17] is used with a
Very High capacitor acting as DC-link [8], see Fig 1 a). This rectifier
Efficiency High (93.4%) High (93%)
(95.2%)
Synchronous: Sinusoidal: Vector
allows supply/retrieve active and reactive power to/from the
Control Vector Control Vector control. control. AC grid with sinusoidal currents. Higher switching frequency
Switched: DSP Trapezoidal: DSP reduces current ripple, easing the connection filter design, and
Size 1.8 l/kW 2.6 l/kW 2.3 l/kW increases control bandwidth, but again at expense of
Tensile
strength
Medium Medium Low increased switching losses.
Torque
Medium (7.3%) High (24%) Medium (10%)
ripple Electrical machine is usually controlled to vary torque as
Maximum
Medium (> 3) High (> 4) Low (< 2)
needed in order to keep DC-link voltage constant. That is
/ base
speed achieved by ordering motoring/braking torque to
Demagneti
No No Yes
accelerate/decelerate flywheel when DC-link voltage
zation rises/falls. Hence, constant voltage DC-link behaves as an
Cost Low (22€/kW) Low (24€/kW) High (38 €/kW)
ideal DC voltage source analogous to a conventional
electrochemical battery. Rectifier connected to this constant
Maximum spinning speed determines maximum FBESS
voltage DC-link simply establishes current references to
energy storage, see (1). Nevertheless, it is not possible to
produce/consume the required active and reactive power. This
harness all the stored energy, as this would require too high
contrasts with usual servo control for the electrical machine.
electrical torque. This is because required interchange power
For this case rectifier controls DC-link voltage to be constant
is equal to torque times spinning speed. A minimum speed of
and inverter allows commanding torque references for speed
a half the maximum speed, which requires doubling torque,
control. This schemed has also been used for FBESS
allows harnessing 75% of the stored energy [6].
considering interchange power equal to torque reference
times mechanical speed by neglecting all losses [24].
D. Power Converter
E. Bearings
FBESS connects to a DC-link by means of a bidirectional
power converter (DC/AC), see Fig 1 a), most often a three-
Conventional mechanical bearings are a source of energy
phase bridge of semiconductor switches [21]. This results in a
losses, need lubrication and require periodic maintenance due
voltage source inverter (VSI) controlled by pulse width
to wearing. In order to avoid these limitations FBESSs make
modulation (PWM). The proper selection for the switches
use, totally or partially, of magnetic bearings, where shaft finally SOC monitoring is difficult. EDLCs have very high
levitates due to repulsive magnetic forces. As there is no capacitances (kF) allowing high number of charge/discharge
friction, there is no wearing either, resulting in almost no cycles with easy SOC monitoring. Strings of EDLCs are
maintenance. Indeed, there is no need of lubrication, which required to achieve proper levels of working voltage.
results appropriate for absolute vacuum confinements.
FBESSs still need auxiliary mechanical bearings in case of IV. MAIN APPLICATIONS
the magnetic bearings failure/overload [4].
FBESSs are suitable as energy storage in applications
Passive magnetic bearings consist of permanent magnets related to power quality, traction and aerospace industry.
and must be combined with another type of bearings as they
are inherently unstable. Active magnetic bearings consist of A. Applications related the power quality.
coils that vary the electromagnetic forces based on the shaft
position achieving stability by using a feedback system. Uninterruptible power systems (UPS) are the most
Finally, magnetic bearings based on superconductors take successful application for FBESSs. This is because 97% of
advantage of the diamagnetic behavior of superconductors AC outages last less than 3 seconds [8] and they are more
when superconduction temperature is reached by means of a reliable than traditional sealed lead-acid batteries. FBESS
criogenization system [25]. replaces ECB in the UPS whatever its configuration is (on-
line, off-line, etc) [8].
F. Enclosure TABLE IV
COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS
The aerodynamic friction torque is proportional to the [4][26][27][28].
spinning speed and to the density and pressure of the gas ECB FBESS EDLC SCC
surrounding the flywheel. In order to reduce aerodynamic Storage
losses, flywheel is confined in a vessel with partial vacuum Chemical Mechanical Electrical Magnetic
Mechanism
(reduced pressure) or with a gas less dense than the air e.g.
Helium [4]. In order to completely remove aerodynamic Peak power Medium LS High(≈103) Medium High
losses, flywheel is confined into a vessel with absolute (kW) (≈102) HS Med (≈102) (≈100) (≈103)
vacuum, which makes difficult the electrical machine cooling Efficiency (%) 80-85 90-95 >95 90
and mechanical bearings lubrication. (VB) > 1 seg
Pulse duration > 1 hour > 1 min > 1 seg
(VA)> 1 min
The enclosure must be capable of withstanding the impacts
Magnitude for Gravity, V,
of the flywheel fragments in case of accidental destruction Spinning speed Voltage Current
due to overspeed. Composite material fibers disintegrate SOC IyZ
progressively in numerous fragments, mainly with rotational SOC measure
Medium High High High
movement, easy to be retained by the enclosure as their reliability
energy is dissipated by friction. Steel explodes violently in a Power density Medium High
few fragments, with mainly translational movement, difficult High (102) High (102)
(kW/m3) (10) (102)
to be retained by the enclosure [9]. Therefore, high speed
Energy density Medium
FBESSs require an enclosure weighing half the flywheel High (102) Medium (10) Low (1)
weight whereas low speed FBESSs two and half times for the (kWh/m3) (10)
very same stored energy amount [1]. Useful life
3-5 >20 10-20 ~20
(years)
III. COMPARISON WITH OTHER STORAGE SYSTEMS Proven Proven
Technology Proven and
Proven and and
Table IV summarizes characteristics of different energy maturity promising
storage systems: superconducting coils (SCCs), promising promising
electrochemical batteries (ECBs) and electrochemical double Temperature Less
Limited Less limited Controlled
layer capacitors (EDLCs) apart from low speed (LS) and high range limited
speed (HS) flywheel based energy storage systems (FBESSs). Environmental Disposal
Slight Slight Slight
concerns Issues
SSCs storage energy by circulating current with no ohmic
losses, require a criogenization system and are high priced.
ECBs use well-proven technology, their useful lifetime FBESSs can be used to compensate power oscillations
depends on the number of charge/discharge cycles and the coming from solar or wind renewable power sources.
depth of discharge [4][8][5] besides of the temperature, and FBESSs store energy during sunny or windy periods that is
supplied back during cloudy or dull periods [24][4]. Direct
addition of wind turbines and photovoltaic panels to form a
hybrid system, see Fig. 3, does not result in substantial fuel
saving as could be expected. This is because Diesel
generators consume fuel up to 40% of their rated
consumption even when unloaded. Hence, Diesel generators
should be shutdown most of the time and be started only to
guarantee supply continuity. The use of FBESS considerably
reduces the number of necessary start/shut-down cycles in the
diesel generator [17][29] prolonging its useful lifetime and
diminishing the fuel consumption and emissions.
Fig 3. Hybrid power system combining renewable sources with diesel
generator.
B. Applications related to traction.
There exist average and fluctuating power consumption in
traction engines due to the accelerations and decelerations.
Propulsion source is usually oversized to be capable of
coping with the maximum power consumption during
accelerations and regenerative braking energy is usually
dumped.
More efficient it is to size the main propulsion source for
the average power consumption and to let FBESS cope with
fluctuating power consumption. FBESSs stores energy during
braking periods, which will be supplied back during the
accelerations. In hybrid vehicles whose main power source is
a motor of internal combustion [4][7], see Fig 4 a) and b),
fuel consumption, emissions and maintenance requirements
are reduced. Analogous benefits are obtained when this
procedure is applied to trains whose propulsion source is a
gas turbine [4]. In electrical vehicles whose propulsion source
of is an electrochemical battery, the battery useful lifetime is
increased as its charge/discharge cycles become more regular.
Using FBESSs to improve the power quality in the
catenaries of subway and electric trains is halfway between
applications related to power quality and traction. FBESSs
mitigate voltage oscillations in the catenaries and reduce the
total electricity consumption by recovering the energy
coming from regenerative braking otherwise dumped [4]. In
addition, substations for supplying stations of new
construction can be sized only for the average power
consumption with FBESSs coping with the fluctuating power
in a manner analogous to the one previously explained [7].
Flywheels act as gyroscopes offering resistance to change
the rotation axis orientation [10]. In order to remove this
effect, flywheels are mounted within a set of gimbals or
controlled as pairs spinning synchronously in opposite
directions [4] when used in applications related to traction.
Fig 4. a) Component of a hybrid vehicle using FBESS and b) detail of the
FBESS in a hybrid vehicle [30].
C. Applications related to the aerospace industry
Satellites use electrochemical batteries that are charged
during the periods of light by means of solar panels and
discharged during the periods of darkness. When replacing
the electrochemical batteries by FBESS, see Fig. 1. b), mass
and the volume reductions are obtained along with increased
reliability in the SOC monitoring and longer useful lifetime
[4]. Even more weight and volume reductions are possible if
the FBESSs have a double function: energy storage and the
satellite orientation control [4].
The FBESS also are used to provide the power pulse [4] to
the new electromagnetic systems for launching airships in
aircraft carriers replacing heavier and less efficient steam
storage based catapults.
There are currently more than a dozen of manufacturers
offering FBESSs in the marketplace. In [3], available on the
Internet, web addresses of the main manufacturers can be
found, as well as a comparative review of their products.
V. CONCLUSIONS
FBESSs store mechanical energy by means of spinning a
flywheel. FBESSs are suitable for interchanging medium to
high powers (kW to MW) during short periods (seconds).
FBESS has high number of charge/discharge cycles
independent of DOD with easy SOC monitoring.
FBESS can be classified as having low or high speed. Low
speed FBESS uses conventional technologies whereas high
speed FBESS uses more advanced technologies for flywheel
material, electrical machine bearings and enclosure.
 There exist a dozen of commercial FBESS manufacturers.
UPS is the most successful application of FBESSs, but there
are also applications related to power quality, traction and
aerospace industry.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank the DIEEC-UNED for
supporting the attendance to the conference.
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