IMITATION DAIRY PRODUCTS
D Haisman, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
ª 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Definition and Product Types
Imitation dairy products range from complete dairy sub-
stitutes, with no dairy ingredients, such as margarine and
soy milk, to products that have a high percentage of dairy
ingredients, but also contain some nondairy constituent,
for example, vegetable fat. Food regulations in some
countries differentiate between substitutes, which are
allowed, and imitations, which are regulated, to protect
the dairy industry from what is seen as unfair competition.
However, today, imitation dairy products are freely avail-
able in the many parts of the world. They appeal to
consumers because they are generally cheaper, and may
be perceived to have health or dietary benefits. They also
employ a much wider range of functional ingredients, and
for this reason may have a longer shelf life, more conven-
ient packaging, and be easier to use. These advantages are
diminishing as advances in dairy technology allow greater
sophistication in the design of real dairy products.
Nutritionally, imitation dairy products may be disadvan-
taged by the lower digestibility of hydrogenated
vegetable fats, compared with milk fat, the lower biolog-
ical value of vegetable proteins, compared to milk
proteins, and a lower bioavailability of calcium.
The most important imitation dairy products are imi-
tation milks, condensed milks, and milk powders. These
range from filled products, which are based on skim milk,
with the butterfat wholly or partially replaced by vegetable
fat, to totally synthetic milks using nonmilk proteins, fats,
and carbohydrates. Other products that will be covered in
this article are coffee creams, coffee whiteners, imitation
whipped creams, whipped toppings, and fermented
products. Spreads, cheeses, and ice creams are discussed
elsewhere in the encyclopedia (Butter and Other Milk
Fat Products: Fat Replacers; Milk Fat-Based Spreads.
Cheese: Cheese Analogues. Ice Cream and Desserts:
Dairy Desserts).
Ingredients
Initially, the production of imitation dairy products was
driven by the price advantage gained by using vegetable
oils and fats instead of milk fat. These days, the quality of
the product is equally important and the fats used in its
manufacture are often tailored to meet the functionality
of the product. Liquid products, with a short shelf life, can
be based on a wide range of oils and fats, as long as they
are bland in flavor. Powdered products require fats that
are stable to oxidation, do not melt during storage, but at
the same time, are not waxy in the mouth. Ideally, they
will have the same melting profile as milk fat. Hardened
coconut, palm, or soy oils meet these criteria and are
widely used.
Milk proteins are often used either in the form of skim
milk powder or as sodium caseinate. The most widely
used alternatives are soy protein concentrates or isolates.
Most imitation milk products employ additional emul-
sifiers and stabilizers to improve quality, whether it be to
prevent creaming or coalescence, or facilitate whipping,
or improve whiteness.
Imitation Milks
Early imitation milks were essentially recombined milks
in which the milk fat was replaced by refined, bleached,
and deodorized vegetable fat. These products are known
as filled milks, and typically comprise pasteurized skim
milk, 3–4% vegetable fat, and additives such as mono-
and diglyceride emulsifiers, phosphate buffers, carra-
geenan, and vitamins A, D, and E. As already
mentioned, hydrogenated coconut, palm, or soybean
oils, with melting points around 35  C, and a pleasant
mouthfeel, neither greasy nor waxy, are well suited for
this purpose. The milk is heated to between 70 and 90  C,
mixed with the melted fat, homogenized in a two-stage
homogenizer at 15 and 4 MPa, and then cooled and
packed. The milk may be either pasteurized, to extend
the shelf life by a few weeks, or sterilized for a much
longer shelf life. In the latter case, the milk must be very
efficiently homogenized (e.g., at 20 MPa) to avoid cream-
ing, and the possible formation of a cream plug, during
storage, and then either ultra-high temperature (UHT)
treated (e.g., 15 s at 142  C) and aseptically packed/bot-
tled, or in-bottle sterilized for, say, 12 min at 121  C.
Imitation milks are common in many Asian countries
where cow’s milk is not readily available, and recombined
skim milk powder is used instead of fresh milk. The skim
milk powder (9% total solids) is rehydrated in good quality
913
914 Imitation Dairy Products
water for 20 min at 40–50  C and then heated, mixed with
fat, homogenized, cooled, and packed as before.
Skim milk powder may be replaced by other proteins
that are cheaper, and sometimes more efficient, emulsifiers,
to make the oil/water emulsion. Sodium caseinate, whey
protein concentrates, and soy protein isolates are com-
monly used. Formulations simulate the proximate
composition of cow’s milk, containing 3–3.5% fat, 2–3.5%
protein, and 5–6% carbohydrate. Maltodextrins or glucose
syrup solids may be used as substitutes for lactose. These
recombined or imitation milks tend to be nutritionally
deficient in calcium, but can become unstable when
calcium is added to the same level as in cow’s milk. Most
of the calcium and much of the protein precipitate from the
milk. This defect has been overcome by the addition
of citrate and mono/diglycerides to the formulation.
The citrate solubilizes the calcium, and the emulsifiers
stabilize the emulsion droplets. A typical formulation con-
tains 4% hydrogenated coconut oil, 2% sodium caseinate,
0.5% mono/diglyceride (hydrophilic–lipophilic balance
between 3 and 5), 0.3% calcium chloride, 0.35% disodium
phosphate, and 0.55% potassium citrate.
The nutritional status of imitation milks has been
criticized. They tend to be low in lysine and methionine,
as well as calcium and magnesium, and the sodium content
is generally quite high. However, if soy protein is used, the
iron content may be significantly better than in cow’s milk.
There is also concern about the content of highly saturated
hydrogenated fats in these products, which may be athero-
genic, and many imitation milks now advertise a minimum
content of polyunsaturated fats. In some countries (e.g., the
Philippines), this is mandatory.
Soy, Nut, and Grain Milks
Milks based on extracts of soybeans, nuts such as
almonds and cashews, or grains such as oats, barley,
rice, corn, or wheat have become increasingly available
in recent years, and are popular with vegetarians and
people allergic to milk or its ingredients. Soy milk is by
far the most important of these substitute milks, and is
made by triturating soybeans with water, filtering off the
aqueous extract, and heat processing the aqueous extract
to inactivate enzymes, particularly trypsin inhibitors,
and to pasteurize the product. Much the same process
is used for grain and nut milks. A more sophisticated
process for oat milks has been developed in Scandinavia,
which uses amylases to hydrolyze the starch component
of the grain. The proximate composition of soy milk is
very similar to bovine milk, but it is low in calcium
unless it is fortified. Other plant-based milks also tend
to be deficient in protein.
Imitation Milk Powders
Imitation milk powders are a natural development from
imitation milk, and require some of the same technology.
They are reconstituted to milk, or used as cooking ingre-
dients. The powders are generally made by spray drying a
concentrated (about 50% solids) emulsion containing
from 10 to 15% fat and 3.5 to 15% protein, the balance
being carbohydrate. The fat must be of the highest qual-
ity, with a low free fatty acid content (<0.4% as oleic
acid), and generally has antioxidants such as butylhydrox-
ytoluene (BHT) added. Hydrogenated fats with a short
plastic range, which melt at about 40  C, are preferred, as
they are pleasant to taste, but stable to coalescence during
shipping and storage. The protein may be milk protein,
from skim milk powder, sodium caseinate, or whey pro-
tein or a soy protein isolate. Skim milk powder is
reconstituted at a concentration of about 40% in water
at 40–50  C. Other proteins are generally used at much
lower concentrations, 5%, with the balance of the solids
made up with lactose, glucose syrup solids, high-fructose
corn syrup solids or maltodextrin, and minerals. Other
additives to the mix can include emulsifiers, such as
mono/diglycerides or lecithin, to improve dispersion of
the spray-dried product, phosphate salts to aid solubility,
vitamins, particularly A, D, and E, and sometimes cream
flavors and colors.
The reconstituted skim milk, or protein/carbohydrate
dispersion, is heated to 65–70  C. The fat, plus any lipid
emulsifiers, heated to the same temperature, is stirred in.
This process can be batchwise or continuous. The coarse
emulsion is then homogenized using a two-stage homog-
enizer (at 20 and 2 MPa) and fed to the spray dryer.
To maximize efficiency, the solids concentration of the
emulsion is made as high as possible without it becoming
too viscous to atomize effectively. A cocurrent flow spray
dryer with a conical chamber base is most suitable, and it
is generally advantageous to have a two-stage fluidized
bed dryer to finish the drying and agglomerate the
particles.
Infant Formulae
Infant formulae are a special case of imitation milks and
milk powders, and generally have a stricter nutritional
specification, particularly with regard to the fat composi-
tion. It has been recommended that hydrogenated fats not
be used, and that the fats should contain a high proportion
of polyunsaturated fatty acids, including linoleic and
linolenic acids in the proportion of 6.7:1. The proteins
used for emulsification may also have a nutritional focus
and include hydrolyzed casein, soy, and whey proteins.

Imitation Evaporated and Sweetened
Condensed Milk
Much of the world production of evaporated and con-
densed milk is made by a recombining process, in which
skim milk powder, milk fat, and sugar are combined in the
correct proportions. This is particularly the case in south-
east Asian countries where fresh cow’s milk is often in
limited supply. In imitation or filled evaporated milk,
vegetable fats are used. A typical formulation is 8% fat
and 20% nonfat milk solids. The mix is heated to 60  C
and homogenized in two stages at 14 and 3.4 MPa. After
homogenization, mono/disodium phosphate is added to
prevent the coagulation of milk and the mix is then
sterilized. Sweetened condensed milk is made by a similar
process, with the addition of about 45% sucrose to the
mix. The high sugar content obviates the need for steri-
lization. The nonfat milk solids and sucrose are dissolved
in water at 40–50  C, heated to 70  C, and homogenized
at 4 MPa. The thick emulsion is then seeded with solid
lactose to initiate the crystallization of the supersaturated
lactose in a finely divided form, cooled to 18  C, and
packed in sterile containers under rigorously hygienic
conditions.
As with the milks and powders, the skim milk powder
can be replaced with other proteins. A completely artifi-
cial condensed milk could comprise 8% vegetable fat,
12% soy protein, 5% lactose, 45% sucrose, and 30%
water. The soy protein may be partially hydrolyzed to
improve its solubility in this system.
Imitation Coffee Creams
Condensed milk is often used as a coffee cream, but
purpose-made coffee creams are not sweetened and con-
tain more fat (10–20%). They are frequently sterilized
and retailed in portion packs. Like other imitation prod-
ucts, sodium caseinate or soy protein isolate (2%) is used
to emulsify the fat (which is, primarily, hydrogenated
vegetable oil), and corn syrup solids (10%) are added to
give body to the product. These artificial creams have less
tendency to produce a scum of denatured protein on the
surface of the hot coffee (generally called feathering),
which is a problem with real cream, because it contains
much more milk protein, the cause of its instability. The
temperature of hot coffee is about 85  C and the pH is
generally in the range of 4.7–5.3. Under these conditions,
casein may partially coagulate, particularly in the pres-
ence of calcium and magnesium ions in hard water.
Phosphates (0.3%), to buffer the product and counteract
the acidity of the coffee, and polysorbate emulsifiers (up
to 0.4%), to stabilize the emulsion, may be added to
improve this aspect of the functionality.
Imitation Dairy Products 915
The protein, carbohydrate, and salts are dissolved in
water at 40–50  C and then heated to 70  C, and later the
melted fat and emulsifiers are mixed in. The coarse emul-
sion is then homogenized in a two-stage homogenizer at 11
and 3 MPa, packed, and sterilized at, for example, 115  C
for 15 min. Alternatively, the product may be UHT treated
for 10 s at 140  C and aseptically packed. In this case, it may
be necessary to homogenize the product aseptically after
the UHT process to redisperse the fat.
Coffee Whiteners
As generally understood, coffee whiteners are spray-dried
coffee creamers. Their manufacture follows the pattern of
other imitation milk powder products, but special features
of their design are fats that have a low iodine value and
resist oxidation, have a short plastic range, so that they melt
completely in the beverage, and are neither greasy nor
waxy, yet have sufficiently high melting points to be stable
during shipping and storage. Once added to coffee, the
creamer needs to have good light reflectance and emulsion
stability under hot acid conditions. Thus, the emulsions are
homogenized, before spray drying, at high pressures
(20 MPa) in order to reduce the fat globule size to less
than 1 mm in diameter. This ensures maximum light reflec-
tance when the powder is reconstituted in coffee. Sodium
caseinate is an excellent emulsifier for these products, but
generally requires the addition of phosphate and citrate to
buffer the system to counteract ‘feathering’. Lipid emulsi-
fiers, such as monoglycerides, lactyl or diacetyl tartaric
esters of monoglycerides, or polysorbates, are also thought
to improve the functionality.
Following these principles, a typical coffee whitener
contains 35% hydrogenated palm oil (m.p. 36  C), 4%
sodium caseinate, 2% emulsifiers, 1.5% dipotassium phos-
phate, 0.5% potassium citrate, and 57% glucose syrup solids.
Imitation Whipped Creams
Whipped creams are oil/water emulsions that are stable
to storage, but easily destabilized by whipping to incor-
porate air and form a stable foam. For ease of whipping,
the fats should have a very high solids content at lower
than room temperature, but for good mouthfeel they
should melt completely at body temperature. In these
respects, hardened vegetable fats can be superior to milk
fat, and make a more stable foam. Whipped creams can be
pasteurized or UHT sterilized. Sometimes, they are fro-
zen prewhipped. Powdered whipped toppings, for
reconstitution with water or skim milk, occupy a large
market segment. Because imitation whipping products
generally form a more stable whipped foam than real
cream, the powders are widely used in the cake and
confectionery industry.
916 Imitation Dairy Products
The emulsions are generally made from skim milk
powder or sodium caseinate, or both, and fats that have
a high solids content at the whipping temperature
(generally 5  C), but still melt around body temperature.
Like other imitation dairy products, lauric fats, such as
hydrogenated coconut or palm kernel oil, are often used.
The choice of an appropriate destabilizing emulsifier is
crucial to the functionality of imitation whipped creams.
The best have been found to be -tending emulsifiers,
which crystallize in the -form at the oil/water interface,
below their melting point. This promotes fat agglomer-
ation during whipping. Monoglyceride acetates and
lactates, and propylene glycol palmitate or stearate are
all -tending emulsifiers. Most whipped creams also con-
tain a stabilizer such as carrageenan or sodium alginate to
increase the viscosity of the aqueous phase, which retards
any tendency to creaming or syneresis. Hydroxypropyl
methylcellulose is sometimes added to promote overrun.
A typical liquid whipped cream might contain 29%
hardened coconut fat, 6% skim milk powder, 1% lactyl
monoglyceride, 10% sucrose, and 0.2% sodium alginate.
Recombination should be carried out above 70  C to avoid
interaction between the calcium of the skim milk powder
and the alginate. Homogenization at 10–15 MPa (at 75  C)
should be downstream of the pasteurization (15 s at 85  C)
or UHT (4 s at 144  C) treatments, to reverse any agglom-
eration of the fat. The liquid should then be cooled to
10  C as quickly as possible, to minimize the fat crystal
size and the viscosity. Liquid products are then aseptically
packed. For a frozen product, the cream contains more
sucrose, or a mixture of sucrose and glucose syrup, and is
kept chilled for 24 h before whipping and freezing.
For a powdered whipped topping, the cream contains
more carbohydrate, usually glucose syrup, and is recom-
bined in the same way, before spray drying. The dry powder
consists of about 50–55% fat, 8% sodium caseinate, 8%
-tending emulsifiers, and 29–34% glucose syrup solids.
Sour Cream and Yogurt
Imitation sour cream has much the same fat composition
as coffee cream, but is often emulsified with skim milk
powder. It is acidified to about pH 4.5 with citric or lactic
acid, and can be thickened with gelatin, guar gum, or
carrageenan. Yogurts can be made from any of the imi-
tation milks, including the vegetable milk substitutes, by
the addition of the appropriate bacterial culture and
proper fermentation. They can also be made by direct
acidification. When the protein content is low, the texture
of the yogurt can be improved by the addition of thick-
eners such as pregelatinized starch or gelatin.
See also: Butter and Other Milk Fat Products: Fat
Replacers; Milk Fat-Based Spreads. Cheese: Cheese
Analogues. Concentrated Dairy Products: Evaporated
Milk; Sweetened Condensed Milk. Dehydrated Dairy
Products: Infant Formulae; Milk Powder: Types and
Manufacture. Fermented Milks: Yogurt: Types and
Manufacture. Ice Cream and Desserts: Dairy Desserts;
Ice Cream and Frozen Desserts: Product Types. Liquid
Milk Products: Recombined and Reconstituted
Products.
Further Reading
Clarke RJ and Love G (1974) Convenience foods based on spray-dried
emulsions. Chemistry and Industry 1974(4): 151–155.
Gutcho M (1978) Whipped toppings and coffee whiteners. In: Dairy
Products and Eggs, pp. 263–287. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Data
Corporation.
Hammond E (2006) Filled and artificial dairy products and altered milk
fats. In: Gunstone FD (ed.) Modifying Lipids for Use in Food.
Cambridge, UK: CRC Press.
Kelly PM, Oldfield DJ, and O’Kennedy BT (1999) The thermostability of
spray dried imitation coffee whiteners. International Journal of Dairy
Technology 52(3): 107–113.
Kosikowski FV (1982) Imitation, substitute and alternate cheese foods.
In: Cheese and Fermented Milk Foods, pp. 470–482. Brooktondale,
NY: FV Kosikowski and Associates.
Lampert LM (1975) Imitation milk products. In: Modern Dairy Products,
pp. 416–427. New York: Chemical Publishing Co. Inc.
Masters K (1976) Spray Drying, 2nd edn., pp. 570–575. New York:
Wiley.
Sims RJ (1989) Spray dried emulsions. In: Charalambous G and
Doxastakis G (eds.) Food Emulsifiers. Chemistry, Technology,
Functional Properties and Applications, pp. 495–509. Amsterdam,
The Netherlands: Elsevier Science Pub. Co.
Spreer E (1998) Milk and Dairy Product Technology, pp. 198–201.
New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.