CHAPTER-1

The engine is the power house of the vehicle. It converts heat produced by burning of
fuel in to mechanical energy to turn the wheels. The fuel normally a mixture of petrol
and air or diesel and air, is burnt in closed cylinders inside the engine – hence the term
internal combustion. Heat energy produced by the combustion of petrol and air is
converted in to mechanical power by the pistons, connecting rods and crankshaft of the
engine, The engine speed depends on how much of this energy becomes useful power.
The more petrol-air mixture that can be drawn into the cylinder, and the more it can be
compressed the higher will be the specific output of the engine. The compressed mixture
when ignited by a spark should burn rapidly but progressively and smoothly across the
top of the piston. It should not detonate. The pressure developed by the burning of fuel in
the cylinder are transmitted to the crankshaft by the piston and connecting rod and a
turning force or effort is produced which is known as torque. The torque depends
upon the pressures exerted on the piston and the length of crankarm and is measured in
N-m. The actual torque delivered by the engine is known as brake horse power (BHP).
And is measured by dynamometers or by prony brake. Torque is the turning effort
whereas bhp is the rate at which the work is done.
 The torque increases with the increase in engine speed up to a certain point after
which it starts to fall down even though the engine speed continues to increase. The
number of r.p.m. at which the torque begins or decrease, depends upon the engine design.
At higher speed, engine vaccum falls down and less fuel enters the cylinder resulting the
lesser force available at the piston and hence fall in torque. Torque available at the
contact between driving wheels and road is known as “tractive effort” Gearbox and final
drive and differential acts as leverage to multiply torque which is inversely proportional
to speed. If the gear speed is lowered, the torque shall be increased in the same ration and
vice-versa. The engine torque can be increased by reduction gearing. The torque
transmitted by the engine through gearbox and propeller shaft to the final drive is
increased in every gear speed except in top (direct) and overdrive. The torque transmitted
by propeller shaft is further increased by means of gear reduction of final drive. The
torque of final drive, provided a differential is fitted, is always divided between each axle
shaft irrespective of speed of road wheels. The speed of the propeller shaft is always less
than the engine speed except in top gear. The speeds of axle shafts are always less than
the speed of the propeller shaft.

CYLINDER BLOCK: The main shell of the engine is usually combined with the
crankcase in one casting. This casting is usually made of ferrous alloy or semi-steel to
provide a stronger, harder casting which will give greater wear resistance. Most blocks
are made of C.I. because it is fairly strong cheap and easy to machine for mass
production. The blocks strength can be increased (improved) by alloying C.I. with other
metals (Nickel and chromium). Cylinder block has to with stand very high temp (about
22000C) and high pressure (about 70 bar). Therefore the material should be such that it
can retain strength at high temp, should be good conductor of heat and should resist rapid
wear and tear due to reciprocating parts. Some cylinder blocks are made of light alloys,
which make them lighter and better for conducting heat, but they are more costly. They
are also too soft to provide a working surface for the cylinder bores and separate C.I.
liners or sleeves must be inserted in to the bores.

The water jacket – passages through which water circulates to cool the cylinder –
is usually cast as an integral part of the cylinder block. It is linked with the corresponding
water jacket of the cylinder head through openings at the top. The circulating water
maintains the engine at its correct working temp so preventing expansion, distortion and
ultimate seizure of moving parts.

Cylinder block provides housing for the crank and cam-shafts, and other engine
parts like.

a) Bores in which pistons slide up and down.

b) Holes for push- rods which operate valve gear.
c) Mounting for water pump which circulates water for cooling through passages in
the block.
 d) Mounting for oil filter.
e) Distributor mounting shaft driving distributor. Distributor shaft is geared to
camshaft.
f) Studs are screwed in to the block for securing cylinder head.
CYLINDER HEAD : The material most commonly used for the cylinder head is C.I.,
grey iron. An alternative is used in many engines is aluminium alloy. Aluminium alloy,
although more expensive, is used on high performance engines, because it weighs less
and is a better conductor of heat. But an aluminium cylinder head needs inserts to
strengthen the valve seats and guides and may present difficulties in making an effective
joint with a C.I. cylinder block, as the two metals expand at different rates. The lower
face of the cylinder head is machined flat to mate with the upper face of the cylinder
block. A gasket made of copper and asbestos usually seals the two surfaces but a few
designs rely on a perfect face to face gas seal, with small rubber seals to prevent any
seepage of water from the cooling system. Any distortion of the faces of the head and
block can lead to gasket failure which will result in gas or water leakage or oil
contamination. Distortion can be caused by running on engine with insufficient water in
the cooling system. Cylinder Head provides:

1. Holes for push rods, which moves rocker arm.

2. Rocker arm for opening the valves
3. Rocker shaft on which rocker arm pivots.
4. Spring for closing the valves.
5. Mounting for thermostat which controls temp of water in cooling system.
6. Inlet ports through which petrol/ air mixture passes to cylinder.
7. Exhaust manifolds.
 The petrol / air mixture enters the cylinders from one side and burnt gases are
exhausted from the other, giving a good gas flow. In other designs the manifolds are on
the same side of the engine, exhaust heat can then vaporize mixture deposited on the
walls of the manifold. The underside of the cylinder head usually contains the
combustion chambers. In some engines, though, the chambers are formed in the tops of
the pistons. The sparking plug must be very close to the centre of the top of the
combustion chamber, for efficient combustion. In four stroke engines the inlet and
exhaust valves are fitted in the cylinder head. Valves seatings are provided for the valves,
such that the profile of the seating on the head matches with the profile of that portion of
the valve which comes into contact with the seating. Some of the engine, when installed,
is fitted 45 towards the exhaust side, the inlet valve ports then slope steeply downwards.
It facilitates cold starting in the following manner. As the crankshaft is turned any fuel
remaining unevaported in the manifold runs down in to the cylinder, where it is
evaporated by the heat generated during the subsequent compression stroke. Because of
the steepness of the inlet ports, this fuel runs down positively into each cylinder in turn so
that, once the first cylinder fires, the other will pick up immediately.

ALLUMINIUM CYLINDER HEAD : (C.I. Alluminium alloy)

ADV : Light weight, high thermal conductivity, ease of production to close tolerances by
gravity or low pressure die casting.

DISADV : More expensive than C.I. tooling for large quantity production is costly,
porosity in the finished casting can present difficulties. Al is more easily damaged in
service. Aluminium alloy cylinder head needs inserts to strengthen the valve seats and
guides.

PISTON : Silicon – 10 to 12%, Nickel – 1.5 to 3%, Magnesium – 1% and Copper – 1%

Almost all modern engines have alluminium alloy pistons, because of its higher co-
efficient of thermal expansion. The piston performs the following functions.

1. Forms a movable gas tight plug to confine the charge in the cylinder.
2. Transmist to the CR the forces generated by combustion of the charge.
3. Form a guide and a bearing for the small end of the CR, and takes the lateral
thrust due to
the obliquity of that rod.
Pistons are slightly smaller in diameter than the cylinder bore. The space between the
piston and the cylinder wall is called the piston clearance. This clearance is necessary
because the piston reaches a higher temp than the cylinder walls and also allows the
piston to expand. Clearance also provides a space for a film of lubricant. Pistons,
powered by the expansion of burning petrol/ air mixture in the combustion chambers,
provide the driving force of the engine. This force is transmitted from the pistons to the
crankshaft and at the same time converted to rotary motion by the connecting rods and
crankshaft.
 In a medium sized cars, when the engine is running at maximum speed, each piston
may be sliding up and down inside its cylinder as many as 100 times a second. Because
of its rapid succession of stops and starts, the pistons may be strong yet light in weight.
In most modern cars they are made of an aluminium alloy.

Heat generated by the combustion of fuel causes expansion both in the piston
themselves and in the cylinder which are of Cast Iron. Piston rings seal the gap between
the piston and the cylinder bore. “Compression rings”, usually two, prevent gases
escaping past the piston into the crankcase and a “scraper” ring removes excess oil from
the cylinder wall and returns in the sump.

Pistons must posseses the

following qualities :

1. Rigidity to withstand the high

pressure.
2. Lightness to reduce weight of
the reciprocating masses and
so enable higher engine
speed. Weight should be kept
less in order to reduce inertia
forces.
3. Good heat conductivity to
reduce the risk of detonation
so allowing higher
compression ratios.
4. Strong Material (strong):
having low expansion and
provision to allow for
different expansion rates of
C.I. Cylinder block and
allunimium piston.
5. Silence in operation.
6. Correctly formed skirt to give
uniform bearing under
working condition.

Requirements 2nd and red

have brought about almost
universal use of ‘alluminium
alloy” for the piston material. However, the differential expansion between the
aluminium alloy piston and C.I. cylinder means that a clearance must be provided when
the engine is cold to prevent seizure when the piston expands once the engine is warm. To
keep this clearance to a minimum a no of different piston skirt (that part of the piston
situated below the gudgeon pin”) designs have been divided, as shown in fig. 1,2,3,4.

A popular method is to split the piston skirt or have a T-slot in the skirt so that the
expansion of the piston is absorbed in closing the split or slot, this design combining
close clearance and flexibility. Full split- skirt pistons have greater flexibility than solid-
skirt types and so cold clearances may be smaller, which makes them a popular choice for
replacement pistons. However the solid-skirt piston is stronger than the split-skirt, and is
used for pistons subjected to heavy loads. Another method is to taper the piston, the
diameter increasing from the crown to the skirt to compensate for the fact that the crown
gets hotter and expands more than the skirt. Expansion is also greater across the gudgeon
pin bosses due to the larger mass of metal, and if the piston is machined oval so that the
smallest part of the oval is across the gudgeon pin axis, it will become truly often
combine taper and ovality in a single design. Oblique slots on each side of the gudgeon
pin buses allow full flexibility for the upper position of the piston skirt where seizure is
more likely to commence.

PISTON RINGS : To prevent the escape of expanding gases and excess of oil to upper
part of the cylinder, piston rings are fitted into the grooves provided in the piston rings
are usually made of C.I. and split to ensure that they spring out and a gas tight seal. In
modern engines, there are two or three compression rings fitted into the top grooves and
an oil control ring in the lower groove of the piston, the number of compression rings
tending to increase as compression ratios become higher. Generally the second and third
compression rings are taper faced or stepped to improve oil sealing and speed up the
bedding in process.

1. OIL RING : i) Oil Control rings in many have a series of slots which transfer excess oil
through holes in the piston groove to the inside of piston and so to the sump, but have
sufficient oil to lubricate cylinder walls.
ii) Oil control rings exert slightly more radial pressure than compression rings.
2. TAPER SIDED RING : i) Used to overcome ring sticking problem in high operating
engines,
ii) It must not be fitted in grooves other than ones of the same section.
3. RIDGE – DODGER RING : i) A special type of ring having a small step is specially
designed for use in worn engines so that the wear ridge left by the original compression
ring is cleaned.
CONNECTING ROD : The connecting rods are usually steel forgings. Most
connecting rods are medium carbon steel stampings. For special applications however,
they may be forgings and aluminium alloys or even titanium may be used. In racing car
engines, these connecting rods are some times machined all over to improve fatigue
strength and to reduce weight to a minimum.

Q: Why connecting rod is machined all over in racing cars? In racing cars stresses
induced on the connecting rod will be very high? A. Because of the complex movement
of the rod, its weight is kept low to ease the problem of balancing, but the rod ,its weight
is kept low to ease the problem of balancing, but the rod must have adequate strength to
withstand the forces to which it is subjected. Also only a very small weight difference is
permitted between each set of connecting rods to reduce out- of – balance forces.

The top end of the connecting rod, called the small end, is fitted inside the piston
to the gudgeon pin, which allows the rod to pivot as it moves up and down with the
piston the gudgeon pin, also known as the “Wrist Pin”, is usually hollow to save weight
and is often located in the piston by two spring clips called as CIRCLIPS.

The bottom end of the connecting rod, called the big end is bolted to the
crankshaft and follows a circular orbit, while the small end follows the up and down
movement of the piston. The big end may be spilt horizontally or obliquely. An oblique
split, by reducing the width of the rod at its widest point, allows a larger connecting rod
to be withdrawn upwards through the cylinder bore. The big end is usually split and has a
separate cap, so that it can be assembled, together with its bearing, on to the crank pin.
The cap is secured to the rod by either two or four bolts and nuts.

In modern engines do not have the bearing metal fused to the bore of the big-end,
but use separate low carbon steel bearing shells lined with an alloy of copper lead,
Copper-tin, Tin-autimony –copper, Lead-indium, Lead-Bronze, Aluminium-Tin , or
copper-lead coated with indium.

GUDGEON PIN : Generally hallow and made of case hardened steel Gudgeon pin may
be selectively fitted and if supplied with the piston, are not interchangeable.

CAM SHAFT : This shaft is of either forged steel or cast iron, machined and hardened to
give maximum resistance to wear of the flanks of the cams. The cams are spaced at
intervals to match the firing order. The camshaft is carried on three or five bearings
mounted in the block. The profiles and timing of the cams have a major effect on the
power output and fuel economy of the engine. A cam operates an overhead valve through
a tappet push – rod rocker arm. As the tappet and push-rod are lifted, the rocker pivots
and depresses the valve. Further rotation of the cam allows the tappet and push rod to
discend, allowing the valve to be closed by a spring.

SINGLE AND DOUBLE OVERHEAD CAMSHAFTS : Designers strive to reduce the

number of parts and weight of the valve-operating gear to obtain quite operation at high
speed and longer engine life. To do this , Single or double overhead camshafts are used ;
they are located on the cylinder head. The valve can be operated more directly from an
overhead camshaft than from a camshaft placed in the crankcase. A simple form of drive
from the crankshaft to an overhead camshaft is by chain. But a long chain drive will tend
to whip unless fitted with a tensioning device. A type of tensioner used on most chain
drives is a long a slightly curved. Steel strip or rubber faced spring. This is bowed against
the chain by a coil spring. Some of the latest overhead camshaft drives to be developed
use a toothed rubber belt outside the engine casing. Overhead camshafts design has used
rockers or fingers next to the camshaft to operate the valves, but the trend today is to
elimate rockers and places the valves directly under the cams.

To resist side thrust by the cam, an inverted bucket shapped tappet is inserted
between the cam and the valve stem. This tappet slides in a guide which is big enough to
surround the valve-spring assembly. Some designs of overhead camshafts use hydraulic
tappets, which are self adjusting and operate with no clearance. Hence there is no tapped
noise.
 A hydraulic tappet is made in two parts cone sliding within the other, and oil,
supplied under pressure, causes the tappet to lengthen and take up clearance when the
engine.

CRANK SHAFTS :

For Low Speed Engines : Forged crank shafts are made from alloy steels such as nickel-
chrome, chrome – vanadium.

High Grade Crank – shaft : (Drop Forged Crank shaft) are made from alloy steels
containing molybdenum, which when suitably heat – treated get very high tensile
strength. After machining to sizes approximately the crank shafts are hardened and finally
ground to correct diamensions.

After machining, the crank shafts are heated to about 5000C and exposed for a
period of 5o to 100 hours in a current of ammonia gas Nitrogen present in the gas reacts
with the surface to be hardened and offering high resistance to wear. This process is
known as nitriding.

When the maximum resistance to wear is required both the crank pin and main
journals are chromium plated.

CASTING CRANK SHAFT :

Crank shafts are made by casting also by using some alloy iron of special
composition containing carbon (1.3 to 1.5 %) , Managanese (0.5 to 0.7 %) Silicon ( 0.8
to 1.0 %), Chromium (0.35 to 0.45%) Copper (1.6 to 2.0%) , with a very small % of
sulphur and phosphorus . These shafts are subsequently Machined properly. Copper-
chromium, chrom- Molybdenum and nickel – chromium iron alloys are also used to make
crankshafts by casting. The advantages of crank shafts are : low manufacturing costs,
good wear qualities of bearing surfaces, resistance to fatigue and reduction in weight .
Manufacturing costs are also low because, complicated forms requiring minimum
machining operations can be produced and the other advantages are due to inherent
merits in the material itself.
 Reciprocating motion of the piston is converted into rotary motion by the
crankshaft and connecting rod. As it could be seen the crank shaft has to be very stiff and
strong, to with stand the varying twisting stresses of severe nature. The stresses are due to
both the explosion pressure and the inertia forces of reciprocating parts. Depending upon
the no crankshaft or multiple throw crankshaft. Usually no of cylinders is equal to the no
of throws.

Crankshafts are made by drop forging, in which a hammer is operated by high pr

steam or air. The hammer is provided with a pair of dies, having internal impressions
corresponding to the required shape of the crankshaft. Red hot steel is pressed into these
dies to assume the required shape. The bearing surfaces, viz., the main pins and the crank
pins are machined subsequently.

Crankshafts are also either built or machined fully from a solid block of steel.
These methods are complicated and are time consuming and are also expensive.

LUBRICATION OF CRANKSHAFT : Oil runs through holes drilled in the crankshaft

from the main journal bearing to the big-end crankpin. The firing orders of the cylinders
is also important in making the crankshaft to rotate smoothly. Counting the cylinders is
also important in making the crankshaft to rotate smoothly. Counting the cylinder nearest
the fan as no.1 The firing order in a A-cylinder engine is usually 1,3,4,2, or 1,2,4,3 so as
to give reasonably even turning of the crankshaft.

Attached to the front end of the crankshaft are .

1, Pully to drive the water pump and generator. A torsional vibration damper may also be
incorporated with the pulley.
2. An oil thrower.
3. A timing sprocket gear or gear wheel.

The timing sprocket and the pully are usually keyed to the crankshaft by wood ruff keys.
At the bear end of the crankshaft is this flywheel.
VALVE MECHANISM : The valve is used in motor vehicle engines are termed as
‘Poppet or Mashroom ‘ valves and are usually made from austenitic stainless steel which
is a corrosion and heat resisting material. An angular face is ground on the valve head and
mates with the conical seating in the cylinder head or block. This angle is after 45 0 but in
some cases the exhaust valve steem passes through the valve guide and the calve is pulled
on to its seat to form a gas – tight seal (which is incidentally assisted on compression and
power strokes by the gas pressure), by a spring located between either the valve guide
colled or the cylinder head and a spring collar which is held on the stem usually by split
cone cotters engaged in a recess machined in the valve stem, these cottor fittings in a
conical holes in the valve spring cotter valve stem seals made from synthetic rubber,
considerably reduce the flow of oil down the valve guides and so reduce the carbon
deposits in the combustion chamber. Air is also prevented from entering in this way.
 The valve operating gear is designed so that it opens and closes each valve at right
point in 4-stroke cycle, gives an adequate opening period to allow free gas flow and
operated quality and reliably over a wide range of engine speeds.

The camshaft is driven by a chain (or set of gears) from the adjacent crankshaft at
half engine speed. As the crankshaft rotes, each cam in turn lifts the tappet and push rod,
causing a corresponding rocker to pivot and push the valve down. The valve is closed by
spring on further rotation of the cam, allowing the tappet to discent. For efficient
operation the valves must return fully to their seals to ensure this, a gap known as tappet
clearance is allowed between the closed valve and its rocker. This allows the valve gear
to expand when it is hot. As the ignition system must provide a spark at each spark plug
at the right time in relation to the valve operation, the distributor, which supplies high
voltage current to the plugs, is usually gear driven from the cam shaft or by the
crankshaft. The camshaft is carried on three or five bearings mounted in the block the
cams are spaced around the camshaft at intervals to match the firing order. The profiles
and timing of the cams have a major effect on the opposite and fuel economy of the
engine.

17.22 I.e. Engines

The exhaust valve and spark plug should be cooled by circulating adequate water
around them to avoid hot spots which in turn avoids knocking.

6. Shape of combustion Chamber. The shape of combustion chamber should be

such that the largest mass of the charge burns as soon as possible after ignition. For
minimum heat flow, the surface volume ratio should be minimum. A hemispherical
shape provides minimum surface volume ratio. But in the end region, surface-volume
ratio should be large so that a good cooling avoids knocking. A quench space should be
formed at the end.

17.12.2 Different Types of Combustion Chambers

A few geometrical configurations of the combustion chambers which are commonly

used are listed below :
 1. T-Head Type. This type is shown in Fig. 17.20. This was used earlier by Ford-
Motor Corporation. This head suffered from the following disadvantages.

(a) It required two cam-shafts.

(6) It was prone to knocking as the flame path was considerably long.

The knocking was detected even at compression ratio of 4 and a fuel Octane number of
50.

2. I-Head or Side Valve Combustion Chamber. This is shown in Fig. 17.21. This
was commonly used in the period of 1910-30. The advantages of this arrangement are
listed below : (i) The valves are placed side by side in the block. A side valve
engine is easy to

manufacture also. :

(«) It is easy to enclose and lubricate the valve mechanism. {Hi) The head can be
removed without disturbing the valve-gear and pipe work for

decarbonising.

{iv) It provides compact layout. (v) Cooling of exhaust by inlet charge is more
effective as both are situated side by side.
Combustion in S.I. Engines 17.23

The performance of this combustion chamber was not very effective because of the
following shortcomings:

(i) Lack of turbulence in the incoming charge.

(ii) Extremely prone to knocking as the flame has to travel long distance. .■ -
:{Hi) Extremely sensitive to ignition timing due to slow combustion.

Due to these limitations, this arrangement was not preferred for higher compression
ratios as compared to overhead valve engines.

3. Richardo Turbulent Head Arrangement. The arrangement of this engine is

shown in. Fig. 17-2&. The main purpose of this design was to obtain higher flame
speed and to reduce the knocking tendency. The entire combustion space was
concentrated over the inlet and exhaust valves. This has also provided sufficient
turbulence during the compression stroke and increased flame velocity. The ratio of
area to volume of the space above the piston was large and it has created
a quench area which is essential to avoid knocking. The engine was made insensitive
to spark timing and worked satisfactorily at fixed spark timing for the whole range of
the speed.

4. Overhead Valve Combustion Chamber. Two arrangements are shown in

Fig. 17.23.
This design was commonly used since 1950. In this arrangement, both the valves are
located in
the cylinder head. This arrangement is superior to side valve or L-head arrangements
when high
compression ratios are used because of the following reasons.

(i) It gives higher volumetric efficiency as larger valves and larger lifts can
be accommodated.

(ii) The flame travel is reduced and therefore is not prone to knocking. The
arrangement shown in Fig. 17.23 (a) is known as bath tub-type form of combustion
chamber. It is simple and mechanically convenient form. The side portion of the
combustion space provides area which can be used as squish. The size of the valves is
limited as the valves are placed in a single row. This shortcoming is covered using
larger bore and small stroke. (L/d = 1).

The arrangement shown in Fig. 17.23 (b) is known as wedge-design. In this

arrangement, the valves are slightly inclined. This layout has given better performance
as proved by experiments.

5. F-Head Combustion Chamber. A combustion chamber in which one valve is

located in Head and other in Block is known as F-head combustion chamber. The
different F-head arrangements are shown in Fig. 17.24. This arrangement is a
compromise between L-head and I-head combustion chambers. In the present F-head
design, inlet valve is located in the head and exhaust valve in the block as shown in
Fig. 17.24 (a). This was used by Rover company for a long
time, it consists of crown shaped piston and correspondingly sloping cylinder head. The
inlet and exhaust valves are inclined as shown as figure. The plug is located in the flat
roof which allows use of inlet valve bigger than exhaust valve. This provides the
shortest flame travel and therefore the possibility of knock is very rare. This
arrangement provides all the desired requirements of good combustion chamber as high
volumetric efficiency, maximum compression for the give fuel resistance to knock and
high thermal efficiency. It can also operate on lean A : F ratio without misfiring. The
only drawback is the complex mechanism used for operation of valves.

Another type of F-head is shown in Fig. 17.24 (6). It is used in Willeys jeeps. It also
used wedge-shaped combustion chamber but is longer and narrower than Rover type. It
provides Squisk when piston reaches to TDC and creates sufficient turbulence. Inlet
valve area is also larger than exhaust valve area.

6. Some Modern Combustion Chambers, (a) Jaguar Combustion Chamber. The

arrangement used in Jaguar engines is shown in Fig. 17.25 (a). It has hemispherical
head combustion chamber and twin overhead camshafts. The hemispherical head with
inclined valves was also used in Norton motor cycle engines. This design is more
preferred for supercharged engines as symmetry of design is very important because
such engines fail because of high thermal stresses.

(6) Rover Piston- Cavity Combustion Chamber. Providing a cavity in the piston
cylinder creates sufficient turbulence which provides rapid flame travel and avoids
knocking. A compression ratio of 9 can be used with this arrangement without any
danger of knocking.

The arrangement is shown in Fig. 17.25 (6).

Ignition Accelerators

Ignition accelerators are substances which, when added to a fuel, will reduce the
delay period. Thus ignition accelerators reduce or elimination the detonation in C.I.
engines. The two chemical dopes commonly recommended as ignition accelerators are
ethyl-nitrate and amyl-nitrate in concentration of 8.8 gins/litre and 7.7 gms/litre
respectively.

These chemical dopes increase the preflame reaction and reduce the flash point.
These
chemicals increase the cetane rating of diesel fuel by auto-ignition at lower
temperatures. These
dopes are unfortunately not used in practise as they are very expensive and increases
NOX emission
drastically as they contain JV2. _ . ...

18.9 Combustion Chambers for C.I. Engines

The design of C.I. engine combustion chamber is more important and difficult than
S.I. engine. This is because, the mixing of fuel, evaporation and burning takes place
inside the combustion chamber. As the evaporation of fuel is carried out inside the
combustion chamber, high turbulence of air must be created inside the combustion.
This is only possible if the inlet air is provided a swirling motion.

There are mainly three methods of providing swirl to the air used for burning fuel. The
swirling air creates high turbulence, provides better mixing and high rate of fuel
evaporation. The effect of this is to reduce delay period and provide better thermal
efficiency.

1. Induction Swirl. This is provided during the suction stroke as the air entry is
made tangential or forcing air to take a rotational movement. Figure 18.13 (a) shows a
tangential port method for producing swirl. Figure 18.13 (b) shows the method of
producing swirl by masking one side of the inlet valve so that air is admitted only
around a part of the periphery of the valve and in desired direction. Figure 18.13 (c)
shows the method of producing air swirl by casting a lip over one side of the inlet valve.

2. Compression Swirl or Squish Swirl. In this method, air from periphery is

forced to the centre cavity of the piston during compression stroke. Therefore, this is
known as compression swirl. The squishing of air is created and forced to enter
tangentially in the piston cavity when the piston reaches to TDC.

A few arrangement of squish swirl are shown in Fig. 18.14.

Combustion in C.I. Engines 18.13

3. Combustion Swirl. This is created due to partial combustion therefore known

as combustion induced swirl. This method is used only in pre-combustioh chamber as
shown in Fig. 18.15. In this method, upward movement of piston during compression
forces the air tangentially and the fuel is injected in the precombustion chamber. When
the combustion of accumulated fuel during delay period burns rapidly in precombustion
chamber as A : F mixture is rich and forces the gases at a very high velocity in the main
combustion chamber. This creates a very high temperature and provides better
combustion.

The combustion chambers used in C.I. engines are classified as

1. Open combustion chambers. 2. Pre-combustion chambers.
S

3. Turbulent combustion chambers. 4. Special combustion chambers.

18.9.1 Open Combustion Chambers

An open combustion chamber is one that is open to the cylinder. In this arrangement,
all the combustion air is compressed and at the time of fuel injection, all the air is
contained in a single space. Therefore, this type of chamber is also known as direct
injection chamber. In this case, the fuel is injected at a considerably high pressure to
provide sufficient distribution and penetration. The mixing of fuel and air depends
entirely on spray characteristics and air motion.

The various designs of open combustion chambers are shown in Fig. 18.15. Various
shapes of piston crown used in this case with flat cylinder heads are shown in Figure,
the figure 18.15 (a) is a shallow depth combustion chamber generally used for large
capacity engines running at low speed. The squish in this type is very poor. Figure 18.15
(b) shows a hemispherical cavity in piston. The squish in this case is better than previous.
Figure 18.15 (c) is a cylindrical type cavity {in the form of truncated cone) which
provides much better squish than the previous two. This is used in Leyland heavy
vehicles. The desired squish can be achieved by varying the depth diameter and angle
of cone. The Fig. 18.15 (d) shows toroidal chamber. This provides very powerful squish
and provides better combustion and reduces delay period as better mixing is provided.
 In some cases, the shape of cylinder head provides a cavity to create favourable
conditions for better mixing and better burning as shown in Fig. 18.16.

Engines with open combustion chambers are very sensitive to spray characteristics and
mixing jattern. Multihole nozzles and high pressure of fuel injection are more desirable
for better working of the combustion system.

The heat losses are low because of low turbulence created in the system. This
indirectly helps
to start the engine easily. The amount of excess air required is more (as turbulence is
less). The
greater amount of excess air causes the engine to approach an air-cycle performance
(higher
thermal efficiency) but results in lower BMEP or lower power. ,

These types are used with large capacity and low speed engines. The lower speed
delay angles are relatively short even with fuels of poor ignition quality. Therefore less
costly fuel with long delay may be used with this type of combustion chamber. A small
engine with higher RPM; requires fuels of high ignition quality (as delay period is
reduced). Therefore, small engine with higher RPM using open combustion chamber
requires the fuels of high ignition quality and large, low speed engine using open
combustion chamber can use fuel of lower ignition quality.
 The advantages and disadvantages of open combustion system are listed below :
Advantages

1.It is simple in construction.

2.Heat losses are less therefore the thermal r\ is higher.
3.Starting of the engine is easy as heat losses are less.
4.Less costly fuel with long delay period can be used particularly in low speed
engines.
5.It gives higher mechanical efficiency.
Disadvantages ' . ■ " ■ ■ - ' ,

1. The excess air required is large.

2 Higher injection pressure with multihole nozzle is required. As the holes are too
small
there is possibility of clogging the holes.
2. Higher maintenance cost.

■,_,.-„._
18.9.2 Precombustion Chambers

These chambers are divided into two parts, one between the piston and cylinder head
and the other in the cylinder head. A small passage is provided to connect these two
chambers. The upward movement of the piston forces the air to flow into the small pre-
combustion chamber importing a directional movement to the air (swirl). This swirl is
maximum at about 15° before TDC, i.e. close to the time of fuel injection.

The fuel is injected into the pre-combustion chamber. The high pressure created in
the pre-combustion chamber during initial combustion forces the burning fuel into the
main combustion chamber at a high velocity where it combines rapidly with the rest of
the air. The orifice passage connecting the pre and main combustion chamber is
designed to distribute the unburned and partially burned fuel through main chamber so
that efficient utilization of the air can be achieved.

In this arrangement, the pre-combustion chamber contains nearly 25 to 30% of the

total air charge. The passage area connecting the two-chambers is normally kept below
25% of the cylinder bore. The precombustion chamber runs hot and helps for easy
evaporation of fuel injected and reduces the delay period. The fuel is kept away from the
main air body until combustion starts so that high rate of pressure rise in the cylinder is
avoided, There is no delay with respect to the main combustion chamber and the
combustion in the III stage tends to be rapid and complete due to violent projection of
the burning fuel into the cylinder. Various shapes of pre-combustion chambers are shown
in Fig, 18.17.
 In this arrangement, the pre-combustion chamber contains nearly 25 to 30% of the total air
charge. The passage area connecting the two-chambers is normally kept below 25% of the
cylinder bore. The precombustion chamber runs hot and helps for easy evaporation of fuel
injected and reduces the delay period. The fuel is kept away from the main air body until
combustion starts so that high rate of pressure rise in the cylinder is avoided, There is no delay
with respect to the main combustion chamber and the combustion in the III stage tends to be
rapid and complete due to violent projection of the burning fuel into the cylinder. Various shapes
of pre-combustion chambers are shown in Fig, 18.17.

The advantages and disadvantages of this combustion chamber are listed below. ,,r._
Advantages ,*

1. Low injection pressure can be used so single hole nozzle can be used.
2. It can use wide range of fuels. -■■ . ■
3. Smooth, combustion results in quieter engine.
Knocking tendency is totally removed due to short or practically no delay.
4. The air and fuel spray patterns are not important in this case.
5. The engine can be operated at high RPM.
The heat loss from pre-combustion chamber is large as it attains the temperature of
700°C. This can be reduced by providing insulation. The surface temperature of the pre-
combustion is always higher than the temperature of the compressed air but much
below the combustion temperature. Thus it serves as a Thermal Regenerator receiving
heat during combustion and returning heat to the air during compression.

Disadvantages

1 . The fuel consumption is high. . - . . ■ ■

2 . Heat loss from the pre-combustion is higher,
3 . The cylinder requires special type of materials.
4. Starting is difficult owing to higher heat losses through the throat during
starting
process.
5. The heat loss through the throat passage during the engine running is 10 to
15% of the
output therefore, the thermal efficiency is low.
18.9.3 Turbulent Combustion Chambers

These chambers are also known as swirl chambers m very high swirl is created. The
arrangement of these chambers is exactly same as pra-combustion chambers except 90 to 95%

26
of the total air is pushed in the pre-combustion chamber. When the fuel is injected into the
swirling mass of air, combustion is initiated and the resulting high pressure forces the
unburned and partially burned fuel into the cylinder.

The chamber and passage way are shaped and designed to give high swirling motion in the
chamber. The temperature of the chamber remains sufficiently hot and reduces the delay
period. The injection pressure and pattern of injection are not very important like pre-
combustion chamber and engine can be operated at high RPM without late burning.

A few configuration of turbulent combustion chambers are shown in Fig. 18.18.

The advantages and disadvantages of such combustion chambers are listed below.
Advantages -

1. A wide range of fuels can be used.

2. Low A ; F ratio can be used as air is heavily swirled.
3 The engine can be operated at high RPM.
4 Injection pressure and pattern are not very important. Therefore, design and selection
of nozzle is easy.
5 Low rate of pressure rise and smooth running of the engine.

Disadvantages

1.The starting of the engine is difficult as heat losses are high.

2.Mechanical efficiency is low.
3.Because of high heat losses, bsfc is higher.
18.9.4 Special Combustion Chambers

A few very special types of combustion chambers are developed and used on particular
automobiles.

1. Lanova or Air-cell Combustion Chamber. The Fig. 18.19 shows the arrangement of this
chamber. This chamber consists of a small pre-combustion chamber into which the fuel is
sprayed from a single hole nozzle. The walls of the chamber run hot so that the injected fuel
evaporates and starts burning instantaneously. And a high force created forces the burning fuel
into the main combustion chamber with a very high velocity. The burning of fuel forms two
vortices as shown in figure which further improves the mixing and burning.

27
 The air-cell (pre-combustion chamber) has two parts as major and minor which are separated
from each other and from the main combustion chamber by narrow orifices. The first burning
starts in the minor cell and pushes the burning air in the main chamber. As the pressure in the
minor cell falls because of discharging the gases, the major cell starts pushing the burning
gases into the main combustion chamber. This step motion of the gases creates high swirling
motion in the main combustion chamber and reduces delay period

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