Department of Electronics Engineering

Antenna Trainer
DL 2595
Laboratory Manual

Compiled by
XU ECE Department
Table of Contents
Title Pages
Preface i
General information about the laboratory ii
College of Engineering general laboratory policies and viii
guidelines
General laboratory safety guidelines xiii
Table of Contents xiv
List of Components 1
Description of the System 3
Theoretical Background 5
Activity No.
1 Introduction to the Antenna Trainer 13
2 The Lecher Line 16
3 Polarization 19
4 The Elementary Dipole 21
5 The Folded Dipole 24
6 The Yagi Antenna 26
7 The Ground Plane Antenna 28
8 The Matching Stub 30

i
 List of Components

The trainer is composed of the following components:

1. Basic Panel with generator, Lecher line, RF detector

2. Mobile receiver
3. Joint for fixing to the base
4. Supporting base for receiver
5. Reflector
6. Locking knob
7. Shielded connecting cable between the Lecher line and the detector with banana
plugs, diam. 2 mm (length = 60 cm)
8. Set of cables for measuring and connections
9. Coaxial support for antenna (mast) with turning base
10. ‘T’ BNC
11. Set of 5 monopoles with banana terminations, different lengths
12. Ground-plane antenna
13. Yagi antenna
14. Folded dipole antenna
15. Simple dipole antenna
16. Coaxial cable RG59 with F/F BNC, length = 60 cm complete of M/M and F/F
adapters.

1
2
 Description of the System

The basic unit is composed of a base in varnished aluminum which contains the RF
generator, the Lecher line and the RF detector/meter.

The generator frequency is between 860 and 950 MHz, higher than the band used for
the TV broadcast and lower than the frequencies used for the cellular radio
transmissions. Any-how, the power of the transmitter is such that no disturbances to
the two above mentioned systems are possible.

The choice of a frequency in this field is determined by the possibility to reduce the
dimensions of the antennas, hence to use the trainer indoor, in a school laboratory.

The generator is provided with a manual control of the output power, with graduated
scale from 0 to 100 %. The generator output is a BNC mounted on the front of the
panel, centered to a graduated disk.

On the BNC must be directly inserted the support for the power supply of the antennas,
while the graduated disk can be used for orienting the antenna with respect to an initial
reference point, as required during the experiments.

The generator has been designed with particular criteria in order to operate in
potentially difficult conditions that can be found in a school laboratory: it can operate
with no damage with large load variations, antennas with very different characteristic
impedances, or even without load.

The generator is provided with two settings which can be regulated by removing the
metal lower side of the panel. The two settings are identified by the letters U and F. F
is a capacitive trimmer which determines the working frequency of the oscillator; U is
a second trimmer which determines the working load impedance interval of the
generator. In other words, it maximizes the output power for a given load.

The Lecher line is a transmission line with cylindrical parallel conductors in air, length
about 36 cm.

One terminal of the line can be connected to the generator output through the coaxial
cable (included). The Lecher line is different from a standard line because it is provided
with a cursor composed of a coil which, from the transmission point of view, can be
considered a mobile short circuit.

The position of the cursor with respect to the origin determines the length of the short
circuited line and this system allows the measurement of the generator frequency, the
study of the stationary waves along the line and the possibility to perform other
experiments concerning the adaptation of the antennas to the load, as it will be see in
the next sections of this manual.

On the same basic panel is mounted the RF detector/meter to be coupled with the
Lecher line cursor through the two wire cable (included).

3
The RF detector is composed of: a real detector at maximum value, an attenuator
controlled by a knob in the front panel with graduated scale from 0 to 100 % (100% =
maximum attenuation, i.e. minimum signal), and a linear scale microammeter.

The trainer includes also a radiation mobile detector composed of a plastic case with
a folded pole, with adjustable reflector.

The front includes a pointer instrument for the indication of the received signal
intensity, an attenuator which allows the adjustment of the scale of the instrument and
two output bushes to which to connect external instrumentation (if needed).

The instrument can be held in one hand or mounted on the given support. In the latter
case it can be mounted vertically (so that the dipole is on a horizontal plane), or turned
by 90° in order to operate with the antennas with vertical polarization.

As it is obvious, the instrument included in the mobile detector, as well as the detector
included in the basic unit, cannot give absolute indications of the intensity of the
electrical field, but only relative indications, as implicit in the nature of the
measurements to be taken.

The radiation mobile detector is a passive instrument which does not require batteries.
The trainer is composed also of a series of antennas, some of which are made of
mobile components so that it is possible to create different configurations.

Each antenna will be the subject of one specific experiment in the following sections
of this manual.

4
 Theoretical Background

Transmission Lines

To understand the operation and the working procedures of the trainer a little bit of
theory can be useful:

Let us consider a transmission line connected at one end with a signal generator and
closed at the other end in short circuit. The power from the generator travels along the
line up to the other end where, due to the short circuit, it inverts its direction and comes
back to the generator.

At the short circuit position, we have a large current, while the voltage is practically
zero. The reflected current travels at the same velocity of the direct output current, so
that the total value will be different at each point along the line and at each time.

In particular, there will be some points where the direct current and the reflected
current are in counterphase, and the total current will be null, while there will be other
points where the amplitude is double.

The points where the current are in the same phase or in opposite phase depend only
from the traveling time, hence from the distance along the line when the short circuit
occurs.

Let us inspect the line point by point with an ammeter. We will find that the current
behaves as shown in Figure 1B, that is through semiwaves, since the ammeter does
not indicate the phase of the current.

On the other hand, if we consider the measurement of the phase, we will find that the
current behaves as shown in Figure 1C, indicating for each section of half wave length
the instantaneous currents which flow in the opposite directions.

The variations in current intensity along the line, which are due, as we said, to the
different way of combining between direct wave and reflected wave, are termed
standing waves.

The same procedure can be followed to check the voltage distribution along the line.
The voltage, of course, must be zero at the point of short circuit. (Figures 1D and 1E).

This happens only if the voltage due to the direct current flowing toward the output
meets at the end of the line a reflected voltage of equal amplitude and opposite
polarity, which is the voltage of the reflected current.

In other words, the phase of the voltage wave is inverted when the reflection happens
due to a short circuit.

Let us examine, now, the case of an open line.

The behaviors of current and voltage relevant to this case are shown in Figure 2.

5
Fig. 1 – Voltage and current standing waves along a transmission line in short circuit

Fig. 2 – Voltage and current standing waves along an open line

6
 Fig. 3 – Voltage and current standing waves along a line (= Z0)

In this case at the termination we will have null current and large voltage. Of course,
also in this case the direct power is reflected back toward the generator.

In order to obtain a zero value of the total current at the end of the line, the direct and
reflected components must be equal and opposite in phase, while the components,
direct and reflected, of the voltage are in phase and must be added. The result is again
standing waves, but in different conditions with respect to the line in short circuit.

In general, if a line is terminated with a load whose value is between 0 (short circuit)
and infinity (open circuit), the energy will be partially reflected with relation to the
characteristics of the load and we will have max and min values of voltage and current
along the line according to situations which depend, again, upon the load itself.

Only in the case of a perfectly matched line, that is with the load equal to the
characteristic impedance, we will not have any reflected wave.

Standing Wave Ratio (SWR)

It is defined as the ratio between the maximum and the minimum values of current and
voltage along the line. The SWR is an index of the matching between load and line.

It is equal to 1 when the line is perfectly matched, while it goes toward large values
(theoretically to infinity) for lines in short circuit or for open lines.

Since a perfect matching of the load with the line is practically impossible to achieve,
SWR values between 1.3 and 2 are to be considered indexes of a fairly good matching
in an antenna system.

7
The Matching Stub

If we consider a short circuited line of length equal to 1/4 of the wave length of the
signal emitted by the generator, we observe that there is a large current flow at the
closed terminal and no voltage whatsoever.

At the open terminal there is the opposite situation of null current and large voltage
(Figure 4).

Null current and large voltage means that the generator feels an infinite impedance.

If the short circuited line has a length equal to 1/2 of the wave length of the signal
emitted by the generator, then at the point where the generator is connected to the
line we will have voltage null and maximum current.

This means that the generator feels an impedance equal to 0 (Figure 5).

Fig. 4 Stub close at λ/2 Fig. 5 Stub close at λ/4

In all the intermediate cases of a line whose length is between 1/4 and 1/2 of the wave
length of the signal emitted by the generator (line still in short circuit) the generator will
feel impedances variable between 0 and infinity.

These considerations suggest us an extremely practical method for adapting the

impedance felt by the generator simply varying the length of a short circuited line
connected to the generator. These devices are called “matching stubs” (Figure 6).

The Lecher line of the trainer DL 2595 has two functions: to allow for the study of the
distribution of the standing waves along a line and to be used as a matching stub to
experiment the problems of matching antennas to loads.

A matching stub is normally made out of a piece of cable whose length is 1/4 of the
wave length, short circuited.

If, for instance, a load has a reactive-capacitive component and it appears to be a

mismatched load for a transmission line, it is possible to use a stub connected to the
line at the point where the antenna and the line meet.

8
The stub can be tuned so that it can improve the matching between antenna and
transmission line. If we put a line at 1/4 wave length in parallel with the load and
adjusting the distance of the antenna from the short circuit of the stub, the stub can be
adjusted so that it appears like an inductive reactance, which null the capacitive
reactance of the antenna. The line can be tuned so that the generator feels a purely
resistive load.

A stub at 1/4 can also be used as transformer/impedance adaptor. For instance, a high
impedance generator is connected to a transmission line which is also at high
impedance; the other terminal is connected, for instance, to a low impedance antenna.
Using a 1/4 stub properly connected (see the Figure) it is possible to adapt the
impedance of the load with the impedance of the line.

Obviously, the matching is relevant to a single frequency; changing the frequency it is

necessary to change the length of the stub, so that the latter be always tuned.

Fig. 6 - The matching stub

The Balun

The term “balun” comes from the contraction of two terms: “balanced” and
“unbalanced”. It is a particular type of transformer used to match unbalanced lines with
balanced lines or antenna lines or to connect low impedance transmission lines to high
impedance transmission lines or vice versa.

9
 Fig. 7
Typical examples of balun
A) Transformer balun
B) “RF BLOQUE” balun
C) Impedance modification balun
D) “BAZOOKA” type balun

As a typical application example we can mention an antenna with 300-ohm impedance

connected to a transmitter through a 75-ohm coaxial cable.

The coaxial cable is by definition an unbalanced line, while we can suppose that the
antenna be balanced. This is a typical application of a balun.

The required balun can be in this case an autotransformer with a winding ratio of 1 to
2. We remind that the impedance ratio depends upon the square of the winding ratio
of the transformer.

The baluns are practically made in a large variety of shapes. The most typical, the
transformer, is used only for a range of low frequencies. For higher frequencies the
most used shapes are those shown in Figures 7A, B, C and D.

The generator of the trainer DL 2595 has an unbalanced output, while some of the
antennas provided with the trainer (simple dipole, folded dipole, Yagi) are antennas
that require a balanced supply. They all contain a balun which is designed with a

10
shape similar to the one shown in Figure 7C, for construction simplicity and in order
to reduce the dimensions.

The efficiency of the balun has an impact on the capability of transferring energy with
minimum losses and guaranteeing a perfect balance. The balance condition is
obviously function of the frequency and of the operating conditions.

Radiation Pattern

The radiation from a real antenna cannot have the same intensity in all directions. In
some directions the intensity can be even 0, while in some other directions the intensity
can be greater than the one that we could expect from a uniformly irradiating antenna.

It is helpful to use a graphical representation which allows the visualization and the
quantification of the behavior of the antenna in all possible operating directions.

This graphical representation is termed radiation pattern, that is a diagram which

shows the real intensity or the relative intensity at fixed distance, and function of the
direction, of the signals captured and emitted by the antenna under evaluation.

Since we are dealing with the definition of the characteristics of the antenna in the
various points of the space around the antenna, it is clear that the diagram is a three-
dimension figure and that it is difficult to represent it on a sheet of paper.

A first simplification can be to consider only the radiation pattern relevant to the plane
containing the main axes of the antenna. Figure 8 is an example of such
representation.

The distribution in the space of the energy irradiated by an antenna can be considered
like a small ball full of incompressible gas with the antenna positioned at the center of
the ball.

The quantity of gas represents the power given to the antenna, hence the volume of
the ball is fixed, while its shape is deformed in the different directions.

For example, the shape of the ball can be strongly elongated in one direction, with the
quantity of gas increased accordingly, but this can only happen at the expense of the
quantity of gas available in some other zones of the ball, so that the total volume does
not change.

In the same way, an antenna can concentrate extra energy in one or more directions
at the expenses of energy availability for the other directions.

This variability of shapes in the irradiation pattern dictates the need for a reference
term for defining the efficiency and the characteristics of any antenna from the
graphical point of view (radiation pattern) and from the quantitative point of view, that
is the measurements of directivity and gain.

11
The Isotropic Radiator

The isotropic radiator is an ideal antenna which irradiates with uniform intensity in all
directions and that has so small dimensions to be considered a concentrated source.
Such antenna has a spherical irradiation diagram, perfectly symmetrical in all
directions, and it is characterized by a “gain” which is conventionally taken as unitary.

The irradiation diagrams of the antennas are graphs in polar coordinates. They are
drawn with radial lines which mark the 360° of a circle and with a linear scale along a
radius to mark the amplitude of the signals. In this way every radius represents in a
given direction the relative intensity of the signals in that direction. The points of the
diagram where the irradiation is null minimum are termed “zeros” or “knots”, while the
bent zones between two knots on the plane of the graph are termed irradiation “lobes”.

The irradiation diagram of an isotropic radiator is by definition a circle of unitary radius.

Itis defined as the gain of an antenna the ratio between the intensity measured in the
direction of maximum emission and the intensity of the isotropic radiator of the same
power.

It is possible to define also a front-back gain for an antenna, given by the ratio between
the field intensities emitted in the preferred direction and in its opposite direction. This
has a mean particularly for the antennas with special directivity, designed for
irradiating in one specific preferred direction and where it is considered a loss the
energy irradiated in the opposite direction.

Fig. 8 – Example of radiation pattern (half-wave dipole)

12
 Activity 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE ANTENNA TRAINER

Number of hours required Date due: __________________

for completion: _________________
Date started: _________________ Date completed: _____________

This first experiment has the objective of getting the student acquainted with the
trainer. The procedure described in the following can also be considered the
sequence to use for a quick functional test of the trainer.

THE LECHER LINE

Connect by means of the coaxial cable RG 59 the output of the generator to the input
of the Lecher line. Connect, by means of a small cable, the cursor of the Lecher line
to the input of the RF director/meter.

Put the attenuation knob of the latter to 0 and the level of emitted power of the
generator to 0 also. Power supply the panel, paying attention to the polarities.

Put the knob of the level of power at 50% approx. and move the cursor of the line,
starting from the origin and going to the other end, slowly, observing in the meantime
the variations indicated by the RF detector. Adjust the level of power emitted by the
generator and/or the attenuation of the detector according to the situations.

As a general consideration we can observe that the condition of best operation can be
found when the level of power emitted by the generator is minimum; hence, it is better
to operate with receiver attenuation equal to 0 and minimum power, rather than with
large power and large attenuation. In fact, in this last condition the generator is
subjected to an unnecessary overload, with the possibility of emitting undesired
harmonics.

The indication of the instrument varies according to the position of the cursor between
minimum values very dose to 0 and maximum values properly limited using the knob
controlling the level of power. For the time being it is enough that the student can
acknowledge the presence along the line of the standing waves, where max and min
levels of signals can be detected.

THE ANTENNAS

Mount on the base, horizontally placed on top of the working bench, the vertical
support for the antennas and, on top of this, the simple dipole.

Mount on the base the mobile irradiation detector, setting the height so that
transmitting and receiving dipoles be on the same horizontal plane.

Adjust the position of the reflector so that the transversal element be parallel to the
dipole and far from the axis of said dipole by approx. 80/90 mm.

13
Function of the reflector is to attenuate the effect of objects placed behind the detector
that can possibly disturb the detection.

Put the detector at a distance of approx. 1.5-2 meters from the transmitter, on top of
the same bench, and put in parallel the transmitting dipole and the receiving dipole.

Switch on the system and set the level of power so that the indication of the instrument
be approx. at 3/4 of the scale.

Turn the base of the emitting dipole in order to change the direction of emission with
respect to the receiver.

Observe the related variations in signal intensity with the indicator. The same
experiment can be repeated with the different types of antennas.

Pay attention, while operating with the ground plane antennas and their vertical
elements, that these antennas are characterized by an emission with vertical
polarization and that, as a consequence, the receiver must be rotated by 90° on the
support.

Fig. 9 Connections to the Lecher Line

14
Fig. 10 Equipment layout for testing the antennas

15
 Activity 2: THE LECHER LINE

Number of hours required Date due: __________________

for completion: _________________
Date started: _________________ Date completed: _____________

THE LECHER LINE

The Lecher line was designed as an instrument to measure the frequency of an

oscillator when digital frequency meters were not available yet. In substance, it is a
line with parallel conductors, hence very simple in geometry, with a cursor which can
be very well considered a short circuit.

In other words, the Lecher line is a variable length line terminated with a short circuit.
It is provided with a graduated scale which allows the marking of the cursor position.

The length of the Lecher line is such that, at the panel operating frequency, we can
visualize along the line at least 1.5 wave length, enough for detecting per sure two
max and one min of current, or two min and one max of current. Hence, it is possible
to measure the frequency.

When the Lecher line is supplied with current at radio frequency, the current and the
voltage determine waves along the line and the distance between two peaks or two
lows of signal intensity can be used for determining the wave length of the oscillator.

Figure IB shows the standing wave in a line when the terminal of the line is closed in
short circuit. Note that in these conditions at the end terminal the current is max and
the voltage is min.

Figure 2B shows the standing wave in an open line. The voltage at the open end is
max and the current is min.

This concept of obtaining the maximum values of current and voltage by means of an
opening or of a short circuit in a line can be used to measure the wave length.

The Lecher line is provided with a mobile probe which can be considered with fairly
good approximation a short circuit.

The short circuit, in effect, is made with a coil where the circulating current can be
measured and shown by the instrument of the panel.

When the cursor is moved along the line, it is possible to find the points where the
maximum (or the minimum) current occurs. The distance between two points of
maximum or minimum is equal to half wave length of the signal exciting the line. To
better understand what happens in a Lecher line, we have to add few notes.

16
The output signal of the generator is an «unbalanced» signal, because one of the two
conductors which make the external circuit is the earth which has a fixed potential.

In effect, the cable that connects the generator to the input of the Lecher line is a
coaxial cable, typically an unbalanced mean of transmission. On the other hand, the
Lecher line is by its nature a balanced line, made of two cylindrical conductors placed
symmetrically in a zone surrounded by a aluminum shield, which also supports the
cursor.

In the transition point between balanced and unbalanced line, even if the junction has
been made with great care, there is inevitably a mismatch that can produce partial
signal echoes overimposing the main signal. As a consequence, it can happen that
the maximum values observed along the Lecher line are not the real max values, and
the same for the minimum values that are not zero. This, of course, does not affect the
validity of the measurement principle.

The Lecher line is mechanically fixed to the basic panel, not directly, but through
isolators, the function of such isolators being the following:

for manufacturing reasons, the output BNC of the generator is connected through the
external part to the metallic case of the panel exactly at the output point from the
generator. If the Lecher line was also fixed directly to the metallic panel, we would
have a preferred “spurious” path for the signal from the generator to the Lecher line.
The signal would preferably pass through the metallic case of the panel instead of
passing through the external sheath of the coaxial cable connecting the output of the
generator to the input of the Lecher line. In this way, we would have an alternative
condition of standing waves which, though very interesting to be analyzed, would
complicate the execution of the experiments and would confuse the student.

To conclude the discussion, the external shield of the Lecher line is put to ground
through a resistance of proper value inside the case of the panel.

The position of the first maximum (or minimum) of the signal on the Lecher line
depends, of course, upon the time of propagation of the signal from the generator and
the position would change when changing the type of connecting cable or its length or
altering the working frequency of the generator. The absolute position of the maximum
and of the minimum found along the Lecher line is consequently irrelevant, while it is
very important the distance between them.

The propagation velocity of the electromagnetic waves through the vacuum is greater
than through any other medium. As a consequence, the distance between a maximum
and a minimum of the signal along the Lecher line, which is 1/4 of the wave length,
allows the calculation of the propagation wave length of the signal along the line, which
will be slightly different from the value of the wave length of the same signal through
the vacuum. A greater propagation time for the signal means greater detected wave
length for the signal with respect to the wave length through the vacuum.

17
We can now start experimenting work, placing the devices as explained (output of the
generator connected to the input of the Lecher line by means of the RG59 cable;
terminals of the cursor connected to the RF detector by means of the small two wire
cable see Figure 9 of previous experiment). Set the attenuation to the minimum value
(knob fully counterclockwise) and the power at 50 % approx.

Switch on the devices and move the cursor in order to find the first maximum of the
signal. Control the power of the generator so that the instrument will not go to full scale,
but to a readable value.

Move the cursor along the line to find maxima and minima. Plot on a graph the values
and show the values 1/2 and 1/4 of the wave length.

Calculate the frequency of the generator starting from these values, leaving as a
symbol the velocity factor “V” of the line, which is an unknown parameter

𝑐𝑉𝐹
𝜆=
𝑓

Where 𝜆 = wavelength
f = frequency of the oscillators
c = velocity of light in vacuum
VF = velocity factor of the line

18
 Activity 3: POLARIZATION

Number of hours required Date due: __________________

for completion: _________________
Date started: _________________ Date completed: _____________

The student has already learned during the first experiment on how to operate the
system using the dipole and the receiver or irradiation detector. The objective of this
simple experiment is to go deeper and to experiment the concept of polarization of the
electromagnetic wave.

The wave emitted by a transmitting antenna is characterized by a specific

configuration in the electrical and magnetic field which is in relation to the shape and
the geometry of the antenna. The wave emitted through the space can be seen as a
set of concentric wave faces.

The wave is composed of a magnetic field and an electrical field which are interrelated
at any moment. The vectors E and H are constantly perpendicular one to the other
and perpendicular with respect to the direction of propagation of the wave.

The modules of the components E and H of a wave at radio frequency, or

electromagnetic wave, are in phase with respect to the time, but out of phase by 90°
with respect to the space.

The wave face moves at the velocity of the light and the distance between two
corresponding points in two following wave faces is equal to the wave length.

The direction of the E component determines the direction of polarization of the wave.
This by agreement.

A simple rule allows us to determine which is the direction of polarization of a wave

generated by an antenna, simply observing the shape of the antenna. This at least in
the simplest cases. Consider, for example, a long and thin antenna.

19
The exciting current cannot travel other than in the longitudinal direction, and this
means that also the electrical field is in the longitudinal direction, while the magnetic
field is in planes which are orthogonal to the axis of the antenna.

For instance, the simple dipole provided with the trainer DL 2595 has a direction of
polarization which is parallel to the axial direction of the same dipole.

To verify the phenomenon of the polarization, set the trainer DL 2595 as follows:

• Mount the simple dipole on top of the support and insert the latter in the output
connector of the generator. Put the irradiation detector at a distance of 1.5-2 meters
approx., so that the transmitting antenna and the receiving antenna be in a plane
parallel to the bench plane.

• Adjust the position of the reflector in order to be parallel to the axis of the receiving
dipole and at a distance of 80 mm. approx. Remember that the function of the reflector
is to avoid or to reduce the effect of reflections due to furniture, people, objects placed
behind the receiver.

• Set to 0 the receiver attenuation and gradually increase the power irradiated by the
transmitter until the index of the receiver is about at middle scale. In these conditions
slowly turn the receiver by 90° until the axis of the receiving dipole be in vertical
position. You will notice a gradual decrease of the indication down to almost full null
when the axis position reaches 90°. This simple experiment clarifies the reasons why
the transmitting and the receiving elements must be prepared for transmission
according to an identical way of polarization. In this experiment it can happen that,
turning the receiver by 90°, that is preparing the system for the reception of a wave
vertically polarized, in reality the instrument indication will not be completely null. This
is due to the effect of external bodies, the one of the operator included, dose to the
space where the experiment is performed.

To evidentiate this fact, the student must try to watch very carefully the receiving
instrument on the base and then to move away, again observing the indications of the
instrument.

To further enhance this phenomenon, the student must move at the direction of
minimum distance of the transmitting-receiving antennas a solid body whatsoever, for
instance a big book, and observe the indication of the instrument. What happens is
that the irradiated body becomes in turn a source of signal which, overimposing to the
main signal, creates perturbations to the instrument.

After this simple experiment the student will understand the need to take special
precautions, when using the trainer, in the environment where he is performing
experiments, regarding the distance from external objects, especially if metallic ones,
in a space sufficiently large with respect to the working area. Even an instrument like
an oscilloscope can create disturbances so that the measurements are not fully
reliable.

20
 Activity 4: THE ELEMENTARY DIPOLE

Number of hours required Date due: __________________

for completion: _________________
Date started: _________________ Date completed: _____________

THE ELEMENTARY DIPOLE

The experiment which is now proposed consists in the practical detection of the
irradiation diagram of the elementary dipole that, as it is known, has the shape of a
rotational toroid, with the axis along the axis of the dipole.

The main data relevant to the elementary dipole are contained in the attached data
sheet.

The measurements are taken placing the transmitting antenna and the detector with
parallel axes on the same plane, parallel to the working plane, at a distance of 1.5
meters approx. to be kept unchanged.

Set to 0 the attenuation of the receiver and to 80 % of the full scale approx. the power
of the transmitter.

Turn the base of the antenna so that the index will reach 10°, 20°, 30°, convert the
results in graphical form by using the polar coordinates graph attached at the end of
this manual.

Note the following:

- If it is necessary to “change scale” during the measurements, keep in mind the

multiplying factor.

Example: starting from 0° with 80% indication you reach 45° with indication 5%. In-
crease again the power to 80%, introducing a multiplying factor equal to 80/5, to be
considered in the graphs.

- Once plotted the results in graphical form, you will note that the irradiation diagram
is slightly asymmetric. This is due to two reasons:

* The balun of the antenna at the center of the dipole has an efficiency which is
certainly imperfect. So, one of the two arms of the dipole irradiates better (or worse)
than the other.

* The balun is small, but its dimension, however, are not negligible with respect
to those of the dipole; also the Mast is not negligible. This creates an emission which
is slightly different in the forward and in the opposite direction of the dipole.

21
 * The absolute value of the indication of the instrument does not have any
importance. If, for example, the dipole is substituted by the Yagi, which has a larger
gain, theoretically you should notice a big increase in the indication. This can or cannot
happen; it depends upon the specific settings (F and V trimmers) of the generator.
What is important is that for a given antenna the generator conditions are unchanged.

- Turning to full scale the knob of the emitted power, with big unmatching of the
antenna, it can happen that the generator will switch off for self-protection. It is enough
to turn the power knob to 0 and then to gradually increase the power for going back to
normal operation.

It can be necessary sometimes leave the equipment cooling down for few minutes.

- Before starting measuring, in order that these be reliable, the student must check the
effects of reflecting obstacles in the space surrounding the bench where the
measurements are taken. In particular, the student must move away and dose to the
measurement field and must determine in which position he has to stay in order not to
interfere with the measurements and the results.

This is particularly true for the antennas without reflector; they, in fact, send the
emission in the forward and in the backward direction contemporarily. The back wave,
reflected by obstacles, can be reflected forward and alter the measurement.

- Carefully set the position of the receiver’s reflector; do not touch it anymore during
measurements.

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 Activity 5: THE FOLDED DIPOLE

Number of hours required Date due: __________________

for completion: _________________
Date started: _________________ Date completed: _____________

The study of the folded dipole follows the same procedure explained in the previous
case of the simple dipole. The attached sheet summarizes the data of this antenna
and the results that you should obtain from this experiment.

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 Activity 6: THE YAGI ANTENNA

Number of hours required Date due: __________________

for completion: _________________
Date started: _________________ Date completed: _____________

The study of the Yagi antenna follows the same procedure explained in the previous
case of the simple dipole. The attached sheet summarizes the data of this antenna
and the results that you should obtain from this experiment. In addition, it is possible
to take away the directors and the reflector, observing how the irradiation diagram is
modified.

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 Activity 7: THE GROUND PLANE ANTENNA

Number of hours required Date due: __________________

for completion: _________________
Date started: _________________ Date completed: _____________

The study of the Ground Plane antenna follows the same procedure explained in the
previous case of the simple dipole. The attached sheet summarizes the data of this
antenna and the results that you should obtain from this experiment.

First, operate with the central radiator only, detecting an irradiation lobe which is
unique and symmetrical. Remember that the polarization is vertical. Mount then
reflectors of various height and plot on the same polar graph the new irradiation
diagram, for an easy comparison. Finally, study the ground plane antenna with
reflector and directors, also in this case with different amplitudes.

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 Activity 8: THE MATCHING STUB

Number of hours required Date due: __________________

for completion: _________________
Date started: _________________ Date completed: _____________

THE MATCHING STUB

This simple experiment consists in verifying the use of the Lecher line as matching
stub of the antenna seen as a load for the generator.

By means of the “T” BNC connect the simple dipole to the Mast interposing the M/M
BNC and the RG59 cable to the third port of the “T” by the F/F adapter; the other
terminal of the cable must be connected to the Lecher line.

The cursor of the Lecher line must be connected to the panel’s RF receiver. This to
improve the effect of the short circuit represented by the cursor.

Align the transmitting antenna to the receiver, as already shown in experiment 1, and
switch on the system.

Note that for different positions of the cursor we find different indications of the
receiver. This because the short circuit line acts as a matching stub of the antenna to
the Mast.

Moving the cursor, the apparent impedance of the load changes and the energy
transfer to the antenna improves or degrades.

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RADIATION PATTERN
ANTENNA _______________
OPERATOR _______________
DATE _______________

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