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3. What are field, tenor and mode? How are these concepts realised? What are
metafunctions?
4. Concept of genre
For Eggins and Martin, genre is how things get done, when language is used to
accomplish them
Channel
1. Where does the study of vague language fall within discourse studies? How
does the concept of vagueness differ from that of ambiguity? Discuss the
issue and give examples.
Vague expressions are particularly relevant to both pragmatics and semantics. Even
though they seem to be more inherently ‘pragmatic’ in nature than many others, it is clear
that those expressions cannot be handed except by looking at both semantics and
pragmatics. However, there is no yet a major study of linguistic vagueness and no
generally agreed approach to it and the ones existing tend to be more descriptive than
theoretical.
It has been important to develop some tests for distinguishing between vagueness and
ambiguity. The general approach to distinguish vagueness from ambiguity may be
summarised as follows: in both cases hearers do not know exactly what they should
understand. Ambiguity has traditionally been identified where a sentence has two or
more competing but distinct meanings attached to it, whereas vagueness is seen where
distinct meanings cannot be identified. For example in the sentence where the word ‘eat’
is used vaguely it may mean ‘eat bread or eat soup’ whereas the word ‘file’ is ambiguous
since it may be referring to the tool or the paper file.
2. Following Channell, give a detailed account of the use of vague language.
Exemplify.
Vague language has been very important in the study of language. In the past, it has
been characterized as “bad” or “wrong” language. However, many linguists have come to
focus on vague language as a necessary feature of language and as a part of one’s own
linguistic competence. The use of vague language is key to mastering a language.
According to Channell, the uses of vague language are the following:
● Giving the right amount of information: this use of vague language has to do with the
fact that in many contexts the exact information is not what matters, so vagueness is
required. In this case, the speaker does not want to flout the Quantity maxim, so they
convey the information using vague approximates. An example of this would be the
use of “in the 1950s” instead of the exact year.
● Withholding information deliberately: this use of vague language is related to
statements to which speakers do not want to commit. For example, if someone asks
me when a translation will be ready, I am likely to say “Well, it may take about two
weeks, maybe more, depending on the length of the text”, thus avoiding to commit
myself on the exact date in case it takes longer than two weeks.
● Using language persuasively: sometimes, especially in economics, vague
expressions of quantity are used to present statistical data to support the author’s
viewpoint. For example, “this project could have a profit of over two million dollars”.
● Lexical gaps: vagueness is also used when speakers either do not remember a
specific word or expression, or do not know it. This can be supplied by using vague
lexical items such as “whatitsname” or “thingummy”, by using expressions like “like”
“something like that”, “I mean”, etc.
● Lacking specific information: this use of vague language has to do with preserving
the Quality Maxim. Sometimes we do not know the exact information of something
and we do not want to lie, so we use vague expressions. For example, “I think it was
about 1965, but I’m not quite sure”.
● Displacement: this is the use of vague language when speakers talk about the future
or the past. An example for the past would be “the news story said that about 20
people died in an accident”. An example for the future is “the reconstruction of the
building would cost the State about 100,000 Euros”
● Self-protection: a speaker can use vague language as a safeguard against being
proved wrong later. For example, “there are approximately four houses in the street”.
● Power and politeness: speakers in asymmetrical relationships may use vagueness
as a way to adhering to the politeness norms of a culture and not threatening face.
For example, in teacher/student relationship, students may use vagueness to
mitigate a request: “Could you maybe correct our essays and maybe sort of meet or
something”
● Informality and atmosphere: vague language is associated with informal
conversational settings. The presence of vagueness in this case is related to the
Quantity and Quality maxims, since in this type of context it’s not necessary to be
very specific, and speakers may not remember the exact information, so they’ll use
vague language to avoid lying. For example, “how much did it cost? I think it cost
about 300 euros”
4. What relationship/s can you establish between vague language and news
discourse?
Vague language is part of one’s own linguistic competence. This means that it can be used
in different contexts to achieve different goals, that is, it can be used pragmatically. Such as
speakers may use vague language in different ways, the media can do that too. Media can
use vague language in cases in which there is displacement, that is, when they are talking
about past events or future events. This may be due to the fact that journalists cannot be
certain about a fact that happened or that is going to happen and want to avoid flouting the
Quality Maxim. So in this case, for example, instead of saying “the construction will cost 2,6
million dollars”, they are more likely to say “the construction would cost around 2 million
dollars”. Doing this, they also use vague language for self-protection, since they use it as a
safeguard against being later shown to be wrong. Another use of vague language the media
are likely to make is withholding information deliberately. This use of vague language is
related to statements to which speakers do not want to commit.
Swales
1. Define content schemata and formal schemata. What is their role in genre
recognition and text production?
Schemata are mental models that allow us to recognize and interpret texts in the light of
previous texts. There are two types of schemata: content schemata and formal
schemata. Content schemata constitute the background knowledge we have that allows
us to recognize facts and judge their truth. These schemata form thanks to our prior
knowledge, that is, our accumulation of facts and concepts. Formal schemata are the
background knowledge we have of the rhetorical structures of different types of texts.
These schemata allow us to recognize structures of texts and are based on our prior
knowledge about interactive procedures or routines, which derive from nonverbal and
verbal kinds of experience. We bring these schemata when we want to recognize genres
and produce text. For example, in order to write a news story we should have a topic we
want to write about, for example, a natural disaster. This is where our content schemata
plays a part. On the other hand, thanks to our formal schemata we know a news story
needs to have a headline and a lead, and to be written in a certain way, following certain
conventions, etc.
3. Explain the different disciplines that studied genre (Folklore, literary tradition,
linguistics, rhetoric)
The study of genre was focus for different disciplines. For folklore studies, genre is a
classificatory category; they are ideal types such as stories, myths, legends, tales, etc.
From this perspective, genre is seen as a form; its structure does not change. What
actually changes is function. One of the main contributors to genre is Malinovsky. He
recognized the sociocultural value of genre, since they serve social needs. From the
literary studies perspective, what matters is someone changing genres. According to
Todorov, a new genres is always a transformation of old or several old genres. He rejects
the definition of genre as a class of text, and instead he proposes that genres are
codifications of discursive features that become institutionalized. Another author,
Hepburn, states that how a reader approaches a work of art depends upon the genre
she sees it as exemplifying. Thus, genre provides an interpretive frame for a work of art
which includes textual and contextual features. Furthermore, in the linguistics fields, the
approach to genre was mainly made by ethnographic or systemic orientation. For
instance, the ethnographer Hymes stated that genres often coincide with speech events
but must be treated differently, since genres may occur in different events. Another
author, Savillle-Troike, takes genre to refer to the type of communicative event and gives
as an example jokes, stories, lectures, etc. The concept of genre has also been
approached by Hallidayean linguists where it is related to the concept of register.
However, this relation is not very clear. Martin makes a three-way distinction: genres are
realized through registers, and registers in turn are realized through language. Genres
are how things get done, when language is used to accomplish them. The linguist says
that genres constrain the ways in which register variables of field, tenor and mode can
be combined in a particular society. Another author, Couture, states that registers
impose constraints at the linguistic levels of vocabulary and syntax, whereas genre
constraints operate at the level of discourse structure. Genres are completable
structured texts, while registers present more generalizable stylistic choices.
Hartley
1. What are news values? What purpose do they serve? Enumerate and explain
them.
Events do not get into the news just by happening, but they must fit in what is already
there. In order to do this, they must fulfill a number of criteria so that they are considered
newsworthy. These criteria are what Hartley call news values. He outlines eight general
news values and four extra news values which are particularly relevant to western
media.
1) Frequency: the time-span taken by an event. In general, fast events like murders are
seen as more newsworthy.
2) Threshold: the size of an event. There is a threshold below which an event will not be
reported at all.
3) Unambiguity: an event has to be clear.
4) Meaningfulness: a) cultural proximity: events that accord with the cultural background
of the newspaper will be seen as more meaningful than others; b) relevance: events
in far-off countries will become newsworthy if they influence in some way the
newspaper’s home culture.
5) Consonance: the predictability of an event (rock stars die young → john
lennon’s death)
6) Unexpectedness: the unpredictability or rarity of an event
7) Continuity: if an event is covered, it will continue to be covered for some time
8) Composition: the mixture of different kinds of event
9) Reference to elite nations: wars elections and disasters of elite nations are seen as
more newsworthy.
10) Reference to elite persons: it is assumed their actions are more consequential than
the daily activities of ordinary people
11) Personalization: news stories are personalized (The government→ mrs
Tatcher)
12) Negativity: bad news is good news.
Van Dijk
1. Define and characterise the schematic and thematic (Principle of Relevance)
structures of news discourse and apply the concepts to the analysis of the
news story. Explain the macrostructure and superstructure according to Van
Dijk´s model.
2. Examine and discuss the typical features associated with news discourse and
exemplify them appropriately (form-syntax, meaning-semantics, speech acts-
pragmatics). Refer to: stylistic constraints, news syntax, lexical style, news
rhetoric (persuasive content).
Van Dijk characterizes news in terms of its syntax, its semantics and its pragmatics. He
says that news discourse style has constraints because of its communicative context.
Among these constraints, there is the need for new discourse to meet the general
constraints of monological, written or printed text, also there should be no “I” and no
“you” in its discourse, since readers are addressed only indirectly (there are no reader-
addressed speech acts).Furthermore, news discourse is public discourse so it
presupposes a considerable amount of generally shared knowledge, beliefs, norms and
values. In relation with syntax, he states that sentences are complex, with several
embedded clauses and nominalizations which express several propositions. In relation to
semantics, there is a choice of specific words that may signal the degree of formality,
and the attitudes and ideologies of the speaker. For example, some newspaper may
choose to use “fire fighter” instead of “terrorist”. Other lexical choices have to do with
professional registers used to denote specific event characteristics. In relation to news
rhetoric, there is a zero level for persuasiveness in news discourse. This means that
news discourse tries to persuade readers to that they accept assertion as truths. In order
for this to happen, the beliefs and ideologies assumed by the assertions must have
coherence with the beliefs and ideologies of the reader. Some of the strategies to
promote the persuasive process for assertions are using evidence from eyewitnesses,
using evidence from reliable sources, introducing opinions of different backgrounds and
ideologies, etc.
9. News rhetoric, news style and news syntax. Relate them with news values.
He says that news discourse style has constraints because of its communicative context.
Among these constraints, there is the need for new discourse to meet the general
constraints of monological, written or printed text, also there should be no “I” and no
“you” in its discourse, since readers are addressed only indirectly (there are no reader-
addressed speech acts).Furthermore, news discourse is public discourse so it
presupposes a considerable amount of generally shared knowledge, beliefs, norms and
values. In relation with syntax, he states that sentences are complex, with several
embedded clauses and nominalizations which express several propositions. In relation to
semantics, there is a choice of specific words that may signal the degree of formality,
and the attitudes and ideologies of the speaker. For example, some newspaper may
choose to use “fire fighter” instead of “terrorist”. Other lexical choices have to do with
professional registers used to denote specific event characteristics. In relation to news
rhetoric, there is a zero level for persuasiveness in news discourse. This means that
news discourse tries to persuade readers to that they accept assertion as truths. In order
for this to happen, the beliefs and ideologies assumed by the assertions must have
coherence with the beliefs and ideologies of the reader. Some of the strategies to
promote the persuasive process for assertions are using evidence from eyewitnesses,
using evidence from reliable sources, introducing opinions of different backgrounds and
ideologies, etc.
News values: frequency → compact style, long sentences
Unambiguity → syntax has to be clear
Unexpectedness →
Analyze and discuss the different theoretical ideological implications of the preceding
quotations. Comment on the approaches referred to and exemplify.
Fairclough
1. Ideology, power and news representation according to Van Dijk, Fairclough
and Hartley.
van Dijk: ideological square. Presuppositions. Semantic moves (disclaimers) Discursive
strategies: volume, importance, relevance, implicit/explicitness, attribution,
perspective
Hartley: consent and dissent
Fairclough: ideology, commonsense. Hidden power.
3. The press as a favourite vehicle for ideology. How can ideology be identified
linguistically?
lexical items: “terrorist” “criminal” “freedom fighters”
syntax: passive voice “she was raped”
rhetoric: assertions as truths → presuppositions
disclaimers: “blacks are intelligent but…”
6. b. What role do topic and knowledge play cognitive processing? Define the
concepts of presupposition and semantic implication.
7. What’s ideology according to Fairclough?
Practices which originate in the dominant class and become naturalized. the power to
project one’s practices as universal and common sense
Rhetoric
2. Explain the concepts of implied audience, rhetorical persona and exigence.
Among the things a text can create for rhetorical purposes are the rhetorical personal,
and implied audiences. A rhetorical persona is a fictitious authorial persona created in
the literary work different from the actual author. Rhetors may create a rhetorical
persona in order to be accepted by groups and have their voices recognized as
legitimate. The implied audience is different from a real audience. It is also fictitious
because it is created by the text and exists only inside the symbolic world of the text.
Furthermore, a text always have exigence, which consists of the problem or issue to
which the text is addressed. Depending on what the exigence is, the rhetorical
persona and the implied audience may change.
Bolivar
1. Define her concepts
Bolivar bases her model on Sinclair and Coulthard’s model of exchange in classroom
interaction to analyze editorials. She argues that editorials, taken as an instance of
interaction, can be analyzed using a unit of interaction called a triad. The function of a
triad is the transmission of information and its evaluation. Its internal function consists of
a lead, a follow and a valuate. The lead introduces what the triad is about and its
modality. The follow expands on the lead, keeping the same topic and evaluating the
information. The valuate closes the turn evaluating both the lead and the follow. There
are two types of triads: content triads and boundary triads. Content triads refer and
evaluate an event (valuate obligatory). Boundary triads have the function of dealing with
the discourse itself (valuate optional). Triads, in turn, may be of three types: Situation,
Development or Recommendation triads. S triads refer to an event and evaluate it. D
triads occur in medial position and develop in reference to S triads. R triads occupy final
positions and they close the evaluation of the event introduced by the S triad. The triads
may combine with others and form a movement. There are 3 types of movement: type A,
type B and type C. Type A movements refer to the actual world, Type B movements refer
to the world of possibilities and Type C refers to the world that should be. Content triads
can be informing triads or eliciting triads. Informatriads contains a lead turn realized by a
sentence in declarative syntax. Eliciting triads are initiated with a lead in interrogative
form. There are also four types of boundary triads: act of identification, act of analysis or
explanation, act of conclusion or recommendation and reminders. Lastly, valuates can be
of three kinds: concluders, prophecies or directives.